summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/Master/texmf-dist/doc/info/latex2e.info
blob: 811d97f92a688e588b1c033ae1291db071c3818d (plain)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343
3344
3345
3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
3369
3370
3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376
3377
3378
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
3390
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
3396
3397
3398
3399
3400
3401
3402
3403
3404
3405
3406
3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421
3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428
3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436
3437
3438
3439
3440
3441
3442
3443
3444
3445
3446
3447
3448
3449
3450
3451
3452
3453
3454
3455
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
3466
3467
3468
3469
3470
3471
3472
3473
3474
3475
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
3490
3491
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
3505
3506
3507
3508
3509
3510
3511
3512
3513
3514
3515
3516
3517
3518
3519
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3526
3527
3528
3529
3530
3531
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3538
3539
3540
3541
3542
3543
3544
3545
3546
3547
3548
3549
3550
3551
3552
3553
3554
3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3566
3567
3568
3569
3570
3571
3572
3573
3574
3575
3576
3577
3578
3579
3580
3581
3582
3583
3584
3585
3586
3587
3588
3589
3590
3591
3592
3593
3594
3595
3596
3597
3598
3599
3600
3601
3602
3603
3604
3605
3606
3607
3608
3609
3610
3611
3612
3613
3614
3615
3616
3617
3618
3619
3620
3621
3622
3623
3624
3625
3626
3627
3628
3629
3630
3631
3632
3633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647
3648
3649
3650
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663
3664
3665
3666
3667
3668
3669
3670
3671
3672
3673
3674
3675
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688
3689
3690
3691
3692
3693
3694
3695
3696
3697
3698
3699
3700
3701
3702
3703
3704
3705
3706
3707
3708
3709
3710
3711
3712
3713
3714
3715
3716
3717
3718
3719
3720
3721
3722
3723
3724
3725
3726
3727
3728
3729
3730
3731
3732
3733
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752
3753
3754
3755
3756
3757
3758
3759
3760
3761
3762
3763
3764
3765
3766
3767
3768
3769
3770
3771
3772
3773
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778
3779
3780
3781
3782
3783
3784
3785
3786
3787
3788
3789
3790
3791
3792
3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801
3802
3803
3804
3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811
3812
3813
3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823
3824
3825
3826
3827
3828
3829
3830
3831
3832
3833
3834
3835
3836
3837
3838
3839
3840
3841
3842
3843
3844
3845
3846
3847
3848
3849
3850
3851
3852
3853
3854
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
3861
3862
3863
3864
3865
3866
3867
3868
3869
3870
3871
3872
3873
3874
3875
3876
3877
3878
3879
3880
3881
3882
3883
3884
3885
3886
3887
3888
3889
3890
3891
3892
3893
3894
3895
3896
3897
3898
3899
3900
3901
3902
3903
3904
3905
3906
3907
3908
3909
3910
3911
3912
3913
3914
3915
3916
3917
3918
3919
3920
3921
3922
3923
3924
3925
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
3931
3932
3933
3934
3935
3936
3937
3938
3939
3940
3941
3942
3943
3944
3945
3946
3947
3948
3949
3950
3951
3952
3953
3954
3955
3956
3957
3958
3959
3960
3961
3962
3963
3964
3965
3966
3967
3968
3969
3970
3971
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977
3978
3979
3980
3981
3982
3983
3984
3985
3986
3987
3988
3989
3990
3991
3992
3993
3994
3995
3996
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
4002
4003
4004
4005
4006
4007
4008
4009
4010
4011
4012
4013
4014
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019
4020
4021
4022
4023
4024
4025
4026
4027
4028
4029
4030
4031
4032
4033
4034
4035
4036
4037
4038
4039
4040
4041
4042
4043
4044
4045
4046
4047
4048
4049
4050
4051
4052
4053
4054
4055
4056
4057
4058
4059
4060
4061
4062
4063
4064
4065
4066
4067
4068
4069
4070
4071
4072
4073
4074
4075
4076
4077
4078
4079
4080
4081
4082
4083
4084
4085
4086
4087
4088
4089
4090
4091
4092
4093
4094
4095
4096
4097
4098
4099
4100
4101
4102
4103
4104
4105
4106
4107
4108
4109
4110
4111
4112
4113
4114
4115
4116
4117
4118
4119
4120
4121
4122
4123
4124
4125
4126
4127
4128
4129
4130
4131
4132
4133
4134
4135
4136
4137
4138
4139
4140
4141
4142
4143
4144
4145
4146
4147
4148
4149
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
4158
4159
4160
4161
4162
4163
4164
4165
4166
4167
4168
4169
4170
4171
4172
4173
4174
4175
4176
4177
4178
4179
4180
4181
4182
4183
4184
4185
4186
4187
4188
4189
4190
4191
4192
4193
4194
4195
4196
4197
4198
4199
4200
4201
4202
4203
4204
4205
4206
4207
4208
4209
4210
4211
4212
4213
4214
4215
4216
4217
4218
4219
4220
4221
4222
4223
4224
4225
4226
4227
4228
4229
4230
4231
4232
4233
4234
4235
4236
4237
4238
4239
4240
4241
4242
4243
4244
4245
4246
4247
4248
4249
4250
4251
4252
4253
4254
4255
4256
4257
4258
4259
4260
4261
4262
4263
4264
4265
4266
4267
4268
4269
4270
4271
4272
4273
4274
4275
4276
4277
4278
4279
4280
4281
4282
4283
4284
4285
4286
4287
4288
4289
4290
4291
4292
4293
4294
4295
4296
4297
4298
4299
4300
4301
4302
4303
4304
4305
4306
4307
4308
4309
4310
4311
4312
4313
4314
4315
4316
4317
4318
4319
4320
4321
4322
4323
4324
4325
4326
4327
4328
4329
4330
4331
4332
4333
4334
4335
4336
4337
4338
4339
4340
4341
4342
4343
4344
4345
4346
4347
4348
4349
4350
4351
4352
4353
4354
4355
4356
4357
4358
4359
4360
4361
4362
4363
4364
4365
4366
4367
4368
4369
4370
4371
4372
4373
4374
4375
4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4381
4382
4383
4384
4385
4386
4387
4388
4389
4390
4391
4392
4393
4394
4395
4396
4397
4398
4399
4400
4401
4402
4403
4404
4405
4406
4407
4408
4409
4410
4411
4412
4413
4414
4415
4416
4417
4418
4419
4420
4421
4422
4423
4424
4425
4426
4427
4428
4429
4430
4431
4432
4433
4434
4435
4436
4437
4438
4439
4440
4441
4442
4443
4444
4445
4446
4447
4448
4449
4450
4451
4452
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4460
4461
4462
4463
4464
4465
4466
4467
4468
4469
4470
4471
4472
4473
4474
4475
4476
4477
4478
4479
4480
4481
4482
4483
4484
4485
4486
4487
4488
4489
4490
4491
4492
4493
4494
4495
4496
4497
4498
4499
4500
4501
4502
4503
4504
4505
4506
4507
4508
4509
4510
4511
4512
4513
4514
4515
4516
4517
4518
4519
4520
4521
4522
4523
4524
4525
4526
4527
4528
4529
4530
4531
4532
4533
4534
4535
4536
4537
4538
4539
4540
4541
4542
4543
4544
4545
4546
4547
4548
4549
4550
4551
4552
4553
4554
4555
4556
4557
4558
4559
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
4566
4567
4568
4569
4570
4571
4572
4573
4574
4575
4576
4577
4578
4579
4580
4581
4582
4583
4584
4585
4586
4587
4588
4589
4590
4591
4592
4593
4594
4595
4596
4597
4598
4599
4600
4601
4602
4603
4604
4605
4606
4607
4608
4609
4610
4611
4612
4613
4614
4615
4616
4617
4618
4619
4620
4621
4622
4623
4624
4625
4626
4627
4628
4629
4630
4631
4632
4633
4634
4635
4636
4637
4638
4639
4640
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
4646
4647
4648
4649
4650
4651
4652
4653
4654
4655
4656
4657
4658
4659
4660
4661
4662
4663
4664
4665
4666
4667
4668
4669
4670
4671
4672
4673
4674
4675
4676
4677
4678
4679
4680
4681
4682
4683
4684
4685
4686
4687
4688
4689
4690
4691
4692
4693
4694
4695
4696
4697
4698
4699
4700
4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4708
4709
4710
4711
4712
4713
4714
4715
4716
4717
4718
4719
4720
4721
4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
4730
4731
4732
4733
4734
4735
4736
4737
4738
4739
4740
4741
4742
4743
4744
4745
4746
4747
4748
4749
4750
4751
4752
4753
4754
4755
4756
4757
4758
4759
4760
4761
4762
4763
4764
4765
4766
4767
4768
4769
4770
4771
4772
4773
4774
4775
4776
4777
4778
4779
4780
4781
4782
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
4789
4790
4791
4792
4793
4794
4795
4796
4797
4798
4799
4800
4801
4802
4803
4804
4805
4806
4807
4808
4809
4810
4811
4812
4813
4814
4815
4816
4817
4818
4819
4820
4821
4822
4823
4824
4825
4826
4827
4828
4829
4830
4831
4832
4833
4834
4835
4836
4837
4838
4839
4840
4841
4842
4843
4844
4845
4846
4847
4848
4849
4850
4851
4852
4853
4854
4855
4856
4857
4858
4859
4860
4861
4862
4863
4864
4865
4866
4867
4868
4869
4870
4871
4872
4873
4874
4875
4876
4877
4878
4879
4880
4881
4882
4883
4884
4885
4886
4887
4888
4889
4890
4891
4892
4893
4894
4895
4896
4897
4898
4899
4900
4901
4902
4903
4904
4905
4906
4907
4908
4909
4910
4911
4912
4913
4914
4915
4916
4917
4918
4919
4920
4921
4922
4923
4924
4925
4926
4927
4928
4929
4930
4931
4932
4933
4934
4935
4936
4937
4938
4939
4940
4941
4942
4943
4944
4945
4946
4947
4948
4949
4950
4951
4952
4953
4954
4955
4956
4957
4958
4959
4960
4961
4962
4963
4964
4965
4966
4967
4968
4969
4970
4971
4972
4973
4974
4975
4976
4977
4978
4979
4980
4981
4982
4983
4984
4985
4986
4987
4988
4989
4990
4991
4992
4993
4994
4995
4996
4997
4998
4999
5000
5001
5002
5003
5004
5005
5006
5007
5008
5009
5010
5011
5012
5013
5014
5015
5016
5017
5018
5019
5020
5021
5022
5023
5024
5025
5026
5027
5028
5029
5030
5031
5032
5033
5034
5035
5036
5037
5038
5039
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5045
5046
5047
5048
5049
5050
5051
5052
5053
5054
5055
5056
5057
5058
5059
5060
5061
5062
5063
5064
5065
5066
5067
5068
5069
5070
5071
5072
5073
5074
5075
5076
5077
5078
5079
5080
5081
5082
5083
5084
5085
5086
5087
5088
5089
5090
5091
5092
5093
5094
5095
5096
5097
5098
5099
5100
5101
5102
5103
5104
5105
5106
5107
5108
5109
5110
5111
5112
5113
5114
5115
5116
5117
5118
5119
5120
5121
5122
5123
5124
5125
5126
5127
5128
5129
5130
5131
5132
5133
5134
5135
5136
5137
5138
5139
5140
5141
5142
5143
5144
5145
5146
5147
5148
5149
5150
5151
5152
5153
5154
5155
5156
5157
5158
5159
5160
5161
5162
5163
5164
5165
5166
5167
5168
5169
5170
5171
5172
5173
5174
5175
5176
5177
5178
5179
5180
5181
5182
5183
5184
5185
5186
5187
5188
5189
5190
5191
5192
5193
5194
5195
5196
5197
5198
5199
5200
5201
5202
5203
5204
5205
5206
5207
5208
5209
5210
5211
5212
5213
5214
5215
5216
5217
5218
5219
5220
5221
5222
5223
5224
5225
5226
5227
5228
5229
5230
5231
5232
5233
5234
5235
5236
5237
5238
5239
5240
5241
5242
5243
5244
5245
5246
5247
5248
5249
5250
5251
5252
5253
5254
5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5260
5261
5262
5263
5264
5265
5266
5267
5268
5269
5270
5271
5272
5273
5274
5275
5276
5277
5278
5279
5280
5281
5282
5283
5284
5285
5286
5287
5288
5289
5290
5291
5292
5293
5294
5295
5296
5297
5298
5299
5300
5301
5302
5303
5304
5305
5306
5307
5308
5309
5310
5311
5312
5313
5314
5315
5316
5317
5318
5319
5320
5321
5322
5323
5324
5325
5326
5327
5328
5329
5330
5331
5332
5333
5334
5335
5336
5337
5338
5339
5340
5341
5342
5343
5344
5345
5346
5347
5348
5349
5350
5351
5352
5353
5354
5355
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
5361
5362
5363
5364
5365
5366
5367
5368
5369
5370
5371
5372
5373
5374
5375
5376
5377
5378
5379
5380
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
5386
5387
5388
5389
5390
5391
5392
5393
5394
5395
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
5401
5402
5403
5404
5405
5406
5407
5408
5409
5410
5411
5412
5413
5414
5415
5416
5417
5418
5419
5420
5421
5422
5423
5424
5425
5426
5427
5428
5429
5430
5431
5432
5433
5434
5435
5436
5437
5438
5439
5440
5441
5442
5443
5444
5445
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
5451
5452
5453
5454
5455
5456
5457
5458
5459
5460
5461
5462
5463
5464
5465
5466
5467
5468
5469
5470
5471
5472
5473
5474
5475
5476
5477
5478
5479
5480
5481
5482
5483
5484
5485
5486
5487
5488
5489
5490
5491
5492
5493
5494
5495
5496
5497
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
5503
5504
5505
5506
5507
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
5513
5514
5515
5516
5517
5518
5519
5520
5521
5522
5523
5524
5525
5526
5527
5528
5529
5530
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
5539
5540
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
5563
5564
5565
5566
5567
5568
5569
5570
5571
5572
5573
5574
5575
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
5581
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
5590
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
5600
5601
5602
5603
5604
5605
5606
5607
5608
5609
5610
5611
5612
5613
5614
5615
5616
5617
5618
5619
5620
5621
5622
5623
5624
5625
5626
5627
5628
5629
5630
5631
5632
5633
5634
5635
5636
5637
5638
5639
5640
5641
5642
5643
5644
5645
5646
5647
5648
5649
5650
5651
5652
5653
5654
5655
5656
5657
5658
5659
5660
5661
5662
5663
5664
5665
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
5671
5672
5673
5674
5675
5676
5677
5678
5679
5680
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
5689
5690
5691
5692
5693
5694
5695
5696
5697
5698
5699
5700
5701
5702
5703
5704
5705
5706
5707
5708
5709
5710
5711
5712
5713
5714
5715
5716
5717
5718
5719
5720
5721
5722
5723
5724
5725
5726
5727
5728
5729
5730
5731
5732
5733
5734
5735
5736
5737
5738
5739
5740
5741
5742
5743
5744
5745
5746
5747
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752
5753
5754
5755
5756
5757
5758
5759
5760
5761
5762
5763
5764
5765
5766
5767
5768
5769
5770
5771
5772
5773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
5786
5787
5788
5789
5790
5791
5792
5793
5794
5795
5796
5797
5798
5799
5800
5801
5802
5803
5804
5805
5806
5807
5808
5809
5810
5811
5812
5813
5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
5820
5821
5822
5823
5824
5825
5826
5827
5828
5829
5830
5831
5832
5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
5846
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
5856
5857
5858
5859
5860
5861
5862
5863
5864
5865
5866
5867
5868
5869
5870
5871
5872
5873
5874
5875
5876
5877
5878
5879
5880
5881
5882
5883
5884
5885
5886
5887
5888
5889
5890
5891
5892
5893
5894
5895
5896
5897
5898
5899
5900
5901
5902
5903
5904
5905
5906
5907
5908
5909
5910
5911
5912
5913
5914
5915
5916
5917
5918
5919
5920
5921
5922
5923
5924
5925
5926
5927
5928
5929
5930
5931
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
5938
5939
5940
5941
5942
5943
5944
5945
5946
5947
5948
5949
5950
5951
5952
5953
5954
5955
5956
5957
5958
5959
5960
5961
5962
5963
5964
5965
5966
5967
5968
5969
5970
5971
5972
5973
5974
5975
5976
5977
5978
5979
5980
5981
5982
5983
5984
5985
5986
5987
5988
5989
5990
5991
5992
5993
5994
5995
5996
5997
5998
5999
6000
6001
6002
6003
6004
6005
6006
6007
6008
6009
6010
6011
6012
6013
6014
6015
6016
6017
6018
6019
6020
6021
6022
6023
6024
6025
6026
6027
6028
6029
6030
6031
6032
6033
6034
6035
6036
6037
6038
6039
6040
6041
6042
6043
6044
6045
6046
6047
6048
6049
6050
6051
6052
6053
6054
6055
6056
6057
6058
6059
6060
6061
6062
6063
6064
6065
6066
6067
6068
6069
6070
6071
6072
6073
6074
6075
6076
6077
6078
6079
6080
6081
6082
6083
6084
6085
6086
6087
6088
6089
6090
6091
6092
6093
6094
6095
6096
6097
6098
6099
6100
6101
6102
6103
6104
6105
6106
6107
6108
6109
6110
6111
6112
6113
6114
6115
6116
6117
6118
6119
6120
6121
6122
6123
6124
6125
6126
6127
6128
6129
6130
6131
6132
6133
6134
6135
6136
6137
6138
6139
6140
6141
6142
6143
6144
6145
6146
6147
6148
6149
6150
6151
6152
6153
6154
6155
6156
6157
6158
6159
6160
6161
6162
6163
6164
6165
6166
6167
6168
6169
6170
6171
6172
6173
6174
6175
6176
6177
6178
6179
6180
6181
6182
6183
6184
6185
6186
6187
6188
6189
6190
6191
6192
6193
6194
6195
6196
6197
6198
6199
6200
6201
6202
6203
6204
6205
6206
6207
6208
6209
6210
6211
6212
6213
6214
6215
6216
6217
6218
6219
6220
6221
6222
6223
6224
6225
6226
6227
6228
6229
6230
6231
6232
6233
6234
6235
6236
6237
6238
6239
6240
6241
6242
6243
6244
6245
6246
6247
6248
6249
6250
6251
6252
6253
6254
6255
6256
6257
6258
6259
6260
6261
6262
6263
6264
6265
6266
6267
6268
6269
6270
6271
6272
6273
6274
6275
6276
6277
6278
6279
6280
6281
6282
6283
6284
6285
6286
6287
6288
6289
6290
6291
6292
6293
6294
6295
6296
6297
6298
6299
6300
6301
6302
6303
6304
6305
6306
6307
6308
6309
6310
6311
6312
6313
6314
6315
6316
6317
6318
6319
6320
6321
6322
6323
6324
6325
6326
6327
6328
6329
6330
6331
6332
6333
6334
6335
6336
6337
6338
6339
6340
6341
6342
6343
6344
6345
6346
6347
6348
6349
6350
6351
6352
6353
6354
6355
6356
6357
6358
6359
6360
6361
6362
6363
6364
6365
6366
6367
6368
6369
6370
6371
6372
6373
6374
6375
6376
6377
6378
6379
6380
6381
6382
6383
6384
6385
6386
6387
6388
6389
6390
6391
6392
6393
6394
6395
6396
6397
6398
6399
6400
6401
6402
6403
6404
6405
6406
6407
6408
6409
6410
6411
6412
6413
6414
6415
6416
6417
6418
6419
6420
6421
6422
6423
6424
6425
6426
6427
6428
6429
6430
6431
6432
6433
6434
6435
6436
6437
6438
6439
6440
6441
6442
6443
6444
6445
6446
6447
6448
6449
6450
6451
6452
6453
6454
6455
6456
6457
6458
6459
6460
6461
6462
6463
6464
6465
6466
6467
6468
6469
6470
6471
6472
6473
6474
6475
6476
6477
6478
6479
6480
6481
6482
6483
6484
6485
6486
6487
6488
6489
6490
6491
6492
6493
6494
6495
6496
6497
6498
6499
6500
6501
6502
6503
6504
6505
6506
6507
6508
6509
6510
6511
6512
6513
6514
6515
6516
6517
6518
6519
6520
6521
6522
6523
6524
6525
6526
6527
6528
6529
6530
6531
6532
6533
6534
6535
6536
6537
6538
6539
6540
6541
6542
6543
6544
6545
6546
6547
6548
6549
6550
6551
6552
6553
6554
6555
6556
6557
6558
6559
6560
6561
6562
6563
6564
6565
6566
6567
6568
6569
6570
6571
6572
6573
6574
6575
6576
6577
6578
6579
6580
6581
6582
6583
6584
6585
6586
6587
6588
6589
6590
6591
6592
6593
6594
6595
6596
6597
6598
6599
6600
6601
6602
6603
6604
6605
6606
6607
6608
6609
6610
6611
6612
6613
6614
6615
6616
6617
6618
6619
6620
6621
6622
6623
6624
6625
6626
6627
6628
6629
6630
6631
6632
6633
6634
6635
6636
6637
6638
6639
6640
6641
6642
6643
6644
6645
6646
6647
6648
6649
6650
6651
6652
6653
6654
6655
6656
6657
6658
6659
6660
6661
6662
6663
6664
6665
6666
6667
6668
6669
6670
6671
6672
6673
6674
6675
6676
6677
6678
6679
6680
6681
6682
6683
6684
6685
6686
6687
6688
6689
6690
6691
6692
6693
6694
6695
6696
6697
6698
6699
6700
6701
6702
6703
6704
6705
6706
6707
6708
6709
6710
6711
6712
6713
6714
6715
6716
6717
6718
6719
6720
6721
6722
6723
6724
6725
6726
6727
6728
6729
6730
6731
6732
6733
6734
6735
6736
6737
6738
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746
6747
6748
6749
6750
6751
6752
6753
6754
6755
6756
6757
6758
6759
6760
6761
6762
6763
6764
6765
6766
6767
6768
6769
6770
6771
6772
6773
6774
6775
6776
6777
6778
6779
6780
6781
6782
6783
6784
6785
6786
6787
6788
6789
6790
6791
6792
6793
6794
6795
6796
6797
6798
6799
6800
6801
6802
6803
6804
6805
6806
6807
6808
6809
6810
6811
6812
6813
6814
6815
6816
6817
6818
6819
6820
6821
6822
6823
6824
6825
6826
6827
6828
6829
6830
6831
6832
6833
6834
6835
6836
6837
6838
6839
6840
6841
6842
6843
6844
6845
6846
6847
6848
6849
6850
6851
6852
6853
6854
6855
6856
6857
6858
6859
6860
6861
6862
6863
6864
6865
6866
6867
6868
6869
6870
6871
6872
6873
6874
6875
6876
6877
6878
6879
6880
6881
6882
6883
6884
6885
6886
6887
6888
6889
6890
6891
6892
6893
6894
6895
6896
6897
6898
6899
6900
6901
6902
6903
6904
6905
6906
6907
6908
6909
6910
6911
6912
6913
6914
6915
6916
6917
6918
6919
6920
6921
6922
6923
6924
6925
6926
6927
6928
6929
6930
6931
6932
6933
6934
6935
6936
6937
6938
6939
6940
6941
6942
6943
6944
6945
6946
6947
6948
6949
6950
6951
6952
6953
6954
6955
6956
6957
6958
6959
6960
6961
6962
6963
6964
6965
6966
6967
6968
6969
6970
6971
6972
6973
6974
6975
6976
6977
6978
6979
6980
6981
6982
6983
6984
6985
6986
6987
6988
6989
6990
6991
6992
6993
6994
6995
6996
6997
6998
6999
7000
7001
7002
7003
7004
7005
7006
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
7012
7013
7014
7015
7016
7017
7018
7019
7020
7021
7022
7023
7024
7025
7026
7027
7028
7029
7030
7031
7032
7033
7034
7035
7036
7037
7038
7039
7040
7041
7042
7043
7044
7045
7046
7047
7048
7049
7050
7051
7052
7053
7054
7055
7056
7057
7058
7059
7060
7061
7062
7063
7064
7065
7066
7067
7068
7069
7070
7071
7072
7073
7074
7075
7076
7077
7078
7079
7080
7081
7082
7083
7084
7085
7086
7087
7088
7089
7090
7091
7092
7093
7094
7095
7096
7097
7098
7099
7100
7101
7102
7103
7104
7105
7106
7107
7108
7109
7110
7111
7112
7113
7114
7115
7116
7117
7118
7119
7120
7121
7122
7123
7124
7125
7126
7127
7128
7129
7130
7131
7132
7133
7134
7135
7136
7137
7138
7139
7140
7141
7142
7143
7144
7145
7146
7147
7148
7149
7150
7151
7152
7153
7154
7155
7156
7157
7158
7159
7160
7161
7162
7163
7164
7165
7166
7167
7168
7169
7170
7171
7172
7173
7174
7175
7176
7177
7178
7179
7180
7181
7182
7183
7184
7185
7186
7187
7188
7189
7190
7191
7192
7193
7194
7195
7196
7197
7198
7199
7200
7201
7202
7203
7204
7205
7206
7207
7208
7209
7210
7211
7212
7213
7214
7215
7216
7217
7218
7219
7220
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
7226
7227
7228
7229
7230
7231
7232
7233
7234
7235
7236
7237
7238
7239
7240
7241
7242
7243
7244
7245
7246
7247
7248
7249
7250
7251
7252
7253
7254
7255
7256
7257
7258
7259
7260
7261
7262
7263
7264
7265
7266
7267
7268
7269
7270
7271
7272
7273
7274
7275
7276
7277
7278
7279
7280
7281
7282
7283
7284
7285
7286
7287
7288
7289
7290
7291
7292
7293
7294
7295
7296
7297
7298
7299
7300
7301
7302
7303
7304
7305
7306
7307
7308
7309
7310
7311
7312
7313
7314
7315
7316
7317
7318
7319
7320
7321
7322
7323
7324
7325
7326
7327
7328
7329
7330
7331
7332
7333
7334
7335
7336
7337
7338
7339
7340
7341
7342
7343
7344
7345
7346
7347
7348
7349
7350
7351
7352
7353
7354
7355
7356
7357
7358
7359
7360
7361
7362
7363
7364
7365
7366
7367
7368
7369
7370
7371
7372
7373
7374
7375
7376
7377
7378
7379
7380
7381
7382
7383
7384
7385
7386
7387
7388
7389
7390
7391
7392
7393
7394
7395
7396
7397
7398
7399
7400
7401
7402
7403
7404
7405
7406
7407
7408
7409
7410
7411
7412
7413
7414
7415
7416
7417
7418
7419
7420
7421
7422
7423
7424
7425
7426
7427
7428
7429
7430
7431
7432
7433
7434
7435
7436
7437
7438
7439
7440
7441
7442
7443
7444
7445
7446
7447
7448
7449
7450
7451
7452
7453
7454
7455
7456
7457
7458
7459
7460
7461
7462
7463
7464
7465
7466
7467
7468
7469
7470
7471
7472
7473
7474
7475
7476
7477
7478
7479
7480
7481
7482
7483
7484
7485
7486
7487
7488
7489
7490
7491
7492
7493
7494
7495
7496
7497
7498
7499
7500
7501
7502
7503
7504
7505
7506
7507
7508
7509
7510
7511
7512
7513
7514
7515
7516
7517
7518
7519
7520
7521
7522
7523
7524
7525
7526
7527
7528
7529
7530
7531
7532
7533
7534
7535
7536
7537
7538
7539
7540
7541
7542
7543
7544
7545
7546
7547
7548
7549
7550
7551
7552
7553
7554
7555
7556
7557
7558
7559
7560
7561
7562
7563
7564
7565
7566
7567
7568
7569
7570
7571
7572
7573
7574
7575
7576
7577
7578
7579
7580
7581
7582
7583
7584
7585
7586
7587
7588
7589
7590
7591
7592
7593
7594
7595
7596
7597
7598
7599
7600
7601
7602
7603
7604
7605
7606
7607
7608
7609
7610
7611
7612
7613
7614
7615
7616
7617
7618
7619
7620
7621
7622
7623
7624
7625
7626
7627
7628
7629
7630
7631
7632
7633
7634
7635
7636
7637
7638
7639
7640
7641
7642
7643
7644
7645
7646
7647
7648
7649
7650
7651
7652
7653
7654
7655
7656
7657
7658
7659
7660
7661
7662
7663
7664
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
7670
7671
7672
7673
7674
7675
7676
7677
7678
7679
7680
7681
7682
7683
7684
7685
7686
7687
7688
7689
7690
7691
7692
7693
7694
7695
7696
7697
7698
7699
7700
7701
7702
7703
7704
7705
7706
7707
7708
7709
7710
7711
7712
7713
7714
7715
7716
7717
7718
7719
7720
7721
7722
7723
7724
7725
7726
7727
7728
7729
7730
7731
7732
7733
7734
7735
7736
7737
7738
7739
7740
7741
7742
7743
7744
7745
7746
7747
7748
7749
7750
7751
7752
7753
7754
7755
7756
7757
7758
7759
7760
7761
7762
7763
7764
7765
7766
7767
7768
7769
7770
7771
7772
7773
7774
7775
7776
7777
7778
7779
7780
7781
7782
7783
7784
7785
7786
7787
7788
7789
7790
7791
7792
7793
7794
7795
7796
7797
7798
7799
7800
7801
7802
7803
7804
7805
7806
7807
7808
7809
7810
7811
7812
7813
7814
7815
7816
7817
7818
7819
7820
7821
7822
7823
7824
7825
7826
7827
7828
7829
7830
7831
7832
7833
7834
7835
7836
7837
7838
7839
7840
7841
7842
7843
7844
7845
7846
7847
7848
7849
7850
7851
7852
7853
7854
7855
7856
7857
7858
7859
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
7866
7867
7868
7869
7870
7871
7872
7873
7874
7875
7876
7877
7878
7879
7880
7881
7882
7883
7884
7885
7886
7887
7888
7889
7890
7891
7892
7893
7894
7895
7896
7897
7898
7899
7900
7901
7902
7903
7904
7905
7906
7907
7908
7909
7910
7911
7912
7913
7914
7915
7916
7917
7918
7919
7920
7921
7922
7923
7924
7925
7926
7927
7928
7929
7930
7931
7932
7933
7934
7935
7936
7937
7938
7939
7940
7941
7942
7943
7944
7945
7946
7947
7948
7949
7950
7951
7952
7953
7954
7955
7956
7957
7958
7959
7960
7961
7962
7963
7964
7965
7966
7967
7968
7969
7970
7971
7972
7973
7974
7975
7976
7977
7978
7979
7980
7981
7982
7983
7984
7985
7986
7987
7988
7989
7990
7991
7992
7993
7994
7995
7996
7997
7998
7999
8000
8001
8002
8003
8004
8005
8006
8007
8008
8009
8010
8011
8012
8013
8014
8015
8016
8017
8018
8019
8020
8021
8022
8023
8024
8025
8026
8027
8028
8029
8030
8031
8032
8033
8034
8035
8036
8037
8038
8039
8040
8041
8042
8043
8044
8045
8046
8047
8048
8049
8050
8051
8052
8053
8054
8055
8056
8057
8058
8059
8060
8061
8062
8063
8064
8065
8066
8067
8068
8069
8070
8071
8072
8073
8074
8075
8076
8077
8078
8079
8080
8081
8082
8083
8084
8085
8086
8087
8088
8089
8090
8091
8092
8093
8094
8095
8096
8097
8098
8099
8100
8101
8102
8103
8104
8105
8106
8107
8108
8109
8110
8111
8112
8113
8114
8115
8116
8117
8118
8119
8120
8121
8122
8123
8124
8125
8126
8127
8128
8129
8130
8131
8132
8133
8134
8135
8136
8137
8138
8139
8140
8141
8142
8143
8144
8145
8146
8147
8148
8149
8150
8151
8152
8153
8154
8155
8156
8157
8158
8159
8160
8161
8162
8163
8164
8165
8166
8167
8168
8169
8170
8171
8172
8173
8174
8175
8176
8177
8178
8179
8180
8181
8182
8183
8184
8185
8186
8187
8188
8189
8190
8191
8192
8193
8194
8195
8196
8197
8198
8199
8200
8201
8202
8203
8204
8205
8206
8207
8208
8209
8210
8211
8212
8213
8214
8215
8216
8217
8218
8219
8220
8221
8222
8223
8224
8225
8226
8227
8228
8229
8230
8231
8232
8233
8234
8235
8236
8237
8238
8239
8240
8241
8242
8243
8244
8245
8246
8247
8248
8249
8250
8251
8252
8253
8254
8255
8256
8257
8258
8259
8260
8261
8262
8263
8264
8265
8266
8267
8268
8269
8270
8271
8272
8273
8274
8275
8276
8277
8278
8279
8280
8281
8282
8283
8284
8285
8286
8287
8288
8289
8290
8291
8292
8293
8294
8295
8296
8297
8298
8299
8300
8301
8302
8303
8304
8305
8306
8307
8308
8309
8310
8311
8312
8313
8314
8315
8316
8317
8318
8319
8320
8321
8322
8323
8324
8325
8326
8327
8328
8329
8330
8331
8332
8333
8334
8335
8336
8337
8338
8339
8340
8341
8342
8343
8344
8345
8346
8347
8348
8349
8350
8351
8352
8353
8354
8355
8356
8357
8358
8359
8360
8361
8362
8363
8364
8365
8366
8367
8368
8369
8370
8371
8372
8373
8374
8375
8376
8377
8378
8379
8380
8381
8382
8383
8384
8385
8386
8387
8388
8389
8390
8391
8392
8393
8394
8395
8396
8397
8398
8399
8400
8401
8402
8403
8404
8405
8406
8407
8408
8409
8410
8411
8412
8413
8414
8415
8416
8417
8418
8419
8420
8421
8422
8423
8424
8425
8426
8427
8428
8429
8430
8431
8432
8433
8434
8435
8436
8437
8438
8439
8440
8441
8442
8443
8444
8445
8446
8447
8448
8449
8450
8451
8452
8453
8454
8455
8456
8457
8458
8459
8460
8461
8462
8463
8464
8465
8466
8467
8468
8469
8470
8471
8472
8473
8474
8475
8476
8477
8478
8479
8480
8481
8482
8483
8484
8485
8486
8487
8488
8489
8490
8491
8492
8493
8494
8495
8496
8497
8498
8499
8500
8501
8502
8503
8504
8505
8506
8507
8508
8509
8510
8511
8512
8513
8514
8515
8516
8517
8518
8519
8520
8521
8522
8523
8524
8525
8526
8527
8528
8529
8530
8531
8532
8533
8534
8535
8536
8537
8538
8539
8540
8541
8542
8543
8544
8545
8546
8547
8548
8549
8550
8551
8552
8553
8554
8555
8556
8557
8558
8559
8560
8561
8562
8563
8564
8565
8566
8567
8568
8569
8570
8571
8572
8573
8574
8575
8576
8577
8578
8579
8580
8581
8582
8583
8584
8585
8586
8587
8588
8589
8590
8591
8592
8593
8594
8595
8596
8597
8598
8599
8600
8601
8602
8603
8604
8605
8606
8607
8608
8609
8610
8611
8612
8613
8614
8615
8616
8617
8618
8619
8620
8621
8622
8623
8624
8625
8626
8627
8628
8629
8630
8631
8632
8633
8634
8635
8636
8637
8638
8639
8640
8641
8642
8643
8644
8645
8646
8647
8648
8649
8650
8651
8652
8653
8654
8655
8656
8657
8658
8659
8660
8661
8662
8663
8664
8665
8666
8667
8668
8669
8670
8671
8672
8673
8674
8675
8676
8677
8678
8679
8680
8681
8682
8683
8684
8685
8686
8687
8688
8689
8690
8691
8692
8693
8694
8695
8696
8697
8698
8699
8700
8701
8702
8703
8704
8705
8706
8707
8708
8709
8710
8711
8712
8713
8714
8715
8716
8717
8718
8719
8720
8721
8722
8723
8724
8725
8726
8727
8728
8729
8730
8731
8732
8733
8734
8735
8736
8737
8738
8739
8740
8741
8742
8743
8744
8745
8746
8747
8748
8749
8750
8751
8752
8753
8754
8755
8756
8757
8758
8759
8760
8761
8762
8763
8764
8765
8766
8767
8768
8769
8770
8771
8772
8773
8774
8775
8776
8777
8778
8779
8780
8781
8782
8783
8784
8785
8786
8787
8788
8789
8790
8791
8792
8793
8794
8795
8796
8797
8798
8799
8800
8801
8802
8803
8804
8805
8806
8807
8808
8809
8810
8811
8812
8813
8814
8815
8816
8817
8818
8819
8820
8821
8822
8823
8824
8825
8826
8827
8828
8829
8830
8831
8832
8833
8834
8835
8836
8837
8838
8839
8840
8841
8842
8843
8844
8845
8846
8847
8848
8849
8850
8851
8852
8853
8854
8855
8856
8857
8858
8859
8860
8861
8862
8863
8864
8865
8866
8867
8868
8869
8870
8871
8872
8873
8874
8875
8876
8877
8878
8879
8880
8881
8882
8883
8884
8885
8886
8887
8888
8889
8890
8891
8892
8893
8894
8895
8896
8897
8898
8899
8900
8901
8902
8903
8904
8905
8906
8907
8908
8909
8910
8911
8912
8913
8914
8915
8916
8917
8918
8919
8920
8921
8922
8923
8924
8925
8926
8927
8928
8929
8930
8931
8932
8933
8934
8935
8936
8937
8938
8939
8940
8941
8942
8943
8944
8945
8946
8947
8948
8949
8950
8951
8952
8953
8954
8955
8956
8957
8958
8959
8960
8961
8962
8963
8964
8965
8966
8967
8968
8969
8970
8971
8972
8973
8974
8975
8976
8977
8978
8979
8980
8981
8982
8983
8984
8985
8986
8987
8988
8989
8990
8991
8992
8993
8994
8995
8996
8997
8998
8999
9000
9001
9002
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016
9017
9018
9019
9020
9021
9022
9023
9024
9025
9026
9027
9028
9029
9030
9031
9032
9033
9034
9035
9036
9037
9038
9039
9040
9041
9042
9043
9044
9045
9046
9047
9048
9049
9050
9051
9052
9053
9054
9055
9056
9057
9058
9059
9060
9061
9062
9063
9064
9065
9066
9067
9068
9069
9070
9071
9072
9073
9074
9075
9076
9077
9078
9079
9080
9081
9082
9083
9084
9085
9086
9087
9088
9089
9090
9091
9092
9093
9094
9095
9096
9097
9098
9099
9100
9101
9102
9103
9104
9105
9106
9107
9108
9109
9110
9111
9112
9113
9114
9115
9116
9117
9118
9119
9120
9121
9122
9123
9124
9125
9126
9127
9128
9129
9130
9131
9132
9133
9134
9135
9136
9137
9138
9139
9140
9141
9142
9143
9144
9145
9146
9147
9148
9149
9150
9151
9152
9153
9154
9155
9156
9157
9158
9159
9160
9161
9162
9163
9164
9165
9166
9167
9168
9169
9170
9171
9172
9173
9174
9175
9176
9177
9178
9179
9180
9181
9182
9183
9184
9185
9186
9187
9188
9189
9190
9191
9192
9193
9194
9195
9196
9197
9198
9199
9200
9201
9202
9203
9204
9205
9206
9207
9208
9209
9210
9211
9212
9213
9214
9215
9216
9217
9218
9219
9220
9221
9222
9223
9224
9225
9226
9227
9228
9229
9230
9231
9232
9233
9234
9235
9236
9237
9238
9239
9240
9241
9242
9243
9244
9245
9246
9247
9248
9249
9250
9251
9252
9253
9254
9255
9256
9257
9258
9259
9260
9261
9262
9263
9264
9265
9266
9267
9268
9269
9270
9271
9272
9273
9274
9275
9276
9277
9278
9279
9280
9281
9282
9283
9284
9285
9286
9287
9288
9289
9290
9291
9292
9293
9294
9295
9296
9297
9298
9299
9300
9301
9302
9303
9304
9305
9306
9307
9308
9309
9310
9311
9312
9313
9314
9315
9316
9317
9318
9319
9320
9321
9322
9323
9324
9325
9326
9327
9328
9329
9330
9331
9332
9333
9334
9335
9336
9337
9338
9339
9340
9341
9342
9343
9344
9345
9346
9347
9348
9349
9350
9351
9352
9353
9354
9355
9356
9357
9358
9359
9360
9361
9362
9363
9364
9365
9366
9367
9368
9369
9370
9371
9372
9373
9374
9375
9376
9377
9378
9379
9380
9381
9382
9383
9384
9385
9386
9387
9388
9389
9390
9391
9392
9393
9394
9395
9396
9397
9398
9399
9400
9401
9402
9403
9404
9405
9406
9407
9408
9409
9410
9411
9412
9413
9414
9415
9416
9417
9418
9419
9420
9421
9422
9423
9424
9425
9426
9427
9428
9429
9430
9431
9432
9433
9434
9435
9436
9437
9438
9439
9440
9441
9442
9443
9444
9445
9446
9447
9448
9449
9450
9451
9452
9453
9454
9455
9456
9457
9458
9459
9460
9461
9462
9463
9464
9465
9466
9467
9468
9469
9470
9471
9472
9473
9474
9475
9476
9477
9478
9479
9480
9481
9482
9483
9484
9485
9486
9487
9488
9489
9490
9491
9492
9493
9494
9495
9496
9497
9498
9499
9500
9501
9502
9503
9504
9505
9506
9507
9508
9509
9510
9511
9512
9513
9514
9515
9516
9517
9518
9519
9520
9521
9522
9523
9524
9525
9526
9527
9528
9529
9530
9531
9532
9533
9534
9535
9536
9537
9538
9539
9540
9541
9542
9543
9544
9545
9546
9547
9548
9549
9550
9551
9552
9553
9554
9555
9556
9557
9558
9559
9560
9561
9562
9563
9564
9565
9566
9567
9568
9569
9570
9571
9572
9573
9574
9575
9576
9577
9578
9579
9580
9581
9582
9583
9584
9585
9586
9587
9588
9589
9590
9591
9592
9593
9594
9595
9596
9597
9598
9599
9600
9601
9602
9603
9604
9605
9606
9607
9608
9609
9610
9611
9612
9613
9614
9615
9616
9617
9618
9619
9620
9621
9622
9623
9624
9625
9626
9627
9628
9629
9630
9631
9632
9633
9634
9635
9636
9637
9638
9639
9640
9641
9642
9643
9644
9645
9646
9647
9648
9649
9650
9651
9652
9653
9654
9655
9656
9657
9658
9659
9660
9661
9662
9663
9664
9665
9666
9667
9668
9669
9670
9671
9672
9673
9674
9675
9676
9677
9678
9679
9680
9681
9682
9683
9684
9685
9686
9687
9688
9689
9690
9691
9692
9693
9694
9695
9696
9697
9698
9699
9700
9701
9702
9703
9704
9705
9706
9707
9708
9709
9710
9711
9712
9713
9714
9715
9716
9717
9718
9719
9720
9721
9722
9723
9724
9725
9726
9727
9728
9729
9730
9731
9732
9733
9734
9735
9736
9737
9738
9739
9740
9741
9742
9743
9744
9745
9746
9747
9748
9749
9750
9751
9752
9753
9754
9755
9756
9757
9758
9759
9760
9761
9762
9763
9764
9765
9766
9767
9768
9769
9770
9771
9772
9773
9774
9775
9776
9777
9778
9779
9780
9781
9782
9783
9784
9785
9786
9787
9788
9789
9790
9791
9792
9793
9794
9795
9796
9797
9798
9799
9800
9801
9802
9803
9804
9805
9806
9807
9808
9809
9810
9811
9812
9813
9814
9815
9816
9817
9818
9819
9820
9821
9822
9823
9824
9825
9826
9827
9828
9829
9830
9831
9832
9833
9834
9835
9836
9837
9838
9839
9840
9841
9842
9843
9844
9845
9846
9847
9848
9849
9850
9851
9852
9853
9854
9855
9856
9857
9858
9859
9860
9861
9862
9863
9864
9865
9866
9867
9868
9869
9870
9871
9872
9873
9874
9875
9876
9877
9878
9879
9880
9881
9882
9883
9884
9885
9886
9887
9888
9889
9890
9891
9892
9893
9894
9895
9896
9897
9898
9899
9900
9901
9902
9903
9904
9905
9906
9907
9908
9909
9910
9911
9912
9913
9914
9915
9916
9917
9918
9919
9920
9921
9922
9923
9924
9925
9926
9927
9928
9929
9930
9931
9932
9933
9934
9935
9936
9937
9938
9939
9940
9941
9942
9943
9944
9945
9946
9947
9948
9949
9950
9951
9952
9953
9954
9955
9956
This is latex2e.info, produced by makeinfo version 6.0 from
latex2e.texi.

This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document
preparation system, version of October 2015.

   This manual was originally translated from 'LATEX.HLP' v1.0a in the
VMS Help Library.  The pre-translation version was written by George D.
Greenwade of Sam Houston State University.  The LaTeX 2.09 version was
written by Stephen Gilmore.  The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this
by Torsten Martinsen.  Karl Berry made further updates and additions,
and gratefully acknowledges using 'Hypertext Help with LaTeX', by
Sheldon Green, and 'LaTeX Command Summary' (for LaTeX 2.09) by L. Botway
and C. Biemesderfer (published by the TeX Users Group as 'TeXniques'
number 10), as reference material (no text was directly copied).

   Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 Karl
Berry.
Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.
Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions.
INFO-DIR-SECTION TeX
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* LaTeX2e: (latex2e).              Unofficial LaTeX reference manual.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Top,  Next: About this document,  Up: (dir)

LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual
***************************************

This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October
2015) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system.

* Menu:

* About this document::         Bug reporting, etc.
* Overview::                    What is LaTeX?
* Document classes::		Some of the various classes available.
* Fonts::			Italic, bold, typewriter, etc.
* Layout::			Controlling the page layout.
* Sectioning::			How to section properly.
* Cross references::		Automatic referencing.
* Environments::		Such as enumerate & itemize.
* Line breaking::	        Influencing line breaks.
* Page breaking::	        Influencing page breaks.
* Footnotes::			How to produce footnotes.
* Definitions::			Define your own commands, etc.
* Counters::			Internal counters used by LaTeX.
* Lengths::			The length commands.
* Making paragraphs::		Paragraph commands.
* Math formulas::		How to create mathematical formulas.
* Modes::			Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
* Page styles::			Various styles of page layout.
* Spaces::		        Horizontal and vertical space.
* Boxes::                       Making boxes.
* Special insertions::		Inserting reserved and special characters.
* Splitting the input::		Dealing with big files by splitting.
* Front/back matter::		Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes.
* Letters::			The 'letter' class.
* Terminal input/output::	User interaction.
* Command line::                System-independent command-line behavior.
* Document templates::          Starter templates for various document classes.
* Concept Index::		General index.
* Command Index::           	Alphabetical list of LaTeX commands.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: About this document,  Next: Overview,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 About this document
*********************

This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document
preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting
program (*note Overview::).  This document's home page is
<http://home.gna.org/latexrefman>.  That page has links to the current
output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and
subscriptions, and other infrastructure.

   In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than
'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was retired many
years ago.

   LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers
(<http://latex-project.org>).  The official documentation written by the
LaTeX project is available from their web site.  This document is
completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX
maintainers.  Do not send bug reports or anything else about this
document to them.  Instead, please send all comments to
<latexrefman-discuss@gna.org>.

   This document is a reference.  There is a vast array of other sources
of information about LaTeX, at all levels.  Here are a few
introductions.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr>
     Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc>
     Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/usrguide>
     The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX;
     there are plenty of others available elsewhere.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/lshort>
     A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages.

<http://tug.org/begin.html>
     Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further
     references.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Overview,  Next: Document classes,  Prev: About this document,  Up: Top

2 Overview of LaTeX
*******************

LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents.  It was originally created
by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers
(<http://latex-project.org>).  It is widely used, particularly for
complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics.

   A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with
interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text
should be formatted.  It is implemented as a set of related commands
that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the
technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine).
The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the
TeX engine.

   The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which
the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands
available to a LaTeX user.

   The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX".  It is pronounced LAH-teck
or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks.  Inside a document, produce the
logo with '\LaTeX'.  Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in
plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'.

* Menu:

* Starting and ending::  The standard beginning and end of a document.
* Output files::         Files produced.
* TeX engines::          Programs that can compile TeX and  LaTeX.
* LaTeX command syntax:: General syntax of LaTeX commands.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Starting and ending,  Next: Output files,  Up: Overview

2.1 Starting and ending
=======================

LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning
and ending.  Here is a "hello, world" example:

     \documentclass{article}
     \begin{document}
     Hello, \LaTeX\ world.
     \end{document}

Here, the 'article' is the so-called "document class", implemented in a
file 'article.cls'.  Any document class can be used.  A few document
classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely
available.  *Note Document classes::.

   You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and
the '\begin{document}' commands.  This area is called the "preamble".

   The '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' is a so-called
"environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in
all LaTeX documents (*note document::).  LaTeX provides many
environments itself, and many more are defined separately.  *Note
Environments::.

   The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output
from a LaTeX input file.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Output files,  Next: TeX engines,  Prev: Starting and ending,  Up: Overview

2.2 Output files
================

LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files.  The
main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'.

'.dvi'
     If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it
     produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'.  You can
     view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a
     PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format
     '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'.  The contents of the file can be
     dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'.  A vast array of
     other DVI utility programs are available
     (<http://mirror.ctan.org/tex-archive/dviware>).

'.pdf'
     If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other
     commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable
     Document Format (PDF) file.  Typically this is a self-contained
     file, with all fonts and images included.

   LaTeX also produces at least two additional files.

'.log'
     This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of
     loaded packages.  It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps
     additional information for any errors.

'.aux'
     Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross
     references.  For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward
     reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared
     in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question
     mark '??'.  When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the
     source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux'
     file.  On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information
     from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the
     double question mark with the remembered location.

   LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename
ending.  These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of
figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file
used to make a table of contents.  A particular class may create others;
the list is open-ended.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: TeX engines,  Next: LaTeX command syntax,  Prev: Output files,  Up: Overview

2.3 TeX engines
===============

LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX
implementation (*note Overview::).  This section gives a terse overview
of the main programs.

'latex'
'pdflatex'
     In TeX Live (<http://tug.org/texlive>), if LaTeX is invoked via
     either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX
     engine is run (<http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex>).  When invoked as
     'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main
     output is a '.pdf' file.

     pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original
     program (<http://ctan.org/pkg/etex>), including additional
     programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty
     of extensions of its own.  e-TeX is available on its own as the
     system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi').

     In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than
     pdfTeX.  In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be
     available in LaTeX.

'lualatex'
     If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX
     engine is run (<http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex>).  This program allows
     code written in the scripting language Lua (<http://luatex.org>) to
     interact with TeX's typesetting.  LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode
     input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and
     produces a '.pdf' file by default.  There is also 'dvilualatex' to
     produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used.

'xelatex'
     If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX
     engine is run (<http://tug.org/xetex>).  Like LuaTeX, XeTeX
     natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts,
     though the implementation is completely different, mainly using
     external libraries instead of internal code.  XeTeX produces a
     '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output.

     Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and
     translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this
     process is automatic.  The '.xdv' file is only useful for
     debugging.

   Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional
support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX,
<http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex>, <http://ctan.org/pkg/uptex>).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: LaTeX command syntax,  Prev: TeX engines,  Up: Overview

2.4 LaTeX command syntax
========================

In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash
character, '\'.  The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of
letters or (b) a single non-letter.

   LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs
from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command).  Most commands
are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same
case as they are defined.

   A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments.  These
arguments may be either required or optional.  Required arguments are
contained in curly braces, '{...}'.  Optional arguments are contained in
square brackets, '[...]'.  Generally, but not universally, if the
command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any
required arguments.

   Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square
bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket
{]}]'.  Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required
argument after it, then to make the first character of the following
text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces.

   LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is
related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'.
The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command.

   This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the
commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).

* Menu:

* Environment::          Area of the source with distinct behavior.
* Declaration::          Change the value or meaning of a command.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Environment,  Next: Declaration,  Up: LaTeX command syntax

Synopsis:

     \begin{ENVIRONMENT NAME}
       ..
     \end{ENVIRONMENT NAME}

   An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct
behavior.  For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between
'\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'.

     \begin{verse}
         There once was a man from Nantucket \\
          ..
     \end{verse}

   The ENVIRONMENT NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the
end.  This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT NAME ends in a
star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star.

   Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments.  This
example produces a table.  The first argument is optional (and causes
the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is
required (it specifies the formatting of columns).

     \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l}
       .. rows of table ..
     \end{tabular}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Declaration,  Prev: Environment,  Up: LaTeX command syntax

A command that changes the value, or changes the meaning, of some other
command or parameter.  For instance, the '\mainmatter' command changes
the setting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Document classes,  Next: Fonts,  Prev: Overview,  Up: Top

3 Document classes
******************

The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is
normally the first command in a LaTeX source file.

     \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS}

   The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX.  (Many other
document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.)

'article'
     For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general
     use.

'book'
     Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front
     matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix
     (*note Front/back matter::).

'letter'
     Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::).

'report'
     For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as
     technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters.

'slides'
     For slide presentations--rarely used today.  In its place the
     'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer
     template::).

   Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section.

* Menu:

* Document class options::   Global options.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Document class options,  Up: Document classes

3.1 Document class options
==========================

You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the
'\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets.  To
specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma, as in:

     \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS}

   Here is the list of the standard class options.

   All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'):

     10pt  11pt  12pt

   All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the
paper size (these show height by width):

'a4paper'
     210 by 297 mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches)

'b5paper'
     176 by 250 mm (about 7 by 9.875 inches)

'executivepaper'
     7.25 by 10.5 inches

'legalpaper'
     8.5 by 14 inches

'letterpaper'
     8.5 by 11 inches (the default)

   When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note
TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but
you must also set the physical paper size.  One way to do that is to put
'\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your
document's preamble.  The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of
setting the print area and physical page size.

   Miscellaneous other options:

'draft'
'final'
     Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black
     box in the margin; default is 'final'.

'fleqn'
     Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.

'landscape'
     Selects landscape format; default is portrait.

'leqno'
     Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the
     right side.

'openbib'
     Use "open" bibliography format.

'titlepage'
'notitlepage'
     Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on
     the class.

   The following options are not available with the 'slides' class.

'onecolumn'
'twocolumn'
     Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'.

'oneside'
'twoside'
     Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that
     in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'.

     For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page.  For
     two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin')
     parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages
     between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with
     '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth'
     and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder.

'openright'
'openany'
     Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default
     is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'.

   The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at
the bottom of each note.

   Additional packages are loaded like this:

     \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}

   To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma,
as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage'
commands.

   Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown by
the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
'\usepackage'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Fonts,  Next: Layout,  Prev: Document classes,  Up: Top

4 Fonts
*******

Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a
style.  The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.

* Menu:

* Font styles::                 Select roman, italics, etc.
* Font sizes::                  Select point size.
* Low-level font commands::     Select encoding, family, series, shape.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Font styles,  Next: Font sizes,  Up: Fonts

4.1 Font styles
===============

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

   This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as
in '\textit{TEXT}'.  In the table below, the corresponding command in
parenthesis is the "declaration form", which takes no arguments, as in
'{\itshape TEXT}'.  The scope of the declaration form lasts until the
next type style command or the end of the current group.

   These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form,
are cumulative; e.g., you can say either '\sffamily\bfseries' or
'\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif.

   You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations;
for instance, '\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'.

   These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections
if needed.  (*Note \/::, for the details of italic corrections.)
Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following
character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a
period and a comma.  To suppress the automatic insertion of italic
correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument,
such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'.

'\textrm (\rmfamily)'
     Roman.

'\textit (\itshape)'
     Italics.

'\textmd (\mdseries)'
     Medium weight (default).

'\textbf (\bfseries)'
     Boldface.

'\textup (\upshape)'
     Upright (default).

'\textsl (\slshape)'
     Slanted.

'\textsf (\sffamily)'
     Sans serif.

'\textsc (\scshape)'
     Small caps.

'\texttt (\ttfamily)'
     Typewriter.

'\textnormal (\normalfont)'
     Main document font.

   Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is
semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a
substitute for '\textit'.  For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE
TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics,
but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman.

   LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally
switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative.  Also, they
are used differently than the above commands: '{\CMD...}' instead of
'\CMD{...}'.  These are two unrelated constructs.

'\bf'
     Switch to bold face.

'\cal'
     Switch to calligraphic letters for math.

'\it'
     Italics.

'\rm'
     Roman.

'\sc'
     Small caps.

'\sf'
     Sans serif.

'\sl'
     Slanted (oblique).

'\tt'
     Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).

   The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'.

   (Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such
as '\tt', obsolete and that only the cumulative commands ('\texttt')
should be used.  Others think that both sets of commands have their
place and sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely what you
want; for one example, *note 'description': description.)

   The following commands are for use in math mode.  They are not
cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and
italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics.  This is because
typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless
of the surrounding environment.

'\mathrm'
     Roman, for use in math mode.

'\mathbf'
     Boldface, for use in math mode.

'\mathsf'
     Sans serif, for use in math mode.

'\mathtt'
     Typewriter, for use in math mode.

'\mathit'
'(\mit)'
     Italics, for use in math mode.

'\mathnormal'
     For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.

'\mathcal'
     Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.

   In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for
switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas.
'\mathversion{normal}' restores the default.

   Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called
"old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and
sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have
the same height as upper-case letters.  LaTeX's default fonts support
this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no
italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern).  Many other fonts have
old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be
loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the
default.  FAQ entry:
<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf>.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Font sizes,  Next: Low-level font commands,  Prev: Font styles,  Up: Fonts

4.2 Font sizes
==============

The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX.  The
table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used
(in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options,
respectively (*note Document class options::).

Command                   '10pt'  '11pt'  '12pt'
--------------------------------------------------
'\tiny'                   5       6       6
'\scriptsize'             7       8       8
'\footnotesize'           8       9       10
'\small'                  9       10      10.95
'\normalsize' (default)   10      10.95   12
'\large'                  12      12      14.4
'\Large'                  14.4    14.4    17.28
'\LARGE'                  17.28   17.28   20.74
'\huge'                   20.74   20.74   24.88
'\Huge'                   24.88   24.88   24.88

   The commands as listed here are "declaration forms".  The scope of
the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end
of the current group.  You can also use the environment form of these
commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Low-level font commands,  Prev: Font sizes,  Up: Fonts

4.3 Low-level font commands
===========================

These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
packages.  The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
ones.

'\fontencoding{ENCODING}'
     Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font.  There
     are a large number of valid encodings.  The most common are 'OT1',
     Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and
     'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the
     accented characters used by the most widespread European languages
     (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to
     hyphenate words containing accented letters.

'\fontfamily{FAMILY}'
     Select the font family.  The web page
     <http://www.tug.dk/FontCatalogue/> provides one way to browse
     through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX.  Here are
     examples of some common families:

          'pag'  Avant Garde
          'fvs'  Bitstream Vera Sans
          'pbk'  Bookman
          'bch'  Charter
          'ccr'  Computer Concrete
          'cmr'  Computer Modern
          'pcr'  Courier
          'phv'  Helvetica
          'fi4'  Inconsolata
          'lmr'  Latin Modern
          'lmss' Latin Modern Sans
          'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter
          'pnc'  New Century Schoolbook
          'ppl'  Palatino
          'ptm'  Times
          'uncl' Uncial
          'put'  Utopia
          'pzc'  Zapf Chancery

'\fontseries{SERIES}'
     Select the font series.  A "series" combines a "weight" and a
     "width".  Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible
     combinations.  Some common combined series values include:

          'm'  Medium (normal)
          'b'  Bold
          'c'  Condensed
          'bc' Bold condensed
          'bx' Bold extended

     The possible values for weight, individually, are:

          'ul' Ultra light
          'el' Extra light
          'l'  Light
          'sl' Semi light
          'm'  Medium (normal)
          'sb' Semi bold
          'b'  Bold
          'eb' Extra bold
          'ub' Ultra bold

     The possible values for width, individually, are (the percentages
     are just guides and are not followed precisely by all fonts):

          'uc' Ultra condensed, 50%
          'ec' Extra condensed, 62.5%
          'c'  Condensed, 75%
          'sc' Semi condensed, 87.5%
          'm'  Medium, 100%
          'sx' Semi expanded, 112.5%
          'x'  Expanded, 125%
          'ex' Extra expanded, 150%
          'ux' Ultra expanded, 200%

     When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the
     'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both
     weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m'').

'\fontshape{SHAPE}'
     Select font shape.  Valid shapes are:

          'n'  Upright (normal)
          'it' Italic
          'sl' Slanted (oblique)
          'sc' Small caps
          'ui' Upright italics
          'ol' Outline

     The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and
     small caps are often missing as well.

'\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}'
     Set the font size and the line spacing.  The unit of both
     parameters defaults to points ('pt').  The line spacing is the
     nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline.  It is
     stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'.  The default
     '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the
     '\fontsize'.  Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable
     since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see
     '\baselinestretch', next.

'\baselinestretch'
     LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the
     '\baselinestretch' parameter; the default factor is 1.  A change
     takes effect when '\selectfont' (see below) is called.  You can
     make line skip changes happen for the entire document by doing
     '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}' in the preamble.

     However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the
     'setspace' package.  In addition to offering a number of spacing
     options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in
     places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and
     figure captions.  See the package documentation.

'\linespread{FACTOR}'
     Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and
     therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect.
     Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as
     just described.

'\selectfont'
     The effects of the font commands described above do not happen
     until '\selectfont' is called, as in
     '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'.  It is often useful to put
     this in a macro:
     '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}'
     (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::).

'\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}'
     The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries'
     and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by
     '\selectfont'.  For example:

          \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Layout,  Next: Sectioning,  Prev: Fonts,  Up: Top

5 Layout
********

Commands for controlling the general page layout.

* Menu:

* \onecolumn::              Use one-column layout.
* \twocolumn::              Use two-column layout.
* \flushbottom::            Make all text pages the same height.
* \raggedbottom::           Allow text pages of differing height.
* Page layout parameters::  '\headheight' '\footskip'.
* Floats::                  Figures, tables, etc.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \onecolumn,  Next: \twocolumn,  Up: Layout

5.1 '\onecolumn'
================

The '\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.  If the document is given the class option
'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior (*note Document class
options::).

   This command is fragile (*note \protect::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \twocolumn,  Next: \flushbottom,  Prev: \onecolumn,  Up: Layout

5.2 '\twocolumn'
================

Synopsis:

     \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT]

   The '\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output.  If the document is given the class option
'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note Document class options::).

   If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is
typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.

   This command is fragile (*note \protect::).

   These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:

'\columnsep'
     The distance between columns.  The default is 35pt.  Change it with
     a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}' You must change it
     before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good
     place.

'\columnseprule'
     The width of the rule between columns.  The rule appears halfway
     between the two columns.  The default is 0pt, meaning that there is
     no rule.  Change it with a command such as
     '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column
     environment starts.

'\columnwidth'
     The width of a single column.  In one-column mode this is equal to
     '\textwidth'.  In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width
     of each of the two columns to be half of '\textwidth' minus
     '\columnsep'.

   In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and
'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments
'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note
table::).  LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page.  The
following parameters control float behavior of two-column output.

'\dbltopfraction'
     The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be
     occupied by two-column wide floats.  The default is 0.7, meaning
     that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not
     exceed '0.7\textheight' .  If the height of your starred float
     environment exceeeds this then you can take one of the following
     actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the
     document:

        * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put
          the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of
          a page.

        * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of
          '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float.

        * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large
          number, to avoid going to float pages so soon.

     You can redefine it, for instance with
     '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'.

'\dblfloatpagefraction'
     For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum
     fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of
     blank space.  LaTeX's default is '0.5'.  Change it with
     '\renewcommand'.

'\dblfloatsep'
     On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the
     distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page.
     The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt'
     or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at
     '12pt'.

'\dbltextfloatsep'
     This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top
     or bottom of a page and the main text.  The default is '20pt
     plus2pt minus4pt'.

'\dbltopnumber'
     On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the
     maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page.  The LaTeX
     default is '2'.

   This example shows the use of the optional argument of '\twocolumn'
to create a title that spans the two-column article:

     \documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
     \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}}
     \begin{document}
     \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text
      \centering
      \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em]
      \large Author One\authormark{1},
             Author Two\authormark{2},
             Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em]
      \normalsize
      \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}}
        \authormark{1}Department one  &\authormark{2}Department two \\
         School one                   &School two
      \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part
     }]

     Two column text here.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \flushbottom,  Next: \raggedbottom,  Prev: \twocolumn,  Up: Layout

5.3 '\flushbottom'
==================

The '\flushbottom' command can go at any point in the document body.  It
makes all later pages the same height, stretching the vertical space
where necessary to fill out the page.

   If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page
then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has
occurred while \output is active'.  You can change to '\raggedbottom'
(see below).  Alternatively, you can try to adjust the 'textheight' to
be compatible, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines
or between paragraphs, as in '\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'.  In
a final editing stage you can adjust the height of individual pages
(*note \enlargethispage::).

   This is the default only if you select the 'twoside' document class
option (*note Document class options::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \raggedbottom,  Next: Page layout parameters,  Prev: \flushbottom,  Up: Layout

5.4 '\raggedbottom'
===================

The '\raggedbottom' command can go at any point in the document body.
It makes all later pages the natural height of the material on that
page; no rubber lengths will be stretched.  Thus, in a two-sided
document the facing pages may be different heights.  See also
'\flushbottom' above.

   This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class
option (*note Document class options::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Page layout parameters,  Next: Floats,  Prev: \raggedbottom,  Up: Layout

5.5 Page layout parameters
==========================

'\columnsep'
'\columnseprule'
'\columnwidth'
     The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between
     the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class
     option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::).
     *Note \twocolumn::.

'\headheight'
     Height of the box that contains the running head.  The default in
     the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type
     sizes.

'\headsep'
     Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top
     of the main text.  The default in the 'article' and 'report'
     classes is '25pt'.  In the 'book' class the default is: if the
     document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt and 12pt
     it is '0.275in'.

'\footskip'
     Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline
     of the page footer.  The default in the 'article' and 'report'
     classes is '30pt'.  In the 'book' class the default is: when the
     type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is
     '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'.

'\linewidth'
     Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note
     list::).  That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal
     '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased
     by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note
     itemize::).

'\marginparpush'
'\marginsep'
'\marginparwidth'
     The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the
     horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and
     the horizontal width of the notes.

     Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the
     declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and
     '\normalmarginpar' changes it back).

     The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article'
     classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the
     document is set at 11pt or 10pt.

     For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except
     if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the
     default is '11pt'.

     For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in
     two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode.

     For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in
     two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth',
     while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance.

'\oddsidemargin'
'\evensidemargin'
     The '\oddsidemargin' is the extra distance between the left side of
     the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the
     document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when
     'oneside' is in effect.  When 'twoside' is in effect, on
     even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is
     'evensidemargin'.

     LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference
     between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is
     the remainder.

'\paperheight'
     The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print
     area.  It is normally set with a document class option, as in
     '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class
     options::).

'\paperwidth'
     The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print
     area.  It is normally set with a document class option, as in
     '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class
     options::).

'\textheight'
     The normal vertical height of the page body.  If the document is
     set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or
     'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is
     '41\baselineskip'.  At a type size of 11pt the default is
     '38\baselineskip' for all document classes.  At 12pt it is
     '36\baselineskip' for all classes.

'\textwidth'
     The full horizontal width of the entire page body.  For an
     'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the
     chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is
     '390pt' at 12pt.  For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at
     a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt.

     In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the
     entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column
     (*note \twocolumn::).

     In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the
     entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire
     column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists.

     Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note
     \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the
     specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of
     the 'minipage' or '\parbox'.

     This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX
     primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines.  It should
     not be used in normal LaTeX documents.

'\topmargin'
     Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the
     paper, by default) and the top of the header.  The value is
     computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in -
     \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided
     by two.

'\topskip'
     Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline
     of the first line of text.  For the standard classes, the default
     is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Floats,  Prev: Page layout parameters,  Up: Layout

5.6 Floats
==========

Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken
across pages.  They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text,
for instance floating to the top of a later page.

   LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material.
The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table'
(*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package
'float'.

   Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that
the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second
figure.  However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while
the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it
appears in the output after it.

   The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that
limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the
bottom, etc.  If so many floats are queued up that the limits prevent
them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers
the rest to the next page.  In this way, floats may be typset far from
their place in the source.  In particular, a float that is big can
migrate to the end of the document.  But then because all floats in a
class must appear in sequential order, every subsequent float in that
class also appears at the end.

   In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak
where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its
PLACEMENT argument.  The possible values are a sequence of the letters
below.  The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and
'book' classes, is 'tbp'.

't'
     (Top)--at the top of a text page.

'b'
     (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page.  (However, 'b' is not
     allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column
     output.  To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix'
     package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ:
     <http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat>.

'h'
     (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment
     appears.  However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is
     automatically added.

     To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can
     '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines.
     For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
     <http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere>.

'p'
     (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page
     containing no text, only floats.

'!'
     Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX
     ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can
     appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the
     page.  The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see
     above.

   Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument
does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for
instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'.  All that PLACEMENT does
is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that
location.  Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location
except placing the float where it occurs in the source.

   To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a
chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and
insert all pending floats.  If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can
use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'.  This
will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all
outstanding floats.

   LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source
(although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the
PLACEMENT paramater.  If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is
not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the
next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package
or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the
top position on this page to moved to the next page.

   Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL
BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'):

'\bottomfraction'
     The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats
     at the bottom; default '.3'.

'\floatpagefraction'
     The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by
     floats; default '.5'.

'\textfraction'
     Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
     much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
     different page.  The default is '.2'.

'\topfraction'
     Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
     floats; default '.7'.

   Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with
'\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'):

'\floatsep'
     Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt
     plus2pt minus2pt'.

'\intextsep'
     Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text;
     default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point
     documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents.

'\textfloatsep'
     Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
     default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.

   Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with
'\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'):

'bottomnumber'
     Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text
     page; default 1.

'dbltopnumber'
     Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a
     two-column page; default 2.

'topnumber'
     Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page;
     default 2.

'totalnumber'
     Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.

   The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats
<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats> contains
suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the
problem of floats being pushed to the end.  A full explaination of the
float placement algorithm is Frank Mittelbach's article "How to infuence
the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?"
<http://latex-project.org/papers/tb111mitt-float.pdf>.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Sectioning,  Next: Cross references,  Prev: Layout,  Up: Top

6 Sectioning
************

Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:

'\part'
'\chapter'
     ('report' and 'book' class only)
'\section'
'\subsection'
'\subsubsection'
'\paragraph'
'\subparagraph'

   All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,

     \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}

   In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the
section title can appear in two other places:

  1. The table of contents.
  2. The running head at the top of the page.

   You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text.
To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument
TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.

   Also, all sectioning commands have '*'-forms that print TITLE as
usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table
of contents.  For instance:

     \section*{Preamble}

   The '\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are
numbered.  The '\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not
affect the numbering of parts.  The normal use of this command is
something like

     \chapter{A Chapter}
     ...
     \appendix
     \chapter{The First Appendix}

   The 'secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers.  The
setting

     \setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL}

suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where 'chapter' is
level zero.  (*Note \setcounter::.)


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Cross references,  Next: Environments,  Prev: Sectioning,  Up: Top

7 Cross references
******************

One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer
the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details."

* Menu:

* \label::      Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text.
* \pageref::    Refer to a page number.
* \ref::        Refer to a section, figure or similar.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \label,  Next: \pageref,  Up: Cross references

7.1 '\label'
============

Synopsis:

     \label{KEY}

   A '\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the
number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered
environment assigns that number to KEY.  The assigned number can be
retrieved with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::).

   Thus, in the example below the key 'sec:test' holds the number of the
current section and the key 'fig:test' that of the figure.
(Incidentally, labels must appear after captions in figures and tables.)

     \section{section name}
     \label{sec:test}
     This is Section~\ref{sec:test}.
     \begin{figure}
       ...
       \caption{caption text}
       \label{fig:test}
     \end{figure}
     See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.

   A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common
punctuation characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished,
as usual.

   Although the name can be more or less anything, a common convention
is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a
colon or period.  This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels
with the same name.  Some commonly-used prefixes:

'ch'
     for chapters
'sec'
     for lower-level sectioning commands
'fig'
     for figures
'tab'
     for tables
'eq'
     for equations

   Thus, a label for a figure would look like 'fig:test' or 'fig.test'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \pageref,  Next: \ref,  Prev: \label,  Up: Cross references

7.2 '\pageref{KEY}'
===================

Synopsis:

     \pageref{KEY}

   The '\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in
the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \ref,  Prev: \pageref,  Up: Cross references

7.3 '\ref{KEY}'
===============

Synopsis:

     \ref{KEY}

   The '\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command
(*note \label::).  It does not produce any text, such as the word
'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Environments,  Next: Line breaking,  Prev: Cross references,  Up: Top

8 Environments
**************

LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text.  Each
environment begins and ends in the same manner:

     \begin{ENVNAME}
     ...
     \end{ENVNAME}

* Menu:

* abstract::              Produce an abstract.
* array::                 Math arrays.
* center::                Centered lines.
* description::           Labelled lists.
* displaymath::           Formulas that appear on their own line.
* document::              Enclose the whole document.
* enumerate::             Numbered lists.
* eqnarray::              Sequences of aligned equations.
* equation::              Displayed equation.
* figure::                Floating figures.
* filecontents::          Writing multiple files from the source.
* flushleft::             Flushed left lines.
* flushright::            Flushed right lines.
* itemize::               Bulleted lists.
* letter::                Letters.
* list::                  Generic list environment.
* math::                  In-line math.
* minipage::              Miniature page.
* picture::               Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles.
* quotation and quote::   Include a quotation.
* tabbing::               Align text arbitrarily.
* table::                 Floating tables.
* tabular::               Align text in columns.
* thebibliography::       Bibliography or reference list.
* theorem::               Theorems, lemmas, etc.
* titlepage::             For hand crafted title pages.
* verbatim::              Simulating typed input.
* verse::                 For poetry and other things.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: abstract,  Next: array,  Up: Environments

8.1 'abstract'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{abstract}
     ...
     \end{abstract}

   Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple
paragraphs.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: array,  Next: center,  Prev: abstract,  Up: Environments

8.2 'array'
===========

Synopsis:

     \begin{array}{COLS}
     COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
     ...
     \end{array}

   or

     \begin{array}[POS]{COLS}
     COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
     ...
     \end{array}

   Produce a mathematical array.  This environment can only be used in
math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics
environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::).  Column entries are
separated by an ampersand ('&').  Rows are terminated with
double-backslashes ('\\') (*note \\::).

   The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their
alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions.  See *note
tabular:: for the complete description of COLS, and of the other common
features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument.

   There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'.  The first
is that 'array' entries are typeset in mathematics mode, in textstyle
(except if the COLS definition specifies the column with '@p{..}', which
causes the entry to be typeset in text mode).  The second is that,
instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's intercolumn space
in an array is governed by '\arraycolsep' which gives half the width
between columns.  The default for this is '5pt'.

   To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath'
package.  It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded
by parentheses '(..)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square
brackets '[..]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly
braces '{..}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical
bars '|..|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical
bars '||..||', along with a number of other array constructs.

   Here is an example of an array:

     \begin{equation}
       \begin{array}{cr}
         \sqrt{y}  &12.3 \\
         x^2       &3.4
       \end{array}
     \end{equation}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: center,  Next: description,  Prev: array,  Up: Environments

8.3 'center'
============

Synopsis:

     \begin{center}
      .. text ..
     \end{center}

   Environment to create a sequence of lines that are centered within
the left and right margins on the current page.  If the text in the
environment body is too long to fit on a line, LaTeX will insert line
breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any
interword space.  To force a line break at a particular spot use
double-backslash '\\' (*note \\::).

   This environment inserts space above and below the text body.  See
*note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure'
environment.

   In this example, depending on the line width, LaTeX may choose a
break for the part before the double backslash, will center the line or
two, then will break at the double backslash, and will center the
ending.

     \begin{center}
       My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink
       alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\
       I grew up in that belief.  --Richard Burton
     \end{center}

   A double backslash after the final line is optional.

* Menu:

* \centering::          Declaration form of the 'center' environment.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \centering,  Up: center

8.3.1 '\centering'
------------------

Declaration that causes material in its scope to be centered.  It is
most often used inside an environment such as 'figure', or in a
'parbox'.

   Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not
add vertical space above and below the text.

   It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded
by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww
xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'.
Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a
blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or
'table' that ends the paragraph unit.  Thus, if '{\centering xx \\
yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph
with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with
'zz' that is formatted as usual.  See also the following example.

   This example's '\centering' causes the graphic to be horizontally
centered.

     \begin{figure}
       \centering
       \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
       \caption{CTAN Lion}  \label{fig:CTANLion}
     \end{figure}

   The scope of the '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: description,  Next: displaymath,  Prev: center,  Up: Environments

8.4 'description'
=================

Synopsis:

     \begin{description}
     \item [FIRST LABEL] text of first item
     \item [SECOND LABEL] text of second item
       ...
     \end{description}

   Environment to make a labelled list of items.  Each item's LABEL is
typeset in bold, flush-left.  Each item's text may contain multiple
paragraphs.  Although the labels on the items are optional there is no
sensible default, so all items should have labels.

   The list consists of at least one item; see *note \item:: (having no
items causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing
\item').  Each item is produced with an '\item' command.

   Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a
font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it
will come out bold.  For instance, if the label text calls for
typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold
typewriter, if that is available.  The simplest way to get non-bolded
typewriter is to use declaritive style '\item[{\tt label text}]'.
Similarly, get normal text use '\item[{\rm label text}]'.

   For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize::
and *note enumerate::.  For information about customizing list layout,
see *note list::; also, the package 'enumitem' is useful for this.

   This example shows the environment used for a sequence of
definitions.

     \begin{definition}
       \item[lama] A priest.
       \item[llama] A beast.
     \end{definition}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: displaymath,  Next: document,  Prev: description,  Up: Environments

8.5 'displaymath'
=================

Synopsis:

     \begin{displaymath}
       .. math text ..
     \end{displaymath}

   Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display
style and centered.  To make the text be flush-left use the global
option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::.

   LaTeX will not break the math text across lines.

   In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the
math text.  One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation'
environment (*note equation::).

   Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation
facilities.  Those facilities are the best approach for such output in
new documents.  For example, there are a number of options in that
package for having math text broken across lines.

   The construct '\[..math text..\]' is essentially a synonym for
'\begin{displaymath}..math text..\end{displaymath}' but the latter is
easier to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a
square bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will
likely be unique.  (The construct '$$..math text..$$' from Plain TeX is
sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'.  It is not a
synonym, because the 'displaymath' environment checks that it isn't
started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching
environment start, because the 'displaymath' environment has different
vertical spacing, and because the 'displaymath' environment honors the
'fleqn' option.)

   The output from this example is centered and alone on its line.
     \begin{displaymath}
       \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
     \end{displaymath}
   Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\(
\int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: document,  Next: enumerate,  Prev: displaymath,  Up: Environments

8.6 'document'
==============

The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document.  It
is required in every LaTeX document.  *Note Starting and ending::.

* Menu:

* \AtBeginDocument::          Hook for commands at the start of the document.
* \AtEndDocument::            Hook for commands at the end of the document.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \AtBeginDocument,  Next: \AtEndDocument,  Up: document

Synopsis:

     \AtBeginDocument{CODE}

   Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the
very end of the preamble.  The code is executed after the font selection
tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the
current font.  However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so
you cannot do any typesetting with it.

   You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \AtEndDocument,  Prev: \AtBeginDocument,  Up: document

Synopsis:

     \AtEndDocument{CODE}

   Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document.  Specifically,
it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page
is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed.
If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes
then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE.

   You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: enumerate,  Next: eqnarray,  Prev: document,  Up: Environments

8.7 'enumerate'
===============

Synopsis:

     \begin{enumerate}
     \item [FIRST LABEL] text of first item
     \item [SECOND LABEL] text of second item
     ...
     \end{enumerate}

   Environment to produce a numbered list of items.  The format of the
label numbering depends on whether this environment is nested within
another; see below.

   The list consists of at least one item.  Having no items causes the
LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'.  Each item is
produced with an '\item' command.

   This example lists the top two finishers in the 1908 Olympic
marathon.

     \begin{enumerate}
      \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
      \item Charles Hefferon (RSA)
     \end{enumerate}

   Enumerations may be nested within a paragraph-making environment,
including 'itemize' (*note itemize::), 'description' (*note
description::) and 'enumeration', up to four levels deep.  The format of
the label produced depends on the place in the nesting.  This gives
LaTeX's default for the format at each nesting level (where 1 is the
outermost level):

  1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ...
  2. lower case letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ...
  3. lower case roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ...
  4. upper case letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ...

   The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through
'\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::).  If you use the optional argument
to '\item' then the counter is not incremented for that item (*note
\item::).

   To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note
\newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through
'\labelenumiv'.  For instance, this first level list will be labelled
with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period:

     \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
     \begin{enumerate}
       \item eI
       \item bi:
       \item si:
     \end{enumerate}

   For a list of counter-labelling commands like '\Alph' see *note \alph
\Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.

   For more on customizing the layout see *note list::.  Also, the
package 'enumitem' is useful for this.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: eqnarray,  Next: equation,  Prev: enumerate,  Up: Environments

8.8 'eqnarray'
==============

First, a caveat: the 'eqnarray' environment is depreciated.  It has
infelicities that cannot be overcome, including spacing that is
inconsistent with other mathematics elements (see the article "Avoid
eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen
<http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf>).  New documents should
include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics
environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment.

   Nevertheless, for completeness and for a reference when working with
old documents, a synopsis:

     \begin{eqnarray}
       FIRST FORMULA LEFT  &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE  &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\
       ...
     \end{eqnarray}

   or

     \begin{eqnarray*}
       FIRST FORMULA LEFT  &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE  &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\
       ...
     \end{eqnarray*}

   Display a sequence of equations or inequalities.  The left and right
sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text
mode.

   It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items
within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by
double backslash  '\\').  The starred form of line break ('\\*') can
also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there
(*note \\::).

   The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line
(using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber'
command.  The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while
otherwise being the same.

   The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across
lines.  It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.

   This example shows three lines.  The first two lines make an
inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side.

     \begin{eqnarray*}
       \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n}     \\
         &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n      \\
         &=    &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
     \end{eqnarray*}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: equation,  Next: figure,  Prev: eqnarray,  Up: Environments

8.9 'equation'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{equation}
       math text
     \end{equation}

   Make a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) with an
equation number in the right margin.

   The equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter.

   Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation
facilities.  Those facilities are the best approach for such output in
new documents.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: figure,  Next: filecontents,  Prev: equation,  Up: Environments

8.10 'figure'
=============

Synopsis:

     \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT]
       figure body
     \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE}
     \label{LABEL}
     \end{figure}

   or

     \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT]
       figure body
     \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE}
     \label{LABEL}
     \end{figure*}

   A class of floats (*note Floats::).  Because they cannot be split
across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but
instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a
following page.

   For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float
placement algorithm, see *note Floats::.

   The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in
double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::).  It produces a figure that
spans both columns, at the top of the page.  To add the possibility of
placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note
Floats::.

   The figure body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so
it can contain text, commands, etc.

   The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (*note Cross
references::).  The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text
for the figure.  By default it is numbered.  If LOFTITLE is present, it
is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Tables of
contents::).

   This example makes a figure out of a graphic.  It requires one of the
packages 'graphics' or 'graphicx'.  The graphic, with its caption, will
be placed at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the
document, on a page of floats.

     \begin{figure}[t]
       \centering
       \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
       \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
     \end{figure}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: filecontents,  Next: flushleft,  Prev: figure,  Up: Environments

8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file
===========================================

Synopsis:

     \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME}
       TEXT
     \end{filecontents}

   or

     \begin{filecontents*}{FILENAME}
       TEXT
     \end{filecontents*}

   Create a file named FILENAME and fill it with TEXT.  The unstarred
version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the
created file with a header; see the example below.  The starred version
'filecontents*' does not include the header.

   This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it
often appears before the '\documentclass' command.  It is typically used
when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file.  The
environment will write that file to the directory containing the source
and thus make the source file self-contained.  Another use is to include
'bib' references in the file, again to make it self-contained.

   The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and
if so, does not do anything.  There is a 'filecontents' package that
redefines the 'filecontents' environment so that instead of doing
nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.

   For example, this document

     \documentclass{article}
     \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
     \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
     \end{filecontents}
     \usepackage{JH}
     \begin{document}
     Article by \myname.
     \end{document}

   produces this file 'JH.sty'.

     %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty'
     %% generated by the `filecontents' environment
     %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12.
     %%
     \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: flushleft,  Next: flushright,  Prev: filecontents,  Up: Environments

8.12 'flushleft'
================

     \begin{flushleft}
     LINE1 \\
     LINE2 \\
     ...
     \end{flushleft}

   The 'flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
right.  Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'.

* Menu:

* \raggedright::        Declaration form of the 'flushleft' environment.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \raggedright,  Up: flushleft

8.12.1 '\raggedright'
---------------------

The '\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the 'flushleft'
environment.  This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
'quote' or in a 'parbox'.

   Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does
not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units.  To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
paragraph unit.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: flushright,  Next: itemize,  Prev: flushleft,  Up: Environments

8.13 'flushright'
=================

     \begin{flushright}
     LINE1 \\
     LINE2 \\
     ...
     \end{flushright}

   The 'flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
left.  Each line must be terminated with the control sequence '\\'.

* Menu:

* \raggedleft::   Declaration form of the 'flushright' environment.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \raggedleft,  Up: flushright

8.13.1 '\raggedleft'
--------------------

The '\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the 'flushright'
environment.  This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
'quote' or in a 'parbox'.

   Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does
not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units.  To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
paragraph unit.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: itemize,  Next: letter,  Prev: flushright,  Up: Environments

8.14 'itemize'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{itemize}
     \item ITEM1
     \item ITEM2
     ...
     \end{itemize}

   The 'itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list.
Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.
They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such
as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::).

   Each item of an 'itemize' list begins with an '\item' command.  There
must be at least one '\item' command within the environment.

   By default, the marks at each level look like this:

  1. * (bullet)
  2. -- (bold en-dash)
  3. * (asterisk)
  4. .  (centered dot, rendered here as a period)

   The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through
'\labelitemiv' to produce the default label.  So, you can use
'\renewcommand' to change the labels.  For instance, to have the first
level use diamonds:

     \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}

   The '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi' parameters define the
distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the
left margin of the list.  By convention, '\leftmargin' is set to the
appropriate '\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered.

   The defaults vary from '.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to '2.5em'
(first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode.  This example
greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:

     \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em

   Some parameters that affect list formatting:

'\itemindent'
     Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.

'\labelsep'
     Space between the label and text of an item; default '.5em'.

'\labelwidth'
     Width of the label; default '2em', or '1.5em' in two-column mode.

'\listparindent'
     Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within
     a list item; default '0pt'.

'\rightmargin'
     Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the
     enclosing environment; default '0pt', except in the 'quote',
     'quotation', and 'verse' environments, where it is set equal to
     '\leftmargin'.

   Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather
loose, by default).

'\itemsep'
     Vertical space between items.  The default is '2pt plus1pt
     minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '11pt',
     and '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '12pt'.

'\parsep'
     Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item.
     Defaults are the same as '\itemsep'.

'\topsep'
     Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph.
     For top-level lists, the default is '8pt plus2pt minus4pt' for
     '10pt' documents, '9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for '11pt', and '10pt
     plus4pt minus6pt' for '12pt'.  These are reduced for nested lists.

'\partopsep'
     Extra space added to '\topsep' when the list environment starts a
     paragraph.  The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt'
     documents, '3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '3pt plus2pt
     minus2pt' for '12pt'.

   Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items.  Here is an example defining an 'itemize*'
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note
\parskip::):

     \newenvironment{itemize*}%
       {\begin{itemize}%
         \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
         \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
         \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
       {\end{itemize}}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: letter,  Next: list,  Prev: itemize,  Up: Environments

8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters
==========================================

This environment is used for creating letters.  *Note Letters::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: list,  Next: math,  Prev: letter,  Up: Environments

8.16 'list'
===========

The 'list' environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments.  It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.

     \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING}
     \item ITEM1
     \item ITEM2
     ...
     \end{list}

   The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be
labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to '\item').  This
argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label.
It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.

   The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list.  This argument will most often be
empty, i.e., '{}', which leaves the default spacing.

   The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by
'\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::).

* Menu:

* \item::          An entry in a list.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \item,  Up: list

Synopsis:

     \item text of item

   or
     \item[OPTIONAL LABEL] text of item

   An entry in a list.  The entries are prefixed by a label, whose
default depends on the list type.

   Because the optional argument OPTIONAL LABEL is surrounded by square
brackets ('[' and ']'), to use square brackets inside the optional
argument you must hide them inside curly braces, as in '\item[Close
square bracket, {]}]'.  Similarly, to use an open square bracket as
first character in the text of the item, also hide it inside curly
braces.  *Note LaTeX command syntax::.

   In this example the 'enumerate' list has two items that use the
default label and one that uses the optional label.

     \begin{enumerate}
       \item Moe
       \item[sometimes] Shemp
       \item Larry
     \end{enumerate}

   The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled
'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.' (note that, because of
the optional label in the second item, the third item does not get a
'3.').


File: latex2e.info,  Node: math,  Next: minipage,  Prev: list,  Up: Environments

8.17 'math'
===========

Synopsis:

     \begin{math}
     MATH
     \end{math}

   The 'math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running
text.  '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms.  *Note Math formulas::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: minipage,  Next: picture,  Prev: math,  Up: Environments

8.18 'minipage'
===============

     \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}
     TEXT
     \end{minipage}

   The 'minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that
will not be broken across pages.  This is similar to the '\parbox'
command (*note \parbox::), but unlike '\parbox', other paragraph-making
environments can be used inside a minipage.

   The arguments are the same as for '\parbox' (*note \parbox::).

   By default, paragraphs are not indented in the 'minipage'
environment.  You can restore indentation with a command such as
'\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command.

   Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A
'\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom
of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the
'\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note
Counters::).

   However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using
footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: picture,  Next: quotation and quote,  Prev: minipage,  Up: Environments

8.19 'picture'
==============

     \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET)
     ... PICTURE COMMANDS ...
     \end{picture}

   The 'picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of
picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.  You tell
LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates.  A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign--a number like '5', '0.3' or '-3.1416'.  A coordinate
specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if
'\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies
a length of 2.54 centimeters.

   You should only change the value of '\unitlength', using the
'\setlength' command, outside of a 'picture' environment.  The default
value is '1pt'.

   A "position" is a pair of coordinates, such as '(2.4,-5)', specifying
the point with x-coordinate '2.4' and y-coordinate '-5'.  Coordinates
are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is
normally at the lower-left corner of the picture.  Note that when a
position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the
parentheses serve to delimit the argument.

   The 'picture' environment has one mandatory argument which is a
position (WIDTH,HEIGHT), which specifies the size of the picture.  The
environment produces a rectangular box with these WIDTH and HEIGHT.

   The 'picture' environment also has an optional position argument
(XOFFSET,YOFFSET), following the size argument, that can change the
origin.  (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.)  The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin).  For example, if '\unitlength' has
been set to '1mm', the command

     \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)

produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters,
whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right
corner is therefore the point (110,220).  When you first draw a picture,
you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the
lower-left corner.  If you then want to modify your picture by shifting
everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.

   The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of
the picture.  This need bear no relation to how large the picture really
is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or
even off the page.  The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in
determining how much room to leave for it.

   Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the '\put' command.
The command

     \put (11.3,-.3){...}

puts the object specified by '...' in the picture, with its reference
point at coordinates (11.3,-.3).  The reference points for various
objects will be described below.

   The '\put' command creates an "LR box".  You can put anything that
can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the '\put'
command.  When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left
corner of the box.

   The 'picture' commands are described in the following sections.

* Menu:

* \circle::             Draw a circle.
* \makebox (picture)::  Draw a box of the specified size.
* \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it.
* \dashbox::            Draw a dashed box.
* \frame::              Draw a frame around an object.
* \line::               Draw a straight line.
* \linethickness::      Set the line thickness.
* \thicklines::         A heavier line thickness.
* \thinlines::          The default line thickness.
* \multiput::           Draw multiple instances of an object.
* \oval::               Draw an ellipse.
* \put::                Place an object at a specified place.
* \shortstack::         Make a pile of objects.
* \vector::             Draw a line with an arrow.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \circle,  Next: \makebox (picture),  Up: picture

8.19.1 '\circle'
----------------

Synopsis:

     \circle[*]{DIAMETER}

   The '\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to
the specified one as possible.  The '*'-form of the command draws a
solid circle.

   Circles up to 40pt can be drawn.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \makebox (picture),  Next: \framebox (picture),  Prev: \circle,  Up: picture

8.19.2 '\makebox'
-----------------

Synopsis:

     \makebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT}

   The '\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the
normal '\makebox' command except that you must specify a WIDTH and
HEIGHT in multiples of '\unitlength'.

   The optional argument, '[POSITION]', specifies the quadrant that your
TEXT appears in.  You may select up to two of the following:

't'
     Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.

'b'
     Moves the item to the bottom.

'l'
     Moves the item to the left.

'r'
     Moves the item to the right.

   *Note \makebox::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \framebox (picture),  Next: \dashbox,  Prev: \makebox (picture),  Up: picture

8.19.3 '\framebox'
------------------

Synopsis:

     \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...}

   The '\framebox' command is like '\makebox' (see previous section),
except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it
creates.

   The '\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness '\fboxrule', and
leaves a space '\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \dashbox,  Next: \frame,  Prev: \framebox (picture),  Up: picture

8.19.4 '\dashbox'
-----------------

Draws a box with a dashed line.  Synopsis:

     \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT}

   '\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a 'picture'
environment.  Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall
width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT.  The TEXT is positioned at optional
POS.

   A dashed box looks best when the RWIDTH and RHEIGHT are multiples of
the DLEN.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \frame,  Next: \line,  Prev: \dashbox,  Up: picture

8.19.5 '\frame'
---------------

Synopsis:

     \frame{TEXT}

   The '\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT.  The
reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame.  No extra space
is put between the frame and the object.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \line,  Next: \linethickness,  Prev: \frame,  Up: picture

8.19.6 '\line'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH}

   The '\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope
XSLOPE/YSLOPE.

   Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y
have integer values from -6 through 6.  For lines of any slope, and
plenty of other shapes, see 'pict2e' and many other packages on CTAN.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \linethickness,  Next: \thicklines,  Prev: \line,  Up: picture

8.19.7 '\linethickness'
-----------------------

The '\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a
positive length.

   '\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by '\oval'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \thicklines,  Next: \thinlines,  Prev: \linethickness,  Up: picture

8.19.8 '\thicklines'
--------------------

The '\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness::
and *note \thinlines::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \thinlines,  Next: \multiput,  Prev: \thicklines,  Up: picture

8.19.9 '\thinlines'
-------------------

The '\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness::
and *note \thicklines::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \multiput,  Next: \oval,  Prev: \thinlines,  Up: picture

8.19.10 '\multiput'
-------------------

Synopsis:

     \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ}

   The '\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern
across a picture.  OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at
(x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \oval,  Next: \put,  Prev: \multiput,  Up: picture

8.19.11 '\oval'
---------------

Synopsis:

     \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION]

   The '\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.  The
optional argument PORTION allows you to produce only half of the oval
via the following:

't'
     selects the top half;
'b'
     selects the bottom half;
'r'
     selects the right half;
'l'
     selects the left half.

   It is also possible to produce only one quarter of the oval by
setting PORTION to 'tr', 'br', 'bl', or 'tl'.

   The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a
maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with
rounded corners.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \put,  Next: \shortstack,  Prev: \oval,  Up: picture

8.19.12 '\put'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){ ... }

   The '\put' command places the material specified by the (mandatory)
argument in braces at the given coordinate, (XCOORD,YCOORD).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \shortstack,  Next: \vector,  Prev: \put,  Up: picture

8.19.13 '\shortstack'
---------------------

Synopsis:

     \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...}

   The '\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects.  The valid
positions are:

'r'
     Move the objects to the right of the stack.
'l'
     Move the objects to the left of the stack
'c'
     Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)

   Objects are separated with '\\'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \vector,  Prev: \shortstack,  Up: picture

8.19.14 '\vector'
-----------------

Synopsis:

     \vector(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH}

   The '\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope.  The XSLOPE and YSLOPE values must lie between -4 and
+4, inclusive.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: quotation and quote,  Next: tabbing,  Prev: picture,  Up: Environments

8.20 'quotation' and 'quote'
============================

Synopsis:

     \begin{quotation}
     TEXT
     \end{quotation}

   or

     \begin{quote}
     TEXT
     \end{quote}

   Include a quotation.

   In both environments, margins are indented on both sides by
'\leftmargin' and the text is justified at both.  As with the main text,
leaving a blank line produces a new paragraph.

   To compare the two: in the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are
indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, '0pt plus
1pt'.  In the 'quote' environment, paragraphs are not indented and there
is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length
'\parsep').  Thus, the 'quotation' environment may be more suitable for
documents where new paragraphs are marked by an indent rather than by a
vertical separation.  In addition, 'quote' may be more suitable for a
short quotation or a sequence of short quotations.

     \begin{quotation}
     \it Four score and seven years ago
       .. shall not perish from the earth.
     \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
     \end{quotation}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: tabbing,  Next: table,  Prev: quotation and quote,  Up: Environments

8.21 'tabbing'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{tabbing}
     ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 \= ROW1COL3 \= ROW1COL4 \\
     ROW2COL1 \>                \> ROW2COL3 \\
     ...
     \end{tabbing}

   The 'tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns.
It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an
ordinary typewriter.  It is best suited for cases where the width of
each column is constant and known in advance.

   This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the 'tabular'
environment.

   The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment:

'\\ (tabbing)'
     End a line.

'\= (tabbing)'
     Sets a tab stop at the current position.

'\> (tabbing)'
     Advances to the next tab stop.

'\<'
     Put following text to the left of the local margin (without
     changing the margin).  Can only be used at the start of the line.

'\+'
     Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
     one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

'\-'
     Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
     one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

'\' (tabbing)'
     Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column,
     i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or
     '\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against
     the current column's tab stop.

'\` (tabbing)'
     Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including
     tab stop 0.  However, it can't move text to the right of the last
     column because there's no tab stop there.  The '\`' command moves
     all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}'
     command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
     environment.  There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the
     '\`' and the command that ends the line.

'\a (tabbing)'
     In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not
     produce accents as usual (*note Accents::).  Instead, the commands
     '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`' are used.

'\kill'
     Sets tab stops without producing text.  Works just like '\\' except
     that it throws away the current line instead of producing output
     for it.  The effect of any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line
     remain in effect.

'\poptabs'
     Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'.

'\pushtabs'
     Saves all current tab stop positions.  Useful for temporarily
     changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing'
     environment.

'\tabbingsep'
     Distance to left of tab stop moved by '\''.

   This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:

     \begin{tabbing}
     function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
              \> begin \= \+ \\
                    \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
                             fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                       else \+ \\
                             fact := 1; \-\- \\
                 end;\\
     \end{tabbing}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: table,  Next: tabular,  Prev: tabbing,  Up: Environments

8.22 'table'
============

Synopsis:

     \begin{table}[PLACEMENT]
       table body
     \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE}
     \label{LABEL}
     \end{table}

   A class of floats (*note Floats::).  Because they cannot be split
across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but
instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a
following page.

   For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float
placement algorithm, see *note Floats::.

   The table body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so
it can contain text, commands, etc.

   The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (*note Cross
references::).  The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text
for the table.  By default it is numbered.  If LOTTITLE is present, it
is used in the list of tables instead of TITLE (*note Tables of
contents::).

   In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a
page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.

     \begin{table}[b]
       \centering
       \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
         One &The loneliest number \\
         Two &Can be as sad as one.
              It's the loneliest number since the number one.
       \end{tabular}
       \caption{Cardinal virtues}
       \label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
     \end{table}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: tabular,  Next: thebibliography,  Prev: table,  Up: Environments

8.23 'tabular'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS}
     column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
       ...
     \end{tabular}

or

     \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS}
     column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
       ...
     \end{tabular*}

   These environments produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of
horizontal rows.  Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically
in columns.  This illustrates many of the features.

     \begin{tabular}{l|l}
       \textit{Player name}  &\textit{Career home runs}  \\
       \hline
       Hank Aaron  &755 \\
       Babe Ruth   &714
     \end{tabular}

   The vertical format of two left-aligned columns, with a vertical bar
between them, is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'.  Columns are
separated with an ampersand '&'.  A horizontal rule between two rows is
created with '\hline'.  The end of each row is marked with a double
backslash '\\'.  This '\\' is optional after the last row unless an
'\hline' command follows, to put a rule below the table.

   The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of:

WIDTH
     Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'.  Specifies the
     width of the 'tabular*' environment.  The space between columns
     should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the
     table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you
     are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment
     ..' warning.

POS
     Optional.  Specifies the table's vertical position.  The default is
     to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of
     the surrounding text.  There are two other possible alignments: 't'
     aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the
     surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row.

     This only has an effect if there is other text.  In the common case
     of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no
     difference.

COLS
     Required.  Specifies the formatting of columns.  It consists of a
     sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of
     column and intercolumn material.

     'l'
          A column of left-aligned items.

     'r'
          A column of right-aligned items.

     'c'
          A column of centered items.

     '|'
          A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.

     '@{TEXT OR SPACE}'
          This inserts TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row.  The
          TEXT OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode.  This text is
          fragile (*note \protect::).

          This specifier is optional: unless you put in your own
          @-expression then LaTeX's book, article, and report classes
          will put on either side of each column a space of length
          '\tabcolsep', which by default is '6pt'.  That is, by default
          adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is
          misleadingly-named since it is not the separation between
          tabular columns).  Also by default a space of 6pt comes before
          the first column as well as after the final column, unless you
          put a '@{..}' or '|' there.

          If you override the default and use an @-expression then you
          must insert any desired space yourself, as in
          '@{\hspace{1em}}'.

          An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space, including
          the space at the start or end, as in the example below where
          the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin.

               \begin{flushleft}
                 \begin{tabular}{@{}l}
                   ..
                 \end{tabular}
               \end{flushleft}

          This example shows text, a decimal point, between the columns,
          arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on that
          decimal point.

               \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
                 $3$ &$14$  \\
                 $9$ &$80665$
               \end{tabular}

          An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an
          extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all
          subsequent columns, until countermanded by another
          '\extracolsep' command.  Unlike ordinary intercolumn space,
          this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression.  An
          '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in
          the 'cols' argument.  Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of
          intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide.

               \begin{center}
                 \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\ \ldots\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
                   Seven times down, eight times up
                   &such is life!
                 \end{tabular*}
               \end{center}

          To insert commands that are automatically executed before a
          given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}'
          specifier.

     'p{WD}'
          Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD.

          Note that a line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in
          the item, except inside an environment like 'minipage',
          'array', or 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in
          the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft'
          declaration (when used in a 'p'-column element these
          declarations must appear inside braces, as with '{\centering
          .. \\ ..}').  Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double
          backslash as ending the row.

     '*{NUM}{COLS}'
          Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive
          integer and COLS is a list of specifiers.  Thus
          '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to
          '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'.  Note that COLS may contain
          another '*-expression'.

   Parameters that control formatting:

'\arrayrulewidth'
     A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|',
     '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments.
     The default is '.4pt'.  Change it as in
     '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'.

'\arraystretch'
     A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and
     'array' environments is multiplied.  The default is '1', for no
     scaling.  Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'.

'\doublerulesep'
     A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced
     by the '||' specifier.  The default is '2pt'.

'\tabcolsep'
     A length that is half of the space between columns.  The default is
     '6pt'.  Change it with '\setlength'.

   The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular'
environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between
lines:

* Menu:

* \multicolumn::        Make an item spanning several columns.
* \vline::              Draw a vertical line.
* \cline::              Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns.
* \hline::              Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \multicolumn,  Next: \vline,  Up: tabular

8.23.1 '\multicolumn'
---------------------

Synopsis:

     \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT}

   Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns.  The
first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span.  The second
argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for
centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right.  The third
argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry.

   In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are
spanned by the single heading 'Name'.

     \begin{tabular}{lccl}
       \textit{ID}       &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline % row one
       978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick                  &55           \\        % row two
         ..
     \end{tabular}

   What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the
'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part
(except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'.  So from
'\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c',
and 'p{1.5in}|'.

   The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's
intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry.  To affect
that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the
placement of vertical rules, and '@{..}' expressions.  Thus if COLS is
'|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule
will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it.  This table
details the exact behavior.

     \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
       \multicolumn{1}{r}{w}       % entry one
         &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x}  % entry two
         &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y}   % entry three
         &z                        % entry four
     \end{tabular}
   Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule
because the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial
vertical bar.  Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical
rule; although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the
second COLS does have a starting one.  Between entry two and entry three
there is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the
surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one
rule.  Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the
default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn'
leaves it out, and that takes precedence.  Finally, following entry four
there is a vertical rule because of the default.

   The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1.  Besides giving the
ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to
override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area
specification, including the placement of vertical rules.

   In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is
specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is
centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'.  Also in the first
row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with
'\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to
center those two columns on the page range en-dash.

     \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l}
       \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}
         &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
       Baroque          &1600           &1760         \\
       Classical        &1730           &1820         \\
       Romantic         &1780           &1910         \\
       Impressionistic  &1875           &1925
     \end{tabular}

   Note that although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a
vertical rule between the first and second columns, because there is no
vertical bar in the COLS of either of the first row's '\multicolumn'
commands, no rule appears in the first row.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \vline,  Next: \cline,  Prev: \multicolumn,  Up: tabular

8.23.2 '\vline'
---------------

Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the
full height and depth of an entry's row.  Can also be used in an
@-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common.
This command is rarely used; typically a table's vertical lines are
specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overriden as needed with
'\multicolumn'.

   This example illustrates some pitfalls.  In the first line's second
entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the cell.  But
that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so in
that row between the first and second columns there are two vertical
rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one
produced by the '\vline\hfill'.  In contrast, the first line's third
entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns.  In
the second line, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the
'\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that
entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace.

     \begin{tabular}{c|cc}
       x   &\vline\hfill y   &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\
       abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi
     \end{tabular}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \cline,  Next: \hline,  Prev: \vline,  Up: tabular

8.23.3 '\cline'
---------------

Synopsis:

     \cline{I-J}

   Draw a horizontal rule in an 'array' or 'tabular' environment
beginning in column I and ending in column J.  The dash '-' must appear
in the mandatory argument.  To span a single column use the number
twice.

   This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second
rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the
third and fourth columns.  The two lines are side-by-side, at the same
height.

     \begin{tabular}{llrr}
       a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4}
       e &f &g &h
     \end{tabular}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \hline,  Prev: \cline,  Up: tabular

8.23.4 '\hline'
---------------

Draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array'
environment.  It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom,
and between the rows of a table.

   In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one
above the other, that span both columns.  The bottom of the table has a
single rule spanning both columns.  Because of the '\hline', the
'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required.

     \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
       Baseball   &Red Sox  \\
       Basketball &Celtics  \\ \hline
     \end{tabular}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: thebibliography,  Next: theorem,  Prev: tabular,  Up: Environments

8.24 'thebibliography'
======================

Synopsis:

     \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL}
     \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}
     ...
     \end{thebibliography}

   The 'thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.

   In the 'article' class, this reference list is labelled "References";
in the 'report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography".  You can change
the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command
'\refname'.  For instance, this eliminates it entirely:

     \renewcommand{\refname}{}

   The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is as
wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands.  It
is typically given as '9' for bibliographies with less than 10
references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc.

* Menu:

* \bibitem::            Specify a bibliography item.
* \cite::               Refer to a bibliography item.
* \nocite::             Include an item in the bibliography.
* Using BibTeX::        Automatic generation of bibliographies.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \bibitem,  Next: \cite,  Up: thebibliography

8.24.1 '\bibitem'
-----------------

Synopsis:

     \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}

   The '\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL.  If the
LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the
'enumi' counter.  The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, and
punctuation symbols not containing a comma.

   This command writes an entry to the '.aux' file containing the item's
CITE_KEY and label.  When the '.aux' file is read by the
'\begin{document}' command, the item's 'label' is associated with
'cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a '\cite' command (see
next section) to produce the associated label.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \cite,  Next: \nocite,  Prev: \bibitem,  Up: thebibliography

8.24.2 '\cite'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS}

   The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated
by commas.  This command generates an in-text citation to the references
associated with KEYS by entries in the '.aux' file.

   The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the citation.
For example, '\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce '[Knuth, p. 314]'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \nocite,  Next: Using BibTeX,  Prev: \cite,  Up: thebibliography

8.24.3 '\nocite'
----------------

'\nocite{KEYS}'

   The '\nocite' command produces no text, but writes KEYS, which is a
list of one or more citation keys, to the '.aux' file.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Using BibTeX,  Prev: \nocite,  Up: thebibliography

8.24.4 Using BibTeX
-------------------

If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if
you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain
your bibliography, you don't use the 'thebibliography' environment
(*note thebibliography::).  Instead, you include the lines

     \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE}
     \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2}

   The '\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its
own.  Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be
produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE'.bst', which defines how
your citations will look.  The standard STYLE names distributed with
BibTeX are:

'alpha'
     Sorted alphabetically.  Labels are formed from name of author and
     year of publication.
'plain'
     Sorted alphabetically.  Labels are numeric.
'unsrt'
     Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation.
'abbrv'
     Like 'plain', but more compact labels.

   In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the
demands of various publications.  See
<http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib>.

   The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the
bibliography.  The argument to '\bibliography' refers to files named
'BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format.
Only the entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in
the bibliography.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: theorem,  Next: titlepage,  Prev: thebibliography,  Up: Environments

8.25 'theorem'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{theorem}
     THEOREM-TEXT
     \end{theorem}

   The 'theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed
by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described
under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: titlepage,  Next: verbatim,  Prev: theorem,  Up: Environments

8.26 'titlepage'
================

Synopsis:

     \begin{titlepage}
     TEXT
     \end{titlepage}

   The 'titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with
no printed page number or heading.  It also causes the following page to
be numbered page one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The
'\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::).

   You can use the '\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce
a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: verbatim,  Next: verse,  Prev: titlepage,  Up: Environments

8.27 'verbatim'
===============

Synopsis:

     \begin{verbatim}
     LITERAL-TEXT
     \end{verbatim}

   The 'verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which
LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the '\' character
produces a printed '\'.  It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage
returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a
typewriter.

   The 'verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt').

* Menu:

* \verb::       The macro form of the 'verbatim' environment.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \verb,  Up: verbatim

8.27.1 '\verb'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR
     \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR

   The '\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including
special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font.  No
spaces are allowed between '\verb' or '\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR,
which begins and ends the verbatim text.  The delimiter must not appear
in LITERAL-TEXT.

   The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible
space" character.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: verse,  Prev: verbatim,  Up: Environments

8.28 'verse'
============

Synopsis:

     \begin{verse}
     LINE1 \\
     LINE2 \\
     ...
     \end{verse}

   The 'verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.

   The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are
not indented, and the text is not justified.  Separate the lines of each
stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Line breaking,  Next: Page breaking,  Prev: Environments,  Up: Top

9 Line breaking
***************

The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate
your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces.  To produce a
printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these
lines must be broken into pages).

   LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for
you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.

* Menu:

* \\::                         Start a new line.
* \obeycr & \restorecr::       Make each input line start a new output line.
* \newline::                   Break the line
* \- (hyphenation)::           Insert explicit hyphenation.
* \fussy::                     Be fussy about line breaking.
* \sloppy::                    Be sloppy about line breaking.
* \hyphenation::               Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word.
* \linebreak & \nolinebreak::  Forcing & avoiding line breaks.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \\,  Next: \obeycr & \restorecr,  Up: Line breaking

9.1 '\\'
========

Synopsis:

     \\[MORESPACE]

   or

     \\*[MORESPACE]

   Start a new line.  The optional argument MORESPACE specifies extra
vertical space to be insert before the next line.  This can be a
negative length.  The text before the break is set at its normal length,
that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width.

   Explicit line breaks in the text body are unusual in LaTeX.  In
particular, to start a new paragraph instead leave a blank line.  This
command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a
'tabular' or 'array' environment.

   Under ordinary circumstances (e.g., outside of a 'p{..}' column in a
'tabular' environment) the '\newline' command is a synonym for '\\'
(*note \newline::).

   In addition to starting a new line, the starred form '\\*' tells
LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a
'\nobreak'.

     \title{My story: \\[0.25in]
            a tale of woe}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \obeycr & \restorecr,  Next: \newline,  Prev: \\,  Up: Line breaking

9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr'
============================

The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M',
internally) the same as '\\' (followed by '\relax').  So each new line
in the input will also be a new line in the output.

   '\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newline,  Next: \- (hyphenation),  Prev: \obeycr & \restorecr,  Up: Line breaking

9.3 '\newline'
==============

In ordinary text this is equivalent to double-backslash (*note \\::); it
breaks a line, with no stretching of the text before it.

   Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, in a column with a
specifier producing a paragraph box, like typically 'p{..}', '\newline'
will insert a line break inside of the column, that is, it does not
break the entire row.  To break the entire row use '\\' or its
equivalent '\tabularnewline'.

   This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell
of the table.

     \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}}
       Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline
     \end{tabular}

   The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \- (hyphenation),  Next: \fussy,  Prev: \newline,  Up: Line breaking

9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen)
===============================

The '\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that
point.  LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of
the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect
one.  The '\-' command is used for the exceptional cases.

   When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that
LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \fussy,  Next: \sloppy,  Prev: \- (hyphenation),  Up: Line breaking

9.5 '\fussy'
============

The declaration '\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about
line breaking.  This usually avoids too much space between words, at the
cost of an occasional overfull box.

   This command cancels the effect of a previous '\sloppy' command
(*note \sloppy::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \sloppy,  Next: \hyphenation,  Prev: \fussy,  Up: Line breaking

9.6 '\sloppy'
=============

The declaration '\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking.
This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing.

   Lasts until a '\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \hyphenation,  Next: \linebreak & \nolinebreak,  Prev: \sloppy,  Up: Line breaking

9.7 '\hyphenation'
==================

Synopsis:

     \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO}

   The '\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a
'-' character in the given words.  The words are separated by spaces.
TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are
tried.  Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate.  Some examples (the
default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these
words):

     \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \linebreak & \nolinebreak,  Prev: \hyphenation,  Up: Line breaking

9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak'
=================================

Synopses:

     \linebreak[PRIORITY]
     \nolinebreak[PRIORITY]

   By default, the '\linebreak' ('\nolinebreak') command forces
(prevents) a line break at the current position.  For '\linebreak', the
spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right
margin as usual.

   With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command from
a demand to a request.  The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4.  The
higher the number, the more insistent the request.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Page breaking,  Next: Footnotes,  Prev: Line breaking,  Up: Top

10 Page breaking
****************

LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has
accumulated to fill up a page.  Usually this happens automatically, but
sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.

* Menu:

* \cleardoublepage::           Start a new right-hand page.
* \clearpage::                 Start a new page.
* \newpage::                   Start a new page.
* \enlargethispage::           Enlarge the current page a bit.
* \pagebreak & \nopagebreak::  Forcing & avoiding page breaks.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \cleardoublepage,  Next: \clearpage,  Up: Page breaking

10.1 '\cleardoublepage'
=======================

The '\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all the
pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the
input to be printed.  In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the
next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if
necessary.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \clearpage,  Next: \newpage,  Prev: \cleardoublepage,  Up: Page breaking

10.2 '\clearpage'
=================

The '\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all the
pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the
input to be printed.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newpage,  Next: \enlargethispage,  Prev: \clearpage,  Up: Page breaking

10.3 '\newpage'
===============

The '\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats
(*note \clearpage::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \enlargethispage,  Next: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak,  Prev: \newpage,  Up: Page breaking

10.4 '\enlargethispage'
=======================

'\enlargethispage{size}'

   '\enlargethispage*{size}'

   Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g., '\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one
additional line.

   The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page
as much as possible.  This is normally used together with an explicit
'\pagebreak'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak,  Prev: \enlargethispage,  Up: Page breaking

10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak'
==================================

Synopses:

     \pagebreak[PRIORITY]
     \nopagebreak[PRIORITY]

   By default, the '\pagebreak' ('\nopagebreak') command forces
(prevents) a page break at the current position.  With '\pagebreak', the
vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it
extends to the normal bottom margin.

   With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the '\pagebreak'
command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number from 0
to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Footnotes,  Next: Definitions,  Prev: Page breaking,  Up: Top

11 Footnotes
************

Place a numbered footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.

     Noe"l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having
     to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making
     love.\footnote{I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.}

   You can place multiple footnotes on a page.  If the text becomes too
long it will flow to the next page.

   You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and
the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances.

   To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to
include a bibliographic style with that behavior.

* Menu:

* \footnote::                Insert a footnote.
* \footnotemark::            Insert footnote mark only.
* \footnotetext::            Insert footnote text only.
* Footnotes in a table::     Table footnotes.
* Footnotes in section headings::     Chapter or section titles.
* Footnotes of footnotes::   Multiple classes of footnotes.
* Multiple reference to footnotes::   Referring to a footnote more than once.
* Footnote parameters::      Parameters for footnote formatting.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \footnote,  Next: \footnotemark,  Up: Footnotes

11.1 '\footnote'
================

Synopsis:

     \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT}

   Place a numbered footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page.

     There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's
     \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{After
     reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained,
     ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method
     of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed
     at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''}

   The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the footnote
number.  If you use this option then the footnote number counter is not
incremented, and if you do not use it then the counter is incremented.

   Change how LaTeX shows the footnote counter with something like
'\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a
sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman
\fnsymbol::).  To make this change global put that in the preamble.  If
you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with
'\setcounter{footnote}{0}'.  By default LaTeX uses arabic numbers.

   LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a
'\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a
sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer
paragraph mode).  There are some workarounds; see following sections.

   In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the
'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are
numbered independently.  They are shown at the bottom of the
environment, not at the bottom of the page.  And by default they are
shown alphabetically.  *Note minipage::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \footnotemark,  Next: \footnotetext,  Prev: \footnote,  Up: Footnotes

11.2 '\footnotemark'
====================

Synopsis, one of:

     \footnotemark
     \footnotemark[NUMBER]

   Put the current footnote number in the text.  (See *note
\footnotetext:: for giving the text of the footnote separately.)  The
version with the optional argument NUMBER uses that number to determine
the mark printed.  This command can be used in inner paragraph mode.

   This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the
first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version of 'footnote').

     \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem}
     \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds}
       \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University}
       \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]}
     \begin{document}
     \maketitle

   If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it
increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then
it does not.  This produces several consecutive footnote markers
referring to the same footnote.

     The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.}
     and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
     and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \footnotetext,  Next: Footnotes in a table,  Prev: \footnotemark,  Up: Footnotes

11.3 '\footnotetext'
====================

Synopsis, one of:

     \footnotetext{TEXT}
     \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT}

   Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote.  This command can
come anywhere after the '\footnotemark' command.  The optional argument
NUMBER changes the displayed footnote number.  The '\footnotetext'
command must appear in outer paragraph mode.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Footnotes in a table,  Next: Footnotes in section headings,  Prev: \footnotetext,  Up: Footnotes

11.4 Footnotes in a table
=========================

Inside a 'table' environment the '\footnote' command does not work.  For
instance, if the code below appears on its own then the footnote simply
disappears; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but nothing is
set at the bottom of the page.

     \begin{center}
          \begin{tabular}{l|l}
          \textsc{Ship}  &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline
          \textit{HMS Sophie}     &Master and Commander  \\
          \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain  \\
          \textit{HMS Lively}     &Post Captain \\
          \textit{HMS Surprise}   &A number of books\footnote{Starting with HMS Surprise.}
          \end{tabular}
     \end{center}

   The solution is to surround the 'tabular' environment with a
'minipage' environment, as here (*note minipage::).

     \begin{center}
       \begin{minipage}{.5\textwidth}
         .. tabular material ..
       \end{minipage}
     \end{center}

   The same technique will work inside a floating 'table' environment
(*note table::).  To get the footnote at the bottom of the page use the
'tablefootnote' package, as illustrated in this example.  If you put
'\usepackage{tablefootnote}' in the preamble and use the code shown then
the footnote appears at the bottom and is numbered in sequence with
other footnotes.

     \begin{table}
       \centering
          \begin{tabular}{l|l}
          \textsc{Date}  &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline
          1862           &Fort Donelson \\
          1863           &Vicksburg     \\
          1865           &Army of Northern Virginia\footnote{Ending the war.}
          \end{tabular}
         \caption{Forces captured by US Grant}
     \end{table}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Footnotes in section headings,  Next: Footnotes of footnotes,  Prev: Footnotes in a table,  Up: Footnotes

11.5 Footnotes in section headings
==================================

Putting a footnote in a section heading

     \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}

   causes the footnote to appear both at the bottom of the page where
the section starts and at the bottom of the table of contents page.  To
have it not appear on the table of contents use the package 'footmisc'
with the 'stable' option.

     \usepackage[stable]{footmisc}
      ..
     \begin{document}
      ..
     \section{Full sets\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}

   Note that the '\protect' is gone; putting it in causes the footnote
to reappear on the table of contents.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Footnotes of footnotes,  Next: Multiple reference to footnotes,  Prev: Footnotes in section headings,  Up: Footnotes

11.6 Footnotes of footnotes
===========================

Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of
footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes.  The package
'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways,
including allow these two, as in this example.

     \usepackage{bigfoot}
     \DeclareNewFootnote{Default}
     \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph]   % create class \footnotefrom{}
       ..
     \begin{document}
       ..
     The third theorem is a partial converse of the
     second.\footnotefrom{First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}
      ..


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Multiple reference to footnotes,  Next: Footnote parameters,  Prev: Footnotes of footnotes,  Up: Footnotes

11.7 Multiple references to footnotes
=====================================

You can refer to a single footnote more than once.  This example uses
the package 'cleverref'.

     \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15]   % this version of package or later
     \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
       ..
     \begin{document}
       ..
     The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker and Evers, 1994.}
     The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers and Chance, 1990.}
     But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE}
       ..

   This solution will work with the package 'hyperref'.  See *note
\footnotemark:: for a simpler solution in the common case of multiple
authors with the same affiliation.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Footnote parameters,  Prev: Multiple reference to footnotes,  Up: Footnotes

11.8 Footnote parameters
========================

'\footnoterule'
     Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the
     page's footnotes.  Default dimensions: '0.4pt' thick (or wide), and
     '0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except
     'slides', where it does not appear).

'\footnotesep'
     The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote.
     By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize'
     fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space
     between footnotes.  This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for
     '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Definitions,  Next: Counters,  Prev: Footnotes,  Up: Top

12 Definitions
**************

LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.

* Menu:

* \newcommand & \renewcommand::           (Re)define a new command.
* \providecommand::                       Define a new command, if name not used.
* \newcounter::                           Define a new counter.
* \newlength::                            Define a new length.
* \newsavebox::                           Define a new box.
* \newenvironment & \renewenvironment::   Define a new environment.
* \newtheorem::                           Define a new theorem-like environment.
* \newfont::                              Define a new font name.
* \protect::                              Using tricky commands.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newcommand & \renewcommand,  Next: \providecommand,  Up: Definitions

12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand'
====================================

'\newcommand' and '\renewcommand' define and redefine a command,
respectively.  Synopses:

       \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
       \newcommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
     \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
     \renewcommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}

   The '*'-form of these two commands requires that the arguments not
contain multiple paragraphs of text (not '\long', in plain TeX terms).

CMD
     Required; the command name.  It must begin with '\'.  For
     '\newcommand', it must not be already defined and must not begin
     with '\end'.  For '\renewcommand', it must already be defined.

NARGS
     Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of
     arguments that the command will take.  If this argument is not
     present, the default is for the command to have no arguments.  When
     redefining a command, the new version can have a different number
     of arguments than the old version.

OPTARGDEFAULT
     Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
     defined command \CMD is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT
     (which may be the empty string).  If this argument is not present
     then \CMD does not take an optional argument.

     That is, if \CMD is used with square brackets following, as in
     '\CMD[MYVAL]', then within DEFN '#1' expands MYVAL.  While if \CMD
     is called without square brackets following, then within DEFN the
     '#1' expands to the default OPTARGDEFAULT.  In either case, any
     required arguments will be referred to starting with '#2'.

     Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square
     brackets with no contents, as in '[]'.  The former results in '#1'
     expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to
     the empty string.

DEFN
     The text to be substituted for every occurrence of 'cmd'; a
     construct of the form '#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the
     Nth argument.

   A command with no arguments that is followed in the source by a space
will swallow that space.  The solution is to type '{}' after the command
and before the space.

   A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\JH}{Jim
Hef{}feron}' causes the abbreviation '\JH' to be replaced by the longer
text.

   Redefining a command is basically the same:
'\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}'.

   Here's a command definition that uses arguments:

     \newcommand{\defreference}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}

Then, '\defreference{def:basis}' will expand to something like
'Definition~3.14'.

   An example with two arguments:
'\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{#1\!\times\!#2}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'.

   An example with optional arguments:

     \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}

Then, '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]'
gives 'Dear John:'.  And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'.

   The braces around DEFN do not delimit the scope of the result of
expanding DEFN.  So '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}' is wrong since
in the sentence

     The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Virginia}.

the words 'met the' will incorrectly be in italics.  An extra pair of
braces '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}' fixes it.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \providecommand,  Next: \newcounter,  Prev: \newcommand & \renewcommand,  Up: Definitions

12.2 '\providecommand'
======================

Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists.
Synopses:

     \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
     \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}

   If no command of this name already exists then this has the same
effect as '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::).  If a
command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing.
This is particularly useful in a style file, or other file that may be
loaded more than once.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newcounter,  Next: \newlength,  Prev: \providecommand,  Up: Definitions

12.3 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter
========================================

Synopsis:

     \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER]

   The '\newcounter' command globally defines a new counter named
COUNTERNAME.  The name consists of letters only and does not begin with
a backslash ('\').  The name must not already be used by another
counter.  The new counter is initialized to zero.

   If the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' appears, then COUNTERNAME
will be numbered within, or subsidiary to, the existing counter
SUPERCOUNTER.  For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within
'section'.  Any time SUPERCOUNTER is incremented with '\stepcounter'
(*note \stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::)
then COUNTERNAME is reset to zero.

   *Note Counters::, for more information about counters.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newlength,  Next: \newsavebox,  Prev: \newcounter,  Up: Definitions

12.4 '\newlength': Allocating a length
======================================

Allocate a new "length" register.  Synopsis:

     \newlength{\ARG}

   This command takes one required argument, which must begin with a
backslash ('\').  It creates a new length register named '\ARG', which
is a place to hold (rubber) lengths such as '1in plus.2in minus.1in'
(what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register).  The register gets an initial
value of zero.  The control sequence '\ARG' must not already be defined.

   *Note Lengths::, for more about lengths.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newsavebox,  Next: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment,  Prev: \newlength,  Up: Definitions

12.5 '\newsavebox': Allocating a box
====================================

Allocate a "bin" for holding a box.  Synopsis:

     \newsavebox{\CMD}

   Defines '\CMD' to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.  Such a box
is for holding typeset material, to use multiple times (*note Boxes::)
or to measure or manipulate.  The name '\CMD' must start with a
backslash ('\'), and must not be already defined.

   The allocation of a box is global.  This command is fragile (*note
\protect::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment,  Next: \newtheorem,  Prev: \newsavebox,  Up: Definitions

12.6 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment'
============================================

These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is,
'\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'.  Synopses:

       \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}
       \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}
     \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}
     \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}

   Unlike '\newcommand' and '\renewcommand', the '*'-forms
'\newenvironment*' and '\renewcommand*' have the same effect as the
forms with no '*'.

ENV
     Required; the environment name.  It does not begin with backslash
     ('\').  It must not begin with the string 'end'.  For
     '\newenvironment', the name ENV must not be the name of an already
     existing environment, and also the command '\ENV' must be
     undefined.  For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an
     existing environment.

NARGS
     Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments
     of that the environment will take.  These arguments appear after
     the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1}...{ARGN}'.  If this argument
     is not present then the default is for the environment to have no
     arguments.  When redefining an environment, the new version can
     have a different number of arguments than the old version.

OPTARGDEFAULT
     Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
     the defined environment is optional, with default value
     OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string).  If this argument is
     not present then the environment does not take an optional
     argument.

     That is, when '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is present in the environment
     definition, if '\begin{ENV}' is used with square brackets
     following, as in '\begin{ENV}[MYVAL]', then within the environment
     '#1' expands MYVAL.  If '\begin{ENV}' is called without square
     brackets following, then within the environment the '#1' expands to
     the default OPTARGDEFAULT.  In either case, any required arguments
     will be referred to starting with '#2'.

     Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square
     brackets with no contents, as in '[]'.  The former results in '#1'
     expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to
     the empty string.

BEGDEFN
     Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'; a
     construct of the form '#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of the
     Nth argument.

ENDDEFN
     Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'.
     Note that it may not contain any argument parameters, so '#N'
     cannot be used here.

   The environment ENV delimits the scope of the result of expanding
BEGDEFN and ENDDEFN.  Thus, in the first example below, the effect of
the '\small' is limited to the quote and does not extend to material
following the environment.

   This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except
that it will be set in smaller type.

     \newenvironment{smallquote}{%
       \small\begin{quotation}
     }{%
       \end{quotation}
     }

   This shows the use of arguments; it gives a quotation environment
that cites the author.

     \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
       \begin{quotation}
       \noindent\textit{#1}:
     }{%
       \end{quotation}
     }

The author's name is optional, and defaults to Shakespeare.  In the
document, use the environment as here:

     \begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
       ..
     \end{citequote}

   The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use
in ENDDEFN.

     \newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
     \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
       \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
       \begin{quotation}
     }{%
       \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
       \end{quotation}
     }


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newtheorem,  Next: \newfont,  Prev: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment,  Up: Definitions

12.7 '\newtheorem'
==================

Define a new "theorem-like environment".  Synopses:

     \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]
     \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}

   Both create a theorem-like environment NAME.  Using the first form,

     \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]

with the optional argument after the second required argument, creates
an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter
NUMBERED_WITHIN: it will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is reset).

   Using the second form,

     \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}

with the optional argument between the two required arguments, will
create an environment whose counter will share the previously defined
counter NUMBERED_LIKE.

   You can specify one of NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither,
but not both.

   This command creates a counter named NAME.  In addition, unless the
optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, the current '\ref' value will
be that of '\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::).

   This declaration is global.  It is fragile (*note \protect::).

   Arguments:

NAME
     The name of the environment.  It must not begin with a backslash
     ('\').  It must not be the name of an existing environment; indeed,
     the command name '\NAME' must not already be defined as anything.

TITLE
     The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
     number.  For example, 'Theorem'.

NUMBERED_WITHIN
     Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a
     sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'.  When the
     NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's
     counter will also be reset.

     If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME'
     is set to '\arabic{NAME}'.

NUMBERED_LIKE
     Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment.
     The new environment will be numbered in sequence with
     NUMBERED_LIKE.

   Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered
sequentially.  This example has a declaration in the preamble that
results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output.

     \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
     \begin{document}
     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       First def
     \end{defn}

     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       Second def
     \end{defn}

   Because this example specifies the optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN
to '\newtheorem' as 'section', the example, with the same document body,
gives 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'.

     \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
     \begin{document}
     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       First def
     \end{defn}

     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       Second def
     \end{defn}

   In this example there are two declarations in the preamble, the
second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same
counter as 'defn'.  It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1'
and 'Definition 2.2'.

     \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
     \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
     \begin{document}
     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       First def
     \end{defn}

     \section{...}
     \begin{thm}
       First thm
     \end{thm}

     \begin{defn}
       Second def
     \end{defn}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \newfont,  Next: \protect,  Prev: \newtheorem,  Up: Definitions

12.8 '\newfont': Define a new font (obsolete)
=============================================

'\newfont', now obsolete, defines a command that will switch fonts.
Synopsis:

     \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION}

   This defines a control sequence '\CMD' that will change the current
font.  LaTeX will look on your system for a file named 'FONTNAME.tfm'.
The control sequence must must not already be defined.  It must begin
with a backslash ('\').

   This command is obsolete.  It is a low-level command for setting up
an individual font.  Today fonts are almost always defined in families
(which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman)
through the so-called "New Font Selection Scheme", either by using '.fd'
files or through the use of an engine that can access system fonts such
as XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::).

   But since it is part of LaTeX, here is an explanation: the FONT
DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at clause"; this can
have the form either 'at DIMEN' or 'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of
'1000' means no scaling.  For LaTeX's purposes, all this does is scale
all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font's
design size, which is a value defined in the '.tfm' file.

   This example defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few
characters in each:

     \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
     \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 11pt}
     \testfontat abc
     \testfontscaled abc


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \protect,  Prev: \newfont,  Up: Definitions

12.9 '\protect'
===============

All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust".  Footnotes, line
breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more, are
fragile.  A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to
certain commands.  To prevent such commands from breaking they must be
preceded by the command '\protect'.

   For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it
writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it
there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of
contents.  Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without
typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument".  A
command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX
code.  Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the
'\caption{..}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{..}' command
(*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array'
environments (*note tabular::).

   If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try
preceding it with '\protect'.  Every fragile commands must be protected
with their own '\protect'.

   Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands
are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command.  Nor can
a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or
'\setcounter' command.

   In this example the 'caption' command gives a mysterious error about
an extra curly brace.  Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox'
command with '\protect'.

     \begin{figure}
       ..
       \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
     \end{figure}

   In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error
because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the
'.toc' file.  You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to
'\protect\(..\protect\)'.

     \begin{document}
     \tableofcontents
      ..
     \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)}
      ..


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Counters,  Next: Lengths,  Prev: Definitions,  Up: Top

13 Counters
***********

Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it.  The
name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or
command associated with the number, except with no backslash ('\').
Thus the '\chapter' command starts a chapter and the 'chapter' counter
keeps track of the chapter number.  Below is a list of the counters used
in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering.

     part            paragraph       figure          enumi
     chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
     section         page            footnote        enumiii
     subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
     subsubsection

   The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of
a minipage (*note minipage::).

   The 'enumi' through 'enumiv' counters are used in the 'enumerate'
environment, for up to four nested levels (*note enumerate::).

   New counters are created with '\newcounter'.  *Note \newcounter::.

* Menu:

* \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::  Print value of a counter.
* \usecounter::         Use a specified counter in a list environment.
* \value::              Use the value of a counter in an expression.
* \setcounter::         Set the value of a counter.
* \addtocounter::       Add a quantity to a counter.
* \refstepcounter::     Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters.
* \stepcounter::        Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters.
* \day \month \year::   Numeric date values.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol,  Next: \usecounter,  Up: Counters

13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
=====================================================================

All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, '\alph{enumi}'.  Note that the counter name does not start
with a backslash.

'\alph'
     prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ...

'\Alph'
     uses uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ...

'\arabic'
     uses Arabic numbers: '1', '2', ...

'\roman'
     uses lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ...

'\Roman'
     uses uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ...

'\fnsymbol'
     prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols
     (conventionally used for labeling footnotes).  The value of COUNTER
     must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.

     Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output):

          asterisk(*) dagger(U+2021) ddagger(U+2021)
          section-sign(U+00A7) paragraph-sign(U+00B6) parallel(U+2225)
          double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(U+2020U+2020) double-ddagger(U+2021U+2021)


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \usecounter,  Next: \value,  Prev: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol,  Up: Counters

13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}'
===========================

Synopsis:

     \usecounter{COUNTER}

   In the 'list' environment, when used in the second argument, this
command sets up COUNTER to number the list items.  It initializes
COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called without its
optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by '\refstepcounter',
making its value be the current 'ref' value.  This command is fragile
(*note \protect::).

   Put in the preamble, this makes a new list environment enumerated
with TESTCOUNTER:

     \newcounter{testcounter}
     \newenvironment{test}{%
       \begin{list}{}{%
         \usecounter{testcounter}
       }
     }{%
       \end{list}
     }


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \value,  Next: \setcounter,  Prev: \usecounter,  Up: Counters

13.3 '\value{COUNTER}'
======================

Synopsis:

     \value{COUNTER}

   This command expands to the value of COUNTER.  It is often used in
'\setcounter' or '\addtocounter', but '\value' can be used anywhere that
LaTeX expects a number.  It must not be preceded by '\protect' (*note
\protect::).

   The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the
counter.  *Note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.

   This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'.

     \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5}
     \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}}
     \addtocounter{test}{1}

     Test counter is \arabic{test}.
     Other counter is \arabic{other}.

   This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'.

     \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
     \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \setcounter,  Next: \addtocounter,  Prev: \value,  Up: Counters

13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
==================================

Synopsis:

     \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}

   The '\setcounter' command globally sets the value of COUNTER to the
VALUE argument.  Note that the counter name does not start with a
backslash.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \addtocounter,  Next: \refstepcounter,  Prev: \setcounter,  Up: Counters

13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
====================================

The '\addtocounter' command globally increments COUNTER by the amount
specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \refstepcounter,  Next: \stepcounter,  Prev: \addtocounter,  Up: Counters

13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'
===============================

The '\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as '\stepcounter'
(*note \stepcounter::): it globally increments the value of COUNTER by
one and resets the value of any counter numbered within it.  (For the
definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.)

   In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be
the result of '\thecounter'.

   While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set
locally, i.e., inside the current group.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \stepcounter,  Next: \day \month \year,  Prev: \refstepcounter,  Up: Counters

13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}'
============================

The '\stepcounter' command globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all
counters numbered within it.  (For the definition of "counters numbered
within", *note \newcounter::.)


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \day \month \year,  Prev: \stepcounter,  Up: Counters

13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters
=============================================

LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month ('\day', 1-31), month of
the year ('\month', 1-12), and year ('\year', Common Era).  When TeX
starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is
running.  They are not updated as the job progresses.

   The related command '\today' produces a string representing the
current day (*note \today::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Lengths,  Next: Making paragraphs,  Prev: Counters,  Up: Top

14 Lengths
**********

A "length" is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a length
as an argument.

   Lengths come in two types.  A "rigid length" (what Plain TeX calls a
"dimen") such as '10pt' cannot contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component.  A
"rubber length" (what Plain TeX calls a "skip") can contain those, as
with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm'.  These give the ability to stretch or
shrink; the length in the prior sentence could appear in the output as
long as 1.05 cm or as short as 0.99 cm, depending on what TeX's
typesetting algorithm finds optimum.

   The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a
"fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'.  This gives the length infinite
stretchability or shrinkability, so that the length in the prior
sentence can be set by TeX to any distance greater than or equal to
1 inch.  TeX actually provides three infinite glue components 'fil',
'fill', and 'filll', such that the later ones overcome the earlier ones,
but only the middle value is ordinarily used.  *Note \hfill::, *Note
\vfill::.

   Multiplying an entire rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid
length, so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and
'\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'.

* Menu:

* Units of length::     The units that LaTeX knows.
* \setlength::          Set the value of a length.
* \addtolength::        Add a quantity to a length.
* \settodepth::         Set a length to the depth of something.
* \settoheight::        Set a length to the height of something.
* \settowidth::         Set a length to the width of something.
* Predefined lengths::  Lengths that are, like, predefined.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Units of length,  Next: \setlength,  Up: Lengths

14.1 Units of length
====================

TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math
mode.

'pt'
     Point 1/72.27 inch.  The conversion to metric units, to two decimal
     places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm.

'pc'
     Pica, 12 pt

'in'
     Inch, 72.27 pt

'bp'
     Big point, 1/72 inch.  This length is the definition of a point in
     PostScript and many desktop publishing systems.

'cm'
     Centimeter

'mm'
     Millimeter

'dd'
     Didot point, 1.07 pt

'cc'
     Cicero, 12 dd

'sp'
     Scaled point, 1/65536 pt

   Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer
of the font.  The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the
height of the lower case letter x, is often used for vertical lengths.
Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is
often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is
'0.5em').  Use of these can help make a definition work better across
font changes.  For example, a definition of the vertical space between
list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}'
is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a
definition given in points.

   In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math
unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current
math symbols family.  *Note Spacing in math mode::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \setlength,  Next: \addtolength,  Prev: Units of length,  Up: Lengths

14.2 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}'
==============================

The '\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which can
be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches ('in'),
millimeters ('mm'), points ('pt'), big points ('bp', etc.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \addtolength,  Next: \settodepth,  Prev: \setlength,  Up: Lengths

14.3 '\addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}'
=================================

The '\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the
amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \settodepth,  Next: \settoheight,  Prev: \addtolength,  Up: Lengths

14.4 '\settodepth'
==================

'\settodepth{\gnat}{text}'

   The '\settodepth' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal
to the depth of the 'text' argument.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \settoheight,  Next: \settowidth,  Prev: \settodepth,  Up: Lengths

14.5 '\settoheight'
===================

'\settoheight{\gnat}{text}'

   The '\settoheight' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal
to the height of the 'text' argument.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \settowidth,  Next: Predefined lengths,  Prev: \settoheight,  Up: Lengths

14.6 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}'
==============================

The '\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the
width of the TEXT argument.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Predefined lengths,  Prev: \settowidth,  Up: Lengths

14.7 Predefined lengths
=======================

'\width'

   '\height'

   '\depth'

   '\totalheight'

   These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the
box-making commands (*note Boxes::).  They specify the natural width,
etc., of the text in the box.  '\totalheight' equals '\height' +
'\depth'.  To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural
size, e.g., say

   '\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}'


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Making paragraphs,  Next: Math formulas,  Prev: Lengths,  Up: Top

15 Making paragraphs
********************

A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not
containing even a '%'.  A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.

* Menu:

* \indent::        Indent this paragraph.
* \noindent::      Do not indent this paragraph.
* \parskip::       Space added before paragraphs.
* Marginal notes:: Putting remarks in the margin.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \indent,  Next: \noindent,  Up: Making paragraphs

15.1 '\indent'
==============

'\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals to the
'\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation.  It is used to
add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.

   The default value for '\parindent' is '1em' in two-column mode,
otherwise '15pt' for '10pt' documents, '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em'
for '12pt'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \noindent,  Next: \parskip,  Prev: \indent,  Up: Making paragraphs

15.2 '\noindent'
================

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, this command suppresses any
paragraph indentation, as in this example.

     .. end of the prior paragraph.

     \noindent This paragraph is not indented.

   It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.

   To eliminate paragraph indentation in an entire document, put
'\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \parskip,  Next: Marginal notes,  Prev: \noindent,  Up: Making paragraphs

15.3 '\parskip'
===============

'\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before
each paragraph.  The default is '0pt plus1pt'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Marginal notes,  Prev: \parskip,  Up: Making paragraphs

15.4 Marginal notes
===================

Synopsis:

     \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT}

   The '\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin.  The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
where the '\marginpar' occurs.

   When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be
placed

   * in the right margin for one-sided layout (option 'oneside', see
     *note Document class options::);
   * in the outside margin for two-sided layout (option 'twoside', see
     *note Document class options::);
   * in the nearest margin for two-column layout (option 'twocolumn',
     see *note Document class options::).

   The command '\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in
the opposite (inside) margin.  '\normalmarginpar' places them in the
default position.

   When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin,
and RIGHT is used for the right margin.

   The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation there by beginning the node with '\hspace{0pt}'.

   These parameters affect the formatting of the note:

'\marginparpush'
     Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt'
     documents, '5pt' else.

'\marginparsep'
     Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt'
     for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else.

'\marginparwidth'
     Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document
     is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in
     each case for a two-sided document.  In two column mode, the
     default is '48pt'.

   The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes
from falling off the bottom of the page.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Math formulas,  Next: Modes,  Prev: Making paragraphs,  Up: Top

16 Math formulas
****************

There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:

'math'
     For formulas that appear right in the text.
'displaymath'
     For formulas that appear on their own line.
'equation'
     The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an
     equation number in the right margin.

   The 'math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but
the 'displaymath' and 'equation' environments can be used only in
paragraph mode.  The 'math' and 'displaymath' environments are used so
often that they have the following short forms:

     \(...\)   instead of   \begin{math}...\end{math}
     \[...\]   instead of   \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

   In fact, the 'math' environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:

     $ ... $   instead of   \(...\)

   The '\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a
bold font.  It is used _outside_ of math mode.  Conversely, the
'\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too
is used _outside_ of math mode.

   The '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the
formula to be that of 'displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below
summations.  For example:

     $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $

* Menu:

* Subscripts & superscripts::   Also known as exponent or index.
* Math symbols::                Various mathematical squiggles.
* Math functions::              Math function names like sin and exp.
* Math accents::                Accents in math.
* Spacing in math mode::        Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces.
* Math miscellany::             Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Subscripts & superscripts,  Next: Math symbols,  Up: Math formulas

16.1 Subscripts & superscripts
==============================

In math mode, use the caret character '^' to make the EXP appear as a
superscript, ie. type '^{EXP}'.  Similarly, in math mode,
underscore '_{EXP}' makes a subscript out of EXP.

   In this example the '0' and '1' appear as subscripts while the '2' is
a superscript.

     \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \)

   To have more than one character in EXP use curly braces as in
'e^{-2x}'.

   LaTeX handles superscripts on superscripts, and all of that stuff, in
the natural way, so expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{a_0}' will
look right.  It also does the right thing when something has both a
subscript and a superscript.  In this example the '0' appears at the
bottom of the integral sign while the '10' appears at the top.

     \int_0^{10} x^2 \,dx

   You can put a superscript or subscript before a symbol with a
construct such as '{}_t K^2' in math mode (the initial '{}' prevents the
prefixed subscript from being attached to any prior symbols in the
expression).

   Outside of math mode, a construct like 'A
test$_\textnormal{subscript}$' will produce a subscript typeset in text
mode, not math mode.  Note that there are packages specialized for
writing Chemical formulas such as 'mhchem'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Math symbols,  Next: Math functions,  Prev: Subscripts & superscripts,  Up: Math formulas

16.2 Math symbols
=================

LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need.
For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi
symbol U+03C0.

   Below is a list of commonly-available symbols.  It is by no means an
exhaustive list.  Each symbol here is described with a short phrase, and
its symbol class (which determines the spacing around it) is given in
parenthesis.  The commands for these symbols can be used only in math
mode.

'\|'
     U+2225 Parallel (relation).  Synonym: '\parallel'.

'\aleph'
     U+2135 Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).

'\alpha'
     U+03B1 Lower case Greek letter alpha (ordinary).

'\amalg'
     U+2A3F Disjoint union (binary)

'\angle'
     U+2220 Geometric angle (ordinary).  Similar: less-than sign '<' and
     angle bracket '\langle'.

'\approx'
     U+2248 Almost equal to (relation).

'\ast'
     U+2217 Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary).
     Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the
     Kleene star.  Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is
     sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes
     reserved for cross-correlation.

'\asymp'
     U+224D Asymptomatically equivalent (relation).

'\backslash'
     \ Backslash (ordinary).  Similar: set minus '\setminus', and
     '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode.

'\beta'
     U+03B2 Lower case Greek letter beta (ordinary).

'\bigcap'
     U+22C2 Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator).  Similar:
     binary intersection '\cap'.

'\bigcirc'
     U+26AA Circle, larger (binary).  Similar: function
     composition '\circ'.

'\bigcup'
     U+22C3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator).  Similar: binary
     union '\cup'.

'\bigodot'
     U+2A00 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).

'\bigoplus'
     U+2A01 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).

'\bigotimes'
     U+2A02 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).

'\bigtriangledown'
     U+25BD Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down
     (operator).

'\bigtriangleup'
     U+25B3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up
     (operator).

'\bigsqcup'
     U+2A06 Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).

'\biguplus'
     U+2A04 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus
     (operator).  (Note that the name has only one p.)

'\bigvee'
     U+22C1 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).

'\bigwedge'
     U+22C0 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).

'\bot'
     U+22A5 Up tack, bottom, least element of a poset, or a
     contradiction (ordinary).  See also '\top'.

'\bowtie'
     U+22C8 Natural join of two relations (relation).

'\Box'
     U+25A1 Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary).
     This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you need to load the
     'amssymb' package.

'\bullet'
     U+2022 Bullet (binary).  Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'.

'\cap'
     U+2229 Intersection of two sets (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigcap'.

'\cdot'
     U+22C5 Multiplication (binary).  Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'.

'\chi'
     U+03C7 Lower case Greek chi (ordinary).

'\circ'
     U+2218 Function composition, ring operator (binary).  Similar:
     variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'.

'\clubsuit'
     U+2663 Club card suit (ordinary).

'\complement'
     U+2201 Set complement, used as a superscript as in
     '$S^\complement$' (ordinary).  This is not available in Plain TeX.
     In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  Also used:
     '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'.

'\cong'
     U+2245 Congruent (relation).

'\coprod'
     U+2210 Coproduct (operator).

'\cup'
     U+222A Union of two sets (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigcup'.

'\dagger'
     U+2020 Dagger relation (binary).

'\dashv'
     U+22A3 Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation).  Similar:
     turnstile '\vdash'.

'\ddagger'
     U+2021 Double dagger relation (binary).

'\Delta'
     U+0394 Greek upper case delta, used for increment (ordinary).

'\delta'
     U+03B4 Greek lower case delta (ordinary).

'\Diamond'
     U+25C7 Large diamond operator (ordinary).  This is not available in
     Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you must load the 'amssymb' package.

'\diamond'
     U+22C4 Diamond operator, or diamond bullet (binary).  Similar:
     large diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'.

'\diamondsuit'
     U+2662 Diamond card suit (ordinary).

'\div'
     U+00F7 Division sign (binary).

'\doteq'
     U+2250 Approaches the limit (relation).  Similar: geometrically
     equal to '\Doteq'.

'\downarrow'
     U+2193 Down arrow, converges (relation).  Similar: double line down
     arrow '\Downarrow'.

'\Downarrow'
     U+21D3 Double line down arrow (relation).  Similar: single line
     down arrow '\downarrow'.

'\ell'
     U+2113 Lower-case cursive letter l (ordinary).

'\emptyset'
     U+2205 Empty set symbol (ordinary).  Similar: reversed empty
     set '\varnothing'.

'\epsilon'
     U+03F5 Lower case Greek-text letter (ordinary).  More widely used
     in mathematics is the curly epsilon '\varepsilon' U+03B5.  Related:
     the set membership relation '\in' U+2208.

'\equiv'
     U+2261 Equivalence (relation).

'\eta'
     U+03B7 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\exists'
     U+2203 Existential quantifier (ordinary).

'\flat'
     U+266D Musical flat (ordinary).

'\forall'
     U+2200 Universal quantifier (ordinary).

'\frown'
     U+2322 Downward curving arc (ordinary).

'\Gamma'
     U+0393 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\gamma'
     U+03B3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\ge'
     U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\geq'.

'\geq'
     U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\ge'.

'\gets'
     U+2190 Is assigned the value (relation).  Synonym: '\leftarrow'.

'\gg'
     U+226B Much greater than (relation).  Similar: much less
     than '\ll'.

'\hbar'
     U+210F Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).

'\heartsuit'
     U+2661 Heart card suit (ordinary).

'\hookleftarrow'
     U+21A9 Hooked left arrow (relation).

'\hookrightarrow'
     U+21AA Hooked right arrow (relation).

'\iff'
     U+27F7 If and only if (relation).  It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with
     a '\thickmuskip' on either side.

'\Im'
     U+2111 Imaginary part (ordinary).  See: real part '\Re'.

'\in'
     U+2208 Set element (relation).  See also: lower case Greek letter
     epsilon '\epsilon'U+03F5 and rounded small epsilon '\varepsilon'.

'\infty'
     U+221E Infinity (ordinary).

'\int'
     U+222B Integral (operator).

'\iota'
     U+03B9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\Join'
     U+2A1D Condensed bowtie symbol (relation).  Not available in Plain
     TeX.

'\kappa'
     U+03BA Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\Lambda'
     U+039B Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\lambda'
     U+03BB Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\land'
     U+2227 Logical and (binary).  This is a synonym for '\wedge'.  See
     also logical or '\lor'.

'\langle'
     U+27E8 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening).  Similar:
     less-than '<'.  Matches '\rangle'.

'\lbrace'
     U+007B Left curly brace (opening).  Synonym: '\{'.
     Matches '\rbrace'.

'\lbrack'
     U+005B Left square bracket (opening).  Synonym: '['.
     Matches '\rbrack'.

'\lceil'
     U+2308 Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the
     bottom shaved off (opening).  Matches '\rceil'.

'\le'
     U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\leq'.

'\leadsto'
     U+21DD Squiggly right arrow (relation).  This is not available in
     Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  To get
     this symbol outside of math mode you can put
     '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and
     then use '\Leadsto' instead.

'\Leftarrow'
     U+21D0 Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation).  Similar:
     single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'.

'\leftarrow'
     U+2190 Single-line left arrow (relation).  Synonym: '\gets'.
     Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'.

'\leftharpoondown'
     U+21BD Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).

'\leftharpoonup'
     U+21BC Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).

'\Leftrightarrow'
     U+21D4 Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation).
     Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'.

'\leftrightarrow'
     U+2194 Single-line double-headed arrow (relation).  Similar:
     double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'.

'\leq'
     U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\le'.

'\lfloor'
     U+230A Left floor bracket (opening).

'\lhd'
     U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary).  This
     is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.  For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
     'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so
     gives better spacing).

'\ll'
     U+226A Much less than (relation).  Similar: much greater
     than '\gg'.

'\lnot'
     U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary).  Synonym: '\neg'.

'\longleftarrow'
     U+27F5 Long single-line left arrow (relation).  Similar: long
     double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'.

'\longleftrightarrow'
     U+27F7 Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation).  Similar:
     long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'.

'\longmapsto'
     U+27FC Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
     (relation).  Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'.

'\longrightarrow'
     U+27F6 Long single-line right arrow (relation).  Similar: long
     double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'.

'\lor'
     U+2228 Logical or (binary).  Synonym: wedge '\wedge'.

'\mapsto'
     U+21A6 Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
     (relation).  Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'.

'\mho'
     U+2127 Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary).
     This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.

'\mid'
     U+2223 Single-line vertical bar (relation).  A typical use of
     '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'.

     Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar
     symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and
     you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals,
     i.e., footnote symbols.  For absolute value, see the entry
     for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'.

'\models'
     U+22A8 Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash
     (relation).  Similar: long double dash '\vDash'.

'\mp'
     U+2213 Minus or plus (relation).

'\mu'
     U+03BC Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\nabla'
     U+2207 Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary).

'\natural'
     U+266E Musical natural notation (ordinary).

'\ne'
     U+2260 Not equal (relation).  Synonym: '\neq'.

'\nearrow'
     U+2197 North-east arrow (relation).

'\neg'
     U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary).  Synonym: '\lnot'.  Sometimes
     instead used for negation: '\sim'.

'\neq'
     U+2260 Not equal (relation).  Synonym: '\ne'.

'\ni'
     U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation).
     Synonym: '\owns'.  Similar: is a member of '\in'.

'\not'
     U+0020U+00A0U+0338 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a
     following operator (relation).

     Many negated operators that don't require '\not' are available,
     particularly with the 'amssymb' package.  For example, '\notin' is
     probably typographically preferable to '\not\in'.

'\notin'
     U+2209 Not an element of (relation).  Similar: not subset
     of '\nsubseteq'.

'\nu'
     U+03BD Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\nwarrow'
     U+2196 North-west arrow (relation).

'\odot'
     U+2299 Dot inside a circle (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigodot'.

'\oint'
     U+222E Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle
     (operator).

'\Omega'
     U+03A9 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\omega'
     U+03C9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\ominus'
     U+2296 Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).

'\oplus'
     U+2295 Plus sign inside a circle (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigoplus'.

'\oslash'
     U+2298 Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).

'\otimes'
     U+2297 Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary).  Similar:
     variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'.

'\owns'
     U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation).
     Synonym: '\ni'.  Similar: is a member of '\in'.

'\parallel'
     U+2225 Parallel (relation).  Synonym: '\|'.

'\partial'
     U+2202 Partial differential (ordinary).

'\perp'
     U+27C2 Perpendicular (relation).  Similar: '\bot' uses the same
     glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class
     ordinary.

'\phi'
     U+03D5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varphi' U+03C6.

'\Pi'
     U+03A0 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\pi'
     U+03C0 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varpi' U+03D6.

'\pm'
     U+00B1 Plus or minus (binary).

'\prec'
     U+227A Preceeds (relation).  Similar: less than '<'.

'\preceq'
     U+2AAF Preceeds or equals (relation).  Similar: less than or
     equals '\leq'.

'\prime'
     U+2032 Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary).  Typically
     used as a superscript '$A^\prime$'.  Note that '$f^\prime$' and
     '$f'$' produce the same result.  An advantage of the second is that
     '$f'''$' produces the the desired symbol, that is, the same result
     as '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses somewhat less typing.  Note
     that you can only use '\prime' in math mode but you can type right
     single quote ''' in text mode also, although it resuts in a
     different look than in math mode.

'\prod'
     U+220F Product (operator).

'\propto'
     U+221D Is proportional to (relation)

'\Psi'
     U+03A8 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\psi'
     U+03C8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\rangle'
     U+27B9 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing).  Similar:
     greater than '>'.  Matches:'\langle'.

'\rbrace'
     U+007D Right curly brace (closing).  Synonym: '\}'.
     Matches '\lbrace'.

'\rbrack'
     U+005D Right square bracket (closing).  Synonym: ']'.
     Matches '\lbrack'.

'\rceil'
     U+2309 Right ceiling bracket (closing).  Matches '\lceil'.

'\Re'
     U+211C Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary).
     Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access
     this, load the 'amsfonts' package.

'\restriction'
     U+21BE Restriction of a function (relation).
     Synonym: '\upharpoonright'.  Not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX
     you should load the 'amssymb' package.

'\rfloor'
     U+230B Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut
     off (closing).  Matches '\lfloor'.

'\rhd'
     U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary).  This
     is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.  For the normal subgroup symbol you should
     instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a
     relation and so gives better spacing).

'\rho'
     U+03C1 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varrho' U+03F1.

'\Rightarrow'
     U+21D2 Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation).
     Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'.

'\rightarrow'
     U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
     Synonym: '\to'.  Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'.

'\rightharpoondown'
     U+21C1 Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation).

'\rightharpoonup'
     U+21C0 Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation).

'\rightleftharpoons'
     U+21CC Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation).

'\searrow'
     U+2198 Arrow pointing southeast (relation).

'\setminus'
     U+29F5 Set difference, reverse solidus or slash, like \ (binary).
     Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also '\textbackslash' outside
     of math mode.

'\sharp'
     U+266F Musical sharp (ordinary).

'\Sigma'
     U+03A3 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\sigma'
     U+03C3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varsigma' U+03C2.

'\sim'
     U+223C Similar, in a relation (relation).

'\simeq'
     U+2243 Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).

'\smallint'
     U+222B Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a
     display (operator).

'\smile'
     U+2323 Upward curving arc (ordinary).

'\spadesuit'
     U+2660 Spade card suit (ordinary).

'\sqcap'
     U+2293 Square intersection symbol (binary).  Similar:
     intersection 'cap'.

'\sqcup'
     U+2294 Square union symbol (binary).  Similar: union 'cup'.
     Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'.

'\sqsubset'
     U+228F Square subset symbol (relation).  Similar: subset '\subset'.
     This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.

'\sqsubseteq'
     U+2291 Square subset or equal symbol (binary).  Similar: subset or
     equal to '\subseteq'.

'\sqsupset'
     U+2290 Square superset symbol (relation).  Similar:
     superset '\supset'.  This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX
     you should load the 'amssymb' package.

'\sqsupseteq'
     U+2292 Square superset or equal symbol (binary).  Similar: superset
     or equal '\supseteq'.

'\star'
     U+22C6 Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary
     operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary).
     Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are
     six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript,
     as with the Kleene star.

'\subset'
     U+2282 Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).

'\subseteq'
     U+2286 Subset or equal to (relation).

'\succ'
     U+227B Comes after, succeeds (relation).  Similar: is less
     than '>'.

'\succeq'
     U+2AB0 Succeeds or is equal to (relation).  Similar: less than or
     equal to '\leq'.

'\sum'
     U+2211 Summation (operator).  Similar: Greek capital
     sigma '\Sigma'.

'\supset'
     U+2283 Superset (relation).

'\supseteq'
     U+2287 Superset or equal to (relation).

'\surd'
     U+221A Radical symbol (ordinary).  The LaTeX command '\sqrt{..}'
     typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends
     to cover the argument.

'\swarrow'
     U+2199 Southwest-pointing arrow (relation).

'\tau'
     U+03C4 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\theta'
     U+03B8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\vartheta' U+03D1.

'\times'
     U+00D7 Primary school multiplication sign (binary).  See
     also '\cdot'.

'\to'
     U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
     Synonym: '\rightarrow'.

'\top'
     U+22A4 Top, greatest element of a poset (ordinary).  See
     also '\bot'.

'\triangle'
     U+25B3 Triangle (ordinary).

'\triangleleft'
     U+25C1 Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary).
     Similar: '\lhd'.  For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
     'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so
     gives better spacing).

'\triangleright'
     U+25B7 Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary).  For the normal
     subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and
     use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better
     spacing).

'\unlhd'
     U+22B4 Left-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with
     a line under (binary).  This is not available in Plain TeX.  In
     LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  For the normal
     subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which
     is a relation and so gives better spacing).

'\unrhd'
     U+22B5 Right-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with
     a line under (binary).  This is not available in Plain TeX.  In
     LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  For the normal
     subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which
     is a relation and so gives better spacing).

'\Uparrow'
     U+21D1 Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation).  Similar:
     single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'.

'\uparrow'
     U+2191 Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation).
     Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'.

'\Updownarrow'
     U+21D5 Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation).
     Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing
     arrow '\updownarrow'.

'\updownarrow'
     U+2195 Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation).
     Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing
     arrow '\Updownarrow'.

'\upharpoonright'
     U+21BE Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation).
     Synonym: '\restriction'.  Not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you
     should load the 'amssymb' package.

'\uplus'
     U+228E Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the
     middle (binary).  Similar: union '\cup'.  Related: variable-sized
     operator '\biguplus'.

'\Upsilon'
     U+03A5 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\upsilon'
     U+03C5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\varepsilon'
     U+03B5 Rounded small epsilon (ordinary).  This is more widely used
     in mathematics than the non-variant lower case Greek-text letter
     form '\epsilon' U+03F5.  Related: set membership '\in'.

'\varphi'
     U+03C6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\phi' U+03D5.

'\varpi'
     U+03D6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\pi' U+03C0.

'\varrho'
     U+03F1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\rho' U+03C1.

'\varsigma'
     U+03C2 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\sigma' U+03C3.

'\vartheta'
     U+03D1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\theta' U+03B8.

'\vdash'
     U+22A2 Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation).
     Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'.

'\vee'
     U+2228 Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary).  Related: logical
     and '\wedge'.  Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'.

'\Vert'
     U+2016 Vertical double bar (ordinary).  Similar: vertical single
     bar '\vert'.

     For a norm you can use the 'mathtools' package and add
     '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}' to your preamble.
     This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars
     that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
     write the starred version '$\norm*{M^\perp}$' then the height of
     the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas
     with '\norm{M^\perp}' the bars do not grow with the height of the
     argument but instead are the default height, and '\norm[SIZE
     COMMAND]{M^\perp}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to
     the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'.

'\vert'
     U+007C Single line vertical bar (ordinary).  Similar: double-line
     vertical bar '\Vert'.  For such that, as in the definition of a
     set, use '\mid' because it is a relation.

     For absolute value you can use the 'mathtools' package and add
     '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}' to your preamble.
     This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars
     that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
     write the starred version '$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$' then the height
     of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas
     with '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}' the bars do not grow with the height of
     the argument but instead are the default height, and '\abs[SIZE
     COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}' also gives bars that do not grow but are
     set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'.

'\wedge'
     U+2227 Logical and (binary).  Synonym: '\land'.  See also logical
     or '\vee'.  Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'.

'\wp'
     U+2118 Weierstrass p (ordinary).

'\wr'
     U+2240 Wreath product (binary).

'\Xi'
     U+039E Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\xi'
     U+03BE Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\zeta'
     U+03B6 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Math functions,  Next: Math accents,  Prev: Math symbols,  Up: Math formulas

16.3 Math functions
===================

These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
spacing.

'\arccos'
     \arccos

'\arcsin'
     \arcsin

'\arctan'
     \arctan

'\arg'
     \arg

'\bmod'
     Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y)

'\cos'
     \cos

'\cosh'
     \cosh

'\cot'
     \cot

'\coth'
     \coth

'\csc'
     \csc

'\deg'
     \deg

'\det'
     \det

'\dim'
     \dim

'\exp'
     \exp

'\gcd'
     \gcd

'\hom'
     \hom

'\inf'
     \inf

'\ker'
     \ker

'\lg'
     \lg

'\lim'
     \lim

'\liminf'
     \liminf

'\limsup'
     \limsup

'\ln'
     \ln

'\log'
     \log

'\max'
     \max

'\min'
     \min

'\pmod'
     parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1)

'\Pr'
     \Pr

'\sec'
     \sec

'\sin'
     \sin

'\sinh'
     \sinh

'\sup'
     sup

'\tan'
     \tan

'\tanh'
     \tanh


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Math accents,  Next: Spacing in math mode,  Prev: Math functions,  Up: Math formulas

16.4 Math accents
=================

LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in
math.  These are different from accents in normal text (*note
Accents::).

'\acute'
     Math acute accent: \acute{x}.

'\bar'
     Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}.

'\breve'
     Math breve accent: \breve{x}.

'\check'
     Math ha'c<ek (check) accent: \check{x}.

'\ddot'
     Math dieresis accent: \ddot{x}.

'\dot'
     Math dot accent: \dot{x}.

'\grave'
     Math grave accent: \grave{x}.

'\hat'
     Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hat{x}.

'\imath'
     Math dotless i.

'\jmath'
     Math dotless j.

'\mathring'
     Math ring accent: x*.

'\tilde'
     Math tilde accent: \tilde{x}.

'\vec'
     Math vector symbol: \vec{x}.

'\widehat'
     Math wide hat accent: \widehat{x+y}.

'\widetilde'
     Math wide tilde accent: \widetilde{x+y}.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Spacing in math mode,  Next: Math miscellany,  Prev: Math accents,  Up: Math formulas

16.5 Spacing in math mode
=========================

In a 'math' environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces that you use in the
source, and instead puts in the spacing according to the normal rules
for mathematics texts.

   Many math mode spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math
unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current
math symbols family (*note Units of length::).  LaTeX provides the
following commands for use in math mode:

'\;'
     Normally '5.0mu plus 5.0mu'.  The longer name is '\thickspace'.
     Math mode only.

'\:'
'\>'
     Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'.  The longer name is
     '\medspace'.  Math mode only.

'\,'
     Normally '3mu'.  The longer name is '\thinspace'.  This can be used
     in both math mode and text mode.

'\!'
     A negative thin space.  Normally '-3mu'.  Math mode only.

'\quad'
     This is 18mu, that is, 1em.  This is often used for space
     surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space
     between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment.  It is
     available in both text and math mode.

'\qquad'
     A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em.  It is available in both
     text and math mode.

   In this example a thinspace separates the function from the
infinitesimal.

     \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Math miscellany,  Prev: Spacing in math mode,  Up: Math formulas

16.6 Math miscellany
====================

'\*'
     A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is
     allowed.

'\cdots'
     A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the
     line.

'\ddots'
     A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots.

'\frac{num}{den}'
     Produces the fraction 'num' divided by 'den'.

'\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2'
     The two delimiters need not match; '.' acts as a null delimiter,
     producing no output.  The delimiters are sized according to the
     math in between.  Example: '\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'.

'\overbrace{TEXT}'
     Generates a brace over TEXT.  For example,
     \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}.

'\overline{TEXT}'
     Generates a horizontal line over TEX.  For example, \overline{x+y}.

'\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}'
     Produces the representation of the square root of ARG.  The
     optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce.  For
     example, the cube root of 'x+y' would be typed as
     '$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'.

'\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}'
     Puts TEXT above RELATION.  For example,
     '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'.

'\underbrace{math}'
     Generates MATH with a brace underneath.

'\underline{text}'
     Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be
     underlined.  The line is always below the text, taking account of
     descenders.

'\vdots'
     Produces a vertical ellipsis.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Modes,  Next: Page styles,  Prev: Math formulas,  Up: Top

17 Modes
********

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three
modes:

   * Paragraph mode
   * Math mode
   * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

   Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or
when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing
commands.

   "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when
processing ordinary text.  In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text
into lines and breaks the lines into pages.

   LaTeX is in "math mode" when it's generating a mathematical formula,
either displayed math or within a line.

   In "LR mode", as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that
it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.  However,
unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never
starts a new line in LR mode.  Even if you put a hundred words into an
'\mbox', LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a
single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was
too wide to fit on the line).  LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making
a box with an '\mbox' command.  You can get it to enter a different mode
inside the box--for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a
formula in the box.

   There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode.  The box made by one of
these commands or environments will be called a 'parbox'.  When LaTeX is
in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner
paragraph mode" (no page breaks).  Its normal paragraph mode, which it
starts out in, is called "outer paragraph mode".


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Page styles,  Next: Spaces,  Prev: Modes,  Up: Top

18 Page styles
**************

The '\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the
page's head and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.

* Menu:

* \maketitle::          Generate a title page.
* \pagenumbering::      Set the style used for page numbers.
* \pagestyle::		Change the headings/footings style.
* \thispagestyle::      Change the headings/footings style for this page.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \maketitle,  Next: \pagenumbering,  Up: Page styles

18.1 '\maketitle'
=================

The '\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title
page--except in the 'article' class, where the title is placed at the
top of the first page.  Information used to produce the title is
obtained from the following declarations:

'\author{NAME \and NAME2}'
     The '\author' command declares the document author(s), where the
     argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands.  Use
     '\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example,
     to give the author's institution or address.

'\date{TEXT}'
     The '\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date.  With
     no '\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used.

'\thanks{TEXT}'
     The '\thanks' command produces a '\footnote' to the title, usually
     used for credit acknowledgements.

'\title{TEXT}'
     The '\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document.
     Use '\\' to force a line break, as usual.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \pagenumbering,  Next: \pagestyle,  Prev: \maketitle,  Up: Page styles

18.2 '\pagenumbering'
=====================

Synopsis:

     \pagenumbering{STYLE}

   Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE; also resets
the page number to 1.  The STYLE argument is one of the following:

'arabic'
     arabic numerals

'roman'
     lowercase Roman numerals

'Roman'
     uppercase Roman numerals

'alph'
     lowercase letters

'Alph'
     uppercase letters


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \pagestyle,  Next: \thispagestyle,  Prev: \pagenumbering,  Up: Page styles

18.3 '\pagestyle'
=================

Synopsis:

     \pagestyle{STYLE}

   The '\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are
typeset from the current page onwards.  Values for STYLE:

'plain'
     Just a plain page number.

'empty'
     Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.

'headings'
     Put running headers on each page.  The document style specifies
     what goes in the headers.

'myheadings'
     Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright'
     commands.

   Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright':

'\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}'
     Sets both the left and the right heading.  A "left-hand heading"
     (LEFT) is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end
     of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT) is generated by
     the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if
     there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page.

'\markright{RIGHT}'
     Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \thispagestyle,  Prev: \pagestyle,  Up: Page styles

18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}'
============================

The '\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the
'\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to
STYLE for the current page only.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Spaces,  Next: Boxes,  Prev: Page styles,  Up: Top

19 Spaces
*********

LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.

* Menu:

Horizontal space
* \hspace::              Fixed horizontal space.
* \hfill::               Stretchable horizontal space.
* \(SPACE) and \@::     Space after a period.
* \(SPACE) after CS::    Controlling space gobbling after a control sequence.
* \frenchspacing::       Make interword and intersentence space equal.
* \thinspace::           One-sixth of an em.
* \/::                   Insert italic correction.
* \hrulefill \dotfill::  Stretchable horizontal rule or dots.

Vertical space
* \addvspace::                    Add arbitrary vertical space if needed.
* \bigskip \medskip \smallskip::  Fixed vertical spaces.
* \vfill::                        Infinitely stretchable vertical space.
* \vspace::                       Add arbitrary vertical space.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \hspace,  Next: \hfill,  Up: Spaces

19.1 '\hspace'
==============

Synopsis:

     \hspace{LENGTH}
     \hspace*{LENGTH}

   Add the horizontal space given by LENGTH.  The LENGTH is a rubber
length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, in any
unit that LaTeX understands (*note Lengths::).

   This command can add both positive and negative space; adding
negative space is like backspacing.

   Normally when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines it discards white
space (glues and kerns) that would come at the start of a line, so you
get an inter-word space or a line break between words but not both.
This command's starred version '\hspace*{..}' puts a non-discardable
invisible item in front of the space, so the space appears in the
output.

   This example make a one-line paragraph that puts 'Name:' an inch from
the right margin.

     \noindent\makebox[\linewidth]{\hspace{\fill}Name:\hspace{1in}}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \hfill,  Next: \(SPACE) and \@,  Prev: \hspace,  Up: Spaces

19.2 '\hfill'
=============

Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but can stretch
horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::).

   The command '\hfill' is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}'.  For space
that does not disappear at line breaks use '\hspace*{\fill}' instead
(*note \hspace::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \(SPACE) and \@,  Next: \(SPACE) after CS,  Prev: \hfill,  Up: Spaces

19.3 '\(SPACE)' and \@
======================

Mark a punctuation character, typically a period, as either ending a
sentence or as ending an abbreviation.

   By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a
sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or
colon) more than the space between words (*note \frenchspacing::).
LaTeX assumes that the period ends a sentence unless it is preceded by a
capital letter, in which case it takes that period for part of an
abbreviation.  Note that if a sentence-ending period is immediately
followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double
quote, then the intersentence space follows that parenthesis or quote.

   If you have a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not
a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the
sentence, then follow that period with a backslash-space ('\ ') or a tie
('~').  Examples are 'Nat.\ Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and
'(manure, etc.)\ for sale'.

   For other use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) after CS::.

   In the opposite situation, if you have a capital letter followed by a
period that ends the sentence, then put '\@' on the left of that period.
For example, 'book by the MAA\@.' will have intersentence spacing after
the period.

   In contrast, putting '\@' on the right of a period tells TeX that the
period does not end the sentence.  In the example 'reserved words (if,
then, etc.\@) are different', TeX will put interword space after the
closing parenthesis (note that '\@' is before the parenthesis).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \(SPACE) after CS,  Next: \frenchspacing,  Prev: \(SPACE) and \@,  Up: Spaces

19.4 '\ ' after a control sequence
==================================

The '\ ' command is often used after control sequences to keep them from
gobbling the space that follows, as in '\TeX\ is a nice system.' And,
under normal circumstances '\'<tab> and '\'<newline> are equivalent to
'\ '.  For other use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) and \@::.

   Some people prefer to use '{}' for the same purpose, as in '\TeX{} is
a nice system.' This has the advantage that you can always write it the
same way, like '\TeX{}', whether it is followed by a space or by a
punctuation mark.  Please compare:

     \TeX\ is a nice system. \TeX, a nice system.

     \TeX{} is a nice system. \TeX{}, a nice system.

   When you define user commands (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::)
you can prevent the space gobbling after the command by using the
package 'xspace' and inserting '\xspace' at the end of the definition
For instance:
     \documentclass{minimal}
     \usepackage{xspace}
     \newcommand*{\Loup}{Grand Cric\xspace}
     \begin{document}
     Que le \Loup me croque !
     \end{document}

   A quick hack to use '\xspace' for existing command is as follows:
     \documentclass{minimal}
     \usepackage{xspace}
     \newcommand*{\SansXspaceTeX}{}
     \let\SansXspaceTeX\TeX
     \renewcommand{\TeX}{\SansXspaceTeX\xspace}
     \begin{document}
     \TeX is a nice system.
     \end{document}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \frenchspacing,  Next: \thinspace,  Prev: \(SPACE) after CS,  Up: Spaces

19.5 '\frenchspacing'
=====================

This declaration (from Plain TeX) causes LaTeX to treat intersentence
spacing in the same way as interword spacing.

   In justifying the text in a line, some typographic traditions,
including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or
after other punctuation marks) more than the space between words.
Following this declaration, all spaces are instead treated equally.

   Revert to the default behavior by declaring '\nonfrenchspacing'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \thinspace,  Next: \/,  Prev: \frenchspacing,  Up: Spaces

19.6 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em
===============================

'\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6
of an em.  This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in
'".


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \/,  Next: \hrulefill \dotfill,  Prev: \thinspace,  Up: Spaces

19.7 '\/': Insert italic correction
===================================

The '\/' command produces an "italic correction".  This is a small space
defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the
character colliding with whatever follows.  The italic f character
typically has a large italic correction value.

   If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary
to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a
very small height.  However, with semicolons or colons, as well as
normal letters, it can help.  Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the 'f's
are nicely separated) with f: f;.

   When changing fonts with commands such as '\textit{italic text}' or
'{\itshape italic text}', LaTeX will automatically insert an italic
correction if appropriate (*note Font styles::).

   Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic
correction.  Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space
after the 'f') with pdfTeX.

   There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is
done in a different way.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \hrulefill \dotfill,  Next: \addvspace,  Prev: \/,  Up: Spaces

19.8 '\hrulefill \dotfill'
==========================

Produce an infinite rubber length (*note Lengths::) filled with a
horizontal rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of just white
space.

   When placed between blank lines this example creates a paragraph that
is left and right justified, where the space in the middle is filled
with evenly spaced dots.

     \noindent Jack Aubrey\dotfill Melbury Lodge

   To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the
start or end.

   To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as
with '\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height
1pt\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to
1pt.  Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with
'\renewcommand{\dotfill}{\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@ 1.00em{\hss .\hss
}\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \addvspace,  Next: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip,  Prev: \hrulefill \dotfill,  Up: Spaces

19.9 '\addvspace'
=================

'\addvspace{LENGTH}'

   Add a vertical space of height LENGTH, which is a rubber length
(*note Lengths::).  However, if vertical space has already been added to
the same point in the output by a previous '\addvspace' command then
this command will not add more space than what is needed to make the
natural length of the total vertical space equal to LENGTH.

   Use this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an
environment that starts a new paragraph.  (For instance, a Theorem
environment is defined to begin and end in '\addvspace{..}' so that two
consecutive Theorem's are separated by one vertical space, not two.)

   This command is fragile (*note \protect::).

   The error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' means that you
were not in vertical mode when you invoked this command; one way to
change that is to precede this command with a '\par' command.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip,  Next: \vfill,  Prev: \addvspace,  Up: Spaces

19.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip'
====================================

These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the
document class.

'\bigskip'
     The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line
     space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and
     'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt').

'\medskip'
     The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a
     line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and
     'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt').

'\smallskip'
     The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter
     of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the
     'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt').


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \vfill,  Next: \vspace,  Prev: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip,  Up: Spaces

19.11 '\vfill'
==============

End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length (*note
Lengths::) that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as
needed.

   It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that
'\vfill' ends the current paragraph, whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the
infinite vertical space below its line irrespective of the paragraph
structure.  In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary;
to circumvent this see *note \vspace::.

   In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines
contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the third 'Lost Dog!' is exactly
halfway between them.

     \begin{document}
     Lost Dog!
     \vfill
     Lost Dog!
     \vfill
     Lost Dog!
     \end{document}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \vspace,  Prev: \vfill,  Up: Spaces

19.12 '\vspace{LENGTH}'
=======================

Synopsis, one of these two:

     \vspace{LENGTH}
     \vspace*{LENGTH}

   Add the vertical space LENGTH.  This can be negative or positive, and
is a rubber length (*note Lengths::).

   LaTeX removes the vertical space from '\vfill' at a page break, that
is, at the top or bottom of a page.  The starred version '\vspace*{..}'
causes the space to stay.

   In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on
the page, with at least one inch of space below each.

     \begin{document}
     1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
     \vspace{1in plus 1fill}

     2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong?
     \vspace{1in plus 1fill}
     \end{document}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Boxes,  Next: Special insertions,  Prev: Spaces,  Up: Top

20 Boxes
********

All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be
used in the arguments of the box-making commands.

* Menu:

* \mbox::               Horizontal boxes.
* \fbox and \framebox:: Put a frame around a box.
* lrbox::               An environment like '\sbox'.
* \makebox::            Box, adjustable position.
* \parbox::             Box with text in paragraph mode.
* \raisebox::           Raise or lower text.
* \savebox::            Like '\makebox', but save the text for later use.
* \sbox::               Like '\mbox', but save the text for later use.
* \usebox::             Print saved text.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \mbox,  Next: \fbox and \framebox,  Up: Boxes

20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}'
==================

The '\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text
created by its argument.  The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can
be used to prevent hyphenation.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \fbox and \framebox,  Next: lrbox,  Prev: \mbox,  Up: Boxes

20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox'
============================

Synopses:

     \fbox{TEXT}
     \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}

   The '\fbox' and '\framebox' commands are like '\mbox', except that
they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.

   In addition, the '\framebox' command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a
dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument.

   Both commands produce a rule of thickness '\fboxrule' (default
'.4pt'), and leave a space of '\fboxsep' (default '3pt') between the
rule and the contents of the box.

   *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the '\framebox' command in the
'picture' environment.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: lrbox,  Next: \makebox,  Prev: \fbox and \framebox,  Up: Boxes

20.3 'lrbox'
============

'\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}'

   This is the environment form of '\sbox'.

   The text inside the environment is saved in the box 'cmd', which must
have been declared with '\newsavebox'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \makebox,  Next: \parbox,  Prev: lrbox,  Up: Boxes

20.4 '\makebox'
===============

Synopsis:

     \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}

   The '\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the
TEXT specified.  The width of the box can be overridden by the optional
WIDTH argument.  The position of the text within the box is determined
by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values:

'c'
     Centered (default).
'l'
     Flush left.
'r'
     Flush right.
's'
     Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain
     stretchable space for this to work.

   '\makebox' is also used within the 'picture' environment *note
\makebox (picture)::.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \parbox,  Next: \raisebox,  Prev: \makebox,  Up: Boxes

20.5 '\parbox'
==============

Synopsis:

     \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT}

   The '\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in
'paragraph' mode.  It should be used to make a box small pieces of text,
with nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any
paragraph-making environments inside a '\parbox' argument.  For larger
pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making
environment, you should use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::).

   '\parbox' has two mandatory arguments:

WIDTH
     the width of the parbox;
TEXT
     the text that goes inside the parbox.

   The optional POSITION argument allows you to align either the top or
bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text
(default is top).

   The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box.

   The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the
box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used.

't'
     text is placed at the top of the box.
'c'
     text is centered in the box.
'b'
     text is placed at the bottom of the box.
's'
     stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable
     space for this to work.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \raisebox,  Next: \savebox,  Prev: \parbox,  Up: Boxes

20.6 '\raisebox'
================

Synopsis:

     \raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text}

   The '\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT.  The first mandatory
argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a
negative amount).  TEXT itself is processed in LR mode.

   The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions.  If they are
specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the
baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and
depth.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \savebox,  Next: \sbox,  Prev: \raisebox,  Up: Boxes

20.7 '\savebox'
===============

Synopsis:

     \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT}

   This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with '\makebox' (*note
\makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves
it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with
'\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \sbox,  Next: \usebox,  Prev: \savebox,  Up: Boxes

20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}'
===========================

Synopsis:

     \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}

   '\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with '\mbox' (*note \mbox::)
except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal
output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD.  \BOXCMD must have been
previously declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \usebox,  Prev: \sbox,  Up: Boxes

20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}'
=======================

Synopsis:

     \usebox{\BOXCMD}

   '\usebox' produces the box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by
a '\savebox' command (*note \savebox::).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Special insertions,  Next: Splitting the input,  Prev: Boxes,  Up: Top

21 Special insertions
*********************

LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special
meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.

* Menu:

* Reserved characters::     Inserting '# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }'
* Text symbols::            Inserting other non-letter symbols in text.
* Accents::                 Inserting accents.
* Non-English characters::  Inserting other non-English characters.
* \rule::                   Inserting lines and rectangles.
* \today::                  Inserting today's date.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Reserved characters,  Next: Text symbols,  Up: Special insertions

21.1 Reserved characters
========================

The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called
"reserved characters" or "special characters".

     # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

   Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX will
do something special.  If you simply want the character to be printed as
itself, include a '\' in front of the character.  For example, '\$' will
produce '$' in your output.

   One exception to this rule is '\' itself, because '\\' has its own
special (context-dependent) meaning.  A roman \ is produced by typing
'$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter '\' is produced by using
'\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::).

   Also, '\~' and '\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the
following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a standalone
'~' or '^', you can again use a verbatim command.

   Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
know its number by using the '\symbol' command.  For example, the
visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code
decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'.

   You can also specify octal numbers with ''' or hexadecimal numbers
with '"', so the previous example could also be written as
'\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Text symbols,  Next: Accents,  Prev: Reserved characters,  Up: Special insertions

21.2 Text symbols
=================

LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in
running text.  Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not
available in OT1; you may need to load the 'textcomp' package.

'\copyright'
'\textcopyright'
     The copyright symbol, (C).

'\dag'
     The dagger symbol (in text).

'\ddag'
     The double dagger symbol (in text).

'\LaTeX'
     The LaTeX logo.

'\LaTeXe'
     The LaTeX2e logo.

'\guillemotleft (<<)'
'\guillemotright (>>)'
'\guilsinglleft (<)'
'\guilsinglright (>)'
     Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French:
     <<, >>, <, >.

'\ldots'
'\dots'
'\textellipsis'
     An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '...'.  '\ldots' and
     '\dots' also work in math mode.

'\lq'
     Left (opening) quote: '.

'\P'
'\textparagraph'
     Paragraph sign (pilcrow).

'\pounds'
'\textsterling'
     English pounds sterling: #.

'\quotedblbase (,,)'
'\quotesinglbase (,)'
     Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: ,, and ,.

'\rq'
     Right (closing) quote: '.

'\S'
     Section symbol.

'\TeX'
     The TeX logo.

'\textasciicircum'
     ASCII circumflex: ^.

'\textasciitilde'
     ASCII tilde: ~.

'\textasteriskcentered'
     Centered asterisk: *.

'\textbackslash'
     Backslash: \.

'\textbar'
     Vertical bar: |.

'\textbardbl'
     Double vertical bar.

'\textbigcircle'
     Big circle symbol.

'\textbraceleft'
     Left brace: {.

'\textbraceright'
     Right brace: }.

'\textbullet'
     Bullet: *.

'\textcircled{LETTER}'
     LETTER in a circle, as in (R).

'\textcompwordmark'
'\textcapitalwordmark'
'\textascenderwordmark'
     Composite word mark (invisible).  The '\textcapital...' form has
     the cap height of the font, while the '\textascender...' form has
     the ascender height.

'\textdagger'
     Dagger: \dag.

'\textdaggerdbl'
     Double dagger: \ddag.

'\textdollar (or '$')'
     Dollar sign: $.

'\textemdash (or '---')'
     Em-dash: -- (for punctuation).

'\textendash (or '--')'
     En-dash: - (for ranges).

'\texteuro'
     The Euro symbol: Euro.

'\textexclamdown (or '!`')'
     Upside down exclamation point: !.

'\textgreater'
     Greater than: >.

'\textless'
     Less than: <.

'\textleftarrow'
     Left arrow.

'\textordfeminine'
'\textordmasculine'
     Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: a, o.

'\textperiodcentered'
     Centered period: \cdot.

'\textquestiondown (or '?`')'
     Upside down question mark: ?.

'\textquotedblleft (or '``')'
     Double left quote: ".

'\textquotedblright (or ''')'
     Double right quote: ".

'\textquoteleft (or '`')'
     Single left quote: '.

'\textquoteright (or ''')'
     Single right quote: '.

'\textquotestraightbase'
'\textquotestraightdblbase'
     Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.

'\textregistered'
     Registered symbol: (R).

'\textrightarrow'
     Right arrow.

'\textthreequartersemdash'
     "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

'\texttrademark'
     Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}.

'\texttwelveudash'
     "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

'\textunderscore'
     Underscore: _.

'\textvisiblespace'
     Visible space symbol.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Accents,  Next: Non-English characters,  Prev: Text symbols,  Up: Special insertions

21.3 Accents
============

LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages,
through the 'babel' package and related support.  This section does not
attempt to cover all that support.  It merely lists the core LaTeX
commands for creating accented characters.

   The '\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with
capital letters.  These are not available with OT1.

'\"'
'\capitaldieresis'
     Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in o".

'\''
'\capitalacute'
     Produces an acute accent, as in o'.  In the 'tabbing' environment,
     pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note
     tabbing::).

'\.'
     Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o..

'\='
'\capitalmacron'
     Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=.

'\^'
'\capitalcircumflex'
     Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^.

'\`'
'\capitalgrave'
     Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`.  In the
     'tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin
     (*note tabbing::).

'\~'
'\capitaltilde'
     Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~.

'\b'
     Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_.  See also
     '\underbar' hereinafter.

'\c'
'\capitalcedilla'
     Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in c,.

'\d'
'\capitaldotaccent'
     Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o.

'\H'
'\capitalhungarumlaut'
     Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in
     o''.

'\i'
     Produces a dotless i, as in 'i'.

'\j'
     Produces a dotless j, as in 'j'.

'\k'
'\capitalogonek'
     Produces a letter with ogonek, as in 'o;'.  Not available in the
     OT1 encoding.

'\r'
'\capitalring'
     Produces a ring accent, as in 'o*'.

'\t'
'\capitaltie'
'\newtie'
'\capitalnewtie'
     Produces a tie-after accent, as in 'oo['.  The '\newtie' form is
     centered in its box.

'\u'
'\capitalbreve'
     Produces a breve accent, as in 'o('.

'\underbar'
     Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text.
     The argument is always processed in horizontal mode.  The bar is
     always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through
     descenders.  See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::.  See
     also '\b' above.

'\v'
'\capitalcaron'
     Produces a ha'c<ek (check, caron) accent, as in 'o<'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Non-English characters,  Next: \rule,  Prev: Accents,  Up: Special insertions

21.4 Non-English characters
===========================

Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly used
in languages other than English.

'\aa'
'\AA'
     aa and AA.

'\ae'
'\AE'
     ae and AE.

'\dh'
'\DH'
     Icelandic letter eth: d and D.

'\dj'
'\DJ'
     Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke.

'\ij'
'\IJ'
     ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).

'\l'
'\L'
     /l and /L.

'\ng'
'\NG'
     Latin letter eng, also used in phonetics.

'\o'
'\O'
     /o and /O.

'\oe'
'\OE'
     oe and OE.

'\ss'
'\SS'
     ss and SS.

'\th'
'\TH'
     Icelandic letter thorn: th and TH.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \rule,  Next: \today,  Prev: Non-English characters,  Up: Special insertions

21.5 '\rule'
============

Synopsis:

     \rule[RAISE]{WIDTH}{THICKNESS}

   The '\rule' command produces "rules", that is, lines or rectangles.
The arguments are:

RAISE
     How high to raise the rule (optional).

WIDTH
     The length of the rule (mandatory).

THICKNESS
     The thickness of the rule (mandatory).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \today,  Prev: \rule,  Up: Special insertions

21.6 '\today'
=============

The '\today' command produces today's date, in the format 'MONTH DD,
YYYY'; for example, 'July 4, 1976'.  It uses the predefined counters
'\day', '\month', and '\year' (*note \day \month \year::) to do this.
It is not updated as the program runs.

   The 'datetime' package, among others, can produce a wide variety of
other date formats.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Splitting the input,  Next: Front/back matter,  Prev: Special insertions,  Up: Top

22 Splitting the input
**********************

A large document requires a lot of input.  Rather than putting the whole
input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into
several smaller ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run LaTeX.

   *Note filecontents::, for an environment that allows bundling an
external file to be created with the main document.

* Menu:

* \include::            Conditionally include a file.
* \includeonly::        Determine which files are included.
* \input::              Unconditionally include a file.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \include,  Next: \includeonly,  Up: Splitting the input

22.1 '\include'
===============

Synopsis:

     \include{FILE}

   If no '\includeonly' command is present, the '\include' command
executes '\clearpage' to start a new page (*note \clearpage::), then
reads FILE, then does another '\clearpage'.

   Given an '\includeonly' command, the '\include' actions are only run
if FILE is listed as an argument to '\includeonly'.  See the next
section.

   The '\include' command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another '\include' command.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \includeonly,  Next: \input,  Prev: \include,  Up: Splitting the input

22.2 \'includeonly'
===================

Synopsis:

     \includeonly{FILE1,FILE2,...}

   The '\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by
subsequent '\include' commands.  The list of filenames is
comma-separated.  Each FILE must exactly match a filename specified in a
'\include' command for the selection to be effective.

   This command can only appear in the preamble.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \input,  Prev: \includeonly,  Up: Splitting the input

22.3 '\input'
=============

Synopsis:

     \input{FILE}

   The '\input' command causes the specified FILE to be read and
processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at
that point.

   If FILE does not end in '.tex' (e.g., 'foo' or 'foo.bar'), it is
first tried with that extension ('foo.tex' or 'foo.bar.tex').  If that
is not found, the original FILE is tried ('foo' or 'foo.bar').


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Front/back matter,  Next: Letters,  Prev: Splitting the input,  Up: Top

23 Front/back matter
********************

* Menu:

* Tables of contents::
* Glossaries::
* Indexes::


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Tables of contents,  Next: Glossaries,  Up: Front/back matter

23.1 Tables of contents
=======================

A table of contents is produced with the '\tableofcontents' command.
You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go;
LaTeX does the rest for you.  A previous run must have generated a
'.toc' file.

   The '\tableofcontents' command produces a heading, but it does not
automatically start a new page.  If you want a new page after the table
of contents, write a '\newpage' command after the '\tableofcontents'
command.

   The analogous commands '\listoffigures' and '\listoftables' produce a
list of figures and a list of tables (from '.lof' and '.lot' files),
respectively.  Everything works exactly the same as for the table of
contents.

   The command '\nofiles' overrides these commands, and _prevents_ any
of these lists from being generated.

* Menu:

* \addcontentsline::    Add an entry to table of contents, etc.
* \addtocontents::      Add text directly to table of contents file, etc.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \addcontentsline,  Next: \addtocontents,  Up: Tables of contents

23.1.1 '\addcontentsline'
-------------------------

The '\addcontentsline'{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT} command adds an entry to the
specified list or table where:

EXT
     The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
     typically one of: 'toc' (table of contents), 'lof' (list of
     figures), or 'lot' (list of tables).

UNIT
     The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the
     following, matching the value of the EXT argument:

     'toc'
          The name of the sectional unit: 'part', 'chapter', 'section',
          'subsection', 'subsubsection'.
     'lof'
          For the list of figures.
     'lot'
          For the list of tables.

ENTRY
     The text of the entry.

   What is written to the '.EXT' file is the command
'\contentsline{UNIT}{NAME}'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \addtocontents,  Prev: \addcontentsline,  Up: Tables of contents

23.1.2 '\addtocontents'
-----------------------

The '\addtocontents'{EXT}{TEXT} command adds text (or formatting
commands) directly to the '.EXT' file that generates the table of
contents or lists of figures or tables.

EXT
     The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
     typically one of: 'toc' (table of contents), 'lof' (list of
     figures), or 'lot' (list of tables).

TEXT
     The text to be written.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Glossaries,  Next: Indexes,  Prev: Tables of contents,  Up: Front/back matter

23.2 Glossaries
===============

The command '\makeglossary' enables creating glossaries.

   The command '\glossary{TEXT}' writes a glossary entry for TEXT to an
auxiliary file with the '.glo' extension.

   Specifically, what gets written is the command
'\glossaryentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current '\thepage'
value.

   The 'glossary' package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Indexes,  Prev: Glossaries,  Up: Front/back matter

23.3 Indexes
============

The command '\makeindex' enables creating indexes.  Put this in the
preamble.

   The command '\index{TEXT}' writes an index entry for TEXT to an
auxiliary file with the '.idx' extension.

   Specifically, what gets written is the command
'\indexentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current '\thepage'
value.

   To generate a index entry for 'bar' that says 'See foo', use a
vertical bar: '\index{bar|see{foo}}'.  Use 'seealso' instead of 'see' to
make a 'See also' entry.

   The text 'See' is defined by the macro '\seename', and 'See also' by
the macro '\alsoname'.  These can be redefined for other languages.

   The generated '.idx' file is then sorted with an external command,
usually either 'makeindex' (<http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex>)
or (the multi-lingual) 'xindy' (<http://xindy.sourceforge.net>).  This
results in a '.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index.

   The index is usually generated with the '\printindex' command.  This
is defined in the 'makeidx' package, so '\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to
be in the preamble.

   The rubber length '\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in
the printed index; its default value is '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'.

   The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the
margin on the page where the entry appears.  This can help in preparing
the index.

   The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes.  See also the TeX
FAQ entry on this topic,
<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind>.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Letters,  Next: Terminal input/output,  Prev: Front/back matter,  Up: Top

24 Letters
**********

Synopsis:

     \documentclass{letter}
     \address{SENDER ADDRESS}
     \signature{SENDER NAME}
     \begin{document}
     \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}
     \opening{SALUTATION}
       LETTER BODY
     \closing{CLOSING TEXT}
     \end{letter}
       ...  more letters ...
     \end{document}

   Produce one or more letters.

   Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument
RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double
backslash ('\\').  For example, you might have:

      \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith \\
           2345 Princess St. \\
           Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
        ...
      \end{letter}

   The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1,
and the footnote number to 1 also.

   The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters,
whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble.  As
with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines
separated by a double backslash ('\\').  LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME
under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional
hand-written signature; it also can contain multiple lines.

   Each letter environment begins with a required '\opening' command
such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'.  The LETTER BODY text is
ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from from enumerated lists
to displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no
sense in a letter are turned off.  Each letter environment typically
ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'.

   Additional material may come after the '\closing'.  You can say who
is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\
the Boss's Boss}'.  There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of
enclosures.  And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'.

   LaTeX's default is to indent the signature and the '\closing' above
it by a length of '\longindentation'.  By default this is
'0.5\textwidth'.  To make them flush left, put
'\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your preamble.

   To set a fixed date use something like
'\renewcommand{\today}{2015-Oct-12}'.  If put in your preamble then it
will apply to all the letters.

   This example shows only one 'letter' environment.  The three lines
marked as optional are typically omitted.

     \documentclass{letter}
     \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town}
     \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title}
     % optional: \location{Mailbox 13}
     % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101}
     \begin{document}
     \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address}
     \opening{Sir:}
     % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage}
     I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you.
     \closing{Your most humble, etc.,}
     \end{letter}
     \end{document}

   These commands are used with the 'letter' class.

* Menu:

* \address::                       Sender's return address.
* \cc::                            Carbon copy list.
* \closing::                       Saying goodbye.
* \encl::                          List of enclosed material.
* \location::                      Sender's organizational location.
* \makelabels::                    Make address labels.
* \name::                          Sender's name, for the return address.
* \opening::                       Saying hello.
* \ps::                            Adding a postscript.
* \signature::                     Sender's signature.
* \telephone::                     Sender's phone number.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \address,  Next: \cc,  Up: Letters

24.1 '\address'
===============

Synopsis:

     \address{SENDERS ADDRESS}

   Specifies the return address as it appears on the letter and on the
envelope.  Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double
backslash '\\'.

   Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often
put in the preamble.  However, it can go anywhere, including inside an
individual 'letter' environment.

   This command is optional: without the '\address' declaration the
letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto
pre-printed letterhead paper.  (*Note Overview::, for details on your
local implementation.)  With the '\address' declaration, it is formatted
as a personal letter.

   Here is an example.

     \address{Stephen Maturin \\
              The Grapes of the Savoy}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \cc,  Next: \closing,  Prev: \address,  Up: Letters

24.2 '\cc'
==========

Synopsis:

     \cc{FIRST NAME \\
         .. }

   Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent.
This command is optional.  If it appears then typically it comes after
'\closing'.  Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'.

     \cc{President \\
         Vice President}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \closing,  Next: \encl,  Prev: \cc,  Up: Letters

24.3 '\closing'
===============

Synopsis:

     \closing{text}

   Usually at the end of a letter, above the handwritten signature,
there is a '\closing' (although this command is optional).  For example,

     \closing{Regards,}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \encl,  Next: \location,  Prev: \closing,  Up: Letters

24.4 '\encl'
============

Synopsis:

     \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\
           .. }

   Produce a list of things included with the letter.  This command is
optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'.
Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'.

     \encl{License \\
            Passport }


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \location,  Next: \makelabels,  Prev: \encl,  Up: Letters

24.5 '\location'
================

Synopsis:

     \location{TEXT}

   The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the each page.  It only
appears if the page style is 'firstpage'.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \makelabels,  Next: \name,  Prev: \location,  Up: Letters

24.6 '\makelabels'
==================

Synopsis:

     \makelabels

   Create a sheet of address labels from the recipient addresses, one
for each letter.  This sheet will be output before the letters, with the
idea that you can copy it to a sheet of peel-off labels.  This command
goes in the preamble.

   Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels',
'\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' in the preamble.  The command
'\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the
page onto which the labels are printed.  The command '\mlabel{SENDER
ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or one, if you
choose to ignore the SENDER ADDRESS).  The SENDER ADDRESS is the value
returned by the macro '\returnaddress' while RECIPIENT ADDRESS is the
value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment.  By default
'\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the SENDER ADDRESS.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \name,  Next: \opening,  Prev: \makelabels,  Up: Letters

24.7 '\name'
============

Synopsis:

     \name{NAME}

   Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together with the
return address.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \opening,  Next: \ps,  Prev: \name,  Up: Letters

24.8 '\opening'
===============

Synopsis:

     \opening{TEXT}

   This command is required.  It starts a letter, following the
'\begin{letter}{..}'.  The mandatory argument TEXT is the text that
starts your letter.  For instance:

     \opening{Dear John:}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \ps,  Next: \signature,  Prev: \opening,  Up: Letters

24.9 '\ps'
==========

Synopsis:

     \ps{TEXT}

   Add a postscript.  This command is optional and usually is used after
'\closing'.

     \ps{P.S.  After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \signature,  Next: \telephone,  Prev: \ps,  Up: Letters

24.10 '\signature'
==================

Synopsis:

     \signature{FIRST LINE \\
                 .. }

   The sender's name.  This command is optional, although its inclusion
is usual.

   The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing
and after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature.
Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'.  For example:

     \signature{J Fred Muggs \\
                White House}

   LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down
to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times 0.7em.

   This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters
in the document.  To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a
'letter' environment and before the '\closing'.

   You can include a graphic in the signature, for instance with
'\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My
name}' (this requires writing '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble).


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \telephone,  Prev: \signature,  Up: Letters

24.11 '\telephone'
==================

Synopsis:

     \telephone{NUMBER}

   The sender's telephone number.  This is typically in the preamble,
where it applies to all letters.  This only appears if the 'firstpage'
pagestyle is selected.  If so, it appears on the lower right of the
page.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Terminal input/output,  Next: Command line,  Prev: Letters,  Up: Top

25 Terminal input/output
************************

* Menu:

* \typein::             Read text from the terminal.
* \typeout::            Write text to the terminal.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \typein,  Next: \typeout,  Up: Terminal input/output

25.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}'
========================

Synopsis:

     \typein[\CMD]{MSG}

   '\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and
wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return.  If the
optional \CMD argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it
had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command.
If the \CMD argument is present, it must be a command name.  This
command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: \typeout,  Prev: \typein,  Up: Terminal input/output

25.2 '\typeout{MSG}'
====================

Synopsis:

     \typeout{MSG}

   Prints 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file.  Commands in
'msg' that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among
others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed.

   LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'.  A '\space'
command in 'msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of
surrounding spaces.  A '^^J' in 'msg' prints a newline.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Command line,  Next: Document templates,  Prev: Terminal input/output,  Up: Top

26 Command line
***************

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX
uses '.tex' as a default file extension.  If you omit the input file
entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal.  You can also specify
arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash.  For example, this
processes 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error:

     latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'

   With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can
also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with '-' or '--'.  For
a list of those options, try 'latex --help'.

   If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a '*'
prompt, it is waiting for input.  You can type '\stop' (and return) and
it will prematurely end the document.

   *Note TeX engines::, for other system commands invoking LaTeX.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Document templates,  Next: Concept Index,  Prev: Command line,  Up: Top

Appendix A Document templates
*****************************

Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will
be useful.  Additional template resources are listed at
<http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates>.

* Menu:

* beamer template::
* book template::
* tugboat template::


File: latex2e.info,  Node: beamer template,  Next: book template,  Up: Document templates

A.1 'beamer' template
=====================

The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides.  It has a vast array of
features, but here is a basic template:

\documentclass{beamer}

\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2007}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
 \frametitle{First Slide}

\begin{verbatim}
  This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}

\end{frame}

\end{document}

   One web resource for this:
<http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/>.


File: latex2e.info,  Node: book template,  Next: tugboat template,  Prev: beamer template,  Up: Document templates

A.2 'book' template
===================

\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\chapter{First}
Some text.

\chapter{Second}
Some other text.

\section{A subtopic}
The end.
\end{document}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: tugboat template,  Prev: book template,  Up: Document templates

A.3 'tugboat' template
======================

'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group,
<http://tug.org/TUGboat>.

\documentclass{ltugboat}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
\usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage{url}
\fi

\title{Example \TUB\ article}

% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This is an example article for \TUB{}.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}

This is an example article for \TUB, from
\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.

We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the
\texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output.
Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.

The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more:

% verbatim blocks are often better in \small
\begin{verbatim}[\small]
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
\ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX
\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP
\TUB \TUG \tug
\UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE

\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
\careof \thinskip

\acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred}  % please use!
\cs{fred}   -> \fred
\env{fred}  -> \begin{fred}
\meta{fred} -> <fred>
\nth{n}     -> 1st, 2nd, ...
\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}

For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
(we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references).

Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.

\bibliographystyle{plain}  % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal}      % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl}       % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX

\makesignature
\end{document}


File: latex2e.info,  Node: Concept Index,  Next: Command Index,  Prev: Document templates,  Up: Top

Concept Index
*************