path: root/obsolete/info/latex-info/latex.info-2

This is Info file latex.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.47 from the input
file latex.texinfo.


File: latex.info,  Node: \bibitem,  Next: \cite,  Up: thebibliography

\bibitem
........

Syntax:

     \bibitem[label]{cite_key}

The \bibitem command generates an entry labeled by label. If the label
argument is missing, a number is generated as the label, using the enumi
counter. The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and
punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry
on the aux file containing cite_key and the item's label. When this aux
file is read by the \begin{document} command, the item's label is
associated with cite_key, causing the reference to cite_key by a \cite
command to produce the associated label.


File: latex.info,  Node: \cite,  Next: \nocite,  Prev: \bibitem,  Up: thebibliography

\cite
.....

Syntax:

     \cite[text]{key_list}

The key_list argument is a list of citation keys. This command generates
an in-text citation to the references associated with the keys in
key_list by entries on the aux file read by the \begin{document}
command.


File: latex.info,  Node: \nocite,  Prev: \cite,  Up: thebibliography

\nocite
.......

Syntax:

     \nocite{key_list}

The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, which is a
list of one or more citation keys, on the aux file.


File: latex.info,  Node: theorem,  Next: titlepage,  Prev: thebibliography,  Up: Environments

theorem
-------

Syntax:

     \begin{theorem}
      theorem text
     \end{theorem}

The theorem environment produces "Theorem x" in boldface followed by
your theorem text.


File: latex.info,  Node: titlepage,  Next: verbatim,  Prev: theorem,  Up: Environments

titlepage
---------

Syntax:

     \begin{titlepage}
      text
     \end{titlepage}

The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e. a page with no
printed page number or heading.  It also causes the following page to be
numbered page one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The
\today command comes in handy for title pages.


File: latex.info,  Node: verbatim,  Next: verse,  Prev: titlepage,  Up: Environments

verbatim
--------

Syntax:

     \begin{verbatim}
      text
     \end{verbatim}

The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that gets
LaTeX to print exactly what you type in.  It turns LaTeX into a
typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that
they would on a typewriter.

* Menu:

* \verb::                       \verb


File: latex.info,  Node: \verb,  Up: verbatim

\verb
.....

Syntax:

     \verb char literal_text char
     \verb*char literal_text char

Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special characters and
spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style. There may be no space
between \verb or \verb* and char (space is shown here only for clarity).
The *-form differs only in that spaces are printed.


File: latex.info,  Node: verse,  Prev: verbatim,  Up: Environments

verse
-----

Syntax:

     \begin{verse}
      text
     \end{verse}

The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other
uses for it.


File: latex.info,  Node: Footnotes,  Next: Lengths,  Prev: Environments,  Up: Commands

Footnotes
=========

Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways.  They can be produced with
one command, the \footnote command.  They can also be produced with two
commands, the \footnotemark and the \footnotetext commands.  See the
specific command for information on why you would use one over the
other.

* Menu:

* \footnote::                   \footnote
* \footnotemark::               \footnotemark
* \footnotetext::               \footnotetext


File: latex.info,  Node: \footnote,  Next: \footnotemark,  Up: Footnotes

\footnote
---------

Syntax:

     \footnote[number]{text}

The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at the bottom of
the current page.  The optional argument, number, is used to change the
default footnote number.  This command can only be used in outer
paragraph mode.


File: latex.info,  Node: \footnotemark,  Next: \footnotetext,  Prev: \footnote,  Up: Footnotes

\footnotemark
-------------

The \footnotemark command puts the footnote number in the text.  This
command can be used in inner paragraph mode.  The text of the footnote
is supplied by the \footnotetext command.


File: latex.info,  Node: \footnotetext,  Prev: \footnotemark,  Up: Footnotes

\footnotetext
-------------

Syntax:

     \footnotetext[number]{text}

The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed at the bottom
of the page.  This command can come anywhere after the \footnotemark
command.  The \footnotetext command must appear in outer paragraph mode.

The optional argument, number, is used to change the default footnote
number.


File: latex.info,  Node: Lengths,  Next: Letters,  Prev: Footnotes,  Up: Commands

Lengths
=======

A length is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a length as
an argument.

* Menu:

* \newlength::                  \newlength
* \setlength::                  \setlength
* \addtolength::                \addtolength
* \settowidth::                 \settowidth


File: latex.info,  Node: \newlength,  Next: \setlength,  Up: Lengths

\newlength
----------

Syntax:

     \newlength{\gnat}

The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, \gnat, as a
length command with a value of 0in.  An error occurs if a \gnat command
already exists.


File: latex.info,  Node: \setlength,  Next: \addtolength,  Prev: \newlength,  Up: Lengths

\setlength
----------

Syntax:

     \setlength{\gnat}{length}

The \setlength command is used to set the value of a length command.
The length argument can be expressed in any terms of length LaTeX
understands, e.g. inches (in), millimeters (mm), points (pt), etc.


File: latex.info,  Node: \addtolength,  Next: \settowidth,  Prev: \setlength,  Up: Lengths

\addtolength
------------

Syntax:

     \addtolength{\gnat}{length}

The \addtolength command increments a length command by the amount
specified in the length argument.  It can be a negative amount.


File: latex.info,  Node: \settowidth,  Prev: \addtolength,  Up: Lengths

\settowidth
-----------

Syntax:

     \settowidth{\gnat}{text}

The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command equal to the
width of the text argument.


File: latex.info,  Node: Letters,  Next: Line and Page Breaking,  Prev: Lengths,  Up: Commands

Letters
=======

You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business.  The
letter document style is designed to make a number of letters at once,
although you can make just one if you so desire.

Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other
document styles, i.e. you must have the following commands as a minimum:

     \documentstyle{letter}
     
     \begin{document}
      ... letters ...
     \end{document}

Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name and
address of the recipient.  For example, you might have

     \begin{letter}{Mr. John Doe \\
             2345 Jones St. \\
             Oakland, CA  91123}
       ...
     \end{letter}

The letter itself begins with the \opening command.  The text of the
letter follows.  It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input.  Commands that
make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, don't work.  The letter closes
with a \closing command.

After the closing, you can have additional material.  The \cc command
produces the usual "cc: ...".  There's also a similar \encl command for
a list of enclosures.

* Menu:

* Declarations::                Declarations
* \opening::                    \opening
* \closing::                    \closing


File: latex.info,  Node: Declarations,  Next: \opening,  Up: Letters

Declarations
------------

The following commands are declarations which take a single argument.

\address
........

Syntax:

     \address{Return address}

The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope.
Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands.  If
you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter will be
formatted for copying onto your organization's standard letterhead.  If
you give an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a
personal letter.

* Menu:

* \signature::                  \signature
* \location::                   \location
* \telephone::                  \telephone


File: latex.info,  Node: \signature,  Next: \location,  Up: Declarations

\signature
..........

Syntax:

     \signature{Your name}

Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the
space for your signature.  Items that should go on separate lines should
be separated by \\ commands.


File: latex.info,  Node: \location,  Next: \telephone,  Prev: \signature,  Up: Declarations

\location
.........

Syntax:

     \location{address}

This modifies your organization's standard address.  This only appears
if the firstpage pagestyle is selected.


File: latex.info,  Node: \telephone,  Prev: \location,  Up: Declarations

\telephone
..........

Syntax:

     \telephone{number}

This is your telephone number.  This only appears if the firstpage
pagestyle is selected.


File: latex.info,  Node: \opening,  Next: \closing,  Prev: Declarations,  Up: Letters

\opening
--------

Syntax:

     \opening{text}

The letter begins with the \opening command.  The mandatory argument,
text, is what ever text you wish to start your letter, e.g.

     \opening{Dear John,}


File: latex.info,  Node: \closing,  Prev: \opening,  Up: Letters

\closing
--------

Syntax:

     \closing{text}

The letter closes with a \closing command, e.g.

     \closing{Best Regards,}


File: latex.info,  Node: Line and Page Breaking,  Next: Making Paragraphs,  Prev: Letters,  Up: Commands

Line and Page Breaking
======================

The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate
your input file into a string of glyphs and spaces.  To produce a
printed document, this string must be broken into lines, and these lines
must be broken into pages.  In some environments, you do the line
breaking yourself with the \\ command, but LaTeX usually does it for
you.

* Menu:

* \\::                          \\
* \-::                          Hypenation Aid \-
* \cleardoublepage::            \cleardoublepage
* \clearpage::                  \clearpage
* \hyphenation::                \hyphenation
* \linebreak::                  \linebreak
* \newline::                    \newline
* \newpage::                    \newpage
* \nolinebreak::                \nolinebreak
* \nopagebreak::                \nopagebreak
* \pagebreak::                  \pagebreak


File: latex.info,  Node: \\,  Next: \-,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\\
--

Syntax:

     \\[extra-space]
     \\*[extra-space]

The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line.  It has an optional
argument, extra-space, that specifies how much extra vertical space is
to be inserted before the next line.  This can be a negative amount.

The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command except that it
tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.


File: latex.info,  Node: \-,  Next: \cleardoublepage,  Prev: \\,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

Hypenation Aid \-
-----------------

The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point.
LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all correct
hyphenation points.  The \- command is used for the exceptional cases.


File: latex.info,  Node: \cleardoublepage,  Next: \clearpage,  Prev: \-,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\cleardoublepage
----------------

The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand
(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.


File: latex.info,  Node: \clearpage,  Next: \hyphenation,  Prev: \cleardoublepage,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\clearpage
----------

The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all figures and
tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.


File: latex.info,  Node: \hyphenation,  Next: \linebreak,  Prev: \clearpage,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\hyphenation
------------

Syntax:

     \hyphenation{words}

The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points, where
words is a list of words, separated by spaces, in which each hyphenation
point is indicated by a - character. Each grammatical form has to be
specified separately.

These words *must not* contain any special characters (e.g. \ss).


File: latex.info,  Node: \linebreak,  Next: \newline,  Prev: \hyphenation,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\linebreak
----------

Syntax:

     \linebreak[number]

The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at the
point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can
convert the \linebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number
must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent
the request is.

The \linebreak command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it extends to
the right margin.


File: latex.info,  Node: \newline,  Next: \newpage,  Prev: \linebreak,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\newline
--------

The \newline command breaks the line right where it is.  The \newline
command can be used only in paragraph mode.


File: latex.info,  Node: \newpage,  Next: \nolinebreak,  Prev: \newline,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\newpage
--------

The \newpage command ends the current page.


File: latex.info,  Node: \nolinebreak,  Next: \nopagebreak,  Prev: \newpage,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\nolinebreak
------------

Syntax:

     \nolinebreak[number]

The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current line
at the point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you
can convert the \nolinebreak command from a demand to a request.  The
number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.


File: latex.info,  Node: \nopagebreak,  Next: \pagebreak,  Prev: \nolinebreak,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\nopagebreak
------------

Syntax:

     \nopagebreak[number]

The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX form breaking the current page
at the point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you
can convert the \nopagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The
number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.


File: latex.info,  Node: \pagebreak,  Prev: \nopagebreak,  Up: Line and Page Breaking

\pagebreak
----------

Syntax:

     \pagebreak[number]

The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at the
point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can
convert the \pagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number
must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent
the request is.


File: latex.info,  Node: Making Paragraphs,  Next: Math Formulas,  Prev: Line and Page Breaking,  Up: Commands

Making Paragraphs
=================

A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines -- lines not
containing even an %. A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.

* Menu:

* \indent::                     \indent
* \noindent::                   \noindent
* \par::                        \par


File: latex.info,  Node: \indent,  Next: \noindent,  Up: Making Paragraphs

\indent
-------

This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the
paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it
would otherwise be supressed.


File: latex.info,  Node: \noindent,  Next: \par,  Prev: \indent,  Up: Making Paragraphs

\noindent
---------

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the paragraph
indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.


File: latex.info,  Node: \par,  Prev: \noindent,  Up: Making Paragraphs

\par
----

Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command and environment
definitions easier to read.


File: latex.info,  Node: Math Formulas,  Next: Modes,  Prev: Making Paragraphs,  Up: Commands

Math Formulas
=============

There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: math,
displaymath, and equation.  The math environment is for formulas that
appear right in the text.  The displaymath environment is for formulas
that appear on their own line.  The equation environment is the same as
the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in
the right margin.

The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the
displaymath and equation environments can be used only in paragraph
mode.  These environments are used so often that they have the following
short forms:

     $ ... $   instead of \begin{math} ... \end{math}
     $$ ... $$ instead of \begin{equation} ... \end{equation}
     \[ ... \] instead of \begin{displaymath} ... \end{displaymath}

* Menu:

* Subscripts and Superscripts::  Subscripts and Superscripts
* Math Symbols::                Math Symbols
* Spacing in Math Mode::        Spacing in Math Mode
* Math Miscellany::             Math Miscellany


File: latex.info,  Node: Subscripts and Superscripts,  Next: Math Symbols,  Up: Math Formulas

Subscripts and Superscripts
---------------------------

To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type
_{exp}.  To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type ^{exp}. LaTeX
handles superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural
way.  It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript
and a superscript.


File: latex.info,  Node: Math Symbols,  Next: Spacing in Math Mode,  Prev: Subscripts and Superscripts,  Up: Math Formulas

Math Symbols
------------

LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need.
The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.  For
example, if you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get the symbol
"pi" in your output.


File: latex.info,  Node: Spacing in Math Mode,  Next: Math Miscellany,  Prev: Math Symbols,  Up: Math Formulas

Spacing in Math Mode
--------------------

In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts in the
spacing that it thinks is best. LaTeX formats mathematics the way it's
done in mathematics texts.  If you want different spacing, LaTeX
provides the following four commands for use in math mode:

`\;'
     a thick space

`\:'
     a medium space

`\,'
     a thin space

`\!'
     a negative thin space


File: latex.info,  Node: Math Miscellany,  Prev: Spacing in Math Mode,  Up: Math Formulas

Math Miscellany
---------------

* Menu:

* \cdots::                      \cdots
* \ddots::                      \ddots
* \frac::                       \frac
* \ldots::                      \ldots
* \overbrace::                  \overbrace
* \overline::                   \overline
* \sqrt::                       \sqrt
* \underbrace::                 \underbrace
* \underline::                  \underline
* \vdots::                      \vdots


File: latex.info,  Node: \cdots,  Next: \ddots,  Up: Math Miscellany

\cdots
......

The \cdots command produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are
raised to the center of the line.


File: latex.info,  Node: \ddots,  Next: \frac,  Prev: \cdots,  Up: Math Miscellany

\ddots
......

The \ddots command produces a diagonal ellipsis.


File: latex.info,  Node: \frac,  Next: \ldots,  Prev: \ddots,  Up: Math Miscellany

\frac
.....

Syntax:

     \frac{num}{den}

The \frac command produces the fraction num divided by den.


File: latex.info,  Node: \ldots,  Next: \overbrace,  Prev: \frac,  Up: Math Miscellany

\ldots
......

The \ldots command produces an ellipsis.  This command works in any
mode, not just math mode.


File: latex.info,  Node: \overbrace,  Next: \overline,  Prev: \ldots,  Up: Math Miscellany

\overbrace
..........

Syntax:

     \overbrace{text}

The \overbrace command generates a brace over text.


File: latex.info,  Node: \overline,  Next: \sqrt,  Prev: \overbrace,  Up: Math Miscellany

\overline
.........

Syntax:
     \overline{text}

The \overline command causes the argument text to be overlined.


File: latex.info,  Node: \sqrt,  Next: \underbrace,  Prev: \overline,  Up: Math Miscellany

\sqrt
.....

Syntax:

     \sqrt[root]{arg}

The \sqrt command produces the square root of its argument.  The
optional argument, root, determines what root to produce, i.e. the cube
root of x+y would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$.


File: latex.info,  Node: \underbrace,  Next: \underline,  Prev: \sqrt,  Up: Math Miscellany

\underbrace
...........

Syntax:

     \underbrace{text}

The \underbrace command generates text with a brace underneath.


File: latex.info,  Node: \underline,  Next: \vdots,  Prev: \underbrace,  Up: Math Miscellany

\underline
..........

Syntax:

     \underline{text}

The \underline command causes the argument text to be underlined. This
command can also be used in paragraph and LR modes.


File: latex.info,  Node: \vdots,  Prev: \underline,  Up: Math Miscellany

\vdots
......

The \vdots command produces a vertical ellipsis.


File: latex.info,  Node: Modes,  Next: Page Styles,  Prev: Math Formulas,  Up: Commands

Modes
=====

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three
modes:

   * Paragraph mode

   * Math mode

   * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a
different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes.
Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when
LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.

Paragraph mode is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when
processing ordinary text.  In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into
lines and breaks the lines into pages.  LaTeX is in math mode when it's
generating a mathematical formula.  In LR mode, as in paragraph mode,
LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with
spaces between them.  However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going
from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode.  Even if you
put a hundred words into an \mbox, LaTeX would keep typesetting them
from left to right inside a single box, and then complain because the
resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.

LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox command.
You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for example,
you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.  There are
also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box
that put LaTeX in paragraph mode.  The box make by one of these commands
or environments will be called a parbox.  When LaTeX is in paragraph
mode while making a box, it is said to be in inner paragraph mode.  Its
normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called outer paragraph
mode.


File: latex.info,  Node: Page Styles,  Next: Sectioning,  Prev: Modes,  Up: Commands

Page Styles
===========

The \documentstyle command determines the size and position of the
page's head and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.

* Menu:

* \maketitle::                  \maketitle
* \pagenumbering::              \pagenumbering
* \pagestyle::                  \pagestyle
* \thispagestyle::              \thispagestyle


File: latex.info,  Node: \maketitle,  Next: \pagenumbering,  Up: Page Styles

\maketitle
----------

\maketitle

The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title page -
except in the article style, where the title normally goes at the top of
the first page.  Information used to produce the title is obtained from
the following declarations.

* Menu:

* \author::                     \author
* \date::                       \date
* \thanks::                     \thanks
* \title::                      \title


File: latex.info,  Node: \author,  Next: \date,  Up: \maketitle

\author
.......

Syntax:

     \author{names}

The \author command declares the author(s), where names is a list of
authors separated by \and commands. Use \\ to separate lines within a
single author's entry -- for example, to give the author's institution
or address.


File: latex.info,  Node: \date,  Next: \thanks,  Prev: \author,  Up: \maketitle

\date
.....

Syntax:

     \date{text}

The \date command declares text to be the document's date. With no \date
command, the current date is used.


File: latex.info,  Node: \thanks,  Next: \title,  Prev: \date,  Up: \maketitle

\thanks
.......

Syntax:

     \thanks{text}

The \thanks command produces a footnote to the title.


File: latex.info,  Node: \title,  Prev: \thanks,  Up: \maketitle

\title
......

Syntax:

     \title{text}

The \title command declares text to be the title. Use \\ to tell LaTeX
where to start a new line in a long title.


File: latex.info,  Node: \pagenumbering,  Next: \pagestyle,  Prev: \maketitle,  Up: Page Styles

\pagenumbering
--------------

Syntax:

     \pagenumbering{num_style}

Specifies the style of page numbers. Possible values of num_style are:

`arabic'
     Arabic numerals

`roman'
     Lowercase roman numerals

`Roman'
     Uppercase roman numerals

`alph'
     Lowercase letters

`Alph'
     Uppercase letters


File: latex.info,  Node: \pagestyle,  Next: \thispagestyle,  Prev: \pagenumbering,  Up: Page Styles

\pagestyle
----------

Syntax:

     \pagestyle{option}

The \pagestyle command changes the style from the current page on
throughout the remainder of your document.

The valid options are:

`plain'
     Just a plain page number.

`empty'
     Produces empty heads and feet - no page numbers.

`headings'
     Puts running headings on each page. The document style specifies
     what goes in the headings.

`myheadings'
     You specify what is to go in the heading with the \markboth or the
     \markright commands.

* Menu:

* \mark::                       \mark


File: latex.info,  Node: \mark,  Up: \pagestyle

\mark
.....

Syntax:

     \markboth{left head}{right head}
     \markright{right head}

The \markboth and \markright commands are used in conjunction with the
page style myheadings for setting either both or just the right heading.
In addition to their use with the myheadings page style, you can use
them to override the normal headings in the headings style, since LaTeX
uses these same commands to generate those heads.  You should note that
a left-hand heading is generated by the last \markboth command before
the end of the page, while a right-hand heading is generated by the
first \markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is one,
otherwise by the last one before the page.


File: latex.info,  Node: \thispagestyle,  Prev: \pagestyle,  Up: Page Styles

\thispagestyle
--------------

Syntax:

     \thispagestyle{option}

The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the \pagestyle
command except that it changes the style for the current page only.


File: latex.info,  Node: Sectioning,  Next: Spaces and Boxes,  Prev: Page Styles,  Up: Commands

Sectioning
==========

Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units.

   * \part

   * \chapter (report and book style only)

   * \section

   * \subsection

   * \subsubsection

   * \paragraph

   * \subparagraph

All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.

Syntax:

     \chapter[optional]{title}

In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory argument
of the sectioning command can appear in two other places:

   * the table of contents

   * the running head at the top of the page

You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two places as
appears in the text heading.  To handle this situation, the sectioning
commands have an optional argument that provides the text for these
other two purposes.

The sectioning commands have *-forms that print a title, but do not
include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. 
For example, the *-form of the \subsection command could look like:

     \subsection*{Example subsection}

* Menu:

* \appendix::                   \appendix


File: latex.info,  Node: \appendix,  Up: Sectioning

\appendix
---------

Syntax:

     \appendix

The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are numbered. The
\appendix command generates no text and does not affect the numbering or
parts.


File: latex.info,  Node: Spaces and Boxes,  Next: Special Characters,  Prev: Sectioning,  Up: Commands

Spaces and Boxes
================

* Menu:

* \addvspace::                  \addvspace
* \bigskip::                    \bigskip
* \dotfill::                    \dotfill
* \fbox::                       \fbox
* \framebox::                   \framebox
* \hfill::                      \hfill
* \hrulefill ::                 \hrulefill
* \hspace::                     \hspace
* \makebox::                    \makebox
* \mbox::                       \mbox
* \medskip::                    \medskip
* \newsavebox::                 \newsavebox
* \parbox::                     \parbox
* \raisebox::                   \raisebox
* \rule::                       \rule
* \savebox::                    \savebox
* \smallskip::                  \smallskip
* \usebox::                     \usebox
* \vfill::                      \vfill
* \vspace::                     \vspace


File: latex.info,  Node: \addvspace,  Next: \bigskip,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\addvspace
----------

Syntax:

     \addvspace{length}

The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of heigth length.
However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in
the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this command will not
add more space than needed to make the natural length of the total
vertical space equal to length.


File: latex.info,  Node: \bigskip,  Next: \dotfill,  Prev: \addvspace,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\bigskip
--------

The \bigskip command is equivalent to \vspace{bigskipamount} where
bigskipamount is determined by the document style.


File: latex.info,  Node: \dotfill,  Next: \fbox,  Prev: \bigskip,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\dotfill
--------

The \dotfill command produces a rubber length that produces dots instead
of just spaces.


File: latex.info,  Node: \fbox,  Next: \framebox,  Prev: \dotfill,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\fbox
-----

Syntax:

     \fbox{text}

The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox command, except that
it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.


File: latex.info,  Node: \framebox,  Next: \hfill,  Prev: \fbox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\framebox
---------

Syntax:

     \framebox[width][position]{text}

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox command,
except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it
creates.

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves
a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box.


File: latex.info,  Node: \hfill,  Next: \hrulefill,  Prev: \framebox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\hfill
------

The \hfill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or
shrink horizontally. It will be filled with spaces.


File: latex.info,  Node: \hrulefill,  Next: \hspace,  Prev: \hfill,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\hrulefill
----------

The \hrulefill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch
or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal rule.


File: latex.info,  Node: \hspace,  Next: \makebox,  Prev: \hrulefill,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\hspace
-------

Syntax:

     \hspace{length}
     \hspace*{length}

The \hspace command adds horizontal space.  The length of the space can
be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, e.g. points, inches,
etc. You can add negative as well as positive space with an \hspace
command. Adding negative space is like backspacing.

LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line.  If you
don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.
Then the space is never removed.


File: latex.info,  Node: \makebox,  Next: \mbox,  Prev: \hspace,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\makebox
--------

Syntax:

     \makebox[width][position]{text}

The \makebox command creates a box to contain the text specified.  The
width of the box is specified by the optional width argument.  The
position of the text within the box is determined by the optional
position argument.

`c'
     centered (default)

`l'
     flushleft

`r'
     flushright


File: latex.info,  Node: \mbox,  Next: \medskip,  Prev: \makebox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\mbox
-----

Syntax:

     \mbox{text}

The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text
created by its argument.


File: latex.info,  Node: \medskip,  Next: \newsavebox,  Prev: \mbox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\medskip
--------

The \medskip command is equivalent to \vspace{medskipamount} where
medskipamount is determined by the document style.


File: latex.info,  Node: \newsavebox,  Next: \parbox,  Prev: \medskip,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\newsavebox
-----------

Syntax:

     \newsavebox{cmd}

Declares cmd, which must be a command name that is not already defined,
to be a bin for saving boxes.


File: latex.info,  Node: \parbox,  Next: \raisebox,  Prev: \newsavebox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\parbox
-------

Syntax:

     \parbox[position]{width}{text}

A parbox is a box whose contents are created in paragraph mode.  The
\parbox has two mandatory arguments:

width
     specifies the width of the parbox, and

text
     the text that goes inside the parbox.

LaTeX will position a parbox so its center lines up with the center of
the text line. An optional first argument, position, allows you to line
up either the top or bottom line in the parbox.

A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece of text,
with nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any of the
paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox argument.  For larger
pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making
environment, you should use a minipage environment.


File: latex.info,  Node: \raisebox,  Next: \rule,  Prev: \parbox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\raisebox
---------

Syntax:

     \raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text}

The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text.  The first
mandatory argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or
lowered if it is a negative amount).  The text itself is processed in LR
mode.

Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different size
than it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would normally
think it has.  The \raisebox command lets you tell LaTeX how tall it is.

The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think that the
text extends above the line by the amount specified.  The second
optional argument, extend-below, makes LaTeX think that the text extends
below the line by the amount specified.


File: latex.info,  Node: \rule,  Next: \savebox,  Prev: \raisebox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\rule
-----

Syntax:

     \rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness}

The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines.  The arguments
are defined as follows.

raise-height
     specifies how high to raise the rule (optional)

width
     specifies the length of the rule (mandatory)

thickness
     specifies the thickness of the rule (mandatory)


File: latex.info,  Node: \savebox,  Next: \smallskip,  Prev: \rule,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\savebox
--------

Syntax:

     \sbox{cmd}[text]
     
     \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}

These commands typeset text in a box just as for \mbox or \makebox.
However, instead of printing the resulting box, they save it in bin cmd,
which must have been declared with \newsavebox.


File: latex.info,  Node: \smallskip,  Next: \usebox,  Prev: \savebox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\smallskip
----------

Syntax:

     \smallskip

The \smallskip command is equivalent to \vspace{smallskipamount} where
smallskipamount is determined by the document style.


File: latex.info,  Node: \usebox,  Next: \vfill,  Prev: \smallskip,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\usebox
-------

Syntax:

     \usebox{cmd}

Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a \savebox command.


File: latex.info,  Node: \vfill,  Next: \vspace,  Prev: \usebox,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\vfill
------

The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or
shrink vertically.


File: latex.info,  Node: \vspace,  Prev: \vfill,  Up: Spaces and Boxes

\vspace
-------

Syntax:

     \vspace{length}
     \vspace*{length}

The \vspace command adds vertical space.  The length of the space can be
expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, e.g. points, inches, etc.
You can add negative as well as positive space with an \vspace command.

LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page.  If you
don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.
Then the space is never removed.


File: latex.info,  Node: Special Characters,  Next: Splitting the Input,  Prev: Spaces and Boxes,  Up: Commands

Special Characters
==================

The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called
special printing characters, or simply special characters.

     # $ % & _ \ { } ~ ^

Whenever you put one of these special characters into your file, you are
doing something special.  If you simply want the character to be printed
just as any other letter, include a \ in front of the character.  For
example, \$ will produce $ in your output.

Please note: \~ and \^ are accent commands; to get the accent alone,
type \~{} and \^{}.

The exception to the rule is the \ itself because \\ has its own special
meaning.  A \ is produced by typing $\backslash$ in your file.

* Menu:

* Accents::                     Accents
* German Special Characters::   German Special Characters


File: latex.info,  Node: Accents,  Next: German Special Characters,  Up: Special Characters

Accents
-------

Scholarly publications often refer to other languages, so LaTeX makes
it possible to typeset the most commonly used accents:

\`
     grave accent

\'
     acute accent

\^
     circumflex or "hat"

\"
     umlaut or dieresis

\~
     tilde or "squiggle"

\=
     macron or "bar"

\.
     dot (above) accent

\u
     breve accent

\v
     hachek or "check"

\H
     long Hungarian umlaut

\t
     tie-after accent

LaTeX also provides three accents that go underneath:

\c
     cedilla

\d
     dot (below) accent

\b
     bar-under accent

And there are a few special letters:

\oe
\OE
     French ligature oe

\ae
\AE
     Latin and Scandinavian ligature ae

\aa
\AA
     Scandinavian A-with-circle

\o
\O
     Scandinavian O-with-slash

\l
\L
     Polish suppressed-L

\ss
     German "es-zet" or sharp s


File: latex.info,  Node: German Special Characters,  Prev: Accents,  Up: Special Characters

German Special Characters
-------------------------

For convenient input of German texts see *Note german.sty::.


File: latex.info,  Node: Splitting the Input,  Next: Starting and Ending,  Prev: Special Characters,  Up: Commands

Splitting the Input
===================

A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole
input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into
several smaller ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run LaTeX.


File: latex.info,  Node: \include,  Next: \includeonly,  Up: Splitting the Input

\include
--------

Syntax:

     \include{file}

The \include command is used in conjunction with the \includeonly
command for selective inlcusion of files. The file argument is the first
name of a file, denoting `file.tex'. If file is one the file names in
the file list of the \includeonly command or if there is no
\includeonly command, the \include command is equivalent to

     \clearpage \input{file} \clearpage

except that if the file `file.tex' does not exist, then a warning
message rather than an error is produced. If the file is not in the file
list, the \include command is equivalent to \clearpage.

The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by
another \include command.


File: latex.info,  Node: \includeonly,  Next: \input,  Prev: \include,  Up: Splitting the Input

\includeonly
------------

Syntax:

     \includeonly{file_list}

The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in by an
\include command. It can only appear in the preamble.


File: latex.info,  Node: \input,  Prev: \includeonly,  Up: Splitting the Input

\input
------

Syntax:

     \input{file}

The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and processed,
exactly as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that
point. The file name may be a complete file name with extension or just
a first name, in which case the file `file.tex' is used.


File: latex.info,  Node: Starting and Ending,  Next: Table of Contents,  Prev: Splitting the Input,  Up: Commands

Starting and Ending
===================

Your input file must contain the following commands as a minimum.

     \documentstyle{style}
     
     \begin{document}
       ... your text goes here ...
     \end{document}

where the style selected is one the valid styles for LaTeX.  See
Document Styles within this help file.

You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentstyle and the
\begin{document} commands.


File: latex.info,  Node: Table of Contents,  Next: Terminal Input and Output,  Prev: Starting and Ending,  Up: Commands

Table of Contents
=================

A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents command.  You
put the command right where you want the table of contents to go; LaTeX
does the rest for you.  It produces a heading, but it does not
automatically start a new page.  If you want a new page after the table
of contents, include a \newpage command after the \tableofcontents
command.

There are similar commands \listoffigures and \listoftables for
producing a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.

NOTE: If you want a any of these items to be generated, you can not have
the \nofiles command in your document.


File: latex.info,  Node: \addcontentsline,  Next: \addtocontents,  Up: Table of Contents

\addcontentsline
----------------

Syntax:

     \addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry}

The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list or
table where `file' is the extension of the file on which information is
to be written:

   * toc (table of contents),

   * lof (list of figures), or

   * lot (list of tables).

`sec_unit' controls the formatting of the entry. It should be one of
the following, depending upon the value of the file argument:

toc
     the name of the sectional unit, such as part or subsection.

lof
     figure

lot
     table

`entry' is the text of the entry.


File: latex.info,  Node: \addtocontents,  Prev: \addcontentsline,  Up: Table of Contents

\addtocontents
--------------

Syntax:

     \addtocontents{file}{text}

The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly
to the file that generates the table of contents or list of figures or
tables.

`file' is the extension of the file on which information is to be
written:

   * toc (table of contents),

   * lof (list of figures), or

   * lot (list of tables)

`text' is the information to be written.


File: latex.info,  Node: Terminal Input and Output,  Next: Typefaces,  Prev: Table of Contents,  Up: Commands

Terminal Input and Output
=========================


File: latex.info,  Node: \typeout,  Next: \typein,  Up: Terminal Input and Output

\typeout
--------

Syntax:

     \typeout{msg}

Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. Commands in msg that are
defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand are replaced by their
definitions before being printed.

LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and
ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg. A \space command in
msg causes a single space to be printed.


File: latex.info,  Node: \typein,  Prev: \typeout,  Up: Terminal Input and Output

\typein
-------

Syntax:

     \typein[cmd]{msg}

Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to
type a line of input, ending with return. If the cmd argument is
missing, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the
input file in place of the \typein command. If the cmd argument is
present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or
redefined to be the typed input.


File: latex.info,  Node: Typefaces,  Prev: Terminal Input and Output,  Up: Commands

Typefaces
=========

The typeface is specified by giving the size and style.  A typeface is
also called a font.


File: latex.info,  Node: Styles,  Next: Sizes,  Up: Typefaces

Styles
------

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

`\rm'
     Roman.

`\it'
     Italics.

`\em'
     Emphasis (toggles between \it and \rm).

`\bf'
     Boldface.

`\sl'
     Slanted.

`\sf'
     Sans serif.

`\sc'
     Small caps.

`\tt'
     Typewriter.

Since italic and slanted styles slope to the right, some letters stick
into the following characters. Insert \/ at the end to correct this
effect (see example below).

Use the type style commands always inside a group, e.g.

     {\em Emphasized Text\/}


File: latex.info,  Node: Sizes,  Prev: Styles,  Up: Typefaces

Sizes
-----

The following type size commands are supported by LaTeX.

   * \tiny

   * \scriptsize

   * \footnotesize

   * \small

   * \normalsize (default)

   * \large

   * \Large (capital "l")

   * \LARGE (all caps)

   * \huge

   * \Huge (capital "h")

Usually you needn't set the type size explicitly because LaTeX
automatically chooses appropriate sizes. If you ever think you have to,
always do it inside a group, e.g.

     {\large large text}