path: root/info/tex-references/tex-refs.txt

References for TeX and Friends

Michael Wiedmann

   <mw at miwie dot in-berlin dot de>

   Copyright © ? Stephen Gilmore

   Copyright © ? Torsten Martinsen

   Copyright © 1988, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

   Copyright © 1994 - 1996 Torsten Martinsen

   Copyright © 2002, 2003 Peter Karp, Michael Wiedmann

   Copyright © 2004 - 2012 Michael Wiedmann

   License

   Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
   document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
   Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software
   Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts,
   and no Back-Cover Texts.
   Revision History
   Revision 0.4.1 2012-12-03
   Removed obsolete file still referenced in Makefile (no visible
   changes)
   Revision 0.2.0 2003-01-11
   License changed to GNU Free Documentation License.
   Revision 0.0.1 2002-06-21
   This version was adapted from the edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e
   documentation, converted to DocBook XML using texi2db, and
   further edited manually.
     __________________________________________________________

   Table of Contents

   Preface
   Credits
   1 TeX

        1 PlainTeX

              1.1 Overview

        2 LaTeX

              2.1 Options
              2.2 Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide
              2.3 Commands
              2.4 Parameters

        3 LaTeX Packages

              3.1 amsmath
              3.2 dcolumn
              3.3 float
              3.4 fontenc
              3.5 german
              3.6 graphics
              3.7 hyperref
              3.8 inputenc
              3.9 KOMA-Script
              3.10 mathpazo
              3.11 varioref
              3.12 Several Small Packages

        4 Generic Packages

              4.1 PiCTeX (tbd.)
              4.2 PSTricks

        5 fontinst (tbd.)
        6 ConTeXt (tbd.)

              6.1 Overview

        7 Texinfo (tbd.)

   2 pdfTeX

        1 Options

              1.1 --file-line-error-style
              1.2 --fmt format
              1.3 --help
              1.4 --ini
              1.5 --interaction mode
              1.6 --ipc
              1.7 --ipc-start
              1.8 --jobname name
              1.9 --kpathsea-debug bitmask
              1.10 --maketex fmt
              1.11 --no-maketex fmt
              1.12 --output-comment string
              1.13 --parse-first-line
              1.14 --progname name
              1.15 --recorder
              1.16 --shell-escape
              1.17 --translate-file tcxname
              1.18 --version

        2 Environment

   3 Metafont (tbd.)
   4 MetaPost

        1 Options

              1.1 --file-line-error-style
              1.2 --help
              1.3 --ini
              1.4 --interaction mode
              1.5 --jobname name
              1.6 --kpathsea-debug bitmask
              1.7 --mem mem
              1.8 --parse-first-line
              1.9 --progname name
              1.10 --recorder
              1.11 -T
              1.12 --translate-file tcxname
              1.13 --troff
              1.14 --version

        2 Environment

   5 BibTeX

        1 Parameters
        2 Command Qualifiers
        3 bib files

              3.1 @STRING command
              3.2 Entry Format
              3.3 Entry Types
              3.4 Field Text
              3.5 Field Types

        4 bst files

              4.1 ABBRV.BST
              4.2 ALPHA.BST
              4.3 PLAIN.BST
              4.4 SAMPLE.BST
              4.5 UNSRT.BST

   6 Make-Index

        1 Options

              1.1 -c
              1.2 -g
              1.3 -i
              1.4 -l
              1.5 -q
              1.6 -r
              1.7 -s sty
              1.8 -o ind
              1.9 -t log
              1.10 -p no
              1.11 -L
              1.12 -T

        2 Style File

              2.1 Input Style Specifiers
              2.2 Output Style Specifiers

        3 Example
        4 Ordering
        5 Special Effects

   7 xindy

        1 Command List

              1.1 Processing Commands
              1.2 Markup Commands
              1.3 Raw Index Interface

        2 Invoking xindy

              2.1 Command Line Options
              2.2 Search Path

   A Appendices

        1 Bugs / Known Issues / Missing Features
        2 About this Document
        3 Release News
        4 GNU Free Documentation License
        Index

   List of Tables

   1.1 Options for \newcommand
   1.2 Options for \newenvironment
   1.3 Options for \newtheorem
   1.4 Commands in a tabbing environment
   1.5 Commands used inside a tabular environment
   1.6 Standard styles distributed with BibTeX
   1.7 Three environments that put LaTeX in math mode
   1.8 Math Miscellany
   1.9 Typefaces
   1.10 Standard type size commands
   1.11 Low-level font commands
   1.12 Special coordinates and angles

Preface

   LaTeX2e is a document preparation system implemented as a macro
   package for Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program.

   LaTeX was originally conceived by Leslie Lamport.

   This updated LaTeX reference is by no means complete, but it's
   a first step towards a more complete LaTeX reference! We
   welcome if we'll get pointed to missing commands or even better
   when you make additions and further improvements and send them
   to the authors.

   TUG (TeX User Group) and DANTE (German TeX User Group) both
   have excellent FAQ's which answer many questions or give great
   pointers to additional resources both on the internet or in
   books. Most if not all missing packages can also be found on
   the CTAN servers.

   This reference is not meant to replace the package
   documentation or the standard literature like the LaTeX
   handbook and the LaTeX companion. Look there for detailed
   descriptions of the commands and even mostly more options and
   examples.

   The authors intend to extend this documentation to other TeX
   related packages (e.g. ConTeXt, MetaPost, Metafont, etc.).
   Contributions are very welcome!

Credits

   The following people have contributed substantial parts to this
   documentation project or helped in some other way (listed
   alphabetically):
     * Karl Berry
     * Wolfgang Borgert
     * Ramon Casellas
     * Holger Danielsson
     * James Devenish
     * Hubert Gaesslein
     * Peter Karp
     * Rolf Niepraschk
     * Hans Fredrik Nordhaug
     * Simon Pepping
     * Bob Stayton
     * Herbert Voss

Chapter 1. TeX

   Table of Contents

   1 PlainTeX

        1.1 Overview

   2 LaTeX

        2.1 Options
        2.2 Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide
        2.3 Commands
        2.4 Parameters

   3 LaTeX Packages

        3.1 amsmath
        3.2 dcolumn
        3.3 float
        3.4 fontenc
        3.5 german
        3.6 graphics
        3.7 hyperref
        3.8 inputenc
        3.9 KOMA-Script
        3.10 mathpazo
        3.11 varioref
        3.12 Several Small Packages

   4 Generic Packages

        4.1 PiCTeX (tbd.)
        4.2 PSTricks

   5 fontinst (tbd.)
   6 ConTeXt (tbd.)

        6.1 Overview

   7 Texinfo (tbd.)

1 PlainTeX

1.1 Overview

   For a really excellent reference of all TeX primitive control
   sequences see David Bausum's TeX Primitive Control Sequences.

2 LaTeX

Note

   The original file latex2e.texi contains the following copyright
   and permission notice:

   “Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies
   of this manual provided the copyright notice and this
   permission notice are preserved on all copies.”

   “Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions
   of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying,
   provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed
   under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.”

2.1 Options

   LaTeX understands the following command line options.

2.1.1 -file-line-error-style

   Print error messages in the form file:line:error.

2.1.2 -fmt=FMTNAME

   Use FMTMAME instead of program name or a %& line.

2.1.3 -ini

   Be initex, for dumping formats; this is implicitly true if the
   program is called as initex.

2.1.4 -interaction=STRING

   Set interaction mode
   (STRING=batchmode/nonstopmode/scrollmode/errorstopmode).

2.1.5 -ipc

   Send DVI output to a socket as well as the usual output file.

   Note: not available on all systems.

2.1.6 -ipc-start

   As -ipc, and also start the server at the other end.

   Note: not available on all systems.

2.1.7 -jobname=STRING

   Set the job name to STRING.

2.1.8 -kpathsea-debug=NUMBER

   Sets path searching debugging flags according to the bits of
   NUMBER.

2.1.9 [-no]-maketex=FMT

   Disable/enable mktexFMT generation (FMT=tex/tfm).

2.1.10 -mltex

   Enable MLTeX extensions such as \charsubdef.

2.1.11 -output-comment=STRING

   use STRING for DVI file comment instead of date.

2.1.12 -parse-first-line

   Parse of the first line of the input file.

2.1.13 -progname=STRING

   Set program (and fmt) name to STRING.

2.1.14 -recorder

   Enable filename recorder.

2.1.15 -shell-escape

   Enable \write18{SHELL COMMAND}.

2.1.16 -src-specials

   Insert source specials into the DVI file.

2.1.17 -src-specials=WHERE

   Insert source specials in certain places of the DVI file. WHERE
   is a comma-separated value list: cr display hbox math par
   parend vbox.

2.1.18 -translate-file=TCXNAME

   Use the TCX file TCXNAME.

2.1.19 -help

   Display this help and exit.

2.1.20 -version

   Output version information and exit.

2.2 Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide

   The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program
   and the LaTeX Macro package for TeX. To be more specific, it
   processes an input file containing the text of a document with
   interspersed commands that describe how the text should be
   formatted. It produces at least three files as output:
    1. A Device Independent, or .dvi file. This contains commands
       that can be translated into commands for a variety of
       output devices. You can view the output of LaTeX by using a
       program such as xdvi, which actually uses the .dvi file.
    2. A transcript or .log file that contains summary information
       and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the
       input file.
    3. An auxiliary or .aux file. This is used by LaTeX itself,
       for things such as sectioning.

   For a description of what goes on inside TeX, you should
   consult The TeXbook by Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-13448-9,
   published jointly by the American Mathematical Society and
   Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

   For a description of LaTeX, you should consult:

   LaTeX: A Document Preparation System, by Leslie Lamport,
   Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2nd edition, 1994.

   The LaTeX Companion, by Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, and
   Alexander Samarin, Addison-Wesley, 1994.

2.3 Commands

   A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of
   a \ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single
   non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], are
   optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are required.

   NOTE: LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case
   unless explicitly directed to do otherwise.

2.3.1 Counters

   Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with
   it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the
   environment or command that produces the number, except with no
   \ (enumi - enumiv are used for the nested enumerate
   environment). Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's
   standard document classes to control numbering.
part            paragraph       figure          enumi
chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
section         page            footnote        enumiii
subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
subsubsection

\addtocounter

   The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the amount
   specified by the value argument. The value argument can be
   negative.

\alph{counter}

   This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in
   alphabetic characters. The \alph command uses lower case
   alphabetic alphabetic characters, i.e., a, b, c... while the
   \Alph command uses upper case alphabetic characters, i.e., A,
   B, C....

\arabic{counter}

   The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be
   printed in Arabic numbers, i.e., 3.

\fnsymbol{counter}

   The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to be
   printed in a specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used
   for numbering footnotes.

   NB. counter must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive.

\newcounter{foo}[counter]

   The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo. The
   counter is initialized to zero.

   The optional argument [counter] causes the counter foo to be
   reset whenever the counter named in the optional argument is
   incremented.

\refstepcounter{counter}

   The \refstepcounter command works like \stepcounter. See
   \stepcounter, except it also defines the current \ref value to
   be the result of \thecounter.

\roman{counter}

   This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in
   Roman numerals. The \roman command uses lower case Roman
   numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii..., while the \Roman command uses
   upper case Roman numerals, i.e., I, II, III....

\stepcounter{counter}

   The \stepcounter command adds one to the counter and resets all
   subsidiary counters.

\setcounter{counter}{value}

   The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to that
   specified by the value argument.

\usecounter{counter}

   The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the
   list environment to allow the counter specified to be used to
   number the list items.

\value{counter}

   The \value command produces the value of the counter named in
   the mandatory argument. It can be used where LaTeX expects an
   integer or number, such as the second argument of a \setcounter
   or \addtocounter command, or in:
\hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}

   It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters.

2.3.2 Cross References

   One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is
   to refer the reader to them, as in See Figure 3 for more
   details. A smarter version of the cross reference commands is
   available in the package varioref.

\label{key}

   A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the key
   the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside
   a numbered environment assigns that number to the key.

   A key can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or
   punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are
   different.

   To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name,
   it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix
   separated by a colon. The prefixes conventionally used are
     * cha for chapters
     * sec for lower-level sectioning commands
     * fig for figures
     * tab for tables
     * eq for equations

   Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:bandersnatch.

\pageref{key}

   The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in
   the text where the corresponding \label command appears. ie.
   where \label{key} appears. For a smart version see \vpageref.

\ref{key}

   The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit,
   equation number, ... of the corresponding \label command. For a
   smart version see \vref.

2.3.3 Definitions

\newcommand

\newcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
\newcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
\renewcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
\renewcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}

   These commands define (or redefine) a command.

   Table 1.1. Options for \newcommand
   cmd A command name beginning with a \. For \newcommand it must
   not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for
   \renewcommand it must already be defined.
   args An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
   the command being defined. The default is for the command to
   have no arguments.
   def If this optional parameter is present, it means that the
   command's first argument is optional. The default value of the
   optional argument is def.
   definition The text to be substituted for every occurrence of
   cmd; a parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text
   of the nth argument when this substitution takes place.

\newenvironment

\newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment{nam}[args][default]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}

   These commands define or redefine an environment.

   Table 1.2. Options for \newenvironment
   nam     The name of the environment. For \newenvironment there must
           be no currently defined environment by that name, and the
           command \nam must be undefined. For \renewenvironment the
           environment must already be defined.
   args    An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
           the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments.
           Arguments can only be used in te {begdef} part.
   default If this is specified, the first argument is optional,
           and default gives the default value for that argument.
   begdef  The text substituted for every occurrence of
           \begin{nam}; a parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by
           the text of the nth argument when this substitution takes
           place.
   enddef  The text substituted for every occurrence of \end{nam}.
           It may not contain any argument parameters.

\newtheorem

\newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
\newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}

   This command defines a theorem-like environment.

   Table 1.3. Options for \newtheorem
   env_name The name of the environment to be defined. A string of
   letters. It must not be the name of an existing environment or
   counter.
   caption The text printed at the beginning of the environment,
   right before the number. This may simply say Theorem, for
   example.
   within The name of an already defined counter, usually of a
   sectional unit. Provides a means of resetting the new theorem
   counter within the sectional unit.
   numbered_like The name of an already defined theorem-like
   environment.

   The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument.

\newfont

   \newfont{cmd}{font_name}

   Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently
   defined, to be a declaration that selects the font named
   font_name to be the current font.

2.3.4 Document Classes

   Valid LaTeX document classes include:
     * article
     * report
     * letter
     * book
     * slides

   Other document classes are often available. See Overview, for
   details. They are selected with the following command:

   \documentclass [options] {class}

   All the standard classes (except slides) accept the following
   options for selecting the typeface size (10pt is default):

   10pt, 11pt, 12pt

   All classes accept these options for selecting the paper size
   (default is letter):

   a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, letterpaper, legalpaper,
   executivepaper

   Miscellaneous options:
     * landscape --- selects landscape format. Default is
       portrait.
     * titlepage, notitlepage --- selects if there should be a
       separate title page.
     * leqno --- equation number on left side of equations.
       Default is right side.
     * fleqn --- displayed formulas flush left. Default is
       centered.
     * openbib --- use open bibliography format.
     * draft, final --- mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a
       rule. Default is final.

   These options are not available with the slides class:
     * oneside, twoside --- selects one- or twosided layout.
       Default is oneside, except for the book class.
     * openright, openany --- determines if a chapter should start
       on a right-hand page. Default is openright for book.
     * onecolumn, twocolumn --- one or two columns. Defaults to
       one column.

   The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time
   at the bottom of each note.

   If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by
   a comma.

   Additional packages are loaded by a

   \usepackage[options]{pkg}

   command. If you specify more than one package, they must be
   separated by a comma.

   Any options given in the \documentclass command that are
   unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the
   packages loaded with \usepackage.

2.3.5 Layout

   Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of
   the page.

\flushbottom

   The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
   height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out
   the page.

   This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.

\onecolumn

   The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
   single-column output.

\raggedbottom

   The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the
   text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.

\twocolumn

   \twocolumn[text]

   The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
   two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it
   is typeset in one-column mode.

2.3.6 Environments

   LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making
   environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same
   manner.
\begin{environment-name}
 .
 .
 .
\end{environment-name}

array

\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{array}

   Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a
   single mandatory argument describing the number of columns and
   the alignment within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a
   single letter that tells how items in that row should be
   formatted.
     * c --- for centered
     * l --- for flush left
     * r --- for flush right

   Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
   include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be
   terminated with the string \\.

   Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode,
   so normally it is used inside an equation environment.

center

\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{center}

   The center environment allows you to create a paragraph
   consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right
   margins on the current page. Each line must be terminated with
   the string \\.

\centering

   This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
   declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or
   in a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centered on
   the page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of
   the figure or table environment.

   Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not
   start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
   paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope
   of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command
   (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.

description

\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
 .
 .
 .
\end{description}

   The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The
   label is bold face and flushed right.

enumerate

\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
 .
 .
 .
\end{enumerate}

   The enumerate environment produces a numbered list.
   Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four
   levels deep. They can also be nested within other
   paragraph-making environments.

   Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
   There must be at least one \item command within the
   environment.

   The enumerate environment uses the enumi through enumiv
   counters (see Counters). The type of numbering can be changed
   by redefining \theenumi etc.

eqnarray

\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{eqnarray}

   The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
   equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
   array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ and
   consecutive items within a row separated by an &.

   An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has
   a \nonumber command.

   The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
   lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in
   a box of zero width.

equation

\begin{equation}
 math formula
\end{equation}

   The equation environment centers your equation on the page and
   places the equation number in the right margin.

figure

\begin{figure}[placement]

 body of the figure

\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}

   Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and
   are usually floated to a convenient place, like the top of a
   page. Figures will not be split between two pages.

   The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will
   try to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can
   possibly put a float:
    1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure
       environment appears.
    2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
    3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
    4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a
       page containing no text, only floats.

   The standard report and article classes use the default
   placement tbp.

   The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX
   commands, etc. you wish. The \caption command allows you to
   title your figure.

flushleft

\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{flushleft}

   The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
   consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand
   margin. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.

\raggedright

   This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This
   declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or
   in a parbox.

   Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does
   not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
   paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope
   of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command
   (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.

flushright

\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{flushright}

   The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
   consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand
   margin. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.

\raggedleft

   This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment.
   This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
   quote or in a parbox.

   Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does
   not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
   paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope
   of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command
   (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.

itemize

\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
 .
 .
 .
\end{itemize}

   The itemize environment produces a bulleted list. Itemizations
   can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They
   can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments.

   Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.
   There must be at least one \item command within the
   environment.

   The itemize environment uses the itemi through itemiv counters
   (see Counters). The type of numbering can be changed by
   redefining \theitemi etc.

letter

   This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.

list

   The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
   defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom
   used in documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
 .
 .
 .
\end{list}

   The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
   This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to
   form the label. This argument can and usually does contain
   other LaTeX commands.

   The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
   parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null,
   i.e., {}. This will select all default spacing which should
   suffice for most cases.

minipage

\begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width}
 text
\end{minipage}

   The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command. It
   takes the same optional position argument and mandatory width
   argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
   inside a minipage.

   Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that
   is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or
   tables. A \footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote
   at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the
   page, and it uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the
   ordinary footnote counter See Counters.

   NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using
   footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong
   minipage.

picture

\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
 .
 .
 picture commands
 .
 .
\end{picture}

   The picture environment allows you to create just about any
   kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and
   circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by
   specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may
   have a decimal point and a minus sign --- a number like 5, 2.3
   or -3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the
   unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,
   then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54
   centimetres. You can change the value of \unitlength anywhere
   you want, using the \setlength command, but strange things will
   happen if you try changing it inside the picture environment.

   A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5),
   specifying the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
   Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an
   origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the
   picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it
   is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the
   argument.

   The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
   position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
   produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by
   this argument's x- and y-coordinates.

   The picture environment also has an optional position argument,
   following the size argument, that can change the origin.
   (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
   contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
   coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the
   picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if
   \unitlength has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)

   produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200
   millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and
   whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When
   you first draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument,
   leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want
   to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the
   appropriate optional argument.

   The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal
   size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large
   the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put
   things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's
   nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to
   leave for it.

   Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put
   command. The command
\put (11.3,-.3){...}

   puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its
   reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points
   for various objects will be described below.

   The \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything in the
   text argument of the \put command that you'd put into the
   argument of an \mbox and related commands. When you do this,
   the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box.

   Picture commands:

\circle{diameter}, \circle*{diameter}

   The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close
   to the specified one as possible. If the *-form of the command
   is used, LaTeX draws a solid circle.

   Note that only circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.

\dashbox

   Draws a box with a dashed line.

   \dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){...}

   The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width of
   each dash. A dashed box looks best when the width and height
   are multiples of the dash_length.

\frame{...}

   The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object
   specified in the argument. The reference point is the bottom
   left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the
   frame and the object.

\framebox(width,height)[position]{...}

   The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox
   command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the
   box that it creates.

   The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule,
   and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents
   of the box.

\line(x slope,y slope){length}

   The \line command draws a line of the specified length and
   slope.

   Note that LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x
   and y have integer values from -6 through 6.

\linethickness{dimension}

   Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a
   picture environment to be dimension, which must be a positive
   length. It does not affect the thickness of slanted lines and
   circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval to form the
   corners of an oval.

\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}

   The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to
   the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a
   width and height in multiples of \unitlength.

   The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that
   your text appears in. You may select up to two of the
   following:
     * t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle
     * b - Moves the item to the bottom
     * l - Moves the item to the left
     * r - Moves the item to the right

   See \makebox.

\multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object}

   The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the same
   object in a regular pattern across a picture.

\oval(width,height)[portion]

   The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.
   The optional argument, [portion], allows you to select part of
   the oval.
     * t - Selects the top portion
     * b - Selects the bottom portion
     * r - Selects the right portion
     * l - Selects the left portion

   Note that the corners of the oval are made with quarter circles
   with a maximum radius of 20 pt, so large ovals will look more
   like boxes with rounded corners.

\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }

   The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory
   argument at the given coordinates.

\shortstack[position]{... \\ ... \\ ...}

   The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid
   positions are:
     * r - Moves the objects to the right of the stack
     * l - Moves the objects to the left of the stack
     * c - Moves the objects to the centre of the stack (default)

\vector(x slope,y slope){length}

   The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
   length and slope. The x and y values must lie between -4 and
   +4, inclusive.

quotation

\begin{quotation}
 text
\end{quotation}

   The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the
   left and the right. The text is justified at both margins and
   there is paragraph indentation. Leaving a blank line between
   text produces a new paragraph.

quote

\begin{quote}
 text
\end{quote}

   The margins of the quote environment are indented on the left
   and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a
   blank line between text produces a new paragraph.

tabbing

\begin{tabbing}
text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
second row \>  \> more \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{tabbing}

   The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in
   columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much
   the way you do with an ordinary typewriter.

   It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is
   constant and known in advance.

   This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular
   environment.

   The following commands can be used inside a tabbing
   environment:

   Table 1.4. Commands in a tabbing environment
   \= Sets a tab stop at the current position.
   \> Advances to the next tab stop.
   \< This command allows you to put something to the left of the
   local margin without changing the margin. Can only be used at
   the start of the line.
   \+ Moves the left margin of the next and all the following
   commands one tab stop to the right.
   \- Moves the left margin of the next and all the following
   commands one tab stop to the left.
   \' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current
   column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\, or
   \kill command, to the right of the previous column, flush
   against the current column's tab stop.
   \` Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop,
   including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right
   of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The \`
   command moves all the text that follows it, up to the \\ or
   \end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to the right margin
   of the tabbing environment. There must be no \> or \' command
   between the \` and the command that ends the line.
   \kill Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\
   except that it throws away the current line instead of
   producing output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \-
   commands in that line remain in effect.
   \pushtabs Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for
   temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a
   tabbing environment.
   \poptabs Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last
   \pushtabs.
   \a In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and \` do not
   produce accents as normal. Instead, the commands \a=, \a' and
   \a` are used.

   This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional
   format:
\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
    \> begin \= \+ \\
        \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
                  fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
              else \+ \\
                  fact := 1; \-\- \\
              end;\\
\end{tabbing}

table

\begin{table}[placement]

 body of the table

\caption{table title}
\end{table}

   Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and
   are usually floated to a convenient place, like the top of a
   page. Tables will not be split between two pages.

   The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will
   try to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can
   possibly put a float:
     * h : Here - at the position in the text where the table
       environment appears.
     * t : Top - at the top of a text page.
     * b : Bottom - at the bottom of a text page.
     * p : Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a
       page containing no text, only floats.

   The standard report and article classes use the default
   placement [tbp].

   The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX
   commands, etc., you wish. The \caption command allows you to
   title your table.

tabular

\begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{tabular}

   or
\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{tabular*}

   These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of
   rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. The mandatory and
   optional arguments consist of:

   Table 1.5. Commands used inside a tabular environment
   width Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There
         must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill
         out the specified width.
   pos   Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on
         the centre of the environment.
           * t - align on top row
           * b - align on bottom row

   cols  Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence
         of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of
         columns and intercolumn material.
           * l - A column of left-aligned items.
           * r - A column of right-aligned items.
           * c - A column of centred items.
           * | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the
             environment.
           * @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression
             suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between
             columns; any desired space between the inserted text and
             the adjacent items must be included in text. An
             \extracolsep{wd} command in an @-expression causes an extra
             space of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent
             columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep
             command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra
             space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An \extracolsep
             command can be used only in an @-expression in the cols
             argument.
           * p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a
             parbox of width wd, as if it were the argument of a
             \parbox[t]{wd} command. However, a \\ may not appear in the
             item, except in the following situations:
               1. inside an environment like minipage, array, or
                  tabular.
               2. inside an explicit \parbox.
               3. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or
                  \raggedleft declaration. The latter declarations must
                  appear inside braces or an environment when used in a
                  p-column element.
           * *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num
             is any positive integer and cols is any list of
             column-specifiers, which may contain another *-expression.

   These commands can be used inside a tabular environment:

\cline{i-j}

   The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns
   specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, which
   are identified in the mandatory argument.

\hline

   The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of the
   table. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top,
   bottom, and between the rows of the table.

\multicolumn

   \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}

   The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several
   columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the
   number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos,
   specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centred, l for
   flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument,
   text, specifies what text is to make up the entry.

\vline

   The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full
   height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to
   move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in
   an @-expression.

thebibliography

\begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
 .
 .
 .
\end{thebibliography}

   The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or
   reference list. In the article class, this reference list is
   labelled References; in the report class, it is labelled
   Bibliography.
     * widest-label: Text that, when printed, is approximately as
       wide as the widest item label produces by the \bibitem
       commands.

\bibitem[label]{cite_key}

   The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. If
   the label argument is missing, a number is generated as the
   label, using the enumi counter. The cite_key is any sequence of
   letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a
   comma. This command writes an entry on the .aux file containing
   cite_key and the item's label. When this .aux file is read by
   the \begin{document} command, the item's label is associated
   with cite_key, causing the reference to cite_key by a \cite
   command to produce the associated label.

\cite[text]{key_list}

   The key_list argument is a list of citation keys. This command
   generates an in-text citation to the references associated with
   the keys in key_list by entries on the .aux file read by the
   \begin{document} command.

   The optional text argument will appear after the citation, i.e.
   \cite[p.~2f.]{knuth} might produce `[Knuth, p. 2]'.

   The package cite.sty allows a line break in the \cite reference
   and can sort numerical entries.

   overcite.sty makes citations like footnotes.

\nocite{key_list}

   The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list,
   which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file.
   \nocite{*} uses all entries from the BibTeX database.

Using BibTeX

   If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly
   recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of
   titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the
   thebibliography environment. Instead, you include the lines
\bibliographystyle{style}
\bibliography{bibfile}

   where style refers to a file style.bst, which defines how your
   citations will look.

   Table 1.6. Standard styles distributed with BibTeX
   alpha Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of
         author and year of publication.
   plain Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
   unsrt Like plain, but entries are in order of citation.
   abbrv Like plain, but more compact labels.

   In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored
   to the demands of various publications.

   The argument to \bibliography refers to the file bibfile.bib,
   which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the
   entries referred to via \cite and \nocite will be listed in the
   bibliography.

theorem

\begin{theorem}
 theorem text
\end{theorem}

   The theorem environment produces Theorem x in boldface followed
   by your theorem text.

titlepage

\begin{titlepage}
 text
\end{titlepage}

   The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e. a page
   with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the
   following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title
   page is left to you. The \today command comes in handy for
   title pages.

   Note that you can use the \maketitle (see \maketitle) command
   to produce a standard title page.

verbatim

\begin{verbatim}
 text
\end{verbatim}

   The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that
   gets LaTeX to print exactly what you type in. It turns LaTeX
   into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the
   same effect that they would on a typewriter.

\verb char literal_text char \verb*char literal_text char

   Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special
   characters and spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style.
   There may be no space between \verb or \verb* and char (space
   is shown here only for clarity). The *-form differs only in
   that spaces are printed

verse

\begin{verse}
 text
\end{verse}

   The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may
   find other uses for it.

   The margins are indented on the left and the right. Separate
   the lines of each stanza with \\, and use one or more blank
   lines to separate the stanzas.

2.3.7 Footnotes

   Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be
   produced with one command, the \footnote command. They can also
   be produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the
   \footnotetext commands. See the specific command for
   information on why you would use one over the other.

\footnote[number]{text}

   The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at the
   bottom of the current page. The optional argument, number, is
   used to change the default footnote number. This command can
   only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it
   in sectioning commands like \chapter, in figures, tables or in
   a tabular environment.

\footnotemark

   The \footnotemark command puts the footnote number in the text.
   This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. The text of
   the footnote is supplied by the \footnotetext command.

   This command can be used to produce several consecutive
   footnote markers referring to the same footnote by using

   \footnotemark[\value{footnote}]

   after the first \footnote command.

\footnotetext[number]{text}

   The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed at the
   bottom of the page. This command can come anywhere after the
   \footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must appear in
   outer paragraph mode.

   The optional argument, number, is used to change the default
   footnote number.

2.3.8 Lengths

   A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a
   length as an argument.

\newlength

   \newlength{\gnat}

   The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, \gnat,
   as a length command with a value of 0in. An error occurs if a
   \gnat command already exists.

\setlength

   \setlength{\gnat}{length}

   The \setlength command is used to set the value of a length
   command. The length argument can be expressed in any terms of
   length LaTeX understands, i.e., inches (in), millimetres (mm),
   points (pt), etc.

\addtolength

   \addtolength{\gnat}{length}

   The \addtolength command increments length command by the
   amount specified in the length argument. It can be a negative
   amount.

\settodepth

   \settodepth{\gnat}{text}

   The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command
   equal to the depth of the text argument.

\settoheight

   \settoheight{\gnat}{text}

   The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command
   equal to the height of the text argument.

\settowidth

   \settowidth{\gnat}{text}

   The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command
   equal to the width of the text argument.

Predefined lengths

   \width

   \height

   \depth

   \totalheight

   These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the
   box-making commands See Spaces & Boxes. They specify the
   natural width etc. of the text in the box. \totalheight equals
   \height + \depth. To make a box with the text stretched to
   double the natural size, e.g., say

   \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}

2.3.9 Letters

   You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and
   business. The letter document class is designed to make a
   number of letters at once, although you can make just one if
   you so desire.

   Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the
   other document classes, i.e., you must have the following
   commands as a minimum:
\documentclass{letter}
\begin{document}
 ... letters ...
\end{document}

   Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name
   and address of the recipient. For example, you might have:
\begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.\\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
  ...
\end{letter}

   The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of
   the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input.
   Commands that make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not
   work. The letter closes with a \closing command.

   After the closing, you can have additional material. The \cc
   command produces the usual cc: .... There's also a similar
   \encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these
   commands, use \\ to separate the items.

   These commands are used with the letter class:

\address

   \address{Return address}

   The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the
   envelope. Separate lines of the address should be separated by
   \\ commands. If you do not make an \address declaration, then
   the letter will be formatted for copying onto your
   organisation's standard letterhead. (See Overview, for details
   on your local implementation). If you give an \address
   declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a personal
   letter.

\cc

   \cc{Kate Schechter\\Rob McKenna}

   Generate a list of other persons the letter was sent to. Each
   name is printed on a separate line.

\closing

   \closing{text}

   The letter closes with a \closing command, i.e.,
\closing{Best Regards,}

\encl

   \encl{CV\\Certificates}

   Generate a list of enclosed material.

\location

   \location{address}

   This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only
   appears if the firstpage pagestyle is selected.

\makelabels

   \makelabels{number}

   If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a
   sheet of address labels. This sheet will be output before the
   letters.

\name

   \name{June Davenport}

   Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the
   return address.

\opening

   \opening{text}

   The letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory
   argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter,
   i.e.,
\opening{Dear Joe,}

\ps

   \ps

   Use this command before a postscript.

\signature

   \signature{Harvey Swick}

   Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter
   underneath the space for your signature. Items that should go
   on separate lines should be separated by \\ commands.

\startbreaks

   \startbreaks

   Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again.

\stopbreaks

   \stopbreaks

   Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs.

\telephone

   \telephone{number}

   This is your telephone number. This only appears if the
   firstpage pagestyle is selected.

2.3.10 Line & Page Breaking

   The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to
   translate your input file into a string of glyphs and spaces.
   To produce a printed document, this string must be broken into
   lines, and these lines must be broken into pages. In some
   environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the \\
   command, but LaTeX usually does it for you.

\\

   \\[extra-space], \\*[extra-space]

   The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an
   optional argument, extra-space, that specifies how much extra
   vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can
   be a negative amount.

   The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command except
   that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.

\-

   The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at
   that point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will
   usually find all correct hyphenation points. The \- command is
   used for the exceptional cases.

   Note that when you insert \- commands in a word, the word will
   only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the
   hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.

\cleardoublepage

   The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes
   all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input
   to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the
   next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank
   page if necessary.

\clearpage

   The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all
   figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be
   printed.

\enlargethispage

   \enlargethispage{size}

   \enlargethispage*{size}

   Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified
   amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one
   additional line.

   The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the
   page as much as possible. This is normally used together with
   an explicit \pagebreak.

\samepage

   \samepage

   The object in the argument {} should be on the current page.

\fussy

   \fussy

   This declaration (which is the default) makes TeX more fussy
   about line breaking. This can avoids too much space between
   words, but may produce overfull boxes.

   This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command.
   \sloppy

\hyphenation

   \hyphenation{words}

   The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points,
   where words is a list of words, separated by spaces, in which
   each hyphenation point is indicated by a - character.

\linebreak

   \linebreak[number]

   The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at
   the point of the command. With the optional argument, number,
   you can convert the \linebreak command from a demand to a
   request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher
   the number, the more insistent the request is.

   The \linebreak command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it
   extends to the right margin.

\newline

   The \newline command breaks the line right where it is. It can
   only be used in paragraph mode.

\newpage

   The \newpage command ends the current page. In contrast to
   \pagebreak it can produce a partly empty page, even when
   \flushbottom is active.

\nolinebreak

   \nolinebreak[number]

   The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the
   current line at the point of the command. With the optional
   argument, number, you can convert the \nolinebreak command from
   a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4.
   The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

\nopagebreak

   \nopagebreak[number]

   The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the
   current page at the point of the command. With the optional
   argument, number, you can convert the \nopagebreak command from
   a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4.
   The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

\pagebreak

   \pagebreak[number]

   The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at
   the point of the command. With the optional argument, number,
   you can convert the \pagebreak command from a demand to a
   request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher
   the number, the more insistent the request is.

\sloppy

   \sloppy

   This declaration makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This
   can prevent overfull boxes, but may leave too much space
   between words.

   Lasts until a \fussy command is issued. \fussy.

2.3.11 Making Paragraphs

   A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines ---
   lines not containing even a %. A blank line should not appear
   where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode
   or in the argument of a sectioning command.

\indent

   \indent

   This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width
   of the paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph
   indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.

\noindent

   \noindent

   When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the
   paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle
   of a paragraph.

\par

   Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or
   environment definitions easier to read.

2.3.12 Margin Notes

   The command \marginpar[left]{right} creates a note in the
   margin. The first line will be at the same height as the line
   in the text where the \marginpar occurs.

   When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text
   will be placed
     * in the right margin for one-sided layout
     * in the outside margin for two-sided layout
     * in the nearest margin for two-column layout.

   By issuing the command \reversemarginpar, you can force the
   marginal notes to go into the opposite (inside) margin.

   When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left
   margin, and right is used for the right margin.

   The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
   hyphenation by prefixing the first word with a \hspace{0pt}
   command.

2.3.13 Math Formulae

   Table 1.7. Three environments that put LaTeX in math mode
   math        For Formulae that appear right in the text.
   displaymath For Formulae that appear on their own line.
   equation    The same as the displaymath environment except that it
               adds an equation number in the right margin.

   The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode,
   but the displaymath and equation environments can be used only
   in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath environments are
   used so often that they have the following short forms:
\(...\)     instead of     \begin{math}...\end{math}

\[...\]     instead of     \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

   In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even
   shorter form:
$ ... $     instead of     \(...\)

Subscripts & Superscripts

   To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just
   type _{exp} . To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type
   ^{exp }. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of
   that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing
   when something has both a subscript and a superscript.

Math Symbols

Spacing in Math Mode

   In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and
   puts in the spacing that it thinks is best. LaTeX formats
   mathematics the way it's done in mathematics texts. If you want
   different spacing, LaTeX provides the following four commands
   for use in math mode:
    1. \; - a thick space
    2. \: - a medium space
    3. \, - a thin space
    4. \! - a negative thin space

Math Miscellany

   Table 1.8. Math Miscellany
   \cdots Produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are raised
   to the centre of the line.
   \ddots Produces a diagonal ellipsis.
   \frac{num}{den} Produces the fraction num divided by den.
   \ldots Produces an ellipsis. This command works in any mode,
   not just math mode.
   \overbrace{text} Generates a brace over text.
   \overline{text} Causes the argument text to be overlined.
   \sqrt[root]{arg} Produces the square root of its argument. The
   optional argument, root, determines what root to produce, i.e.,
   the cube root of x+y would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$.
   \underbrace{text} Generates text with a brace underneath.
   \underline{text} Causes the argument text to be underlined.
   This command can also be used in paragraph and LR modes.
   \vdots Produces a vertical ellipsis.
   \ensuremath{} It's argument is set in math mode. This is needed
   for own definitions.

2.3.14 Modes

   When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one
   of three modes:
     * paragraph mode
     * Math mode
     * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

   LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to
   a different level, though not all level changes produce mode
   changes. Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an
   environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of
   certain text-producing commands.

   Paragraph mode is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in
   when processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your
   text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in
   math mode when it's generating a mathematical formula. In LR
   mode, as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it
   produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.
   However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to
   right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a
   hundred words into an \mbox, LaTeX would keep typesetting them
   from left to right inside a single box, and then complain
   because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.

   LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox
   command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the
   box - for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a
   formula in the box. There are also several text-producing
   commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX in
   paragraph mode. The box make by one of these commands or
   environments will be called a parbox. When LaTeX is in
   paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in inner
   paragraph mode. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out
   in, is called outer paragraph mode.

2.3.15 Page Styles

   The \documentclass command determines the size and position of
   the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes
   in them.

\maketitle

   \maketitle

   The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title
   page. In the article class, \maketitle will also switch to
   pagestyle plain. See Page Styles for commands to change page
   numbering.

   Information used to produce the title is obtained from the
   following declarations:

   See Page Styles for the commands to give the information.

\author

   \author{names}

   The \author command declares the author(s), where names is a
   list of authors separated by \and commands. Use \\ to separate
   lines within a single author's entry -- for example, to give
   the author's institution or address.

\date

   \date{text}

   The \date command declares text to be the document's date. With
   no \date command, the current date is used.

\thanks

   \thanks{text}

   The \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title.

\title

   \title{text}

   The \title command declares text to be the title. Use \\ to
   tell LaTeX where to start a new line in a long title.

\pagenumbering

   \pagenumbering{num_style}

   Specifies the style of page numbers. Possible values of
   num_style are:
     * arabic - Arabic numerals
     * roman - Lowercase Roman numerals
     * Roman - Uppercase Roman numerals
     * alph - Lowercase letters
     * Alph - Uppercase letters

\pagestyle

   \pagestyle{option}

   The \pagestyle command changes the style from the current page
   on throughout the remainder of your document.

   The valid options are:
     * plain - Just a plain page number.
     * empty - Produces empty heads and feet - no page numbers.
     * headings - Puts running headings on each page. The document
       style specifies what goes in the headings.
     * myheadings - You specify what is to go in the heading with
       the \markboth or the \markright commands.

\markboth

\markboth{left head}{right head}

   The \markboth command is used in conjunction with the page
   style myheadings for setting both the left and the right
   heading. You should note that a left-hand heading is generated
   by the last \markboth command before the end of the page, while
   a right-hand heading is generated by the first \markboth or
   \markright that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by
   the last one before the page.

\markright

\markright{right head}

   The \markright command is used in conjunction with the page
   style myheadings for setting the right heading, leaving the
   left heading unchanged. You should note that a left-hand
   heading is generated by the last \markboth command before the
   end of the page, while a right-hand heading is generated by the
   first \markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there
   is one, otherwise by the last one before the page.

\thispagestyle

   \thispagestyle{option}

   The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the
   \pagestyle command except that it changes the style for the
   current page only.

2.3.16 Sectioning

   Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text
   into units.
     * \part
     * \chapter (report and book class only)
     * \section
     * \subsection
     * \subsubsection
     * \paragraph
     * \subparagraph

   All sectioning commands take the same general form, i.e.,

   \chapter[optional]{title}

   In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory
   argument of the sectioning command can appear in two other
   places:
    1. The table of contents
    2. The running head at the top of the page

   You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two
   places as appears in the text heading. To handle this
   situation, the sectioning commands have an optional argument
   that provides the text for these other two purposes.

   All sectioning commands have *-forms that print a title, but do
   not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of
   contents.

   \appendix

   The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are
   numbered. The \appendix command generates no text and does not
   affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command
   is something like
\chapter{The First Chapter}
 ...
\appendix
\chapter{The First Appendix}

2.3.17 Spaces & Boxes

   All the predefined length parameters See Predefined lengths can
   be used in the arguments of the box-making commands.

\dotfill

   The \dotfill command produces a rubber length that produces
   dots instead of just spaces.

\hfill

   The \hfill fill command produces a rubber length which can
   stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with spaces.

\hrulefill

   The \hrulefill fill command produces a rubber length which can
   stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a
   horizontal rule.

\hspace

   \hspace{length}, \hspace*{length}

   The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length of the
   space can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands,
   i.e., points, inches, etc. You can add negative as well as
   positive space with an \hspace command. Adding negative space
   is like backspacing.

   LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line.
   If you don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the
   optional * argument. Then the space is never removed.

\addvspace

   \addvspace{length}

   The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height
   length. However, if vertical space has already been added to
   the same point in the output by a previous \addvspace command,
   then this command will not add more space than needed to make
   the natural length of the total vertical space equal to length.

\bigskip

   The \bigskip command is equivalent to \vspace{bigskipamount}
   where bigskipamount is determined by the document class.

\medskip

   The \medskip command is equivalent to \vspace{medskipamount}
   where medskipamount is determined by the document class.

\smallskip

   \smallskip

   The \smallskip command is equivalent to
   \vspace{smallskipamount} where smallskipamount is determined by
   the document class.

\vfill

   The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can
   stretch or shrink vertically.

\vspace

   \vspace{length}, \vspace*{length}

   The \vspace command adds vertical space. The length of the
   space can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands,
   i.e., points, inches, etc. You can add negative as well as
   positive space with an \vspace command.

   LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page.
   If you don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the
   optional * argument. Then the space is never removed.

\fbox

   \fbox{text}

   The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox command,
   except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that
   it creates.

\framebox

   \framebox[width][position]{text}

   The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox
   command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the
   box that it creates.

   The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule,
   and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents
   of the box.

lrbox

   \begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}

   This is the environment form of \sbox.

   The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which
   must have been declared with \newsavebox.

\makebox

   \makebox[width][position]{text}

   The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain
   the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the
   optional width argument. The position of the text within the
   box is determined by the optional position argument.
     * c --- centred (default)
     * l --- flushleft
     * r --- flushright
     * s --- stretch from left to right margin. The text must
       contain stretchable space for this to work.

   See \makebox (picture).

\mbox

   \mbox{text}

   The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the
   text created by its argument.

   Use this command to prevent text from being split across lines.

\newsavebox

   \newsavebox{cmd}

   Declares cmd, which must be a command name that is not already
   defined, to be a bin for saving boxes.

\parbox

   \parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}

   A parbox is a box whose contents are created in paragraph mode.
   The \parbox has two mandatory arguments:
     * width - specifies the width of the parbox, and
     * text - the text that goes inside the parbox.

   LaTeX will position a parbox so its centre lines up with the
   centre of the text line. The optional position argument allows
   you to line up either the top or bottom line in the parbox
   (default is top).

   If the height argument is not given, the box will have the
   natural height of the text.

   The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text
   inside the box. If it is not specified, position is used.
     * t --- text is placed at the top of the box.
     * c --- text is centred in the box.
     * b --- text is placed at the bottom of the box.
     * s --- stretch vertically. The text must contain vertically
       stretchable space for this to work.

   A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece
   of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you
   shouldn't use any of the paragraph-making environments inside a
   \parbox argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones
   containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a
   minipage environment See minipage.

\raisebox

   \raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text}

   The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text. The first
   mandatory argument specifies how high the text is to be raised
   (or lowered if it is a negative amount). The text itself is
   processed in LR mode.

   Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a
   different size than it really does - or a different size than
   LaTeX would normally think it has. The \raisebox command lets
   you tell LaTeX how tall it is.

   The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think
   that the text extends above the line by the amount specified.
   The second optional argument, extend-below, makes LaTeX think
   that the text extends below the line by the amount specified.

\rule

   \rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness}

   The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines. The
   arguments are defined as follows:
     * raise-height - specifies how high to raise the rule
       (optional)
     * width - specifies the length of the rule (mandatory)
     * thickness - specifies the thickness of the rule (mandatory)

\savebox

   \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}

   This command typeset text in a box just as for \makebox.
   However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in
   bin cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox.

\sbox

   \sbox{cmd}\{text}

   This commands typesets text in a box just as for \mbox.
   However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in
   cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox.

\usebox

   \usebox{cmd}

   Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a \savebox
   command.

2.3.18 Special Characters

   The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are
   called special printing characters, or simply special
   characters.
# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

   Whenever you put one of these special characters into your
   file, you are doing something special. If you simply want the
   character to be printed just as any other letter, include a \
   in front of the character. For example, \$ will produce $ in
   your output.

   One exception to this rule is the \ itself because \\ has its
   own special meaning. A \ is produced by typing $\backslash$ in
   your file.

   Also, \~ means `place a tilde accent over the following
   letter', so you will probably want to use \verb instead.

   In addition, you can access any character of a font once you
   know its number by using the \symbol command. For example, the
   character used for displaying spaces in the \verb* command has
   the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}.

   You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal
   numbers with ", so the previous example could also be written
   as \symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}.

2.3.19 Special Symbols

Accents on Characters

   The rules differ somewhat depending whether you are in text
   mode, math modes, or the tabbing environment.

Text Mode

   The following accents may be placed on letters. Although o is
   used in most of the example, the accents may be placed on any
   letter. Accents may even be placed above a missing letter; for
   example, \~{} produces a tilde over a blank space.

   The following commands may be used only in paragraph or LR
   mode:
     * \`{o} produces a grave accent, ò
     * \'{o} produces an acute accent, ó
     * \^{o} produces a circumflex, ô
     * \"{o} produces an umlaut or dieresis, ö
     * \H{o} produces a long Hungarian umlaut
     * \~{o} produces a tilde, õ
     * \c{c} produces a cedilla, ç
     * \={o} produces a macron accent (a bar over the letter)
     * \b{o} produces a bar under the letter
     * \.{o} produces a dot over the letter
     * \d{o} produces a dot under the letter
     * \u{o} produces a breve over the letter
     * \v{o} produces a v over the letter
     * \t{oo} produces a tie (inverted u) over the two letters

   Note that the letters i and j require special treatment when
   they are given accents because it is often desirable to replace
   the dot with the accent. For this purpose, the commands \i and
   \j can be used to produce dotless letters.

   For example,
     * \^{\i} should be used for i, circumflex, î
     * \"{\i} should be used for i, umlaut, ï

Math Mode

   Several of the above and some similar accents can also be
   produced in math mode. The following commands may be used only
   in math mode:
     * \hat{o} is similar to the circumflex (cf. \^)
     * \widehat{oo} is a wide version of \hat over several letters
     * \check{o} is a vee or check (cf. \v)
     * \tilde{o} is a tilde (cf. \~)
     * \widetilde{oo} is a wide version of \tilde over several
       letters
     * \acute{o} is an acute accent (cf. \`)
     * \grave{o} is a grave accent (cf. >\')
     * \dot{o} is a dot over the letter (cf. \.)
     * \ddot{o} is a double dot over the letter
     * \breve{o} is a breve (cf. \u)
     * \bar{o} is a macron (cf. \=)
     * \vec{o} is a vector (arrow) over the letter

Tabbing Environment

   Some of the accent marks used in running text have other uses
   in the Tabbing Environment. In that case they can be created
   with the following command:
     * >\a' for an acute accent
     * \a` for a grave accent
     * \a= for a macron accent

Arrows

   LaTeX provides commands for all sorts of arrows. The following
   commands are used only in math mode.

   In general the command names are created from left, right, up,
   or down. leftright gives a double headed arrow. Prefacing with
   long gives a longer arrow. Capitalizing the first letter gives
   a double-shanked arrow.

   Examples are:
     * \leftarrow
     * \Leftarrow
     * \longleftarrow
     * \Longleftarrow
     * \rightarrow
     * \Rightarrow
     * \longrightarrow
     * \Longrightarrow
     * \leftrightarrow
     * \Leftrightarrow
     * \longleftrightarrow
     * \uparrow
     * \downarrow
     * \Uparrow
     * >\nearrow points from southwest to northeast
     * \searrow points from northwest to southeast
     * \swarrow points from northeast to southwest
     * \nwarrow points from southeast to northwest

   The \stackrel command is useful for putting things over or
   under your arrow.

   See also:
     * Math Symbols
     * Binary and Relational Operators
     * Greek Letters
     * Miscellaneous Symbols
     * Variable Size Math Symbols

Binary and Relational Operators

   Some math symbols are obtained by typing the corresponding
   keyboard character. Examples include
+ - = < >

Note

   plus, minus, and equal sign may be used in either text or math
   mode, but < and > are math mode only (they produce inverted
   exclamation and question marks, respectively, in text mode).

   The following commands may be used only in math mode:
     * \pm plus or minus sign
     * \mp minus or plus sign
     * \times times (an "x")
     * \div divided by sign
     * \ast an asterisk (centered)
     * \star a five-point star (centered)
     * \bullet a bullet
     * \circ an open bullet
     * \cdot a centered dot
     * \leq less than or equal to
     * \ll much less than
     * \subset is a subset of
     * \geq greater than or equal to
     * \gg much greater than
     * \equiv equivalence symbol
     * \sim similar to
     * \simeq similar or equal to
     * \approx approximately equal to
     * \neq not equal to
     * \per "perpendicular to" symbols
     * \propto proportional to

   Note that greater than and less than are obtained simply by
   entering > and <.

   A slash, indicating not can be placed through a symbol (or a
   letter) with the \not command. For example, not less than is
   \not< and not less than or equal to is \not\leq. If the slash
   isn't properly positioned it can be moved by putting a math
   mode spacing command between the \notand the symbol.

Delimiters

   Delimiters are objects which act logically like parentheses.
   These can be used only in math mode.

   The delimiters recognized by LaTeX include:
     * ( (left parenthesis)
     * ) (right parenthesis)
     * [ (left bracket)
     * ] (right bracket)
     * \{ (left brace)
     * \} (right brace)
     * | (vertical line)
     * \vert (vertical line)
     * \| (double vertical lines)
     * \Vert (double vertical lines)
     * / (slash)
     * \backslash (backslash)
     * \langle (left angle bracket)
     * \rangle (right angle bracket)
     * \uparrow (uparrow)
     * \downarrow (down arrow)
     * \updownarrow (up/down arrow)

Making Delimiters the Right Size

   Delimiters in formulas should be big enough to fit around the
   formulas they delimit (for example arround arrays). To obtain
   stretchable delimiters (LaTeX makes them the appropriate size)
   type a \left or \right command before the delimiter. \left and
   \right commands must come in matching pairs, although the
   delimiters themselves need not be the same. Thus, \left \{ ...
   \right \[ produces a legal pair. In cases where only one
   delimiter is desired, it is possible to make the matching
   delimiter invisible by typing a period (.) after the command,
   i.e., \left. or \right.

   In an eqnarray environment the matching \left and \right cannot
   be split between lines and it may be necessary to use an
   invisible \right. and \left. to terminate and begin parts on
   different lines. In this case a second problem may arise, since
   the size of the delimiters will be chosen only for the local
   part, so that the size of the visible left and right delimiters
   might not match. The solution is to trick LaTeX into thinking
   that both parts have the same vertical height. This can be done
   by placing a strut, that is a zero-width \rule. It can also be
   accomplished with the \vphantom command, which I have not found
   documented, but which appears to work.

   \vphantom{construct} creates a zero-width object with the
   height of construct. The argument can contain things such as
   \frac or the variable size math symbols and should be chosen
   according to what is in the section with the delimiter you want
   to match.

Some Examples

A six-j symbol

\[ \left\{
\begin{array}{ccc}
a & b & c \\
d & e & f \end{array}
\right>\} \]

   This should be displayed something like (insofar as it can be
   rendered in "ascii art"):
( a b c )
-       -
( d e f )

   Note that the \[ ... \] set this off as Display Math, and that
   the Array Environment is used to generate the three centered
   columns inside the braces.

A "multiple choice" equation

\[ f(x) =
   \left\{ \begin{array}{l}
       0, x < 0 \\ 1, x = 0 \\
       2, x > 0 \end{array} \right. \]

   will be displayed as
        ( 0, x < 0
f(x) =  - 1, x = 0
        ( 2, x > 0

   Note that the invisible \right delimiter is specified using a
   period.

Ellipsis

   Ellipses (three dots) can be produced by the following commands
     * \ldots horizontally at bottom of line
     * \cdots horizontally center of line (math mode only)
     * \ddots diagonal (math mode only)
     * \vdots vertical (math mode only)

Greek Letters

   These commands may be used only in math mode:
     * \alpha
     * \beta
     * \gamma
     * \delta
     * \epsilon
     * \varepsilon (variation, script-like)
     * \zeta
     * \eta
     * \theta
     * \vartheta (variation, script-like)
     * \iota
     * \kappa
     * \lambda
     * \mu
     * \nu
     * \xi
     * \pi
     * \varpi (variation)
     * \rho
     * \varrho (variation, with the tail)
     * \sigma
     * \varsigma (variation, script-like)
     * \tau
     * \upsilon
     * \phi
     * \varphi (variation, script-like)
     * \chi
     * \psi
     * \omega

   Capital letters:
     * \Gamma
     * \Delta
     * \Theta
     * \Lambda
     * \Xi
     * \Pi
     * \Sigma
     * \Upsilon
     * \Phi
     * \Psi
     * \Omega

   See also:
     * Math Symbols
     * Accents
     * Miscellaneous Symbols

Miscellaneous Symbols

Some symbols for math

   The following symbols are also used only in math mode
     * \aleph Hebrew aleph
     * \hbar h-bar, Planck's constant
     * \imath variation on i; no dot
     * \jmath variation on j; no dot
     * \ell script (loop) l
     * \wp fancy script lowercase P
     * \Re script capital R (Real)
     * \Im script capital I (Imaginary)
     * \prime prime (also obtained by typing ')
     * \nabla inverted capital Delta
     * \surd radical (square root) symbol
     * \angle angle symbol
     * \forall for all (inverted A)
     * \exists exists (left-facing E)
     * \partial partial derivative symbol
     * \infty infinity symbol
     * \triangle open triangle symbol
     * \Box open square
     * \Diamond open diamond
     * \flat music: flat symbol
     * \natural music: natural symbol
     * \clubsuit playing cards: club suit symbol
     * \diamondsuit playing cards: diamond suit symbol
     * \heartsuit playing cards: heart suit symbol
     * \spadesuit playing cards: space suit symbol

Some Other Symbols

   The following symbols can be used in any mode:
     * \dag dagger
     * >\ddag double dagger
     * >\S section symbol
     * >\P paragraph symbol
     * >\copyright copyright symbol
     * >\pounds British pound sterling symbol

Calligraphic Style Letters

   Twenty-six calligraphic letters are provided (the upper case
   alphabet). These can only be used in math mode.

   In LaTeX 2.09 they are produced with the \cal declaration:
${\cal A}$

   In LaTeX2e they are obtained with the \mathcal command:
$\mathcal{CAL}$

Math Functions

   Functions like log or cos are normally used in math mode.
   However, inmath mode strings of letters are treated as a
   product of variables, which would normally be displayed in math
   italics rather than a text font which would be appropriate for
   these functions. To get proper display of such functions they
   are generated with LaTeX commands.

   Some of these commands are:
     * \arccos
     * \arcsin
     * \arctan
     * \cos
     * \cosh
     * \cot
     * \coth
     * \csc
     * \deg
     * \det
     * \dim
     * \exp
     * \gcd
     * \hom
     * \inf
     * \ker
     * \lg
     * \lim
     * \liminf
     * \limsup
     * \ln
     * \log
     * \max
     * \min
     * \sec
     * \sin
     * \sinh
     * \sup
     * \tan
     * \tanh

   Two commands are provided for the "modulus" function
     * \bmod
     * \pmod{}

   The former would be used to write "a mod b" as a \bmod b and
   the latter, which requires an argument that is displayed in
   parentheses, would be used to write "n = i (mod j)" as n = i
   \pmod{j}

Variable Size Math Symbols

   The size of some mathematical symbols, notably summation signs,
   product signs, and integral signs, depends on the environment
   in which they appear (i.e., displaymath as opposed to math
   environments.

   These include:
     * \sum a summation sign (capital sigma)
     * \prod a product (capital pi)
     * \coprod a coproduct (inverted capital pi)
     * \int an integral sign
     * \oint a surface (circular) integral sign
     * \bigcup big "U"
     * \bigcap big inverted "U"
     * \bigvee big "V"
     * \bigwedge big inverted "V"
     * \bigodot big "O" with dot at center
     * \bigotimes big "O" with cross inside
     * \bigoplus big "O" with a + inside
     * \biguplus big "U" with a + inside

   The \sqrt command also produces a variable size symbol
   appropriate for the size of hte radicand argument.

   The "limits" associated with these symbols are entered as
   subscripts for entries appearing below the symbol and as
   superscripts for entries appearing above the symbol. For
   example the sum from n=0 to infinity of x^n would be entered as
\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} x_{n}

   The actual placement of the limits depends on whether this is
   in displaymath mode in which case they are placed below/above
   or in math mode in running text in which case they are placed
   as regular subscripts and superscripts.

   Note that it is possible to treat several of these symbols (a
   common example would be a double sum) as a single symbol for
   placing limits above and/or below by using the \mathop command.

   Hats and tildes over symbols which stretch (as best they can)
   to the correct size for their arguments are produced by
   \widehat and \widetilde

2.3.20 Splitting the Input

   A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting
   the whole input in a single large file, it's more efficient to
   split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many
   separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it
   is the one whose name you type when you run LaTeX.

\include

   \include{file}

   The \include command is used in conjunction with the
   \includeonly command for selective inclusion of files. The file
   argument is the first name of a file, denoting file.tex. If
   file is one the file names in the file list of the \includeonly
   command or if there is no \includeonly command, the \include
   command is equivalent to
\clearpage \input{file} \clearpage

   except that if the file file.tex does not exist, then a warning
   message rather than an error is produced. If the file is not in
   the file list, the \include command is equivalent to
   \clearpage.

   The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a
   file read by another \include command.

\includeonly

   \includeonly{file_list}

   The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in
   by an \include command. file_list should be a comma-separated
   list of filenames. Each filename must match exactly a filename
   specified in a \include command. This command can only appear
   in the preamble.

\input

   \input{file}

   The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and
   processed, exactly as if its contents had been inserted in the
   current file at that point. The file name may be a complete
   file name with extension or just a first name, in which case
   the file file.tex is used.

2.3.21 Starting & Ending

   Your input file must contain the following commands as a
   minimum:
\documentclass{class}
\begin{document}
  ... your text goes here ...
\end{document}

   where the class selected is one of the valid classes for LaTeX.
   See Document Classes (and see Overview), for details of the
   various document classes available locally.

   You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentclass
   and the \begin{document} commands (i.e., in the `preamble').

2.3.22 Table of Contents

   A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents
   command. You put the command right where you want the table of
   contents to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. It produces a
   heading, but it does not automatically start a new page. If you
   want a new page after the table of contents, include a \newpage
   command after the \tableofcontents command.

   There are similar commands \listoffigures and \listoftables for
   producing a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
   Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.

   NOTE: If you want any of these items to be generated, you
   cannot have the \nofiles command in your document.

\addcontentsline

   \addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry}

   The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified
   list or table where:
     * file is the extension of the file on which information is
       to be written: toc (table of contents), lof (list of
       figures), or lot (list of tables).
     * sec_unit controls the formatting of the entry. It should be
       one of the following, depending upon the value of the file
       argument:
         1. toc --- the name of the sectional unit, such as part
            or subsection.
         2. lof --- figure
         3. lot --- table
     * entry is the text of the entry.

\addtocontents

   \addtocontents{file}{text}

   The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands)
   directly to the file that generates the table of contents or
   list of figures or tables.
     * file is the extension of the file on which information is
       to be written: toc (table of contents), lof (list of
       figures), or lot (list of tables).
     * text is the information to be written.

2.3.23 Terminal Input/Output

\typein

   \typein[cmd]{msg}

   Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait
   for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the cmd
   argument is missing, the typed input is processed as if it had
   been included in the input file in place of the \typein
   command. If the cmd argument is present, it must be a command
   name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the
   typed input.

\typeout

   \typeout{msg}

   Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. Commands in msg
   that are defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand are replaced
   by their definitions before being printed.

   LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single
   space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg. A
   \space command in msg causes a single space to be printed. A
   ^^J in msg prints a newline.

2.3.24 Typefaces

   The typeface is specified by giving the size and style. A
   typeface is also called a font.

\Styles

   The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

   These commands are used like \textit{italics text}. The
   corresponding command in parenthesis is the declaration form,
   which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form
   lasts until the next type style command or the end of the
   current group.

   The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say
   \sffamily\bfseries to get sans serif boldface.

   You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms;
   e.g. \begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}.

   Table 1.9. Typefaces
   \textrm (\rmfamily) Roman.
   \textit (\itshape) , \emph Emphasis (toggles between \textit
   and \textrm).
   \textmd (\mdseries) Medium weight (default). The opposite of
   boldface.
   \textbf (\bfseries) Boldface.
   \textup (\upshape) Upright (default). The opposite of slanted.
   \textsl (\slshape) Slanted.
   \textsf (\sffamily) Sans serif.
   \textsc (\scshape) Small caps.
   \texttt (\ttfamily) Typewriter.
   \textnormal (\normalfont) Main document font.
   \mathrm Roman, for use in math mode.
   \mathbf Boldface, for use in math mode. For bold symbols or
   complete equations take a look at \boldsymbol and \bm.
   \mathsf Sans serif, for use in math mode.
   \mathtt Typewriter, for use in math mode.
   \mathit Italics, for use in math mode, e.g. variable names with
   several letters.
   \mathnormal For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type
   style declaration.
   \mathcal `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode.

   In addition, the command \mathversion{bold} can be used for
   switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas.
   \mathversion{normal} restores the default.

Sizes

   The following standard type size commands are supported by
   LaTeX.

   The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope
   of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command
   or the end of the current group.

   You can also use the environment form of these commands; e.g.
   \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}.

   Table 1.10. Standard type size commands
   \tiny
   \scriptsize
   \footnotesize
   \small
   \normalsize   (default)
   \large
   \Large
   \LARGE
   \huge
   \Huge

Low-level font commands

   These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
   packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the
   available ones. For full details, you should consult Chapter 7
   of The LaTeX Companion.

   Table 1.11. Low-level font commands
   \fontencoding{enc} Select font encoding. Valid encodings
   include OT1 and T1.
   \fontfamily{family} Select font family. Valid families include:
     * cmr for Computer Modern Roman
     * cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif
     * cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter

   and numerous others.
   \fontseries{series} Select font series. Valid series include:
     * m Medium (normal)
     * b Bold
     * c Condensed
     * bc Bold condensed
     * bx Bold extended

   and various other combinations.
   \fontshape{shape} Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
     * n Upright (normal)
     * it Italic
     * sl Slanted (oblique)
     * sc Small caps
     * ui Upright italics
     * ol Outline

   The two last shapes are not available for most font families.
   \fontsize{size}{skip} Set font size. The first parameter is the
   font size to switch to; the second is the \baselineskip to use.
   The unit of both parameters defaults to pt. A rule of thumb is
   that the baselineskip should be 1.2 times the font size.
   \selectfont The changes made by calling the four font commands
   described above do not come into effect until \selectfont is
   called.
   \usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape} Equivalent to calling
   \fontencoding, \fontfamily, \fontseries and \fontshape with the
   given parameters, followed by \selectfont.

2.4 Parameters

   The input file specification indicates the file to be
   formatted; TeX uses .tex as a default file extension. If you
   omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the
   terminal. You specify command options by supplying a string as
   a parameter to the command; e.g.

   latex \scrollmode\input foo.tex

   will process foo.tex without pausing after every error.

   Output files are always created in the current directory. When
   you fail to specify an input file name, TeX bases the output
   names on the file specification associated with the logical
   name TEX_OUTPUT, typically texput.log.

3 LaTeX Packages

3.1 amsmath

   amsmath consists of several packages to aid in typesetting
   math.

   \boldsymbol
          Produces a bold math symbol. When not only a single
          symbol, but a complete equation has to be bold you might
          consider using the superior \bm command which takes
          better care of spacing.

   \pmb
          Can be used for mathematic symbols, when no bold version
          is available. It prints the standard symbol several
          times slightly shifted and is inferior to a real bold
          font!

3.2 dcolumn

   \usepackage{dcolumn}

   Defines a system for defining columns of entries in an array or
   tabular which are to be aligned on a decimal point.

   This package defines D to be a column specifier with three
   arguments:
D{sep.tex}{sep.dvi}{decimal places}

   sep.tex should be a single character, this is used as the
   separator in the .tex file. It will usually be '.' or ','.

   sep.dvi is used as the separator in the output.

   decimal places should be the maximum number of decimal places
   in the column.

   \newcolumntype can be used to define own column types.

3.3 float

Note

   The contents of this section was taken from the documentation
   of float v1.3d of 2001/11/08.

   “This style option improves the interface for defining objects
   such as figures and tabels in LaTeX. It adds the notion of a
   float style that governs the appearance of floats.”

   \newfloat{<placement>}{<ext>}[<within>]
          Add a new class of floats.

   \floatstyle{<style>}
          Sets a default float style.

   \floatname{<style>}{<name>}
          Define the float name used in the caption of a float.

   \floatplacement{<>}{<placement>}
          Resets the default placement specifier of a class of
          floats.

   \restylefloat<style>
          Change styles for the standard float types figure and
          table.

   \listof{<type>}{<title>}
          Produces a list of all floats of a given class.

3.4 fontenc

   \usepackage[T1]{fontenc}

   chooses T1-fonts and allows correct automatic hyphenation.

3.5 german

   Das german Paket muß geladen sein:

   "a
          erzeugt ein ä

          entsprechend "o, "u, "A, "O, "U, "s (ß)

   "ck
          wird bei Trennung zu k-k

   "ff
          wird bei Trennung zu ff-f

          entsprechend "ll, "mm, "pp, "rr, "tt

   \glqq
          oder "` erzeugt untere doppelte Anführungszeichen

   \grqq
          oder "' erzeugt obere doppelte Anführungszeichen

   \glq
          erzeugt untere einfache Anführungszeichen

   \flqq
          oder "< doppelte linke französische Anführungszeichen

   \frqq
          oder "> doppelte rechte französische Anführungszeichen

   \flq
          einfache linke französische Anführungszeichen

   \frq
          einfache rechte französische Anführungszeichen

   "|
          verhindert eine Ligatur an der Stelle

   \-
          markiert mögliche Trennstelle, im restlichen Wort ist
          keine Trennung mehr möglich

   "-
          Trennvorschlag, der Rest des Wortes kann noch
          automatisch getrennt werden

   ""
          Trennvorschlag, bei dem bei einer Trennung kein
          Bindestrich eingefügt wird

   "~
          Bindestrich, an dem nicht getrennt werden darf

   "=
          Bindestrich, an dem getrennt werden darf

   \dq
          erzeugt ein nicht-typographisches gerades
          Anführungszeichen

\texttt{\dq}

   <
          oder \dq ergibt das Zoll-Zeichen

3.6 graphics

   Look up details in grfguide.

3.6.1 \includegraphics

   \includegraphics[]{picture-name}

   File extensions of the graphics should be omitted, so it's
   easier to change the format (for example for pdf or ps output).

3.6.2 \graphicspath

   \graphicspath{dir-list}

   dir-list is a list of absolute or relative paths, where the
   command \includegraphics{} searches for the graphic files:

   \graphicspath{{eps/}{tiff/}} would cause the system to look in
   the subdirectories eps and tiff of the current directory. This
   is unix syntax, on a Mac it would be:

   \graphicspath{{:eps:}{:tiff:}}

   Under Windows/DOS use also the slash / to separate directories.
   Not all tex installations can handle filenames with spaces. So
   it's better to avoid them.

3.7 hyperref

   For more infos read in the book LaTeX Web Companion or Mit
   LaTeX ins Web.

3.7.1 Options

   4
          use Acrobat 4 features (default: false).

   a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, legalpaper, letterpaper,
          executivepaper
          use the specified paper size.

   anchorcolor
          set color of anchors (default: black).

   backref
          do bibliographical back references (default: false).

   baseurl
          set base URL for document (default: empty).

   bookmarks
          make bookmarks (default: true).

   bookmarksnumbered
          put section numbers in bookmarks (default: false).

   bookmarksopen
          open up bookmark tree (default: false).

   bookmarksopenlevel
          level to which bookmarks are open (default: \maxdimen).

   bookmarkstype
          to specify which `toc' file to mimic toc.

   breaklinks
          allow links to break over lines (default: false).

   citebordercolor
          color of border around cites (default: 0 1 0).

   citecolor
          color of citation links (default: green).

   colorlinks
          color links (default: false).

   debug
          provide details of anchors defined (same as verbose,
          default: false).

   draft
          do not do any hyper linking (default: false).

   dvipdf, dvipdfm, dvips, dvipsone, dviwindo, hypertex,
          latex2html, pdftex, tex4ht, textures, ps2pdf, vtex
          use the specified backend.

   extension
          suffix of linked files (default: dvi).

   filebordercolor
          color of border around file links (default: 0 .5 .5).

   filecolor
          color of file links (default: cyan).

   frenchlinks
          use small caps instead of color for links (default:
          false).

   hyperfigures
          make figures hyper links (default: false).

   hyperindex
          set up hyperlinked indices (default: true).

   hypertexnames
          use guessable names for links (default: true).

   implicit
          redefine LaTeX internals (default: true).

   linkbordercolor
          color of border around links (default: 1 0 0).

   linkcolor
          color of links (default: red).

   linktocpage
          make page number, not text, be link on TOC, LOF and LOT
          (default: false).

   menubordercolor
          color of border around menu links (default: 1 0 0).

   menucolor
          color for menu links (default: red).

   naturalnames
          use LaTeX-computed names for links (default: false).

   nesting
          allow nesting of links (default: false).

   pageanchor
          put an anchor on every page (default: true).

   pagebackref
          backreference by page number (default: false).

   pagebordercolor
          color of border around page links (default: 1 1 0).

   pagecolor
          color of page links (default: red).

   pdfauthor
          text for PDF Author field (default: empty).

   pdfborder
          width of PDF link border (default: 0 0 1; 0 0 0 for
          colorlinks)

   pdfcenterwindow
          position the document window center of the screen
          (default: false).

   pdfcreator
          text for PDF Creator field (default: LaTeX with hyperref
          package).

   pdffitwindow
          resize document window to fit document size (default:
          false).

   pdfhighlight
          set highlighting of PDF links (default: /I).

   pdfkeywords
          text for PDF Keywords field (default: empty).

   pdfmenubar
          make PDF viewer's menu bar visible (default: true).

   pdfnewwindow
          make links that open another PDF file start a new window
          (default: false).

   pdfpagelayout
          set layout of PDF pages (default: empty).

   pdfpagemode
          set default mode of PDF display (default: empty).

   pdfpagescrop
          set crop size of PDF document (default: empty).

   pdfpagetransition
          set PDF page transition style (default: empty).

   pdfproducer
          text for PDF Producer field (default: empty).

   pdfstartpage
          page at which PDF document opens (default: 1).

   pdfstartview
          starting view of PDF document (default: /Fit).

   pdfsubject
          text for PDF Subject field (default: empty).

   pdftitle
          text for PDF Title field(default: empty).

   pdftoolbar
          make PDF toolbar visible (default: true).

   pdfview
          PDF `view' when on link traversal (default: empty).

   pdfwindowui
          make PDF user interface elements visible (default:
          true).

   plainpages
          do page number anchors as plain arabic (default: true).

   raiselinks
          raise up links (for HyperTeX backend; default: false).

   runbordercolor
          color of border around run links (default: 0 .7 .7).

   unicode
          Unicode encoded pdf strings (default: true).

   urlbordercolor
          color of border around URL links (default: 0 1 1).

   urlcolor
          color of URL links (default: magenta).

   verbose
          be chatty (default: false).

3.7.2 Commands

   \texorpdfstring{TeX-string}{pdf-string}
          allows different texts for PDF or TeX creation.

\section{The role of \texorpdfstring{H$_2$O}{water}}

   \href{URL}{Text}
          the text will be resolved into a URL. The URL must be
          complete, according to a base-url which might be defined
          in a \hyperbaseurl.

\href{http://www.karpfenteich.net/pit/}{Peter's input tips}

   \hyperbaseurl{URL}
          defines a base URL, which is preset to a given URL. This
          helps to make portable documents.

   \hyperimage{image-URL}
          includes the picture of the URL reference.

   \hyperref{URL}{category}{name}{text}, \hyperref[mark]{text}
          text is activated as a hyperlink to the point which is
          defined with a \label command with the symbolic name
          mark.

   \hyperlink{name}{text}, \hyertarget{name}{text}
          \hyperlink creates an internal link to an object which
          is somewhere defined with a \hypertarget command.

          For HTML the command \hyperlink inserts a # character in
          front of each link. Thus it'll refer to the topical
          document, while \href will expect a complete URL.

   \autoref{marker}
          \autoref is a substitution for the standard \ref
          command. It inserts a context sensitive phrase.

see \autoref{foo}

          for a \label in a section will output see section 3 for
          an example.

          There are macros to change the default output with the
          help of the \renewcommand:

\figurename             *\figurename*
\tablename              *\tablename*
\partname               *\partname*
\appendixname           *\appendixname*
\equationname           *\equationname*
\Itemname               *\Itemname*
\chaptername            *\chaptername*
\sectionname            *\sectionname*
\subsectionname         *\subsesctionname*
\subsubsectionname      *\subsubsectionname*
\paragraphname          *\paragraphname*
\Hfootnotename          *\Hfootnotename*
\AMSname                *\AMSname*
\theoremname            *\theoremname*

   \nolinkurl
          Allows line breaks in a verbatim like environment like
          \url, but without the hyperlink function. This is useful
          to define own commands like this example:

\newcommand*{\urlw}[1]{\href{http://www.#1}%
            {\nolinkurl{www.#1}}}

          This new defined command \urlw allows the user to
          typeset a linkable (this function is offered by \href)
          www.example.org address in the latex source like this:

\urlw{example.org}

          This will produce the string www.example.org which is
          hyperlinked and breakable (when the driver like pdfTeX
          allows line breaks in links).

3.8 inputenc

   \usepackage[encoding name]{inputenc}

   Allows to specify an input encoding for direct input of
   character codes > 127, e.g. accented characters.

   Important encodings are:

   latin9, latin1
          Linux, Unix, VMS

   ansinew
          Windows (codepage 1252)

   cp850
          OS/2, MSDOS (codpage 850)

   applemac
          Apple Macintosh

3.9 KOMA-Script

   The KOMA-Script package has a very detailed and well written
   documentation. Read the scrguide for further information! :-)

3.9.1 Page-Layout

   \typearea[BCOR]{DIV}

   \areaset[BCOR]{Breite}{Höhe}

3.9.2 Options

   headinclude, headexclude, footinclude, footexclude
          will determine if headers and footers are used in the
          calculation of the page size. Default is exclude.
          Include will make the text area smaller.

   DIV
          is a factor which determins how large the used page size
          is. This method takes care of good typography.

          Try values between 10 and 15. Higher values will cause
          smaller margins. An example would be: DIV12.

   BCOR
          Binding correction. Takes care of the loss of the
          visible paper size when the paper is cut and a book is
          bound.

3.9.3 Letter Class scrlttr2

   This reference is based on the excellent scrguien.pdf from
   2002-09-06.

Options

Defining Options Later

   \KOMAoptions{options list}
          Use this to change options after loading the class. List
          single or multiple options, separated by commas.

Page Layout Options

   paper=format
          Defines the paper format.

   BCOR=length, DIV=value, headlines=count
          Divisor, binding correction, and number of headlines.

   enlargefirstpage
          If true some more text would fit on the first page

Other Layout Options

   twoside
          Activate possibilities of a double-sided document, but
          stay with with the one-sided layout as far as possible.

   cleardoublepage=style
          Inserted pages by \cleardoublepage get one of these page
          styles:

          + empty
          + plain
          + standard

   headsepline, footsepline
          Insert a separator line below the head or above the
          foot.

   mpinclude, mpexclude
          These two options of the typearea package should not be
          used with scrlttr2.

   pagenumber=position
          This option defines if and where a page number will be
          placed. Possible values are:

        bot, foot
                Page number in foot, horizontal position not
                changed

        botcenter, botcentered, botmiddle, footcenter,
                footcentered, footmiddle
                Page number infoot,centered

        botleft, footleft
                Page number in foot, left justified

        botrigth, footright
                Page number in foot, right justified

        center, centered, middle
                Page number centered horizontally, vertical
                position not changed

        false, no, off
                No page number

        head, top
                Page number in head, horizontal position not
                changed

        headcenter, headcentered, headmiddle, topcenter,
                topcentered, topmiddle
                Page number in head, centered

        headleft, topleft
                Page number in head, left justified

        headright, topright
                Page number in head, right justified

        left
                Page number left, vertical position not changed

        right
                Page number right, vertical position not changed

          Default is botcenter

   parskip=value
          Mark paragraphs alternatively by vertical skip. Possible
          values are:

        false, off
                Paragraph indentation instead of verticalk space

        full, on, true
                One line vertical space between paragraphs; at
                least 1 em free space in the last line.

        full*
                One line vertical space betwen paragraphs; at
                least a quarter of a line free space at the end of
                a paragraph.

        full+
                One line vertical space betwen paragraphs; at
                least a third of aline free space at the end of a
                paragraph.

        full-
                One line vertical space betwen paragraphs; last
                line of a paragraph may be arbitrarily filled.

        half
                Half a line vertical space between paragraphs; at
                least 1 em free space in the last line.

        half*
                Half a line vertical space between paragraphs; at
                least a quarter of a line free space at the end of
                a paragraph.

        half+
                Half a line vertical space between paragraphs; at
                least a third of a line free space at the end of a
                paragraph.

        half-
                One line vertical space between paragraphs; last
                line may be arbitrarily filled.

          Default is false.

Font Options

   fontsize=size
          Font size of the document. Defaults to 12pt.

Options for Letterhead and Address

   fromalign
          Defines the placement of the from address in the
          letterhead. Possible values are:

        center, centered, middle
                Return address centered.

        false, no, off
                Standard design for return address.

        left
                Left justified return address.

        rigth
                Right justified return address.

          Default is left

   fromrule
          Allows to place a horizontal rule within return address.
          Possible values are:

        afteraddress, below, true, yes
                Line below return address

        aftername
                Line right below sender's name

        false, no, off
                No line.

          Default is false.

   fromphone
          Defines whether the phone number will be part of the
          return address.

   fromfax
          Defines whether the facsimile number will be part of the
          return address.

   fromemail
          Defines whether the email address will be part of the
          return address.

   fromurl
          Defines whether the URL will be part of the return
          address.

   fromlogo
          Defines whether the logo will be part of the return
          address.

   addrfield
          Defines whether a return address field will be set.

   backaddress
          Defines whether a return address for window envelopes
          will be set.

   subject
          Choose of your subject should have a title and if the
          subject should be set before or after the opening.
          Possible values are:

        afteropening
                Set subject after opening.

        beforeopening
                Set subject before opening.

        titled
                Add title to subject.

        untitled
                Do not add title to subject.

          Defaults are beforeopening and untitled.

   locfield
          Toggle between presets for the field width of
          additionbal sender attributes.

        narrow
                Small sender supplement field.

        wide
                Wide sender supplement field.

          Default is narrow.

   foldmarks
          Activates fold marks.

   numericaldate
          Toggles between standard, language-dependent date
          presentation and a short, numerical one.

   refline
          Defines that the reference line may extend beyond the
          normal type area.

Format Options

   draft
          Toggles between the final and the draft version.

Letter Class Option Files

   \LoadLetterOption{name}
          Load a lco file. name is the filename without suffix.

          Predefined lco files:

        DIN
                For A4 size paper, complying with DIN 676.

        DINmtext
                For A4 size paper, complying with DIN 676, but
                using an alternate layout with more text on the
                first page.

        KOMAold
                Fo AQ4 paper size using a layout close to the
                obsolete scrlettr class.

        SN
                For Swiss letters with address field on the right
                side, according to SN 010 130

        SNleft
                For Swiss letters with address field on the left
                side.

   \LetterOptionNeedsPaperSize{option name}{paper size}
          Useful to be abel to emit warnings if the user selects a
          different paper size from the one the lco file is based
          on.

General Document Properties

Font Selection

   See also the section for Changing Fonts in KOMA-Script (still
   to be written).

   backaddress
          Back address for a window envelope

   descriptionlabel
          Label in a description environment

   fromaddress
          Sender's address in letterhead

   fromname
          Sender's address in letterhead if different from
          fromaddress

   pagefoot
          Footer, sometimes header of a page

   pagehead
          Header, sometimes footer of a page

   pagenumber
          Page number in footer or header

   subject
          Subject in the opening

   title
          Headline in the opening

Page Style

   See also the section for Page Style in KOMA-Script (still to be
   written).

   empty
          Entirely empty headers and footers

   plain
          Empty head and and only page number in header or footer

   headings
          Automatic page headings

   myheadings
          Manual page headings

Variables

   The main difference between a command and a variable is that a
   command usually triggers an action whereas a variable only
   consists of plain text. Furthermore a variable can have an
   additional description.

   \newkomavar[description]{name},
          \newkomavar*[description]{name}, \addtoreffields{name}
          \newkomavar defines a new variable, addressed with name.

          The command \addtoreffields adds the variable name to
          the reference fields. See section Business Line.

          The command \newkomavar* works like \newkomavar with an
          additional call of the command \addtoreffields.

   Overview of all variables:

   backaddress
          Back address for window envelopes

   backaddressseparator
          Separator within the back address

   ccseparator
          Separator between title of additional recipients and
          additional recipients

   customer
          Customer number

   date
          Date

   emailseparator
          Separator between e-mail name and e-mail address

   enclseparator
          Separator between title of enclosure and and enclosures

   faxseparator
          Separator between title of fax and fax number

   fromaddress
          Sender's address without its name

   frombank
          Sender's bank account

   fromemail
          Sender's e-mail

   fromfax
          Sender's fax number

   fromlogo
          Commands for inserting the sender's logo

   fromname
          Complete name of the sender

   fromphone
          Sender's telephone number

   fromurl
          URL of the sender

   invoice
          Invoice number

   location
          More details of the sender

   myref
          Sender's reference

   place
          Place

   placeseparator
          Separator between place and date

   phoneseparator
          Separator between title of telephone and telephone
          number

   signature
          Signature beneath the ending of the letter

   specialmail
          Special mail

   subject
          Subject

   subjectseparator
          Separator between title of subject and subject

   title
          Letter title

   toname
          Complete name of recipient

   toaddress
          Address of recipient without its name

   yourmail
          Date of recipient's mail

   yourref
          Recipient's reference

   \setkomavar{name}[description]{content},
          \setkomavar*{name}{description}
          \setkomavar sets the content of the variable name. The
          optional argument sets the description of the variable.

          \setkomavar* only sets the description.

   \usekomavar[command]{name}, \usekomavar*[command]{name}
          \usekomavar gives you access to the content of the
          variable name.

          \usekomavar* gives you access to the description of the
          variable name.

   \ifkomavarempty{name}{true}{false},
          \ifkomavarempty*{name}{true}{false}
          The true argument will be executed if the content or
          description is empty. Otherwise the false argument will
          be executed.

          The starred version handles the description of a
          variable, the variant without star the content.

Pseudo Lengths

   \@newplength{name}
          Defines a new pseudo length

   \useplength{name}
          Access value of pseudo length name

   \setlengthtoplength[factor]{length}{pseudo length} ,
          \addtolengthplength[factor]{length}{pseudo length}
          Assign a multiple of pseudo length to a real length.
          Adds a multiple of pseudo length to length.

   \@setplength[factor]{pseudo length}{value} ,
          \@addtoplength[factor]{pseudo length}{value}
          Assign a multiple of a value to a pseudo length. Adds
          value to pseudo length.

Letter Declaration

Letterhead

   firstheadvpos
          Distance between the top of the sheet and the
          letterhead.

   firstheadwidth
          Width of the letterhead.

   fromname, fromaddress, fromphone, fromfax, fromemail, fromurl,
          fromlogo
          This variables give all statements concerning the sender
          necessary to create the letterhead.

   phoneseparator, faxseparator, emailseparator, urlseparator
          Separators for variables in letterhead.

   \firsthead{construction}
          Create letterhead freely.

Footer

   firstfootvpos
          Distance between footer and upper border of the sheet.

   firstfootwidth
          Width of letter's firstpage footer.

   \firstfoot{Construction}
          Set definition for first page's footer

Address

   toaddrvpos, toaddrhpos
          Distance between address window of a window envelope and
          the upper and left border of the sheet.

   toaddrwidth
          Width of the address window.

   toaddrindent
          Value of indentation for the address from the left
          border.

   backaddress, backaddressseparator, backaddrheight
          Double backslashes within return address will be
          exchanged with backaddressseparator. Height of the
          return address field.

   specialmail, specialmailindent, specialmailrightindent
          Optionally set between return address and addressee.
          specialmailindent and specialmailrightindent determine
          left and right indentation.

   toname, toaddress
          Usually not set directly by the user.

   \begin{letter}[options]{address}
          Major point of the letter class.

   \AtBeginLetter{command}
          Hook for commands run at begin of a letter.

Sender's Extension

   locwidth
          Declares width of sender's extensions.

   location
          Content of sender's extension.

Business Line

   refvpos
          Distance between upper border of sheet and business
          line.

   refwidth
          Available width for the business line.

   refaftervskip
          Vertical space to be inserted beneath business line.

   place, placeseparator
          If all variables for business line are empty, the
          content of place and placeseparator will be set,
          followed by content of date.

   yourref, yourmail, myref, customer, invoice, date
          Typical fields for business lines.

Title and Subject Line

   title
          Additional tile. Set centered beneath the business line.

   subject, subjectseparator
          Set the subject of the letter, optional prefixed by a
          label.

Further Issues

   tfoldmarkvpos, bfoldmarkvpos
          Position of upper and lower fold mark.

   foldmarkhpos
          Distance between fold marks and the sheet's left border.

   frombank
          Internally not used yet.

   \nexthead{construction}, \nextfoot{construction}
          Create letter head or foot for the following pages
          freely.

The Text

Opening

   \opening{opening}
          Set the opening of the letter.

Footnotes

   See section Footnotes in KOMA-Script (still to be written).

Lists

   See section Lists in KOMA-Script (still to be written).

Margin Notes

   See section Margin Notes in KOMA-Script (still to be written).

Text Emphasis

   See section Logical Markup of Text in KOMA-Script (still to be
   written).

Closing Part

Closing

   signature
          Inlcudes an explanation for the inscription. Defaults to
          \usekomavar{fromname}.

   \closing{closing phrase}
          Typesets the colsing phrase follwoed by a vertical space
          and the contents fo variable signature.

   sigindent, sigbeforevskip, \raggedsignature
          Indentation of the box for closing phrase, inscription
          and signature (defaults to 0mm). Vertical space between
          closing phrase and signature (defaults to two lines).
          Alignment inside the box.

Postscript, Carbon Copy, and Enclosures

   \ps
          Set a postscript.

   \cc{distribution list}, ccseparator
          Set a ddistribution list. If the contents of ccseparator
          isn't empty then the name and the content of the
          variable is inserted prior to distribution list.

   \encl{enclosures}, enclseparator
          Same structur as the distribution list.

Language Support

Language Selection

   \captionenglish, \captionUSenglish, \captionamerican,
          \captionbritish, \captionUKenglish, \captiongerman,
          \captionngerman, \captionaustrian, \captionfrench,
          \captionitalian, \captionspanish, \captiondutch,
          \captioncroatian
          If the used language selection scheme does not support
          switching the language the above commands can be used
          directly.

   \dateenglish, \dateUSenglish, \dateamerican, \datebritish,
          \dateUKenglish, \dategerman, \datengerman,
          \dateaustrian, \datefrench, \dateitalian, \datespanish,
          \datedutch, \datecrotian
          Numerical date representation.

Language-Dependent Terms

   \yourrefname, \youremailname, \myrefname, \customername,
          \invoicename, \subjectname, \ccname, \enclname,
          \headtoname, \headfromname, \datename, \pagename,
          \phonename, \faxname, \emailname, \wwwname, \bankname
          These defintions can be modified to support a new
          language of for private customization.

Defining Language Terms

   \providecaptioname{language}{term}{definition},
          \newcaptioname{language}{term}{defintion},
          \renewcaptionname{language}{term}{definition}
          Assign a definition for a language to a term.

Address Files and Circular Letters

   \adrentry{Lastname}{Firstname}{Address}{Telephone}{F1}{F2}{Comm
          ent}{Key}
          Address entry for address files. The file extension has
          to be .adr!

   \addrentry{Lastname}{Firstname}{Address}{Telephone}{F1}{F2}{F3}
          {F4}{Key}
          This command supports four freely definable parameters
          for an address entry.

   \adrchar{initial letter}, \addrchar{initial letter}
          Separator for address entries. Ignored by scrlttr2.

3.9.4 Address Files with scraddr

   \InputAddressFile{file name}
          Read the contents of the given address file. Filename
          extension has to be .adr and has to be omitted in the
          argument.

   \Name{Key}, \FirstName{Key}, \LastName{Key}, \Address{Key},
          \Telephone{Key}, \FreeI{Key}, \FreeII{Key},
          \Comment{Key}, \FreeIII{Key}, \FreeIV{Key}
          Access to the data in address file. \Name is a
          concatenation of \FirstName and \LastName.

   AdrFreeIVempty, AdrFreeIVshow, AdrFreeIVwarn, AdrFreeIVstop
          Package warning options. Defaults to AdrFreeIVshow.

3.10 mathpazo

   Math fonts for the use with the Palatino font.

3.10.1 \upDelta / \upOmega

   Math fonts for the use with the Palatino font.

   Package options are:

   [slantedGreek]
          Uppercase Greek will be typeset slanted.

   [noBBpl]
          Do not use PazoMathBlackboardBold as (partial)
          blackboard bold font (e.g with \mathbb{R}).

   [osf]
          Make the font family pplj (Palatino with old style
          numerals) the default roman font, and use an alternative
          version of the virtual math italic fonts (zplmrj7m and
          zplmbj7m) with upright Palatino old style numerals for
          use with the \oldstylenums command.

   [osfeqnnum]
          Use old style numerals for equation numbering.

3.11 varioref

   Smarter version of the original latex2e cross reference
   commands. Generated strings are customizable, Babel options are
   recognized (further info in the package documentation).

   \vref, \vpageref
          \vref is similar to \ref but adds an additional page
          reference, like on the facing page or on page 27
          whenever the corresponding \label is not on the same
          page.

          \vpageref is a variation of \pageref with similar
          functionality.

   \vrefrange, \vpagerefrange
          The \v...range commands take two labels as arguments and
          produce strings which depend on wether or not these
          labels fall onto a single page or on different pages.

   \vref*, \vpageref*, \vpagerefrange*
          Star * variants do not add any space before the
          generated text for situations like:

(\vref{foo} ...)

3.12 Several Small Packages

   Must be loaded with the usual \usepackage command. Further info
   for a package to be found in the documentation (dvi, pdf, ps)
   or in the sty-file itself.

3.12.1 bm

   Bold math symbols or equations with better spacing then the
   \boldsymbold command. If possible load after other packages
   which redefine the fonts. When no bold font is available for a
   certain char bm will use poor man's bold \pmb.

   \bm
          Produces bold math symbol or equation.

   \unboldmath
          Can be used to set parts of an equation unbold.

3.12.2 url

   Defines line breakable hyperlinked (uses hyperref package)
   verbatim input for urls and e-mail addresses.

   Example: \url{http://example.org} outputs http://example.org.

   Related commands are \href and \nolinkurl.

4 Generic Packages

4.1 PiCTeX (tbd.)

   tbd.

4.2 PSTricks

4.2.1 Overview

   The idea behind the PSTricks package of Timothy van Zandt is to
   provide most of the PostScript language in LaTeX and TeX
   syntax.

4.2.2 Commands and Parameters

4.2.2.1 Color

   \newgray{color}{num} , \newrgbcolor{color}{num1 num2 num3} ,
          \newhsbcolor{color}{num1 num2 num3} ,
          \newcmykcolor{color}{num1 num2 num3 num4}

   Note that these commands are obsolete for LaTeX. Load PSTricks
   with \usepackage{pstcol} and use the standard LaTeX color
   commands instead.

4.2.2.2 Setting graphics parameters

   \psset{par1=value1,par2=value2,...}

4.2.2.3 Dimensions, coordinates and angles

   \pssetlength{cmd}{dim}

   unit=dim, xunit=dim, yunit=dim, yunit=dim
          Default: 1cm

   \degrees[num]

   \radians

4.2.2.4 Basic graphics parameters

   linewidth=dim
          Default: .8pt

   linecolor=color
          Default: black

   showpoints=true/false
          Default: false

4.2.2.5 Lines and polygons

   linearc=dim
          Default: 0pt

   framearc=num
          Default: 0

   cornersize=relative/absolute
          Default: relative

   \psline*[par]{arrows}(x0,y0)(x1,y1)...(xn,yn)

   \qline(coor0)(coor1)

   \pspolygon*[par](x0,y0)(x1,y1)(x2,y2)...(xn,yn)

   \psframe*[par](x0,y0)(x1,y1)

4.2.2.6 Arcs, circles and ellipses

   \pscircle*[par](x0,y0){radius}

   \qdisk(coor){radius}

   \pswedge*[par](x0,y0){radius}{angle1}{angle2}

   \psellipse*[par](x0,y0)(x1,y1)

   \psarc*[par]{arrows}(x,y){radius}{angleA}{angleB}

   \psarcn*[par]{arrows}(x,y){radius}{angleA}{angleB}

   arcsep=dim, arcsepA=dim, arcsepB=dim
          Default: 0pt

4.2.2.7 Curves

   \psbezier*[par]{arrows}(x0,y0)(x1,y1)(x2,y2)(x3,y3)

   \parabola*[par]{arrows}(x0,y0)(x1,y1)

   \pscurve*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)...(xn,yn)

   \psecurve*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)...(xn,yn)

   \psccurve*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)...(xn,yn)

   curvature=num1 num2 num3
          Default: 1 .1 0

4.2.2.8 Dots

   \psdots*[par](x1,y1)(x2,y2)...(xn,yn)

   dotstyle=style
          Default: *

          Dots: *, o, +, triangle, triangle*, square, square*,
          pentagon, pentagon*, |

   dotscale=num1 num2
          Default: 1

   dotangle=angle
          Default: 0

4.2.2.9 Grids

   \psgrid(x0,y0)(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   gridwidth=dim
          Default: .8pt

   gridcolor=color
          Default: black

   griddots=num
          Default: 0

   gridlabels=dim
          Default: 10pt

   gridlabelcolor=color
          Default: black

   subgriddiv=int
          Default: 5

   subgridwidth=dim
          Default: .4pt

   subgridcolor=color
          Default: gray

   subgriddots=num
          Default: 0

4.2.2.10 Plots

   \fileplot*[par]{file}

   \dataplot*[par]{commands}

   \savedata{command}[data]

   \readdata{command}{file}

   \listplot*[par]{list}

   \psplot*[par]{xmin}{xmax}{function}

   \parametricplot*[par]{tmin}{tmax}{function}

   plotstyle=style
          Default: line

   plotpoints=int
          Default: 50

4.2.2.11 Coordinate systems

   origin={coor}
          Default: 0pt,0pt

   swapaxes=true
          Default: false

4.2.2.12 Line styles

   linestyle=style
          Default: solid

   dash=dim1 dim2
          Default: 5pt 3pt

   dotsep=dim
          Default: 3pt

   border=dim
          Default: 0pt

   bordercolor=color
          Default: white

   doubleline=true/false
          Default: false

   doublesep=dim
          Default: 1.25\pslinewidth

   doublecolor=color
          Default: white

   shadow=true/false
          Default: false

   shadowsize=dim
          Default: 3pt

   shadowangle=angle
          Default: -45

   shadowcolor=color
          Default: darkgray

   dimen=outer/inner/middle
          Default: outer

4.2.2.13 Fill styles

   fillstyle=style
          Default: none

   fillcolor=color
          Default: white

   hatchwidth=dim
          Default: .8pt

   hatchsep=dim
          Default: 4pt

   hatchcolor=color
          Default: black

   hatchangle=rot
          Default: 45

4.2.2.14 Arrowheads and such

   arrows=style
          Default: -

          Arrows: -, <->, >-<, <<->>, >>-<<, |-|, |*-|*, [-], (-),
          o-o, *-*, oo-oo, **-**, c-c, cc-cc, C-C

   arrowsize=dim num
          Default: 2pt 3

   arrowlength=num
          Default: 1.4

   arrowinset=num
          Default: .4

   tbarsize=dim num
          Default: 2pt 5

   bracketlength=num, rbracketlength=num
          Default: .15

   dotsize=dim num
          Default: .5pt 2.5

   arrowscale=num1 num2
          Default: 1

4.2.2.15 Custom styles

   \newpsobject{name}{object}{par1=value1,...}

   \newpsstyle{name}{par1=value1,...}

4.2.2.16 The basics

   \pscustom*[par]{commands}

4.2.2.17 Parameters

   linetype=int
          Default: 0

4.2.2.18 Graphics objects

   liftpen=0/1/2
          Default: 0

4.2.2.19 Safe tricks

   \newpath

   \moveto(coor)

   \closepath

   \stroke[par]

   \fill[par]

   \gsave

   \grestore

   \translate(coor)

   \scale{num1 num2}

   \rotate{angle}

   \swapaxes

   \msave

   \mrestore

   \openshadow[par]

   \closedshadow[par]

   \movepath(coor)

4.2.2.20 Pretty safe tricks

   \lineto(coor)

   \rlineto(coor)

   \curveto(x1,y1)(x2,y2)(x3,y3)

   \rcurveto(x1,y1)(x2,y2)(x3,y3)

4.2.2.21 For hackers only

   \code{code}

   \dim{dim}

   \coor(x1,y1)(x2,y2)...(xn,yn)

   \rcoor(x1,y1)(x2,y2)...(xn,yn)

   \file{file}

   \arrows{arrows}

   \setcolor{color}

4.2.2.22 Pictures

   \pspicture*[baseline](x0,y0)(x1,y1)

   \endpspicture

4.2.2.23 Placing and rotating whatever

   \rput*[refpoint]{rotation}(x,y){stuff}

   \uput*{labelsep}[refangle]{rotation}(x,y){stuff}

   \pslabelsep

   labelsep=dim
          Default: 5pt

4.2.2.24 Repetition

   \multirput*[refpoint]{angle}(x0,y0)(x1,y1){int}{stuff}

   \multips{angle}(x0,y0)(x1,y1){int}{graphics}

4.2.2.25 Axes

   \psaxes*[par]{arrows}(x0,y0)(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

          Horizontal Vertical Dflt Description
          Ox=num     Oy=num   0    Label at origin.
          Dx=num     Dy=num   1    Label increment.
          dx=dim     oy=dim   0pt  Dist btwn labels.

   labels=all/x/y/none
          Default: all

   showorigin=true/false
          Default: true

   ticks=all/x/y/none
          Default: all

   tickstyle=full/top/bottom
          Default: full

   ticksize=dim
          Default: 3pt

   \psxlabel, \psylabel

   axesstyle=axes/frame/none
          Default: axes

4.2.2.26 Framed boxes

   framesep=dim
          Default: 3pt

   boxsep=true/false
          Default: true

   \psframebox*[par]{stuff}

   \psdblframebox*[par]{stuff}

   \psshadowbox*[par]{stuff}

   \pscirclebox*[par]{stuff}

   \cput*[par]{angle}(x,y){stuff}

   \psovalbox*[par]{stuff}

4.2.2.27 Clipping

   \clipbox[dim]{stuff}

   \psclip{graphics} ... \endpsclip

4.2.2.28 Rotation and scaling boxes

   \rotateleft{stuff}

   \rotateright{stuff}

   \rotatedown{stuff}

   \scalebox{num1 num2}{stuff}

   \scaleboxto(x,y){stuff}

4.2.2.29 Nodes

   \rnode[refpoint]{name}{stuff}

   \Rnode(x,y){name}{stuff}

   \RnodeRef

   \pnode(x,y){name}

   \cnode*[par](x,y){radius}{name}

   \circlenode*[par]{name}{stuff}

   \cnodeput*[par]{angle}(x,y){name}{stuff}

   \ovalnode*[par]{name}{stuff}

4.2.2.30 Node connections

   nodesep=dim
          Default: 0

   offset=dim
          Default: 0

   arm=dim
          Default: 10pt

   angle=angle
          Default: 0

   arcangle=angle
          Default: 8

   ncurv=num
          Default: .67

   loopsize=dim
          Default: 1cm

   \ncline*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncLine*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \nccurve*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncarc*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncbar*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncdiag*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncdiagg*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncangle*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncangles*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \ncloop*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \nccircle*[par]{arrows}{node}{radius}

   \pcline*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pccurve*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pcarc*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pcbar*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pcdiag*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pcangle*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pcloop*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

4.2.2.31 Attaching labels to node connections

   \lput*[refpoint]{rotation}(pos){stuff}

   \aput*[labelsep]{angle}(pos){stuff}

   \bput*[labelsep]{angle}(pos){stuff}

   \mput*[refpoint]{stuff}

   \Aput*[labelsep]{stuff}

   \Bput*[labelsep]{stuff}

4.2.2.32 Coils and zigzags

   \pscoil*[par]{arrows}(x0,y0)(x1,y1)

   \psCoil*[par]{angle1}{angle2}

   \pszigzag*[par]{arrows}(x0,y0)(x1,y1)

   coilwidth=dim
          Default: 1cm

   coilheight=num
          Default: 1

   coilarm=dim
          Default: .5cm

   coilaspect=angle
          Default: 45

   coilinc=angle
          Default: 10

   \nccoil*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \nczigzag*[par]{arrows}{nodeA}{nodeB}

   \pccoil*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

   \pczigzag*[par]{arrows}(x1,y1)(x2,y2)

4.2.2.33 Special coordinates

   \SpecialCoor

   Table 1.12. Special coordinates and angles
   Coordinate    Example        Description
   (x,y)         (3,4)          Cartesian coordinate.
   (r;a)         (3;110)        Polar coordinate.
   (node)        (A)            Center of node.
   ([par]node)   ([angle=45]A)  Relative to node.
   (!ps)         (!5 3.3 2 exp) Raw PostScript.
   (coor1|coor2) (A|1in;30)     Combination.

   Angle  Example  Description
   num    45       Angle.
   (coor) (-1,1)   Coordinate (vector).
   !ps    !33 sqrt Raw PostScript.

   \NormalCoor

4.2.2.34 Overlays

   \overlaybox stuff\endoverlaybox

   \psoverlay{string}

   \putoverlaybox{string}

   gradbegin=color
          Default: gradbegin

   gradend=color
          Default: gradend

   gradlines=int
          Default: 500

   gradmidpoint=num
          Default: .9

   gradangle=angle
          Default: 0

4.2.2.35 Typesetting text along a path

   \pstextpath[pos](x,y){graphics object}{text}

4.2.2.36 Stroking and filling character paths

   \pscharpath*[par]{text}

   \pscharclip*[par]{text} ... \endpscharclip

4.2.2.37 Exporting EPS files

   \TeXtoEPS ... \endTeXtoEPS

   \PSTtoEPS[par]{file}{graphics objects}

   bbllx=dim
          Default: -1pt

   bblly=dim
          Default: -1pt

   bburx=dim
          Default: 1pt

   bbury=dim
          Default: 1pt

   headerfile=file
          Default: s

   headers=none/all/user
          Default: none

4.2.2.38 Boxes

   \psmathboxtrue, \psmathboxfalse

   \everypsbox{commands}

   \pslongbox{name}{cmd}

   \psverbboxtrue, \psverbboxfalse

4.2.2.39 Tips and More Tricks

   \pslbrace, \psrbrace

4.2.3 List of Additional PSTricks Packages

   psgo
          Draw Go diagrams

   pst-blur
          PSTricks package for "blurred" shadows

   pst-euc
          Géométrie en LaTeX et PSTricks

   pst-fr3d
          Three dimensional framed Boxes

   pst-ghsb
          PSTricks package for HSB Gradients

   pst-gr3d
          PSTricks package for 3D grids

   pst-lens
          Optique géométrique

   pst-node
          PSTricks package for nodes

   pst-ob3d
          A PSTricks package for three dimensional basic objects

   pst-osci
          Oscilloscopes with PSTricks

   pst-poly
          Polygons with PSTricks

   pst-tree
          PSTricks package for trees

   pst-uml
          Draw easily diagrams with UML notation

   vaucansom.sty
          Drawing automata

5 fontinst (tbd.)

   tbd.

6 ConTeXt (tbd.)

6.1 Overview

   ConTeXt is based on PlainTeX and MetaPost and gets controlled
   with some Perl scripts. It's mainly targeted towards layout
   oriented users and especially useful for presentations. It's
   extensible by the use of modules and has in it's base
   distribution already a large amount of functionality. The
   preferred output format is PDF, but DVI is possible too.

   Some of the unique features of ConTeXt are:
     * Inline XML (including MathML, ChemML, and PhysML)
     * really good XML support in general
     * inline MetaPost

7 Texinfo (tbd.)

   tbd.

Chapter 2. pdfTeX

   Table of Contents

   1 Options

        1.1 --file-line-error-style
        1.2 --fmt format
        1.3 --help
        1.4 --ini
        1.5 --interaction mode
        1.6 --ipc
        1.7 --ipc-start
        1.8 --jobname name
        1.9 --kpathsea-debug bitmask
        1.10 --maketex fmt
        1.11 --no-maketex fmt
        1.12 --output-comment string
        1.13 --parse-first-line
        1.14 --progname name
        1.15 --recorder
        1.16 --shell-escape
        1.17 --translate-file tcxname
        1.18 --version

   2 Environment

Note

   The contents of this section was taken from pdftex(1).

1 Options

   pdfTeX understands the following command line options.

1.1 --file-line-error-style

   Print error messages in the form file:line:error which is
   similar to the way many compilers format them.

1.2 --fmt format

   Use format as the name of the format to be used, instead of the
   name by which pdfTeX was called or a %& line.

1.3 --help

   Print help message and exit.

1.4 --ini

   Be pdfinitex, for dumping formats; this is implicitly true if
   the program is called as pdfinitex.

1.5 --interaction mode

   Sets the interaction mode. The mode can be one of batchmode,
   nonstopmode, scrollmode, and errorstopmode. The meaning of
   these modes is the same as that of the corresponding \commands.

1.6 --ipc

   Send DVI or PDF output to a socket as well as the usual output
   file. Whether this option is available is the choice of the
   installer.

1.7 --ipc-start

   As --ipc, and starts the server at the other end as well.
   Whether this option is available is the choice of the
   installer.

1.8 --jobname name

   Use name for the job name, instead of deriving it from the name
   of the input file.

1.9 --kpathsea-debug bitmask

   Sets path searching debugging flags according to the bitmask.
   See the Kpathsea manual for details.

1.10 --maketex fmt

   Enable mktexfmt, where fmt must be one of tex or tfm.

1.11 --no-maketex fmt

   Disable mktexfmt, where fmt must be one of tex or tfm.

1.12 --output-comment string

   Use string for the DVI file comment instead of the date.

1.13 --parse-first-line

   If the first line of the main input file begins with %& parse
   it to look for a dump name or a --translate-file option.

1.14 --progname name

   Pretend to be program name. This affects both the format used
   and the search paths.

1.15 --recorder

   Enable the filename recorder. This leaves a trace of the files
   opened for input and output in a file with extension .fls.

1.16 --shell-escape

   Enable the \write18{command} construct. The command can be any
   Bourne shell command. This construct is normally disallowed for
   security reasons.

1.17 --translate-file tcxname

   Use the tcxname translation table.

1.18 --version

   Print version information and exit.

2 Environment

   See the Kpathsearch library documentation (the `Path
   specifications' node) for the details of how the environment
   variables are used when searching. The kpsewhich utility can be
   used to query the values of the variables.

   One caveat: In most pdfTeX formats, you cannot use ~ in a
   filename you give directly to pdfTeX, because ~ is an active
   character, and hence is expanded, not taken as part of the
   filename. Other programs, such as Metafont, do not have this
   problem.

   TEXMFOUTPUT
          Normally, pdfTeX puts its output files in the current
          directory. If any output file cannot be opened there, it
          tries to open it in the directory specified in the
          environment variable TEXMFOUTPUT. There is no default
          value for that variable. For example, if you say pdftex
          paper and the current directory is not writable, if
          TEXMFOUTPUT has the value /tmp, pdfTeX attempts to
          create /tmp/paper.log (and /tmp/paper.pdf, if any output
          is produced.)

   TEXINPUTS
          Search path for \input and \openin files. This should
          probably start with ``.'', so that user files are found
          before system files. An empty path component will be
          replaced with the paths defined in the texmf.cnf file.
          For example, set TEXINPUTS to ".:/home/usr/tex:" to
          prepend the current direcory and ``/home/user/tex'' to
          the standard search path.

   TEXFONTS
          earch path for font metric (.tfm) files.

   TEXFORMATS
          Search path for format files.

   TEXPOOL
          Search path for pdfinitex internal strings.

   TEXEDIT
          Command template for switching to editor. The default,
          usually vi, is set when pdfTeX is compiled.

Chapter 3. Metafont (tbd.)

   tbd.

Chapter 4. MetaPost

   Table of Contents

   1 Options

        1.1 --file-line-error-style
        1.2 --help
        1.3 --ini
        1.4 --interaction mode
        1.5 --jobname name
        1.6 --kpathsea-debug bitmask
        1.7 --mem mem
        1.8 --parse-first-line
        1.9 --progname name
        1.10 --recorder
        1.11 -T
        1.12 --translate-file tcxname
        1.13 --troff
        1.14 --version

   2 Environment

Note

   The contents of this section was taken from mpost(1).

   MetaPost is a programming language much like Knuth's Metafont
   except that it outputs PostScript programs instead of bitmaps.
   Borrowed from Metafont are the basic tools for creating and
   manipulating pictures. These include numbers, coordinate pairs,
   cubic splines, affine transformations, text strings, and
   boolean quantities. Additional features facilitate integrating
   text and graphics and accessing special features of PostScript
   such as clipping, shading, and dashed lines. Another feature
   borrowed from Metafont is the ability to solve linear equations
   that are given implicitly, thus allowing many programs to be
   written in a largely declarative style. By building complex
   operations from simpler ones, MetaPost achieves both power and
   exibility.

1 Options

   MetaPost understands the following command line options.

1.1 --file-line-error-style

   Print error messages in the form file:line:error which is
   similar to the way many compilers format them.

1.2 --help

   Print help message and exit.

1.3 --ini

   Be inimpost, for dumping bases; this is implicitly true if the
   program is called as inimpost.

1.4 --interaction mode

   Sets the interaction mode. The mode can be one of batchmode,
   nonstopmode, scrollmode, and errorstopmode. The meaning of
   these modes is the same as that of the corresponding commands.

1.5 --jobname name

   Use name for the job name, instead of deriving it from the name
   of the input file.

1.6 --kpathsea-debug bitmask

   Sets path searching debugging flags according to the bitmask.
   See the Kpathsea manual for details.

1.7 --mem mem

   Use mem as the name of the mem to be used, instead of the name
   by which MetaPost was called or a %& line.

1.8 --parse-first-line

   If the first line of the main input file begins with %& parse
   it to look for a dump name or a --translate-file option.

1.9 --progname name

   Pretend to be program name. This affects both the format used
   and the search paths.

1.10 --recorder

   Enable the filename recorder. This leaves a trace of the files
   opened for input and output in a file with extension .fls.

1.11 -T

   Produce TROFF output.

1.12 --translate-file tcxname

   Use the tcxname translation table.

1.13 --troff

   As -T.

1.14 --version

   Print version information and exit.

2 Environment

   See the Kpathsearch library documentation (the `Path
   specifications' node) for the details of how the environment
   variables are use when searching. The kpsewhich utility can be
   used to query the values of the variables.

   If the environment variable TEXMFOUTPUT is set, MetaPost
   attempts to put its output files in it, if they cannot be put
   in the current directory.

   Here is a list of the environment variables which affect the
   behavior of MetaPost:

   MPINPUTS
          Search path for input files.

   MFINPUTS
          Auxiliary search path for input files with .mf
          extensions.

   MPSUPPORT
          Directory for various tables for handling included TeX
          and troff.

   MPXCOMMAND
          The name of a shell script that converts embedded
          typesetting commands to a form that MetaPost
          understands. Defaults: makempx for TeX and troffmpx for
          troff.

   TEX
          The version of TeX - or LaTeX - to use when processing
          btex and verbatimtex commands. Default TeX. This version
          of MetaPost allows you to use a `%&format' line instead.

   TROFF
          The troff pipeline for btex and verbatimtex commands.
          Default eqn -d\$\$ | troff

   MPEDIT
          A command template for invoking an editor.

   A .mem file is a binary file that permits fast loading of macro
   packages. MetaPost reads the default plain.mem unless another
   .mem file is specified at the start of the first line with an &
   just before it. There is also an mfplain.mem that simulates
   plain Metafont so that MetaPost can read .mf fonts. (Plain
   Metafont is described in The Metafontbook).

   Experts can create .mem files by invoking inimpost and giving
   macro definitions followed by a dump command.

   The MetaPost language is similar to Metafont, but the manual A
   User's Manual for MetaPost assumes no knowledge of Metafont.
   MetaPost does not have bitmap output commands or Metafont's
   online display mechanism.

Chapter 5. BibTeX

   Table of Contents

   1 Parameters
   2 Command Qualifiers
   3 bib files

        3.1 @STRING command
        3.2 Entry Format
        3.3 Entry Types
        3.4 Field Text
        3.5 Field Types

   4 bst files

        4.1 ABBRV.BST
        4.2 ALPHA.BST
        4.3 PLAIN.BST
        4.4 SAMPLE.BST
        4.5 UNSRT.BST

Note

   The contents of this section was taken from the HTML helppages
   for BibTeX of Norman Walsh (Version 1.0, 12 Apr 94).

   Invokes the BibTeX utility to compile a bibliography file for
   LaTeX. Full details can be found in "LaTeX: A Document
   Preparation System" by Leslie Lamport.

1 Parameters

   bibliography-file-spec

   Specifies the name of the bibliography database file to be
   compiled by BibTeX. If the file specification does not include
   a file type, BibTeX assumes a default type of BIB.

2 Command Qualifiers

   /BIBINPUTS /BIBINPUTS=(name,...)

   Specify directories containing input files, and the order in
   which they will be searched to locate each input file. A null
   value in the list indicates the current directory. The search
   procedure TeX uses to locate input files is to first search
   your default directory and then search each of the directories
   specified by the /BIBINPUTS option.

   Default is /BIBINPUTS=(TEX_BIB:); TeX looks in the directory
   associated with the logical name TEX_BIB.

   /STATS /STATS /NOSTATS [D]

   This qualifier is used while debugging .BST files to determine
   BIBTEX memory usage.

   /TEXINPUTS /TEXINPUTS=(name,...)

   Specify directories containing input files, and the order in
   which they will be searched to locate each input file. A null
   value in the list indicates the current directory. The search
   procedure TeX uses to locate input files is to first search
   your default directory and then search each of the directories
   specified by the /TEXINPUTS option.

   Default is /TEXINPUTS=(TEX_INPUTS); TeX looks in the directory
   associated with the logical name TEX_INPUTS.

   /TRACE /TRACE /NOTRACE [D]

   This qualifier is used while debugging .BST files to follow
   program flow.

3 bib files

   This help entry contains the same information as Appendix B of
   the LaTeX manual. It describes the format of a bibliography
   database (.BIB) file.

   A bibliography database file may contains two types of entry -
   an abbreviation definition or a reference entry for citation.

3.1 @STRING command

   The @STRING command is used to define abbreviations for use by
   BibTeX within the bibliography database file. The command
 @string{jgg1 = "Journal of Gnats and Gnus, Series~1"}

   defines 'jgg1' to be the abbreviation for the string "Journal
   of Gnats and Gnus, Series~1". Parentheses can be used in place
   of the outermost braces in the @string command, and braces can
   be used instead of the quotation marks. The text must have
   matching braces.

   The case of letters is ignored in an abbreviation as well as in
   the command name @string, so the command above could have been
   written:
 @STRING{JgG1 = "Journal of Gnats and Gnus, Series~1"}

   A @string command can appear anywhere before or between entries
   in a bibliography database file. However, it must come before
   any use of the abbreviation, so a sensible place for @string
   commands is at the beginning of the file. A @string command in
   the bibliography database file takes precedence over a
   definition made by the bibliography style, so it can be used to
   change the definition of an abbreviation such as 'Feb'.

3.2 Entry Format

   A bibliography database file contains a series of reference
   entries like the following:
 @BOOK{kn:gnus,
       AUTHOR = "Donald E. Knudson",
       TITLE  = "1966 World Gnus Almanac",
       PUBLISHER = {Permafrost Press},
       ADDRESS = {Novisibirsk}             }

   The @BOOK states that this is an entry of type book. various
   entry types are described below. The 'kn:gnus' is the citation
   key, as it appears in the argument of a \cite command referring
   to the entry.

   This entry has four fields, named AUTHOR, TITLE, PUBLISHER and
   ADDRESS. The meanings of these and other fields are described
   below. A field consists of the name, an '=' character with
   optional space around it, followed by its text. The text of a
   field is a string of characters, with no unmatched braces,
   surrounded by either a pair of braces or a pair of '"'
   characters. Entry fields are separated from one another, and
   from the citation key, by commas. A comma may have optional
   space around it.

   The outermost braces that surround the entire entry may be
   replaced by parentheses. As in TeX input files, an end-of-line
   character counts as a space and one space is equivalent to many
   spaces. Unlike TeX, BibTeX ignores the case of letters in the
   entry type, citation key and field names. The above entry could
   have been typed as follows:
@BOOK(kn:gnus, author = {Donald E. Knudson},
      TITLE  = "1966 World Gnus Almanac",
      PUBLISHER = {Permafrost Press},
      ADDRESS = {Novisibirsk}             )

   However, the case of letters does matter to LaTeX, so the
   citation key ("kn:gnus" in the example above) should appear
   exactly the same in all \cite commands in the LaTeX input file.

   The quotes or braces can be omitted around text consisting
   entirely of numerals. The following two fields are equivalent:
Volume = "27"           Volume = 27

3.3 Entry Types

   When entering a reference in the bibliography database, the
   first thing to decide is what type of entry it is. No fixed
   classification scheme can be complete, but BibTeX provides
   enough entry types to handle almost any reference reasonably
   well.

   References to different types of publications contain different
   information; a reference to a journal might include the volume
   and number of the journal, which is usually not meaningful for
   a book. Therefore, database entries of different types have
   different fields for each entry type, the fields are divided
   into three classes:

   Required
          omitting the field will produce an error message and may
          result in a badly formatted bibliography entry. If the
          required information is not meaningful, you are using
          the wrong entry type.

   Optional
          the field's information will be used if present, but can
          be omitted without causing any formatting problems. A
          reference should contain any available information that
          might help the reader, so you should include the
          optional field if it is applicable.

   Ignored
          the field is ignored. BibTeX ignores any field that is
          not required or optional, so you can include any fields
          you want in a bibliography entry. It's often a good idea
          to put all relevant information about a reference in its
          bibliography entry - even information that may never
          appear in the bibliography. For example, if you want to
          keep an abstract of a paper in a computer file, put it
          in an 'abstract' field in the paper's bibliography
          entry. The bibliography database file is likely to be as
          good a place as any for the abstract, and it is possible
          to design a bibliography style for printing selected
          abstracts.

   BibTeX ignores the case of letters in the entry type.

3.3.1 article entry

   An article from a journal or magazine.

   Format:
@ARTICLE{citation_key,
         required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, journal, year

   Optional fields: volume, number, pages, month, note, key

3.3.2 book entry

   A book with an explicit publisher.

   Format:
@BOOK{citation_key,
      required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author or editor, title, publisher, year

   Optional fields: volume, series, address, edition, month, note,
   key

3.3.3 booklet entry

   A work that is printed and bound, but without a named publisher
   or sponsoring institution.

   Format:
@BOOKLET{citation_key,
         required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: title

   Optional fields: author, howpublished, address, month, year,
   note, key

3.3.4 conference entry

   An article in the proceedings of a conference. This entry is
   identical to the 'inproceedings' entry and is included for
   compatibility with another text formatting system.

   Format:
@CONFERENCE{citation_key,
            required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, booktitle, year

   Optional fields: editor, pages, organization, publisher,
   address, month, note, key

3.3.5 inbook entry

   A part of a book, which may be a chapter and/or a range of
   pages.

   Format:
@INBOOK{citation_key,
        required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author or editor, title, chapter and/or pages,
   publisher, year

   Optional fields: volume, series, address, edition, month, note,
   key

3.3.6 incollection entry

   A part of a book with its own title.

   Format:
@INCOLLECTION{citation_key,
              required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, booktitle, year

   Optional fields: editor, pages, organization, publisher,
   address, month, note, key

3.3.7 inproceedings entry

   An article in the proceedings of a conference.

   Format:
@INPROCEEDINGS{citation_key,
               required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, booktitle, year

   Optional fields: editor, pages, organization, publisher,
   address, month, note, key

3.3.8 manual entry

   Technical documentation.

   Format:
@MANUAL{citation_key,
        required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: title

   Optional fields: author, organization, address, edition, month,
   year, note, key

3.3.9 mastersthesis entry

   A Master's thesis.

   Format:
@MASTERSTHESIS{citation_key,
               required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, school, year

   Optional fields: address, month, note, key

3.3.10 misc entry

   Use this type when nothing else seems appropriate.

   Format:
@MISC{citation_key,
      required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: none

   Optional fields: author, title, howpublished, month, year,
   note, key

3.3.11 phdthesis entry

   A PhD thesis.

   Format:
@PHDTHESIS{citation_key,
           required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, school, year

   Optional fields: address, month, note, key

3.3.12 proceedings entry

   The proceedings of a conference.

   Format:
@PROCEEDINGS{citation_key,
             required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: title, year

   Optional fields: editor, publisher, organization, address,
   month, note, key

3.3.13 techreport entry

   A report published by a school or other institution, usually
   numbered within a series.

   Format:
@TECHREPORT{citation_key,
            required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, institution, year

   Optional fields: type, number, address, month, note, key

3.3.14 unpublished entry

   A document with an author and title, but not formally
   published.

   Format:
@UNPUBLISHED{citation_key,
             required_fields [, optional_fields] }

   Required fields: author, title, note

   Optional fields: month, year, key

3.4 Field Text

   The text of the field is enclosed in braces or double quote
   characters. A part of the text is said to be enclosed in braces
   if it lies inside a matching pair of braces other than the ones
   enclosing the entire entry or the entire field text.

   BibTeX manipulates the case of letters in the field text as
   described in the subtopics below.

3.4.1 Names

   The text of an author or editor field represents a list of
   names. The bibliography style determines the format in which
   the name is printed: whether the first name or last name
   appears first, if the full first name or just the first initial
   is used, etc. The bibliography file entry simply tells BibTeX
   what the name is.

   You should type an author's complete name and let the
   bibliography style decide what to abbreviate. (But an author's
   complete name may be "Donald~E. Knuth" or even "J.~P.~Morgan";
   you should type it the way the author would like it to appear,
   if that's known.)

   Most names can be entered in the obvious way, either with or
   without a comma, as in the following examples:

   "John Paul Jones" "Jones, John Paul" "Ludwig von Beethoven"
   "von Beethoven, Ludwig"

   Some people have multiple last names - for example, Per Brinch
   Hansen's last name is Brinch~Hansen. His name should be typed
   with a comma:

   "Brinch Hansen, Per"

   To understand why, you must understand how BibTeX handles names
   (for what follows, a "name" corresponds to a person).

   Each name consists of four parts: First, von, Last, and~Jr;
   each part consists of a (possibly empty) list of name-tokens.
   For example the First part of Per Brinch~Hansen's name has the
   single token "Per"; the Last part has two, "Brinch" and
   "Hansen"; and the von and Jr parts are empty. If you had typed

   "Per Brinch Hansen"

   instead, BibTeX would erroneously think "Brinch" were a
   First-part token, just as "Paul" is a First-part token in
   "John~Paul Jones".

   Here's another example:

   "Charles Louis Xavier Joseph de la Vallee Poussin"

   This name has four tokens in the First part, two in the von,
   and two in the Last. Here BibTeX knows where one part ends and
   the other begins because the tokens in the von part begin with
   lower-case letters.

   If you want BibTeX to consider something a single token,
   enclose it in braces. You should do this, for example, if a
   comma is part of a name:

   "{Barnes and Noble, Inc.}" "{Barnes and} {Noble, Inc.}"
   "{Barnes} {and} {Noble,} {Inc.}"

   The braces surrounding the comma keep "Inc." from being
   interpreted as a First token; this name has only a Last part,
   with either one, two, or four tokens (there must be a space
   separating the tokens in the second and third forms). Probably
   the second form is slightly more meaningful, but don't lose
   sleep over this since only rarely will an institution be an
   author or editor.

   So the two names

   "von Beethoven, Ludwig" "{von Beethoven}, Ludwig"

   are considered by BibTeX to be different names. In the first,
   "Beethoven" is the Last part and "von" is the von part; in the
   second, which in this case happens to be incorrect, the Last
   part has a single token and there's no von part. The
   bibliography style will probably print both the same, but it
   may alphabetize and label them differently.

   "Juniors" pose a special problem. Most people having "Jr." in
   their name precede it with a comma. Such a name should be
   entered as follows:

   "Ford, Jr., Henry"

   However, a few people do not use a comma. They are handled by
   considering the "Jr." to be part of the last Last token:

   "{Steele Jr.}, Guy L." "Guy L. {Steele Jr.}"

   This name has no Jr part.

   To summarize, you may type a name in one of three forms:

   "First von Last" "von Last, First" "von Last, Jr, First"

   You may almost always use the first form; you shouldn't if
   either there's a Jr part or the Last part has multiple tokens
   but there's no von part.

   If there are multiple authors or editors, their names must be
   separated by the word "and", surrounded by spaces, not enclosed
   in braces:

   AUTHOR = "Ralph Alpher and Bethe, Hans and George Gamow"

   Since BibTeX interprets commas as separating parts of a name
   and "and" as separating names themselves, this example has
   three coauthors: Ralph Alpher, Hans Bethe, and George Gamow. If
   the word "and" appears as part of a name, it must be enclosed
   in braces, as in the example of "Barnes and Noble,~Inc." given
   above. If you have too many names to list in a field, you can
   end the list with "and others"; the standard styles
   appropriately append an "et al."

   BibTeX's rules are actually a bit more complicated than
   indicated here, but this description will suffice for most
   names.

3.4.2 Titles

   The bibliography style determines whether or not a title is
   capitalized; the titles of books usually are, the title of
   articles usually are not. You type a title the way it should
   appear if it is capitalized (you should capitalize everything
   but articles and unstressed conjunctions and prepositions, and
   even these should be capitalized as the first word or the first
   after a colon):

   TITLE = "The Agony and the Ecstasy"

   BibTeX will change uppercase letters to lowercase if
   appropriate. Uppercase letters that should not be changed are
   enclosed in braces. The following two titles are equivalent;
   the "A" of "Africa" will not be made lowercase.

   "The Gnats and Gnus of {Africa}" "The Gnats and Gnus of
   {A}frica"

3.4.3 Abbreviations

   Instead of an ordinary text string, the text of a field can be
   replaced by an abbreviation for it. An abbreviation is a string
   of characters that starts with a letter and does not contain a
   space or any of the following ten characters:

   " # % ' ( ) , = { }

   The abbreviation is typed in place of the text field, with no
   braces or quotation marks. If 'jgg1' is an abbreviation for

   Journal of Gnats and Gnus, Series~1

   then the following are equivalent:

   JOURNAL = jgg1 JOURNAL = "Journal of Gnats and Gnus, Series~1"

   Some abbreviations are predefined by the bibliography style.
   These always include the usual 3 letter abbreviations for the
   month: jan, feb, mar etc.

   Bibliography styles usually contain abbreviations for the names
   of commonly referenced journals. Consult the Local Guide for a
   list of the predefined abbreviations for the bibliography
   styles available.

   You can define your own abbreviations by using BibTeX's @STRING
   command.

3.5 Field Types

   Below is a list of all fields recognized by the standard
   bibliography styles. An entry can also contain other fields,
   which are ignored by those styles.

   BibTeX ignores the case of letters in the field names.

3.5.1 address field

   Publisher's address. For major publishing houses, just the city
   is given. For small publishers, you can help the reader by
   giving the complete address.

   Format:
ADDRESS = field_text

3.5.2 annote field

   An annotation, used only for annotated bibliography styles
   (which are not among the standard ones).

   Format:
ANNOTE = field_text

3.5.3 author field

   The name(s) of the author(s).

   Format:
AUTHOR = field_text

3.5.4 booktitle field

   Title of a book, part of which is being cited.

   Format:
BOOKTITLE = field_text

3.5.5 chapter field

   A chapter number.

   Format:
CHAPTER = field_text

3.5.6 edition field

   The edition of a book - for example, "second".

   Format:
EDITION = field_text

3.5.7 editor field

   Name(s) of editor(s). If there is also an "author" field, then
   the "editor" field gives the editor of the book or collection
   in which the reference appears.

   Format:
EDITOR = field_text

3.5.8 howpublished field

   How something strange has been published.

   Format:
HOWPUBLISHED = field_text

3.5.9 institution field

   The institution that published the work.

   Format:
INSTITUTION = field_text

3.5.10 journal field

   A journal name. Abbreviations are provided for many journals;
   see the Local Guide.

   Format:
JOURNAL = field_text

3.5.11 key field

   Used for alphabetizing and creating a label when the "author"
   and "editor" fields are missing. This field should not be
   confused with the citation key that appears in the \cite
   command and at the beginning of the entry.

   Format:
KEY = field_text

3.5.12 month field

   The month in which the work was published or, for an
   unpublished work, in which it was written.

   Format:
MONTH = field_text

3.5.13 note field

   Any additional information that can help the reader.

   Format:
NOTE = field_text

3.5.14 number field

   The number of a journal, magazine, or technical report. An
   issue of a journal or magazine is usually identified by its
   volume and number; the organization that issues a technical
   report usually gives it a number.

   Format:
NUMBER = field_text

3.5.15 organization field

   The organization sponsoring a conference.

   Format:
ORGANIZATION = field_text

3.5.16 pages field

   A page number or range of numbers such as "42--111"; you may
   also have several of these, separating them with commas:
   "7,41,73--97". The standard styles convert a single dash to a
   double. >

   Format:
PAGES = field_text

3.5.17 publisher field

   The publisher's name.

   Format:
PUBLISHER = field_text

3.5.18 school field

   The name of the school where a thesis was written.

   Format:
SCHOOL = field_text

3.5.19 series field

   The name of a series or set of books. When citing an entire
   book, the the "title" field gives its title and an optional
   "series" field gives the name of a series in which the book is
   published.

   Format:
SERIES = field_text

3.5.20 title field

   The work's title.

   Format:
TITLE = field_text

3.5.21 type field

   The type of a technical report - for example, "Research Note".

   Format:
TYPE = field_text

3.5.22 volume field

   The volume of a journal or multivolume book work.

   Format:
VOLUME = field_text

3.5.23 year field

   The year of publication or, for an unpublished work, the year
   it was written. This field's text should contain only numerals.

   Format:
YEAR = field_text

4 bst files

   Bibliography style files define the style of a bibliography
   source list.

   The standard bibliography style files are PLAIN, UNSRT, ALPHA
   and ABBRV.

   If you want to make a bibliography style of your own, look at
   SAMPLE.BST.

4.1 ABBRV.BST

   This style is the same as the style defined in PLAIN.BST,
   except that entries are more compact because first names, month
   names and journal names are abbreviated.

4.2 ALPHA.BST

   This style is the same as the style defined in PLAIN.BST except
   that entry labels like "Knu66", formed from the author's name
   and the year of publication, are used.

4.3 PLAIN.BST

   This style is formatted more or less as suggested by
   Mary-Claire van Leunen in "A Handbook for Scholars" (Alfred A.
   Knopf, New York, 1979). Entries are sorted alphabetically and
   are labelled with numbers.

4.4 SAMPLE.BST

   This is a sample bibliography style file meant to help you
   construct a new style. It creates a bibliography in which
   entries appear as follows:

   [Jones79] Jones, R. L. and Richards, P. Q. The Birds and the
   Bees. {\it Journal of Irreproducible Results 4}, 2 (Jan. 1979),
   27-33.

   [Jones82a] Jones, P. G. The Bees and the Trees ... (1982).

   [Jones82b] Jones, R. L. The Trees and the Peas ... (1982).

   [Krist74] Kristofferson, R. P. Peopl and Places ... (1974)

   It should illustrate how you write a style file. The functions
   are described in an informal Pascal-like style in comments.
   Because of the way while loops and if-then-else statements must
   use functions, the following convention is used. If a while
   loop is labeled 'foo' in the informal description, then its
   test and body are the functions named 'foo.test' and
   'foo.body'. If an if statement is labeled 'foo', then its two
   clauses are the functions named 'foo.then' and 'foo.else'.
   (Null clauses just use the 'skip$' function.) Note that because
   functions have to be defined in terms of already-defined
   functions, the actual function definitions are given in a
   'bottom-up' order.

4.5 UNSRT.BST

   This style is that same as PLAIN.BST except that entries appear
   in the order of their first citation.

Chapter 6. Make-Index

   Table of Contents

   1 Options

        1.1 -c
        1.2 -g
        1.3 -i
        1.4 -l
        1.5 -q
        1.6 -r
        1.7 -s sty
        1.8 -o ind
        1.9 -t log
        1.10 -p no
        1.11 -L
        1.12 -T

   2 Style File

        2.1 Input Style Specifiers
        2.2 Output Style Specifiers

   3 Example
   4 Ordering
   5 Special Effects

Note

   The contents of this section was taken from the HTML helppages
   for Make-Index of Norman Walsh (Version 1.0, 12 Apr 94).

   Some obvious errors in this documentation have been corrected
   according to makeindex(1L).

   Additional information was taken from makeindex(1L) and the
   program source files as found in teTeX 2.0.2.

   Make-Index is a general purpose index processor. It takes one
   or more raw index files (normally generated by a formatter),
   sorts the entries, and produces the actual index file. It is
   not dependent on any particular format of raw index file,
   although the .idx file generated by LaTeX is the default. Up to
   three levels (0, 1, and 2) of subitem nesting within the same
   entry is supported. The input format may be redefined in a
   style file so that raw index or glossary output from other
   formatters may be processed. The style file also defines the
   style of output index file. Unless specified otherwise, the
   file name base of the first input file (idx0) is used to
   determine other related input/output files. The default input
   file type is .idx.

1 Options

   Make-Index is a Unix program, and therefore has a Unix-style
   command line. Instead of qualifiers delimited with a slash (/),
   Make-Index options are delimited with a hyphen (-).

1.1 -c

   Enable blank compression. By default every blank counts in the
   index key. The -c option ignores leading and trailing blanks
   and tabs and compresses intermediate ones to a single space.

1.2 -g

   Employ German word ordering in the index, in accord with rules
   set forth in DIN 5007. The quote character must be redefined in
   a style file (for example, redefine quote as '+'). If the quote
   character is not redefined, Make-Index will produce an error
   message and abort.

1.3 -i

   Use stdin as the input file. When this option is specified and
   the -o is not, output is written to stdout.

1.4 -l

   Use letter ordering. Default is word ordering (explained in the
   Ordering section).

1.5 -q

   Quiet mode, send no messages to stderr. By default progress and
   error messages are sent to stderr as well as the transcript
   file. The -q option disables the stderr messages.

1.6 -r

   Disable implicit page range formation. By default three or more
   successive pages will be automatically abbreviated as a range
   (e.g. 1--5). The -r option disables it, making the explicit
   range operators the only way to create page ranges (see the
   Special Effects section below).

1.7 -s sty

   Take sty as the style file. There is no default for the style
   file name. The environment variable INDEXSTYLE defines the path
   where the style file should be found.

1.8 -o ind

   Take ind as the output index file. By default the file name
   base of the first input file idx0 concatenated with the
   extension .ind is used as the output file name.

1.9 -t log

   Take log as the transcript file. By default the file name base
   of the first input file idx0 concatenated with the extension
   .ilg is used as the transcript file name.

1.10 -p no

   Set the starting page number of the output index file to be no.
   This is useful when the index file is to be formatted
   separately. Other than pure numbers, three special cases are
   allowed for no: any, odd, and even. In these special cases, the
   starting page number is determined by retrieving the last page
   number from the source log file. The source log file name is
   determined by concatenating the file name base of the first raw
   index file (idx0) with the extension .log. The last source page
   is obtained by searching backward in the log file for the first
   instance of a number included in [...]. If a page number is
   missing or the log file is not found, no attempt will be made
   to set the starting page number. The meaning of each of these
   cases follows:

   any
          The starting page is the last source page number plus 1.

   odd
          The starting page is the first odd page following the
          last source page number.

   even
          The starting page is the first even page following the
          last source page number.

1.11 -L

   Sort based on locale settings. String comparisons for sorting
   are done using strcoll(3), which compares strings according to
   the current locale category LC_COLLATE.

   Not available on all systems (depends on compile time
   settings).

1.12 -T

   Special support for Thai documents.

   Not available on all systems (depends on compile time
   settings).

2 Style File

   The style file format is very simple. It is a list of
   <specifier, attribute> pairs. There are two types of specifiers
   (input and output). The pairs don't have to obey any particular
   order in the file. A line lead by `%' is a comment. The
   following is a list of all the specifiers and their respective
   arguments where <string> is an arbitrary string delimited by
   double quotes ("..."), <char> is a single letter embraced by
   single quotes ('...'), and <number> is a nonnegative integer.
   The maximum length of a <string> is 144. Notice that a
   backslash must be escaped (by an extra backslash) in the string
   quotation. Anything not specified in the style file will be
   assigned a default value, which is shown on a separate line.
   This file can reside anywhere in the path defined by the
   environment variable INDEXSTYLE.

2.1 Input Style Specifiers

2.1.1 actual <char>

   Default: @

   The symbol which indicates that the next entry is to appear in
   the actual index file.

2.1.2 arg_close <char>

   Default: }

   This is the closing delimiter for the index entry argument.

2.1.3 arg_open <char>

   Default: {

   This is the opening delimiter for the index entry argument.

2.1.4 encap <char>

   Default: |

   The symbol which indicates that the rest of the argument list
   is to be used as the encapsulating command for the page number.

2.1.5 escape <char>

   Default: \\

   The symbol which escapes the next letter, unless its preceding
   letter is escape. In other words, quote is used to escape the
   letter which immediately follows it. But if it is preceded by
   escape, it does not escape anything.

   Notice that the two symbols must be distinct.

2.1.6 keyword <string>

   Default: "\\indexentry"

   This is the command which tells Make-Index that its argument is
   an index entry.

2.1.7 level <char>

   Default: !

   The delimiter which denotes a new level of subitem.

2.1.8 quote <char>

   Default: "

   quote is used to escape the letter which immediately follows
   it, but if it is preceded by escape, it is treated as a
   ordinary character. These two symbols must be distinct.

2.1.9 range_close <char>

   Default: )

   The closing delimiter indicating the end of an explicit page
   range.

2.1.10 range_open <char>

   Default: (

   The opening delimiter indicating the beginning of an explicit
   page range.

2.2 Output Style Specifiers

2.2.1 page_compositor <string>

   Default: "-"

   This specifier is used to separate a range of page numbers.

   Officially undocumented!

2.2.2 preamble <string>

   Default: "\\begin{theindex}\n"

   The preamble of actual index file.

2.2.3 postamble <string>

   Default: "\n\n\\end{theindex}\n"

   The postamble of actual index file.

2.2.4 setpage_prefix <string>

   Default: "\n \\setcounter{page}{"

   The prefix of the command which sets the starting page number.

2.2.5 setpage_suffix <string>

   Default: "}\n"

   The suffix of the command which sets the starting page number.

2.2.6 group_skip <string>

   Default: "\n\n \\indexspace\n"

   The vertical space to be inserted before a new group begins.

2.2.7 heading_prefix <string>

   Default: ""

   The header prefix to be inserted before a new letter begins.

2.2.8 heading_suffix <string>

   Default: ""

   The header suffix to be inserted before a new letter begins.

2.2.9 headings_flag <string>

   Default: 0

   The flag indicating the condition of inserting new letter
   header. Default is 0, which means no header. Positive means
   insert an uppercase letter between prefix and suffix. Negative
   means insert a lowercase letter.

2.2.10 symhead_positive <string>

   Default: "Symbols"

   Heading for symbols to be inserted if headings_flag is
   positive.

2.2.11 symhead_negative <string>

   Default: "symbols"

   Heading for symbols to be inserted if headings_flag is
   negative.

2.2.12 numhead_positive <string>

   Default: "Numbers"

   Heading for numbers to be inserted if headings_flag is
   positive.

2.2.13 numhead_negative <string>

   Default: "numbers"

   Heading for numbers to be inserted if headings_flag is
   negative.

2.2.14 item_0 <string>

   Default: "\n \\item "

   The command to be inserted between two primary (level 0) items.

2.2.15 item_1 <string>

   Default: "\n \\subitem "

   The command to be inserted between two secondary (level 1)
   items.

2.2.16 item_2 <string>

   Default: "\n \\subsubitem "

   The command to be inserted between two level 2 items.

2.2.17 item_01 <string>

   Default: "\n \\subitem "

   The command to be inserted between a level 0 item and a level 1
   item.

2.2.18 item_x1 <string>

   Default: "\n \\subitem "

   The command to be inserted between a level 0 item and a level 1
   item. The difference between this and previous is that in this
   case the level 0 item doesn't have any page numbers.

2.2.19 item_12 <string>

   Default: "\n \\subsubitem "

   The command to be inserted between a level 1 item and a level 2
   item.

2.2.20 item_x2 <string>

   Default: "\n \\subsubitem "

   The command to be inserted between a level 1 item and a level 2
   item. The difference between this and previous is that in this
   case the level 1 item doesn't have any page numbers.

2.2.21 delim_0 <string>

   Default: ", "

   The delimiter to be inserted between a level 0 key and its
   first page number. Default is a comma followed by a blank.

2.2.22 delim_1 <string>

   Default: ", "

   The delimiter to be inserted between a level 1 key and its
   first page number. Default is a comma followed by a blank.

2.2.23 delim_2 <string>

   Default: ", "

   The delimiter to be inserted between a level 2 key and its
   first page number. Default is a comma followed by a blank.

2.2.24 delim_n <string>

   Default: ", "

   The delimiter to be inserted between two page numbers for the
   same key in any level. Default is a comma followed by a blank.

2.2.25 delim_r <string>

   Default: "--"

   The delimiter to be inserted between the starting and ending
   page numbers of a range.

2.2.26 delim_t <string>

   Default: ""

   The delimiter to be inserted at the end of a page list. This
   delimiter has no effect on entries which have no associated
   page list.

2.2.27 encap_prefix <string>

   Default: "\\"

   The prefix for the command which encapsulates the page number.

2.2.28 encap_infix <string>

   Default: "{"

   The prefix for the command which encapsulates the page number.

2.2.29 encap_suffix <string>

   Default: "}"

   The suffix for the command which encapsulates the page number.

2.2.30 line_max <number>

   Default: 72

   The maximum length of a line in the output beyond which a line
   wraps around.

2.2.31 indent_space <string>

   Default: "\t\t"

   The space to be inserted in front of a wrapped line. Default is
   two tabs.

2.2.32 indent_length <number>

   Default: 16

   The length of indent_space. In the default case this is 16 (for
   2 tabs).

2.2.33 suffix_2p <string>

   Default: ""

   Delimiter to replace the range delimiter and the second page
   number of a two page list. When present, it overrides delim_r.

2.2.34 suffix_3p <string>

   Default: ""

   Delimiter to replace the range delimiter and the second page
   number of a three page list. When present, it overrides delim_r
   and suffix_mp.

2.2.35 suffix_mp <string>

   Default: ""

   Delimiter to replace the range delimiter and the second page
   number of a multiple page list (three or more pages). When
   present, it overrides delim_r.

3 Example

   The following example shows a style file called book.isty which
   defines a stand-alone index for a book. By stand-alone, we mean
   it can be formatted independent of the main source.
preamble
"\\documentstyle[12pt]{book}
\\begin{document}
\\begin{theindex}
{\\small\n"

postamble
"\n\n}
\\end{theindex}
\\end{document}\n"

   Suppose a particular book style requires the index (as well as
   any chapters) to start from an odd page number. Given foo.idx
   as the raw index file, the following command line produces an
   index in file foo-.ind.
makeindex  -s book.isty  -o foo-.ind  -p odd  foo

   The reason to use a non-default output file name is to avoid
   clobbering the source output (presumably foo.dvi) because if
   the index is in file foo.ind, its output will also be in
   foo.dvi as a result of separate formatting using . In the
   example the index is in foo-.ind, its output will be in
   foo-.dvi and thus introduces no confusion.

4 Ordering

   By default makeindex assumes word ordering. The -l option turns
   it into letter ordering. The only difference is whether a blank
   is treated as an effective letter or not. In word ordering, a
   blank precedes any letter in the alphabet, whereas in letter
   ordering, it doesn't count at all. This is best illustrated by
   the following example:
   word order letter order
   sea lion   seal
   seal       seal lion

   Numbers are sorted in numeric order. For instance,
   9 (nine), 123
   123 10 (ten), see Derek, Bo

   Letters are first sorted with uppercase and lowercase
   considered identical; then, within identical words the
   uppercase letter precedes its lowercase counterpart.

   Patterns lead by a special symbol precede numbers, which
   precede patterns lead by a letter. The symbol here refers to
   anything not in the union of digits and English alphabet. This
   includes those which follow 'z' in the ASCII chart. As a
   special case, anything started with a digit but mixed with
   non-digits is considered a symbol-leading pattern instead of a
   number.

5 Special Effects

   In the normal case entries such as
\indexentry{alpha}{1}
\indexentry{alpha!beta}{3}
\indexentry{alpha!beta!gamma}{10}

   in the raw index file will be converted to
\item alpha, 1
  \subitem beta, 3
    \subsubitem gamma, 10

   in the output index file by Make-Index. Notice that the level
   symbol (!) is used to delimit levels of nesting.

   It is possible to make an item appear in a designated form by
   using the actual (@) operator. For instance,
\indexentry{alpha@{\it alpha\/}}{1}

   will become
\item {\it alpha\/} 1

   after the conversion. The idea is that the pattern preceding @
   is used as sort key, whereas the one following it is put in the
   actual result. However, the same key with and without the
   actual part are regarded as distinct entries.

   It is also possible to encapsulate a page number with a
   designated command using the encap (|) operator. For example,
   in the default case,
\indexentry{alpha|bold}{1}

   will be converted to
\item alpha \bold{1}

   where \bold{n} will expand to {\bf n}. This allows the encap
   operator to be used to set pages in different fonts, thereby
   conveying more information about whatever being indexed. For
   instance, given the same key the page where its definition
   appears can be in one font while where its primary example is
   given can be in another, with other ordinary appearances in a
   third. Notice that in this example, the three output attributes
   associated with page encapsulation encap_prefix, encap_infix,
   and encap_suffix correspond respectively to backslash, left
   brace, and right brace. If this is to be formatted by languages
   other than , they would be defined differently.

   By the same token, the encap operator can be used to make cross
   references in the index. For instance,
\indexentry{alpha|see{beta}}{1}

   will become
\item alpha \see{beta}{1}

   in the output index file after the conversion, where
\see{beta}{1}

   will expand to
{\it see\/} beta

   Notice that in a cross reference like this the page number
   disappears. Therefore, where to insert such a command in the
   source is immaterial.

   A pair of encap concatenated with range_open (|() and with
   range_close (|)) creates an explicit page range. That is,
\indexentry{alpha|(}{1}
\indexentry{alpha|)}{5}

   will become
\item alpha, 1--5

   Intermediate pages indexed by the same key will be merged into
   the range implicitly. This is especially useful when an entire
   section about a particular subject is to be indexed, in which
   case only the range opening and closing operators need to be
   inserted at the beginning and end of the section, respectively.

   This explicit page range formation can also include an extra
   command to set the page range in a designated font. Thus
\indexentry{alpha|(bold}{1}
\indexentry{alpha|)}{5}

   will become
\item alpha, \bold{1--5}

   A couple of special cases are worth mentioning here. First,
   entries like
\indexentry{alpha|(}{1}
\indexentry{alpha|bold}{3}
\indexentry{alpha|)}{5}

   will be interpreted as
\item alpha, \bold{3}, 1--5

   but with a warning message in the transcript about the
   encounter of an inconsistent page encapsulator. Secondly, an
   explicit range beginning in a Roman page number and ending in
   Arabic is considered an error. In a case like this the range is
   broken into two subranges, if possible, one in Roman, the other
   in Arabic. For instance,
\indexentry{alpha|(}{i}
\indexentry{alpha}{iv}
\indexentry{alpha}{3}
\indexentry{alpha|)}{7}

   will be turned into
\item alpha, 1--iv, 3--7

   with a warning message in the transcript complaining about the
   illegal range formation.

   Finally, every special symbol mentioned in this section may be
   escaped by the quote operator ("). Thus
\indexentry{alpha"@beta}{1}

   will actually become
\item alpha@beta, 1

   as a result of executing Make-Index. However, if quote is
   preceded by escape (\), its following letter is not escaped.
   That is,
\indexentry{f\"ur}{1}

   means
\item f\"ur, 1

   which represents umlaut accented u to the family of processors.

Chapter 7. xindy

   Table of Contents

   1 Command List

        1.1 Processing Commands
        1.2 Markup Commands
        1.3 Raw Index Interface

   2 Invoking xindy

        2.1 Command Line Options
        2.2 Search Path

Note

   The content of this section was taken from the original
   documentation of xindy V2.1 (Doc/manual*.html).

   xindy means flexible indexing system. It is an indexing system
   that can be used to generate book-like indexes for arbitrary
   document preparation systems. This term includes systems such
   as TeX and LaTeX, the Nroff-family or SGML-based systems (e.g.
   HTML) that process some kind of text and generate indexing
   information. It is not fixed to any specific system, but can be
   configured for a wide variety of purposes.

1 Command List

   Here is the complete list of xindy's commands that may be used
   in the index style. The symbol name always refers to a string.
   We separate the commands into the processing and markup
   commands. The commands are listed in alphabetical order.

   The parenthesis [ and ] denote optional parts of the syntax and
   { and } denote the grouping of elements. A vertical bar
   indicates alternatives. However, the enclosing round braces are
   part of the syntax and must be supplied.

1.1 Processing Commands

1.1.1 define-alphabet

(define-alphabet name string-list)

   Defines name to be the alphabet consisting of all elements of
   the string-list. Examples:
(define-alphabet "example-alphabet" ("An" "Example" "Alphabet"))

   defines an alphabet consisting of exactly three symbols. For
   the successor relationship holds: succ("An")="Example" and
   succ("Example")="Alphabet". The built-in alphabet digits is
   defined as follows:
(define-alphabet "digits"
                 ("0" "1" "2" "3" "4" "5" "6" "7" "8" "9"))

1.1.2 define-attributes

(define-attributes attribute-list)

   Defines all attributes the raw index may contain. Parameter
   attribute-list is a list of list of strings. The nesting level
   must not be more than 2. So (..(..)..) is allowed, whereas
   (..(..(..)..)..) is not.

   The list has two kinds of elements: strings and list of
   strings. A single string is treated as if it were a single
   element list. So the lists ("definition") and ( ("definition")
   ) are equivalent. All elements forming a list are a so-called
   attribute group. The members of a group are written to the
   output file before any member of the following groups are
   written.

   Examples of valid attributes lists are:

   ("definition" "usage") defines two attribute groups. The first
   one contains all references with the attribute definition and
   the second one all with the attribute usage.

   (("definition" "important") "usage") defines two attribute
   groups. The first one contains all references with the
   attributes definition or important and the second one all with
   the attribute usage. In the attribute group ("definition"
   "important") the attribute definition overrides important.

1.1.3 define-crossref-class

(define-crossref-class name [:unverified])

   Defines name to be a class of cross references. We distinguish
   two types of cross reference classes. Verified cross reference
   classes can be checked for dangling references. If for instance
   a cross reference points to the non-existent keyword `foo' a
   warning is issued and the user is advised to correct the
   invalid cross reference. This is the default. If for some
   reasons this mechanism must be deactivated the switch
   :unverified can be used to suppress this behaviour.

1.1.4 define-letter-group

(define-letter-group name [:before lgname] [:after lgname]
                          [:prefixes list-of-prefixes])

(define-letter-groups list-of-letter-groups)

   This command defines a letter group with name name, which must
   be a string value, grouping all index entries that have a sort
   key beginning with the prefix name. The command
(define-letter-group "a")

   is equivalent to the command
(define-letter-group "a" :prefixes ("a"))

   Using the latter form one can associate more than one prefix
   with a given letter group. Also further prefixes can be added
   to an already existing letter group by simply defining the same
   letter group again. This results not in a redefinition but in
   adding more prefixes to the currently defined prefixes.

   Example:
(define-letter-group "a")

   defines a letter group containing all index entries beginning
   with the string "a".
(define-letter-group "c" :after       "a")

   defines a letter group containing all index entries beginning
   with the string "c". The letter group appears behind the letter
   group "a"
(define-letter-group "b" :after "a" :before "c")

   inserts letter group "b" between letter group "a" and "c". This
   allows incremental definition of letter groups by extending
   already defined ones.

   The arguments :after and :before define a partial order on the
   letter groups. xindy tries to convert this partial order into a
   total one. If this is impossible due to circular definitions,
   an error is reported. If more than one possible total ordering
   can result, it is left open which one is used, so one should
   always define a complete total order.

   The command define-letter-groups (with an `s' at the end) is
   simply an abbreviation for a sequence of define-letter-group
   definitions where the elements are ordered in the ordering
   given by the list. Example:
(define-letter-groups ("a" "b" "c")

   equals the definitions
(define-letter-group "a")
(define-letter-group "b" :after "a")
(define-letter-group "c" :after "b")

   See also commands markup-letter-group-list and
   markup-letter-group for further information.

1.1.5 define-location-class

(define-location-class name layer-list
                       [:min-range-length num]
                       [:hierdepth depth]
                       [:var])

   Defines name to be a location class consisting of the given
   list of layers. A list of layers consists of names of basetypes
   and/or strings representing separators. Separators must follow
   the keyword argument :sep. If the keyword :min-range-length is
   specified we define the minimum range length to be used when
   building ranges. The argument num must be a positive integer
   number or the keyword none in which case the building of ranges
   is disallowed. If the switch :var is specified the declared
   class is of type variable, i.e. it is a var-location-class.
   Since building of ranges is currently only allowed for standard
   classes :var and :min-range-length must not be used together.
   The keyword argument :hierdepth can be used to declare that the
   location references have to be tagged in a hierarchical form.
   Its argument depth must be an integer number indicating the
   number of layers the hierarchy does contain. See command
   markup-locref-list for more information. Examples:
(define-location-class "page-numbers" ("arabic-numbers")
                       :minimum-range-length 3)

   Defines the location class page-numbers consisting of one layer
   which is the alphabet arabic-numbers. Since the minimum range
   length is set to 3 the location references 2, 3 and 4 don't
   form a range because the range length is only 2. But the
   references 6, 7, 8, and 9 are enough to form a range. Some
   example instances of this class are 0, 1, ... 2313, etc.
(define-location-class "sections" :var
   ("arabic-numbers" :sep "."
    "arabic-numbers" :sep "."
    "arabic-numbers"))

   defines a variable location class. Valid instances are 1, 1.1,
   1.2, 2, 2.4.5, but none of 2-3 (wrong separator), 1.2.3.4 (more
   than 3 layers), 2.3.iv (roman number instead of arabic one).

1.1.6 define-location-class-order

(define-location-class-order list)

   Defines the order in which the location classes are written to
   the output file. The parameter list is a list of names of
   location classes. Examples:
(define-location-class-order
    ("page-numbers" "sections" "xrefs"))

   tells the system that the page numbers should appear before the
   section numbers and that the cross references should appear at
   the end. If this command is omitted, the declaration order of
   the location classes in the index style is implicitly used as
   the output order. In the case that a location class does not
   appear in the list, the output may behave unexpectedly, so one
   should always enumerate all used location classes when using
   this command.

1.1.7 define-rule-set

(define-rule-set name
        [ :inherit-from ("rule-set" "rule-set-2") ]
        :rules (<rule>...) )

   A complete specification of a multi-phase sorting process for a
   language requires that some rules have to appear in several
   subsequent sorting phases. Rule sets can be used to define a
   set of rules that can be instantiated in an arbitrary sorting
   phase. Basically, they offer means to separate the definition
   of sorting rules from their instantiation, hence, acting as a
   wrapper for calls to sort-rule. They do not add new
   functionality that is not already present with sort-rule.

   A rule can be of the form:
<rule> ::= ("pattern" "replacement"
            [:string|:bregexp|:egegexp] [:again])

   The following incomplete example defines a new rule set of name
   isolatin1-tolower that inherits definitions from rule set
   latin-tolower, overriding or adding the sort rules in the list
   of :rules.
(define-rule-set "isolatin1-tolower"

  :inherit-from ("latin-tolower")

  :rules (("?" "?" :string :again)
          ("?" "?" :string :again)
          ("?" "?" :string :again)
          ("?" "?" :string :again)
          ("?" "?" :string :again)
          ("?" "?" :string :again)
          ("?" "?" :string :again)
       ...
         )
...)

   Rule sets can be instantiated with the command use-rule-set.
   For further descriptions on the sorting model refer to the
   command sort-rule.

1.1.8 define-sort-rule-orientations

(define-sort-rule-orientations (orientations...))

   Defines the order for the different sorting phases. The
   currently implemented orientations are forward and backward.
   This command must precede all sort-rule commands in an index
   style. It defines the orientations and implicitly sets the
   maximum number of sorting phases performed.

   For further descriptions on the sorting model refer to the
   command sort-rule.

1.1.9 merge-rule

(merge-rule pattern replacement [:again]
                                [:bregexp | :eregexp | :string])

   Defines a keyword mapping rule that can be used to generate the
   merge key from the main key of an index entry. This mapping is
   necessary to map all keywords that are differently written but
   belong to the same keyword to the same canonical keyword.

   The parameter pattern can be a POSIX-compliant regular
   expression or an ordinary string. The implementation uses the
   GNU Rx regular expression library which implements the POSIX
   regular expressions. Regular expressions (REs) can be specified
   as basic regular expressions (BREs) or extended regular
   expressions (EREs). You can use the switch :bregexp to force
   the interpretation of the pattern as a BRE, or :eregexp to
   interpret it as an ERE. If you want xindy to interpret the
   pattern literally, use the switch :string. If none of these
   switches is selected, xindy uses an auto-detection mechanism to
   decide, if the pattern is a regular expression or not. If it
   recognizes the pattern as a RE, it interprets it as an ERE by
   default.

   The parameter replacement must be a string possibly containing
   the special characters & (substitutes for the complete match)
   and \1 ,..., \9 (substituting for the n-th submatch. Examples:
(merge-rule "A" "a")

   replaces each occurrence of the uppercase letter `A' with its
   lowercase counterpart.
(merge-rule "\~"([AEOUaeou])" "\1")

   transforms the TeX umlaut-letters into their stripped
   counterparts, such that `\"A ' is treated as an `A' afterwards.

   The following sequences have a special meaning:

   ` ~n '
          End of line symbol (linefeed).

   ` ~b '
          The ISO-Latin character with the lowest ordinal number.

   ` ~e '
          The ISO-Latin character with the highest ordinal number.

   ` ~~ '
          The tilde character.

   ` ~" '
          The double quote character.

   Tilde characters and double quotes have to be quoted themselves
   with a tilde character. The special characters ` ~b ' and ` ~e
   ' allow the definition of arbitrary sorting orders by rules. In
   connection with an additional character every position in the
   alphabet can be described. E.g. ` m~e ' is lexicographically
   placed between `m' and `n'.

   Due to efficiency, rules that just exchange characters or
   substitute constant character sequences are not treated as
   regular expressions. Therefore, instead of using the rule
(merge-rule "[A-Z]" "&")

   it is more efficient (though less comfortable) to use
(merge-rule "A" "Ax")
(merge-rule "B" "Bx")
...
(merge-rule "Z" "Zx")

   Usually rules are applied in order of their definition. Rules
   with a special prefix precede those that begin with a class of
   characters, so that the search pattern `alpha' is checked
   before `.*', but `auto' and `a.*' are checked in order of their
   definition.

   The first rule from a style file that matches the input is
   applied and the process restarts behind the substituted text.
   If no rule could be applied, the actual character is copied
   from the input and the process continues with the next
   character.

   Sometimes it is necessary to apply rules anew to the result of
   a transformation. By specifying the keyword argument :again in
   the merge rule the rule is marked as mutable, which means that
   after using this rule the transformation process shall restart
   at the same place. E.g. the rule
(merge-rule "\$(.*)\$" "\1" :again)

   deletes all surrounding `$ ' symbols from the input.

   See also command sort-rule.

1.1.10 merge-to

(merge-to attr-from attr-to [:drop])

   A merge rule says that the attribute attr-from can be used to
   build ranges in attr-to. Both attributes must name valid
   attribute names. The switch :drop indicates, that the original
   location reference with attribute attr-from has to be dropped
   (removed), if a successful range was built with location
   references in attribute attr-to. A detailed description is
   given in the section about processing phases.

1.1.11 require

(require filename)

   This command allows to load more index style modules. The
   module is searched in the directories defined in the search
   path. The file is read in and processing of the current file
   continues. The argument filename must be a string. This allows
   to decompose the index style into several modules that can be
   included into the topmost index style file. Example:
(require "french/alphabet.xdy")
(require "french/sort-rules.xdy")
(require "tex/locations.xdy")
(require "tex/markup.xdy")

   Submodules can load other submodules as well. If a file is
   required that was already loaded, the require command is simply
   ignored and processing continues without including this file
   twice. See also command searchpath.

1.1.12 searchpath

(searchpath {path-string | path-list})

   This command adds the given paths to the list of paths, xindy
   searches for index style files. The argument path-string must
   be a colon-separated string of directory names. If this path
   ends with a colon the default search path is added to the end
   of the path list. Example:
(searchpath ".:/usr/local/lib/xindy:/usr/local/lib/xindy/english:")

   adds the specified directories to the search path. Since the
   last path ends with a colon, the built-in search path is added
   at the end. Specifying
(searchpath ("."
             "/usr/local/lib/xindy"
             "/usr/local/lib/xindy/english"
             :default))

   yields exactly the same result as the example above. Here
   path-list must be a list of strings and/or the keyword(s)
   :default and :last. The keyword :default signifies that the
   default pathnames are to be inserted at the specified position
   in the list. The keyword :last allows to insert the currently
   active paths at the indicated position. Since this allows to
   insert the built-in paths at any position and incrementally
   adding new paths to the search path, this version of the
   command ist more flexible than the first version.

1.1.13 sort-rule

(sort-rule pattern replacement [:run level] [:again])

   Defines a keyword mapping rule that can be used to generate the
   sort key of an index entry from the merge key. This key is used
   to sort the index entries lexicographically after they have
   been merged using the merge key.

   The argument :run indicates that this rule is only in effect a
   the specified level (default is level 0). For a detailed
   discussion on the definition of sort rules for different layers
   refer to the documentation about the new sorting scheme
   (new-sort-rules) that comes with this distribution.

   See command merge-rule for more information about keyword
   rules.

1.1.14 use-rule-set

(use-rule-set [:run phase]
              [:rule-set ( <rule-set>... ))

   This command instantiates the gives rule sets to be in effect
   at sorting phase phase. The order of the rule sets given with
   argument :rule-set is significant. Rule set entries of rule set
   appearing at the beginning of the list override entries in rule
   sets at the end of the list.

   The following example declares that in phase 0 the rule sets
   din5007 and isolatin1-tolower should be active, whereas in
   phase 2 the other rule sets have to be applied.
(use-rule-set :run 0
              :rule-set ("din5007" "isolatin1-tolower"))

(use-rule-set :run 1
              :rule-set ("resolve-umlauts"
                         "resolve-sharp-s"
                         "isolatin1-tolower"
                        ))

   For a discussion on rule sets refer to command define-rule-set.

1.2 Markup Commands

   The following commands can be used to define the markup of the
   index. They don't have any influence on the indexing process.
   Since the markup scheme is characterized by the concept of
   environments, the syntax and naming scheme of all commands
   follows a simple structure.

   The commands can be separated into environment and
   list-environment commands. All commands of the first group
   support the keyword arguments :open and :close, whereas the
   second group additionally supports the keyword argument :sep.
   If one of these keyword arguments is missing, the default
   markup tag is always the empty tag. The :open tag is always
   printed before the object itself and the :close tag is always
   printed after the object has been printed. If a list is printed
   the :sep tag is printed between two elements of the list but
   not before the first element, or after the last one. All
   commands dealing with a list have the suffix `-list' as part of
   their command name.

   Since the number of commands and the heavy usage of default and
   specialized tags makes the markup somehow complex (but very
   powerful) we have added a mechanism to trace the markup tags
   xindy omits during its markup phase with the command
   markup-trace.

   Here follows the list of markup commands in alphabetical order
   with some of the commands grouped together.

1.2.1 markup-attribute-group-list

(markup-attribute-group-list [:open string] [:close string]
                             [:sep string])

(markup-attribute-group      [:open string] [:close string]
                             [:group group-num])

   Location class groups consist of lists of attribute groups. The
   markup of this list can be defined with the command
   markup-attribute-group-list.

   To allow different markup for different attribute groups the
   command markup-attribute-group can be specialized on the group
   number with the keyword argument :group which must be an
   integer number. E.g., given are the groups ("definition"
   "theorem") and ("default") with group numbers 0 and 1, then
(markup-attribute-group :open "<group0>" :close </group0>"
                        :group 0)

(markup-attribute-group :open "<group1>" :close "</group1>"
                        :group 1)

   can be used to assign different markup for both groups in a
   SGML-based language.

1.2.2 markup-crossref-list

(markup-crossref-list       [:open string] [:close string]
                            [:sep string]
                            [:class crossref-class])

(markup-crossref-layer-list [:open string] [:close string]
                            [:sep string]
                            [:class crossref-class])

(markup-crossref-layer      [:open string] [:close string]
                            [:class crossref-class])

   A crossref class group contains cross references of the same
   class. The separator between the classes is defined with the
   (markup-locclass-list :sep)-parameter. A list of cross
   references can be tagged with the command markup-crossref-list
   that specializes on the :class argument.

   Each cross reference is determined by a list of layers
   indicating the target of the cross reference. To define a
   suitable markup for such a list the command
   markup-crossref-layer-list can be used.

   Each layer of a cross reference can be assigned two tags that
   specialize on the class of the reference, like all other
   commands.

   A suitable markup for a cross reference class see within
   LaTeX2e could look like that:
(markup-crossref-list :class "see" :open "\emph{see} "
                                   :sep  "; ")
(markup-crossref-layer-list :class "see" :sep ",")
(markup-crossref-layer :class "see"
                                   :open "\textbf{" :close "}")

   An example output could look like ... see house; garden,winter;
   greenhouse

1.2.3 markup-index

(markup-index [:open string] [:close string]
              [ :flat | :tree | :hierdepth depth ])

   Defines the markup tags that enclose the whole index via the
   :open and :close parameters. Examples:
(markup-index :open  "Here comes the index~n"
              :close "That's all folks!~n")

   defines that the :open string is printed before the rest of the
   index and the :close string appears after the index is printed.

   Additionally one can specify the form of the generated index.
   It is possible to produce flat indexes by specifying the switch
   :flat, to generate a tree with the :tree switch or any kind of
   mixture between both by specifying the depth up to which trees
   shall be built with the parameter :hierdepth. Its argument
   depth is the number of layers that can be formed into a tree.
   Therefore :flat is an abbrevation of :hierdepth 0 and :tree is
   an abbrevation of :hierdepth max-depth, with max-depth being
   the maximum number of layers a keyword has. An example: the
   keywords
("tree" "binary" "AVL")
("tree" "binary" "natural")

   can be transformed in the following ways:

   A flat index (:flat or :hierdepth 0)
tree binary AVL
tree binary natural

   with :hierdepth 1
tree
   binary  AVL
   binary  natural

   and a tree (:tree or :hierdepth > 1)
tree
   binary
      AVL
      natural

   Most often one will create tree-like indexes or ones that are
   flat.

1.2.4 markup-indexentry-list

(markup-indexentry-list [:open string] [:close string]
                        [:sep string]  [:depth integer])

(markup-indexentry      [:open string] [:close string]
                        [:depth integer])

   Letter groups consists of a list of index entries. The command
   markup-indexentry-list defines the markup of these lists. The
   markup can be specialized on the depth if the index is
   hierarchically organized. The command
(markup-indexentry-list :open  "\begin{IdxentList}"
                        :close "\end{IdxentList}"
                        :sep   "~n")

   defines that the index entries of all layers are wrapped into
   the given markup tags. If additionally
(markup-indexentry-list :open  "\begin{IdxentListII}"
                        :close "\end{IdxentListII}"
                        :sep   "~n"
                        :depth 2)

   is defined, all index entry lists of all layers (except layer
   2) are tagged according to the first specification, and the
   index entry list within depth 2 are tagged according to the
   second rule.

   The command markup-indexentry defines the markup of an index
   entry at a given depth. Since index entries may also contain
   subentries and the markup for subentries may be different in
   different layers, the optional keyword argument :depth can be
   used to assign different markup for different layers. If depth
   is ommited the default markup for all possible depths is
   defined. The top-most index entries have depth 0.
(markup-indexentry :open  "\begin{Indexentry}"
                   :close "\end{Indexentry}")

   defines that the index entries of all layers are wrapped into
   the given markup tags. If additionally
(markup-indexentry :open  "\begin{IndexentryII}"
                   :close "\end{IndexentryII}"
                   :depth 2)

   is defined, all index entries of all layers (except layer 2)
   are tagged according to the first specification, and the index
   entries with depth 2 are tagged according to the second rule.

1.2.5 markup-keyword-list

(markup-keyword-list [:open string] [:close string]
                     [:sep string] [:depth integer])

(markup-keyword      [:open string] [:close string]
                     [:depth integer])

   The print key of an index entry consists of a list of strings.
   The markup of this list can be defined with the command
   markup-keyword-list. The keyword argument :depth may be
   specified to define the markup of the list at a particular
   depth.

   The keyword of an index entry consists of a list of strings.
   Each of these components is tagged with the strings defined
   with the command markup-keyword. Since we maybe need different
   markup for different layers, the optional keyword argument can
   be used to specialize this markup for some depth.

1.2.6 markup-letter-group-list

(markup-letter-group-list [:open string] [:close string]
                          [:sep string])

(markup-letter-group  [:open string] [:close string] [:group group-name]
                      [:open-head string] [:close-head string]
                      [:upcase | :downcase | :capitalize])

   The first command defines the markup of the letter group with
   name group-name. Since the markup of letter groups often
   contains the name of the letter group as a part of it, the
   other keyword arguments allow an additional markup for this
   group name. If one of the parameters :open-head and :close-head
   is specified additional markup is added as can be described as
   follows:
<OPEN>
   IF (:open-head OR :close-head)
     <OPEN-HEAD>
       transformer-of(<GROUP-NAME>)
     <CLOSE-HEAD>
   FI
   <INDEXENTRIES...>
<CLOSE>

   Here, transformer-of is a function that possibly transforms the
   string representing the group name into another string. The
   transformers we currently support can be specified with the
   switches :upcase, :downcase and :capitalize which result in the
   corresponding string conversions. If none of them is specified
   no transformation is done at all.

   The command markup-letter-group defines the markup of the list
   of letter groups.

1.2.7 markup-locclass-list

(markup-locclass-list [:open string] [:close string]
                      [:sep string])

   Each index entry contains a list of location class groups. This
   markup command can be used to define the markup of this list.

1.2.8 markup-locref

(markup-locref [:open string] [:close string]
               [:class locref-class]
               [:attr  attribute]
               [:depth integer])

   The markup tags of a location reference can be specialized on
   the three arguments :class, :attr and additionally, if
   sub-references are used, :depth. Most often one will only use a
   tag depending on the attribute. For example, all location
   references with the attribute definition should appear in a
   font series like bold, emphasizing the importance of this
   location reference; those with the attribute default in font
   shape italic. The markup in this case would not specialize on
   the depth or any particular class. A valid definition, suitable
   for a usage within HTML, could look like this.
(markup-locref :open "<B>" :close "</B>" :attr "definition")
(markup-locref :open "<I>" :close "</I>" :attr "default")

1.2.9 markup-locref-class

(markup-locref-class [:open string] [:close string]
                     [:class locref-class])

   All location references of a particular location reference
   class can be wrapped into the tags defined by this command. It
   specializes on the keyword argument :class.

1.2.10 markup-locref-layer

(markup-locref-layer      [:open string] [:close string]
                          [:depth integer] [:layer integer]
                          [:class locref-class])

(markup-locref-layer-list [:open string] [:close string]
                          [:sep string]
                          [:depth integer]
                          [:class locref-class])

   A location reference contains a list of location reference
   layers. The second markup command can be used to markup this
   list. It specializes on the class of the location references
   and the depth (if sub-references are used).

   The first command allows to tag the elements of a layer list
   differently. The first element of this list can is
   specialisable with :layer 0, the next element with :layer 1,
   etc. See the next example for an example.

1.2.11 markup-locref-list

(markup-locref-list [:open string] [:close string] [:sep string]
                    [:depth integer] [:class locref-class])

   An attribute group contains a list of location references
   and/or ranges. Additionally a layered location reference itself
   may contain sub-references that are stored as a list of
   location references. We specialize the markup for these lists
   on the location class they belong to with the keyword argument
   :class, and on :depth that specializes on the different
   subentry levels when using location references with
   sub-references.

   Given is a list of location references that have the class
   description
(define-location-class "Appendix"
                       ("ALPHA" :sep "-" "arabic-numbers")
                       :hierdepth 2)

   This location class has instances like A-1, B-5, etc. The
   keyword argument :hierdepth 2 informs xindy to markup these
   location references in a hierarchical form. With the commands
(markup-locref-list            :sep "; "
                     :depth 0  :class "Appendix")
(markup-locref-list  :open " " :sep ","
                     :depth 1  :class "Appendix")
(markup-locref-layer :open "{\bf " :close "}" :layer 0
                     :depth 0  :class "Appendix")

   we obtain a markup sequence for some example data that could
   look like
 \bf A} 1,2,5; {\bf B} 5,6,9; {\bf D} 1,5,8; ...

1.2.12 markup-range

(markup-range [:open string] [:close string] [:sep string]
              [:class locref-class]
              [:length num] [:ignore-end])

   A range consists of two location references. Markup can be
   specified with the :open and :close arguments and one separator
   given by the argument :sep.

   Since both location references are tagged with markup defined
   by the command markup-locref a specialization on attributes or
   depth is not necessary. Specialization is allowed on the class
   they belong to, because the separator between two location
   refences may be different for each location class. Argument
   :length can be used to define different markup for different
   lengths. In conjunction with :length is may be useful not to
   print the second location reference at all. For example, one
   wishes to markup ranges of length 1 in the form Xf. instead of
   X--Y. This can be accomplished with the switch :ignore-end.

   The markup tags for a range (X,Y) can be described as follows:
<OPEN>
  Markup of location reference X
<SEP>
  IF (not :ignore-end)
     Markup of location reference Y
  FI
<CLOSE>

   The following tags can be used to define a range of page
   numbers (given in a location class page-numbers) without
   considering the open and close parameters:
(markup-range :sep "-" :class "page-numbers")

   Location ranges then appear separated by a hyphen in a form
   like this:
   ..., 5-8, 19-23, ...

1.2.13 (markup-trace [:on] [:open string] [:close string])

   This command can be used to activate the tracing of all markup
   commands xindy executes. The switch :on activates the trace. If
   :on is omitted, the command line flag -t can be used as well.
   All tags which are emitted but not yet defined explicitly by
   the user are tagged with a symbolic notation indicating the
   commands that must be used to define this tag. The defaults for
   the keyword argument :open is `<' and for :close is `>'. The
   beginning of an example output could look like:
<INDEX:OPEN>
  <LETTER-GROUP-LIST:OPEN>
    <LETTER-GROUP:OPEN ["a"]>
      <INDEXENTRY-LIST:OPEN [0]>
        <INDEXENTRY:OPEN [0]>
          <KEYWORD-LIST:OPEN [0]>
            <KEYWORD:OPEN [0]>
 ...

   We use a simple indentation scheme to make the structure of the
   tags visible. The symbolic tag <LETTER-GROUP:OPEN ["a"]> for
   example indicates that the tag that can be specified with the
   command
(markup-letter-group :open "XXX" :group "a" ... )

   is emitted at this point in the markup process. By
   incrementally adding markup commands to the index, more and
   more tags can be defined until the whole markup is defined.
   This general mechanism should allow everyone understand the
   markup process. The best is to start with a small index, define
   the complete markup and afterwards process the whole index.
   Additionally one can enclose the symbolic tags into an
   environment that is neutral to the document preparation system,
   such as a comment. For TeX this could be
(markup-trace :open "%%" :close "~n")

   or a definition in the TeX document like
\def\ignore#1{}

   combined with the command
(markup-trace :open "\ignore{" :close "}")

1.3 Raw Index Interface

   This section can be skipped if the reader is not interested in
   adapting xindy to a new document preparation system.

   The raw index is the file that represents the index that is to
   be processed. Since many different document preparation systems
   may use different forms of index representations, their output
   must be transformed in a form readable by xindy. We also could
   have written an configurable parser performing this task, but
   usually a tool written with some text processing tools such as
   perl, sed or awk can achieve the same task as well. Therefore,
   adapting xindy to a completely different system can mostly be
   done by writing an appropriate raw index filter.

   The format of the raw index interface of xindy is defined as
   follows:
(indexentry { :key string-list [:print string-list]
            | :tkey list-of-layers }
            [:attr string]
            { :locref string  [:open-range | :close-range]
            | :xref string-list } )

   The pseudo variable string is a sequence of characters
   surrounded by double quotes, e.g.
"Hi, it's me"  "one"  "a string with two \"double quotes\""

   are three examples of valid strings. If you need to include a
   double quote as a literal character, you must quote it itself
   with a backslash as shown in the third example. A string list
   is simply a list of strings separated by whitespaces and
   surrounded by round braces. An example of a string list is
("This" "is" "a" "list" "of" "strings")

   So far about the syntax. The semantics of the different
   elements are described here.

   :key
          The argument string list defines the keyword of the
          index entry. It must be a list of strings, since the
          keyword may consist of different layers such as ("heap"
          "fibonacci").

   :print
          The optional print key defines the way the keyword has
          to be printed in the markup phase.

   :tkey
          Another possibility to define the keys of an index entry
          is with the :tkey keyword argument. It can be used
          instead of the :key and :print arguments. Instead of
          specifying separately the key and the corresponding
          print key, we define the keyword by its layers. Each
          layer consist of a list of one or two strings. The first
          string will be interpreted as the main key, whereas the
          second one will become the print key. If the print key
          is ommited, the main key is taken instead. So the
          definition

:tkey (("This") ("is") ("a") ("bang" "BANG !!!"))

          is equivalent to

:key   ("This" "is" "a" "bang")
:print ("This" "is" "a" "BANG !!!")

   :locref
          The reference an index entry describes can be a location
          reference or a cross reference. The switch :locref
          describes a location reference. Its optional arguments
          are :open-range and :close-range. The string that must
          be supplied must somehow encode the location reference.
          It might look like the string "25" representing the page
          number 25, or "Appendix-I" representing the first
          appendix numbered in uppercase roman numerals.

   :open-range,:close-range
          These are switches that do not take any arguments. They
          describe the beginning and ending of a range, starting
          or ending from the location reference that is given by
          the argument :locref. If they are supplied, the location
          reference may have influence on the way ranges are
          build.

   :xref
          These arguments choose the second alternative. The
          argument string list of parameter :xref describes where
          the index entry should point to.

   :attr
          This parameter may be used to tag a location reference
          with a certain attribute or it names the class of a
          cross reference. It may also used to associate different
          markup for different attributes in the markup phase. If
          this parameter is omitted or is the empty string, the
          indexentry is declared to have the attribute default.

   Some examples:
(indexentry :key ("airplane") :locref "25" :attr "default")

   defines an index entry with the key airplane' indexed on page
   25'. This index entry has the attribute default.
(indexentry :key ("house") :xref("building") :attr "see")

   defines a cross reference with the key house pointing to the
   term building. This cross reference belongs to the cross
   reference class see.
(indexentry :key ("house") :xref("building") :open-range)

   is an invalid specification, since :open-range mustn't be used
   together with cross references.

2 Invoking xindy

2.1 Command Line Options

   The following command line options are accepted:
xindy  [-h] [-t] [-v] [-l logfile] [-o outfile]
       [-L n] [-f filterprog]
       indexstyle raw-index

   The argument indexstyle names a file, containing the index
   style description. The argument raw-index names a file,
   containing the raw index. Both arguments are mandatory.

   -h
          Gives a short summary of all command line options.

   -l
          Writes helpful information into the specified logfile.
          For example, the keyword mappings are written into this
          file, so one can check if the intended mappings were
          actually performed this way.

   -o
          Explicitly defines the name of the output file. If not
          given, the name of the raw-index is used with its
          extension changed to .ind (or added, if it had no
          extension at all).

   -t
          Enters tracing mode of the symbolic markup tags. The
          format of the emitted tags can be defined with the
          command markup-trace.

   -L
          Set the xindy logging-level to n.

   -f
          Run filterprog on raw-index before reading. The program
          must act as a filter reading from stdin and writing to
          stdout. The most obvious use of this option in
          conjunction with TeX is to run -f tex2xindy on the index
          file prior to reading the entries into xindy.

   -v
          Shows the version number of xindy.

   Errors and warnings are reported to stdout and additionally to
   the logfile if -l was specified.

2.2 Search Path

   The system uses the concept of a search path for finding the
   index style files and modules. The searchpath can be set with
   the environment variable XINDY_SEARCHPATH which must contain a
   list of colon-separated directories. If it ends with a colon,
   the built-in searchpath is added to the entire searchpath. See
   the command searchpath for further details.

Appendix A. Appendices

   Table of Contents

   1 Bugs / Known Issues / Missing Features
   2 About this Document
   3 Release News
   4 GNU Free Documentation License
   Index

1 Bugs / Known Issues / Missing Features

   PDF
          A PDF file is no longer supported.

   Texinfo
          Currently we don't know any working solution to convert
          DocBook XML to Texinfo (at least not for a complex
          document). Anyone who wants to work on this issue is
          highly welcome. A starting point could be the docbook2X
          project at http://docbook2x.sourceforge.net.

   vim-help
          Quite a few poeple are asking for a version in vim-help
          format. Srinath Avadhanula has already done some work on
          this.

2 About this Document

   The source format of this document is DocBook XML (V4.3).

   The various output formats were generated using:
     * xsltproc (libxml2-2.6.26/libxslt-1.1.26) as XSLT processor
     * DocBook XSL Stylesheets (V1.77.1) for HTML and Epub

   You'll always find the newest version of this document at
   http://www.miwie.org/tex-refs/.

3 Release News

   V0.4.1 12-12-03

          + Removed obsolete file still referenced in Makefile (no
            visible changes)

   V0.4.0 12-12-02

          + Minor changes for Epub output
          + Added missing IDs on some sections and tables

   V0.3.9 05-05-14

          + Consistent naming scheme of IDs to ease the use of
            this reference for other projects
          + Added new section float in chapter LaTeX

   V0.3.8 04-10-28

          + Minor changes in \maketitle

   V0.3.7 04-08-26

          + Corrected typos and markup errors in chapter BibTeX
          + Switched to DocBook XML V4.3
          + Added new section Options in chapter LaTeX

   V0.3.6 04-06-21

          + Added a note in chapter LaTeX with the copyright and
            permission notice of the original file latex2.texi
          + Corrected typos and added missing hyperlinks in
            chapter xindy
          + PDF file optimized/linearized and some finetuning

   V0.3.5 04-05-01

          + Added content to chapters MetaPost and pdfTeX
          + Enhanced index for chapter Make-Index

   V0.3.4 04-04-24

          + Version control system changed from CVS to SVN
          + Added missing entries to chapter Make-Index

   V0.3.3 04-01-26

          + Corrected again section Output Style Specifiers and
            Input Style Specifiers of chapter Make-Index
          + Corrected some symbols in the index

   V0.3.2 04-01-16

          + Corrected sections Output Style Specifiers and Input
            Style Specifiers of chapter Make-Index
          + Enhanced index in PDF

   V0.3.1 04-01-06

          + More work on PDF
          + Modularized XSL stylesheet files
          + Corrected some typos

   V0.3.0 03-12-25

          + Changed document root to book
          + More work on PDF version
          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.64.1
          + Minor fixes

   V0.2.6 03-10-27

          + Rearranged appendix
          + Work on PDF version

   V0.2.5 03-10-17

          + Added contents of GNU FDL in appendix
          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.62.4
          + Switched to xsltproc as XSLT-processor
          + Reedited some deeply nested sections
          + Changed colors in CSS

   V0.2.4 03-09-06

          + Added subsection dcolumn
          + Subsection fontenc translated into english
          + Corrected typo in \sbox

   V0.2.3 03-04-12

          + Provide PDF output using ConTeXt and DocBook In
            ConTeXt (still experimental)
          + Reedited (beautified) sections LaTeX / Commands /
            Counters | Cross References | Definitions | Layout |
            Environments | Footnotes

   V0.2.2 03-01-26

          + Added bzip2 compressed version of source and outfiles
            tarball
          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.60.1
          + Eliminated more spurious &Acirc; characters in HTML
            output

   V0.2.1 03-01-18

          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.59.2
          + Eliminated spurious &Acirc; characters

   V0.2.0 03-01-11

          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.58.1
          + Minor changes to CSS file
          + License changed to GNU Free Documentation License
          + Added subsection Commands and Parameters to section
            PSTricks
          + Reworked inputenc section

   V0.1.3 02-10-17

          + Started rework of KOMA-Script section
          + Added subsection Additional PSTricks Packages
          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.56.1

   V0.1.2 02-10-01

          + Reworked hyperref section

   V0.1.1 02-09-19

          + Added template sections for PiCTeX and Texinfo
          + Added subsection Release News in appendix About this
            Document
          + Using new XSL stylesheets V1.55.0
          + Added missing CSS file to outfiles tarball
          + Corrected wrong FPI

   V0.1.0 02-08-20

          + Eliminated trailing '.' in numbered sections
          + Minor markup errors corrected
          + Reworked CSS file

   V0.0.5 02-08-10

          + Switched to DocBook XML 4.2
          + Sections 'Bibindex' and 'xindy' completed

   V0.0.4 02-07-25

          + Section 'Makeindex' completed

   V0.0.3 02-07-13

          + New XSL stylesheets solve bug in creating index (no
            other changes)

   V0.0.2 02-07-05

          + New (template) sections 'fontinst', 'Bibtex',
            'Makeindex', and 'xindy'
          + New section 'Special Symbols'
          + Added information for 'german' package
          + Registered as a new project (tex-refs) on
            freshmeat.net

   V0.0.1 02-06-21

          + First official announcement

4 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002

 Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
     59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
 Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
 of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.


0. PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to
assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.  It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.

We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
software does.  But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book.  We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.


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This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
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2. VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
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If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.


4. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it.  In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
   from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
   (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
   of the Document).  You may use the same title as a previous version
   if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
   responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
   Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
   Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
   unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
   Modified Version, as the publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
   adjacent to the other copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
   giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
   terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
   and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add
   to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
   publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.  If
   there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one
   stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
   given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
   Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
   public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
   the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
   it was based on.  These may be placed in the "History" section.
   You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
   least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
   publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
   Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
   the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
   and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
   unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
   or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements".  Such a section
   may not be included in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
   or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.  Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
through arrangements made by) any one entity.  If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
imply endorsement of any Modified Version.


5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
and any sections Entitled "Dedications".  You must delete all sections
Entitled "Endorsements".


6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.


7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.


8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
title.


9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
as expressly provided for under this License.  Any other attempt to
copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License.  However,
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
parties remain in full compliance.


10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time.  Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.  See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation.  If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.


ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:

    Copyright (c)  YEAR  YOUR NAME.
    Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this documen
t
    under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
    or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
    with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts.
    A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
    Free Documentation License".

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the "with...Texts." line with this:

    with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
    Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LI
ST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.