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<!DOCTYPE html
  PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "/dtds/html4t.dtd">

<!--Generated from beginlatex.XML.xml with typebook-html.xslt on 2005-04-04T01:02:09--><html>
   <head>
      <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
   
      <title>Formatting information: Chapter 2&nbsp;&#8212; Using your editor to create documents</title>
      <link rel="stylesheet" href="typebook.css" type="text/css">
      <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css">
   </head>
   <body>
      <table width="100%">
         <tr>
            <th class="title" width="66%">
               <h1><a name="doctitle">Formatting information</a></h1>
               <h2>A beginner's introduction to typesetting with
                  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></h2>
               <h3>Chapter 2&nbsp;&#8212; Using your editor to create documents</h3>
               <h3>Peter Flynn</h3>
               <h4>Silmaril Consultants<br>Textual Therapy Division
               </h4><br>v. 3.6 (March 2005)
            </th>
            <td class="toc" width="33%">
               <h4><a name="doctoc">Contents</a></h4>
               <dl>
                  <dd class=""><a href="intro.html#intro">Introduction</a></dd>
                  <dd class=""><a href="foreword.html#foreword">Foreword</a></dd>
                  <dd class=""><a href="preface.html#preface">Preface</a></dd>
               </dl>
               <ol>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter1.html#get">Installing <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> and <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></a></li>
                  <li class="current"><a href="chapter2.html#plaintext">Using your editor to create documents</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter3.html#basic">Basic document structures</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter4.html#process">Typesetting, viewing and printing</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter5.html#ctan">CTAN, packages, and online help</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter6.html#otherdoc">Other document structures</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter7.html#texttools">Textual tools</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter8.html#typo">Fonts and layouts</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter9.html#macros">Programmability (macros)</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="chapter10.html#compat">Compatibility with other systems</a></li>
               </ol>
               <ol type="A">
                  <li class=""><a href="appendixA.html#cnf">Configuring <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> search paths</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="appendixB.html#tugform"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> Users Group membership</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="appendixC.html#asciicharset">The ASCII character set</a></li>
                  <li class=""><a href="appendixD.html#gfdl">GNU Free Documentation License</a></li>
               </ol>
               <dl>
                  <dd class=""><a href="bibliography.html#biblio">References</a></dd>
                  <dd class=""><a href="index.html#index">Index</a></dd>
               </dl>
            </td>
         </tr>
         <tr>
            <td class="credits">
               <p>This edition of <cite>Formatting
                     	  Information</cite> was prompted by the generous help I
                  	have received from <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> users too numerous to mention
                  	individually. Shortly after TUGboat published the November
                  	2003 edition, I was reminded by a spate of email of the
                  	fragility of documentation for a system like <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> which is
                  	constantly under development. There have been revisions to
                  	packages; issues of new distributions, new tools, and new
                  	interfaces; new books and other new documents; corrections to
                  	my own errors; suggestions for rewording; and in one or two
                  	cases mild abuse for having omitted package X which the author
                  	felt to be indispensable to users. &para;&nbsp;I am grateful as always to the people who sent me
                  	corrections and suggestions for improvement. Please keep them
                  	coming: only this way can this book reflect what people
                  	want to learn. The same limitation still applies, however: no
                  	mathematics, as there are already a dozen or more excellent
                  	books on the market&nbsp;&#8212; as well as other online
                  	documents&nbsp;&#8212; dealing with mathematical typesetting in
                  <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> and <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> in finer and better detail than I am
                  	capable of. &para;&nbsp;The structure remains the same, but I have revised and
                  	rephrased a lot of material, especially in the earlier
                  	chapters where a new user cannot be expected yet to have
                  	acquired any depth of knowledge. Many of the screenshots have
                  	been updated, and most of the examples and code fragments have
                  	been retested. &para;&nbsp;As I was finishing this edition, I was asked to review
                  	an article for <cite><a href="http://www.tug.org/pracjourn/" name="C3">The Prac<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> Journal</a></cite>, which
                  	grew out of the Practical <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> Conference in 2004. The
                  	author specifically took the writers of documentation to task
                  	for failing to explain things more clearly, and as I read
                  	more, I found myself agreeing, and resolving to clear up some
                  	specific problems areas as far as possible. It is very
                  	difficult for people who write technical documentation to
                  	remember how they struggled to learn what has now become a
                  	familiar system. So much of what we do is second nature, and a
                  	lot of it actually has nothing to do with the software, but
                  	more with the way in which we view and approach information,
                  	and the general level of knowledge of computing. If I have
                  	obscured something by making unreasonable assumptions about
                  	<em>your</em> knowledge, please let me know so
                  	that I can correct&nbsp;it. 
                  <p>Peter Flynn is author of <cite><a href="bibliography.html#htmlbook" name="C4">The HTML Handbook</a></cite> and <cite><a href="bibliography.html#sgmltools" name="C5">Understanding SGML and XML Tools</a></cite>, and editor of <cite><a href="http://www.ucc.ie/xml/" name="C6">The XML FAQ</a></cite>.
                  </p>
               </p>
            </td>
            <td class="legal">
               <p>
                  <p>This document is Copyright &copy; 1999&#8211;2005 by
                     Silmaril Consultants under the terms of what is now the GNU
                     Free Documentation License (copyleft).
                  </p>
                  <p>Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify
                     this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation
                     License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the
                     Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no
                     Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
                     license is included in the section entitled <cite><a href="http://www.fsf.org/copyleft/fdl.html" name="C1">The GNU Free Documentation License</a></cite>.
                  </p>
                  <p>You are allowed to distribute, reproduce, and modify it
                     without fee or further requirement for consent subject to the
                     conditions in <a href="appendixD.html#gfdl-4">section D.5</a>. The author has
                     asserted his right to be identified as the author of this
                     document. If you make useful modifications you are asked to
                     inform the author so that the master copy can be updated. See
                     the full text of the License in <a href="appendixD.html#gfdl">Appendix D</a>.
                     
                  </p>
               </p>
            </td>
         </tr>
      </table>
      <div class="chapter">
         <table width="100%">
            <tr>
               <td align="center"><small><i class="chaphead"><b><a name="plaintext">CHAPTER</a></b></i></small><br><table border="1">
                     <tr>
                        <td class="chapno">2</td>
                     </tr>
                  </table>
               </td>
               <td><pre class="spacing"></pre></td>
               <td>
                  <p>&nbsp;</p>
                  <h1>Using your editor to create documents</h1>
               </td>
               <td class="toc">
                  <p>&nbsp;</p>
                  <ol>
                     <li><a href="#mark-up">Markup</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#quickstart">Quick start for the impatient</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#editors">Editors</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#commands"><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> commands</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#specials">Special characters</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#quotes">Quotation marks</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#accents">Accents</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#handj">Dimensions, hyphenation, justification, and breaking</a></li>
                     <li><a href="#math">Mathematics</a></li>
                  </ol>
               </td>
               <td align="right"><a href="#doctoc"><img src="top.png" title="Table of Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a></td>
            </tr>
         </table>
         <p><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> documents are all <b><i><a name="plain-text">plain-text</a></i></b> files.<sup><a href="#F9">1</a></sup>  You can edit them with any editor, and transfer
            them to any other computer system running <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> and they will
            format exactly the same. Because they are plain text they cannot
            corrupt your system, as they cannot be used for hiding or
            transporting virus infections as binary wordprocessor files can.
            Everything you can see is in the file and everything in the file
            is there for you to see: there is nothing hidden or secret and
            there are no manufacturers' proprietary
            &#8216;gotchas&#8217; like suddenly going out of date
            with a new version.
         </p>
         <ol class="footnotes" start="1">
            <li><a name="F9">&#8216;Plain-text&#8217;
                  	  originally meant just the 95 printable characters of the
                  	  <a name="ASCII" class="acroref">American Standard Code for Information
                     	    Interchange</a>&nbsp;(<small>ASCII</small>)&nbsp;&#8212; see <a href="appendixC.html#asciicodes">Table C.1</a>&nbsp;&#8212; but now more commonly includes
                  	  both these <em>and</em> the relevant 8-bit
                  	  characters from <em>one</em> (only) character
                  	  set such as ISO-8859-1 (Western Latin&#8211;1) or
                  	  ISO-8859-15 (Western Latin plus the Euro sign). These are
                  	  international standards which work everywhere: you should
                  	  avoid using manufacturers' proprietary character sets
                  	  like Microsoft Windows&#8211;1252 or Apple Macintosh
                  	  Roman&#8211;8, because they may make your documents unusable
                  	  on some other systems.</a></li>
         </ol>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.1 <a name="mark-up">Markup</a></h2>
            <p>In a <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> document, you type your text along with
               	<b><i><a name="markup">markup</a></i></b> which identifies the
               	important parts of your document by name, for example
               	&#8216;title&#8217;, &#8216;section&#8217;,
               	&#8216;figure&#8217;, etc. <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> does all the formatting
               	for you automatically, using the markup to guide its internal
               	rules and external stylesheets for typesetting.
            </p>
            <div align="center" class="sidebar">
               <table width="75%">
                  <tr>
                     <td align="left" class="sidebar">
                        <h3><img src="ktip.png" align="middle"> &nbsp; <a name="">Markup</a></h3>
                        <p>This is a term from printing, and originally meant the
                           	  notes on how to lay the document out, or the instructions
                           	  which a proofreader might add during correction. It now also
                           	  means instructions or descriptions added to a computer
                           	  document to act as guidelines for identification or
                           	  formatting. Markup has been around for
                           	  <em>ages</em>.
                        </p>
                        <div align="center">
                           <table>
                              <tr>
                                 <td valign="top" align="left">
                                    <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="55-1L-part.png" width="288"></div>
                                 </td>
                                 <td valign="top" width="108" align="left" class="" colspan="2"><cite><a href="bibliography.html#tain" name="C23">Leabhar na h-Uidhri: The Book of the Dun Cow</a></cite></td>
                              </tr>
                              <tr>
                                 <td valign="top" align="left">
                                    <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="23-part.png" width="288"></div>
                                 </td>
                                 <td valign="top" width="108" align="left" class="" colspan="2"><cite><a href="bibliography.html#varmints" name="C24">Scribner's Magazine</a></cite></td>
                              </tr>
                              <tr>
                                 <td valign="top" align="left"><code class="literal">.h1 Interest Rates</code></td>
                                 <td valign="top" width="108" align="left" class="">Runoff</td>
                                 <td valign="top" align="right"><i>c.</i>1970
                                 </td>
                              </tr>
                              <tr>
                                 <td valign="top" align="left"><code class="literal">\section{Interest
                                       		    Rates}</code></td>
                                 <td valign="top" width="108" align="left" class=""><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></td>
                                 <td valign="top" align="right">1984</td>
                              </tr>
                              <tr>
                                 <td valign="top" align="left"><code class="literal">&lt;sec&gt;&lt;ttl&gt;Interest
                                       		    Rates&lt;/ttl&gt;...</code></td>
                                 <td valign="top" width="108" align="left" class=""><small><a href="chapter10.html#SGML" class="acroref" name="A59" title="Standard Generalized Markup Language">SGML</a></small></td>
                                 <td valign="top" align="right">1985</td>
                              </tr>
                              <tr>
                                 <td valign="top" align="left"><code class="literal">&lt;H1&gt;Interest
                                       		    Rates&lt;/H1&gt;</code></td>
                                 <td valign="top" width="108" align="left" class=""><small><a href="chapter10.html#HTML" class="acroref" name="A60" title="HyperText Markup Language">HTML</a></small></td>
                                 <td valign="top" align="right">1991</td>
                              </tr>
                           </table>
                        </div>
                     </td>
                  </tr>
               </table>
            </div>
            <p>You do not need to format any of your text <em>in
                  	  your editor</em>, because <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> does it
               	all by itself when it typesets. You can of course regularise
               	or neaten its appearance <em>in your editor</em>
               	for ease of editing (for example, keeping each item in a list
               	on a separate line), but this is not required.
            </p>
            <p>You will often hear <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> markup referred to as
               	&#8216;commands&#8217; or sometimes &#8216;control
               	  sequences&#8217; (the proper <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>nical term for them).
               	For
               	all practical purposes these terms all mean the same
               	thing.
            </p>
            <p>This course assumes that users have one of
               	<i><a name="p84"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>shell</a></i>,
               	<i><a name="p85"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>nicCenter</a></i>,
               	<i><a name="p86">WinShell</a></i>, or
               	<i><a name="p87">WinEdt</a></i> (Windows only), or
               	<i><a name="p88">Emacs</a></i> or <span class="LYX">L<span class="Y">Y</span>X</span> (any platform)
               	installed. These are discussed briefly in <a href="chapter2.html#editors">section 2.3</a>, and the menus and toolbars for running
               <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> are explained in <a href="chapter4.html#process">Chapter 4</a>.
            </p>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.2 <a name="quickstart">Quick start for the impatient</a></h2>
            <p>If you already know all this stuff about editors and
               plain-text files and running programs, and you know your system
               is already correctly installed (including your editor),
               you'd probably like to type something in and see <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>
               do its job. If you don't, then skip forward to <a href="chapter2.html#commands">section 2.4</a> and read a bit more about <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>
               first.
            </p>
            <div class="figure" align="center">
               <hr>
               <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="sampledoc">Sample document</a></caption>
               <blockquote><pre class="footnotesize">
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage{palatino,url}
\begin{document}
\section*{My first document}

This is a short example of a \LaTeX\ document I wrote 
on \today. It shows a few simple features of automated 
typesetting, including

\begin{itemize}
\item setting the default font size to 12pt;
\item specifying `article' type for formatting;
\item using the Palatino typeface;
\item adding special formatting for URIs;
\item formatting a heading in `section' style;
\item using the \LaTeX\ logo;
\item generating today's date;
\item formatting a list of items;
\item centering and italicizing;
\item autonumbering the pages.
\end{itemize}

\subsection*{More information}

This example was taken from `Formatting Information',
which you can download from 
\url{http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/}
and use as a teach-yourself guide.

\begin{center}
\textit{Have a nice day!}
\end{center}

\end{document}
            </pre></blockquote>
               <hr>
            </div>
            <ol>
               <lh>Up and running in a few minutes</lh>
               <li><b>Install the software</b><br><p>Make sure you have a
                     properly-installed <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> system and a copy of a
                     suitable editor.
                  </p>
               </li>
               <li><b><a name="demodoc">Create a sample document</a></b><br><p>Open your editor and type in
                     the text <em>exactly</em> as shown in <a href="chapter2.html#sampledoc">Figure 2.1</a>. Do <em>not</em> make any
                     changes or miss anything out or add anything different at
                     this stage.
                  </p>
               </li>
               <li><b>Save the document</b><br><p>Save the document as
                     <code>demo.tex</code></p>
               </li>
               <li><b>Run <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> or <i><a name="p89">pdf<span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></a></i></b><br><p>Click on the <span class="guiicon"><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></span> or
                     	    <span class="guiicon">pdf<span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></span> toolbar icon or the
                     	    <span class="guimenu"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>&#8594;<span class="guimenuitem"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>
                        	      File</span> menu item; or type <code class="literal">latex
                        	      demo</code> or <code class="literal">pdflatex demo</code> in a
                     	    command window.
                  </p>
               </li>
               <li><b>Preview the typesetting</b><br><p>Click on the <span class="guiicon">DVI</span> or
                     	    <span class="guiicon">PDFview</span> toolbar icon or the
                     	    <span class="guimenu"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>&#8594;<span class="guimenuitem"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>
                        	      View</span> menu item; or type your previewer
                     	    command in a terminal shell.
                  </p>
                  <p>(Note that there may be a pause the first time you use
                     	    your <small><a href="chapter4.html#DVI" class="acroref" name="A61" title="device-independent">DVI</a></small> viewer, while <small><a href="chapter2.html#WYSIWYG" class="acroref" name="A62" title="What You See Is What You Get">WYSIWYG</a></small> font files are
                     	    created.<sup><a href="#F10">2</a></sup>)
                  </p>
               </li>
               <li><b>Print it</b><br><p>Click on the <span class="guiicon">Print</span> toolbar icon
                     within the viewer, or use the
                     <span class="guimenu"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>&#8594;<span class="guimenuitem"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> Print</span>
                     menu item, or type
                     <code class="literal">dvips -f demo | lpr</code>
                     (Unix/Linux).
                  </p>
               </li>
            </ol>
            <p>If you encounter any errors, it means you
               <em>do</em> need to study this chapter after
               all!
            </p>
            <ol class="footnotes" start="2">
               <li><a name="F10"><small><a href="chapter4.html#DVI" class="acroref" name="A63" title="device-independent">DVI</a></small> previewers use their
                     		own font files specially created from the font
                     		outlines (TrueType, OpenType, PostScript, METAFONT,
                     		etc). The first time you use a font at a size not used
                     		before, there will be a second or two's pause
                     		while it gets created. The more you use <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>, the
                     		less this
                     		happens.</a></li>
            </ol>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3 <a name="editors">Editors</a></h2><a name="I15"></a><p>All the text of your documents can be typed into your
               <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> document from a standard keyboard using any decent
               	plain-text editor. However, it is more convenient to use an
               	editor with special features to make using <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> easier.
               	Some of the most popular are
               	<i><a name="p90"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>shell</a></i><i><a name="p91">WinShell</a></i>, <i><a name="p92"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>nic
                     	  Center</a></i>, and <i><a name="p93">WinEdt</a></i>
               	(Windows only); and <i><a name="p94"><span class="LYX">L<span class="Y">Y</span>X</span></a></i> and
               	<i><a name="p95">Emacs</a></i> (all platforms).
            </p>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.1 <span class="LYX">L<span class="Y">Y</span>X</span></h3>
               <div class="figure" align="center">
                  <hr>
                  <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="lyxwin">The <span class="LYX">L<span class="Y">Y</span>X</span> document editor</a></caption>
                  <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="lyx.png" width="75%"></div>
                  <hr>
               </div>
               <p>The <span class="LYX">L<span class="Y">Y</span>X</span> document editor (all platforms) is a special
                  	  case, as it uses the <a name="WYSIWYM" class="acroref">What You See Is
                     	    What You Mean</a>&nbsp;(<small>WYSIWYM</small>) model of synchronous typographic
                  	  editing as opposed to <a name="WYSIWYG" class="acroref">What You See Is
                     	    What You Get</a>&nbsp;(<small>WYSIWYG</small>), and many users prefer this
                  	  interface (but see the reservations in <a href="intro.html#sync">the item &#8216;Synchronous typographic displays&#8217; in section 3</a>).
               </p>
               <p><span class="LYX">L<span class="Y">Y</span>X</span> makes a strong case for using synchronous
                  	  typographical editing: it is possible to create even quite
                  	  large and complex documents without seeing a backslash very
                  	  often, although with math or complex macros there is
                  	  probably no way to avoid having to do some manual insertion
                  	  of
                  	  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> code.
               </p>
               <p>The free availability on multiple platforms makes this a
                  	  clear answer to the myth of &#8216;having to edit like a
                  	    programmer&#8217;, and as it is an Open Source project,
                  	  there is constant improvement, both to the facilities and to
                  	  the interface.
               </p>
               <p>Probably the only real reservation is that it does not
                  	  save native <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> files by default. It uses its own
                  	  internal format, and it can export <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> for use in other
                  	  editors, but the exported files are not designed for human
                  	  legibility, only for <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> processing. In a co-operative
                  	  environment this would be a serious drawback, but for the
                  	  individual user this interface is an excellent tool.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.2 <a name="texshell"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>shell</a></h3>
               <div class="figure" align="center">
                  <hr>
                  <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="texshellwin">The <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>shell editor</a></caption>
                  <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="texshell.png" width="75%"></div>
                  <hr>
               </div>
               <p>This is one of the simplest of all the plaintext Windows
                  	  editors, but it has most of the tools needed to begin with.
                  	  Sectioning, lists, and graphics can be inserted from the
                  	  menus, and there are buttons for running <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> on the
                  	  open document and for previewing the typeset
                  	  document.
               </p>
               <p>The syntactic highlighting distinguishes between
                  	  commands and your text, and it comes with options for
                  	  spellchecking (you need to install
                  	  <i><a name="p96">ispell</a></i>), and for adding math,
                  	  Greek (math), and some symbol characters from a pickchart.
                  	  The typeset display is done using your installed <small><a href="chapter4.html#DVI" class="acroref" name="A66" title="device-independent">DVI</a></small> viewer (there is no provision for
                  	  <small><a href="chapter4.html#PDF" class="acroref" name="A67" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a></small>, although as it is
                  	  configurable, that could probably be edited into the
                  	  menus).
               </p>
               <p>Download the <code>.tar.gz</code> file from <small><a href="chapter5.html#CTAN" class="acroref" name="A68" title="Comprehensive Archive Network">CTAN</a></small> in the
                  	  <code>support/TeXshell/</code> directory and unwrap
                  	  it into somewhere like <code>C:\Program
                     	    Files\TeXshell\</code>.<sup><a href="#F11">3</a></sup> There is a <i><a name="p97">tsconfig</a></i>
                  	  program in the same directory on <small><a href="chapter5.html#CTAN" class="acroref" name="A69" title="Comprehensive Archive Network">CTAN</a></small>, which is designed to help with
                  	  reconfiguring <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>shell.
               </p>
               <ol class="footnotes" start="3">
                  <li><a name="F11">Yes, I know I said don't use directory names with
                        	      spaces in them&nbsp;&#8212; and so you shouldn't, for your
                        	<span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> documents&nbsp;&#8212; but Windows programs are usually safe
                        	      enough in them.</a></li>
               </ol>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.3 <a name="winshell">WinShell</a></h3>
               <div class="figure" align="center">
                  <hr>
                  <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="winshellwin">The WinShell editor</a></caption>
                  <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="winshell.png" width="75%"></div>
                  <hr>
               </div>
               <p>This is another free Windows editor for beginners with
                  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>. Despite its simplicity, it is capable of a
                  	  considerable amount of document management and assistance
                  	  with editing. As well as handling stand-alone <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>
                  	  files, you can create a &#8216;Project&#8217; for larger
                  	  documents, which helps you keep track of additional files
                  	  like separate chapters, illustrations, diagrams, indexes,
                  	  etc.
               </p>
               <p>You run <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> direct from the toolbar icons or with
                  	  F-key shortcuts. Both standard <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> and
                  	  <i><a name="p98">pdf<span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></a></i> are supported, as well
                  	  as creation and previewing of
                  	  <a name="t5">PostScript</a> and <small><a href="chapter4.html#PDF" class="acroref" name="A70" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a></small> output. There are additional toolbars
                  	  for math characters, and there is a &#8216;Table
                  	    Wizard&#8217; for handling tables. The syntax
                  	  highlighting distinguishes between commands (in blue) and
                  	  delimiters (in red), leaving your text in black.
               </p>
               <p>Download the
                  	  <code>WinShell<code><u>nn</u></code>.exe</code>
                  	  program (self-contained setup: the
                  	  <code><u>nn</u></code> changes with the version) from
                  	  <small><a href="chapter5.html#CTAN" class="acroref" name="A71" title="Comprehensive Archive Network">CTAN</a></small> in the
                  	  <code>systems/win32/winshell/</code> directory and
                  	  double-click it to start the setup.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.4 <a name="texniccenter"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>nicCenter</a></h3>
               <div class="figure" align="center">
                  <hr>
                  <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="texniccenterwin">The <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>nicCenter editor</a></caption>
                  <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="texniccenter.png" width="75%"></div>
                  <hr>
               </div>
               <p><i><a name="p99"><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>nicCenter</a></i> is a powerful
                  	  Windows editor suitable both for the beginner and the more advanced
                  	  user. Its &#8216;Project&#8217; environment keeps track of
                  	  multiple files, and the processing function (the bit which
                  	  actually runs <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>, here called
                  	  &#8216;Build&#8217;) tries to ensure that all the files you
                  	  need for a large or complex document are in place before you
                  	  start typesetting, to avoid errors like missing
                  	  illustrations.
               </p>
               <p>It's a much more wordprocessor-like control
                  	  interface, with configurable toolbars and button-controls
                  	  for lists, math, tables, and previewing options.
               </p>
               <p>Download the
                  	  <code>TXCSetup<code><u>xxx</u></code>.exe</code>
                  	  program (self-contained setup: the
                  	  <code><u>xxx</u></code> bit changes with the version)
                  	  from <small><a href="chapter5.html#CTAN" class="acroref" name="A72" title="Comprehensive Archive Network">CTAN</a></small> in the
                  	  <code>systems/win32/TeXnicCenter/</code> directory
                  	  and double-click it to start the setup.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.5 <a name="winedt">WinEdt</a></h3>
               <div class="figure" align="center">
                  <hr>
                  <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="winedtpic">The <i><a name="p100">WinEdt</a></i> editor</a></caption>
                  <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="winedt.png" width="75%"></div>
                  <hr>
               </div>
               <p><i><a name="p101">WinEdt</a></i> is a highly
                  	  configurable plain-text editor for Windows. It comes with a
                  	  host of special functions and shortcuts for
                  <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> and <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>, based on the Mik<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> distribution. It
                  	  is supplied on the <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> Collection 2004 DVD and the
                  	  <i><a name="p102">pro<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>t</a></i> CD. You can also
                  	  download it from <a href="http://www.winedt.com"><tt>http://www.winedt.com</tt></a>&nbsp;&#8212; in either case
                  	  there's a 1-month free trial, then it reminds you to
                  	  buy it.
               </p>
               <p><i><a name="p103">WinEdt</a></i> uses a built-in
                  	  toolbar of configurable buttons, preset for use with
                  	  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>, and it provides syntactic coloring of
                  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> commands. Both the positioning and effect of the
                  	  buttons can be changed, using an editable file of icons and
                  	  a configuration panel. This flexibility lets you bind a
                  	  program and arguments (equivalent to a typed command) to a
                  	  particular icon.
               </p>
               <p>There are default buttons on the toolbar for one-click
                  	  typesetting, previewing, and
                  	  <a name="t6">PostScript</a> or <small><a href="chapter4.html#PDF" class="acroref" name="A73" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a></small> generation from <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> documents,
                  	  and it manages multi-file document projects like most of the
                  	  other editors. <i><a name="p104">Winedt</a></i> is also
                  	  used by many people for normal plaintext file-editing tasks,
                  	  in preference to more limited programs like
                  	  <i><a name="p105">Notepad</a></i>. If you're using the
                  	  fp<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> which came with the 2003 <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>
                  	  Collection, some editing of the menus is required (explained
                  	  in the local installation document) because the default
                  	  setup is for
                  	  Mik<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>/pro<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>t.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.6 GNU Emacs
               </h3>
               <div class="figure" align="center">
                  <hr>
                  <caption><i>Figure 2.1</i>:&nbsp;<a name="">Emacs editing <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></a></caption>
                  <div align="center" style="margin:12px"><img src="emacs.png" width="75%"></div>
                  <hr>
               </div>
               <p><i><a name="p106">Emacs</a></i> is a product of the
                  	  <small><a href="chapter2.html#GNU" class="acroref" name="A74" title="GNU's Not Unix">GNU</a></small> Project.<sup><a href="#F12">4</a></sup>  Versions are available for all makes and models
                  	  of computer, and it has a <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>-mode which provides
                  	  syntactic colouring (&#8216;fontification&#8217;
                  	  in <i><a name="p107">Emacs</a></i>-speak) and mouseclick
                  	  processing from a menu or toolbar.
               </p>
               <p><i><a name="p108">Emacs</a></i>
                  	  is a very large and powerful editor, with
                  	  &#8216;modes&#8217; (plug-ins) to handle almost
                  	  everything you do on a computer. Many users run
                  	  <i><a name="p109">Emacs</a></i> once on logging in, and
                  	  never leave it for the rest of the day&nbsp;&#8212; or month. As
                  	  well as edit, you can use it to read your mail, browse the
                  	  Web, read Usenet news, do wordprocessing and spreadsheets,
                  	  compile programs, help you write in any computer
                  	  language&nbsp;&#8212; including <small><a href="chapter10.html#XML" class="acroref" name="A76" title="Extensible Markup Language">XML</a></small> and
                  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>&nbsp;&#8212; and it provides a few games as well.
               </p>
               <p><i><a name="p110">Emacs</a></i>
                  	  knows about <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> and how to process it, so it comes with
                  	  a menu full of <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> operations to click on. If you are
                  	  editing complex documents with mathematics, there is a mode
                  	  (<i><a name="p111">AUC<span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></a></i>) which has even more
                  	  functionality. <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> support is well-developed, and there
                  	  is a hierarchy of newsgroups for
                  	  <i><a name="p112">Emacs</a></i> support.
               </p>
               <p>Because <i><a name="p113">Emacs</a></i> runs on
                  	  Microsoft Windows, Macs, Linux, and most other platforms,
                  	  many <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> users who have multiple machines (and those
                  	  who have multiple users to support) prefer it to other
                  	  editors because it provides the same environment regardless
                  	  of which platform they are using.
               </p>
               <p>It's sometimes criticised for a steep learning
                  	  curve, but in fact it's no worse in this respect than
                  	  any other editor, given the power that it provides, and it
                  	  is significantly better than most which lack many of the
                  	  authorial tools available in Emacs.
               </p>
               <ol class="footnotes" start="4">
                  <li><a name="F12">&#8216;<a name="GNU" class="acroref">GNU's Not
                           		  Unix</a>&nbsp;(<small>GNU</small>)&#8217; is a project to make a
                        	      computing environment completely free of
                        	      restrictions.</a></li>
               </ol>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.3.7 Mac editors
               </h3>
               <p>Mac users will be disappointed that I haven't included
                  	any of the Mac interfaces here. It's simple: I don't have a
                  	Mac right now to try them out on. I hope to remedy this for a
                  	future edition.
               </p>
            </div>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.4 <a name="commands"><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> commands</a></h2>
            <p><a name="bsol"></a><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> commands all begin with a
               <b><i><a name="backslash">backslash</a></i></b>
               (<code class="literal">\</code>)<sup><a href="#F13">5</a></sup> and are usually made up of lowercase
               letters only, for example:
            </p>
            <blockquote><pre>
\tableofcontents
      </pre></blockquote>
            <p>The
               	<code class="command"><a name="c3">\tableofcontents</a></code> command is an instruction
               	to <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> to insert the Table of Contents at this point. You
               	would usually use this in a book or report (or perhaps a very
               	long article) somewhere close to the beginning. You don't have
               	to do anything else. Provided that you have used the
               	sectioning commands described in <a href="chapter3.html#sections">section 3.5</a>,
               	all the formatting and numbering for the Table of Contents is
               	completely automated.
            </p>
            <ol class="footnotes" start="5">
               <li><a name="F13">Do not confuse the backslash 
                     with the forward slash (<code class="literal">/</code>). They are
                     two different characters. The forward slash is used on the
                     Web and on Unix systems to separate directory names and
                     filenames. The backslash is used in Microsoft Windows
                     (only) for the same purpose, and in <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> to begin a
                     command.</a></li>
            </ol>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.4.1 <a name="simplecmd">Simple commands</a></h3>
               <p><a name="swallow"></a>Simple one-word commands like
                  	  <code class="command"><a name="c4">\tableofcontents</a></code> must be separated from
                  	  any following text with <b><i><a name="wsp">white-space</a></i></b>. This means a
                  	  normal space, or a newline [linebreak] or a TAB character.
                  	  For example either of these two forms will work:
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\tableofcontents Thanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help 
with this book.
        </pre></blockquote>
               <blockquote><pre>
\tableofcontents
Thanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help with this book.
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>If you forget the white-space, as in the following
                  	  example, <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> will try to read it as a command
                  	  called <code class="literal">\tableofcontentsThanks</code>. There's no
                  	  such command, of course, so <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> will complain at you by
                  	  displaying an error message (see <a href="chapter4.html#undefcs">section 4.2.3.2</a>).
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\tableofcontentsThanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help 
with this book.
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> swallows any white-space which follows a command
                  ending in a letter. It does this automatically, so you
                  don't get unwanted extra space in your typeset output,
                  but it does mean that any simple command which ends in a
                  letter and has no arguments (see below) must be followed by
                  white-space before normal text starts again, simply to keep
                  it separate from the text.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.4.2 <a name="cmdargs">Commands with arguments</a></h3>
               <p>Many <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> commands are followed by one or more
                  <b><i><a name="arguments">arguments</a></i></b>, a term from
                  the field of Computer Science, meaning information to be acted
                  upon. Here are two examples:
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\chapter{Poetic Form}
\label{pform}
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>Such arguments always go in
                  <code class="literal">{</code><b><i><a name="curly">curly
                           braces</a></i></b><code class="literal">}</code> like
                  those shown above. Be careful not to confuse the
                  curly braces on your keyboard with round parentheses
                  <code class="literal">(&nbsp;)</code>, square brackets
                  <code class="literal">[&nbsp;]</code>, or angle brackets 
                  <code class="literal">&lt;&nbsp;&gt;</code>. They are all
                  different and they do different things.
               </p>
               <p>With commands that take arguments you do
                  <em>not</em> need to use extra white-space after
                  the command, because there is an argument following it
                  which will keep it separate from any normal text with
                  follows after that. The following is therefore perfectly
                  correct (although unusual because it's harder to edit:
                  normally you'd leave a blank line between the chapter title or
                  label and the start of the first paragraph).
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\chapter{Poetic Form}\label{pform}The shape of poetry 
when written or printed distinguishes it from prose.
	</pre></blockquote>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.4.3 <a name="white-space">White-space in <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></a></h3><a name="I17"></a><p>In <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> documents, all <em>multiple</em>
                  spaces, newlines (linebreaks), and TAB characters are
                  treated as if they were a <em>single</em> space
                  or newline during typesetting. <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> does its own spacing
                  and alignment using the instructions you give it, so you
                  have extremely precise control. You are therefore free to
                  use extra white-space in your editor for optical ease and
                  convenience when editing.
               </p>
               <p>
                  The following is therefore exactly equivalent to the example
                  in the preceding section:
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\chapter        {Poetic 
          Form}\label
            {pform}

The shape of poetry when written or printed 
distinguishes it from prose.
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>That is, it will get typeset exactly the same. In
                  general, just leave a blank line between paragraphs and a
                  single space between words and sentences. <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> will take
                  care of the formatting.
               </p>
            </div>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.5 <a name="specials">Special characters</a></h2><a name="I18"></a><p>There are ten keyboard characters which have special
               meaning to <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>, and cannot be used on their own except for
               the following purposes:
            </p>
            <div align="center">
               <table cellpadding="1mm">
                  <tr class="headfoot">
                     <th valign="bottom" align="center">Key</th>
                     <th valign="bottom" align="left">Meaning</th>
                     <th valign="bottom" align="center"><em>If you need<br> the actual character<br> itself,
                           type:</em></th>
                     <th valign="bottom" align="center">Character</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">\</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">The command character</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c5">\textbackslash</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">\</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">$</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Math typesetting delimiter</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c6">\$</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">$</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">%</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">The comment character</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c7">\%</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">^</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Math superscript character</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c8">\^</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">^</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">&amp;</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Tabular column separator</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c9">\&amp;</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&amp;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">_</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Math subscript character</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c10">\_</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">_</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">&#732;</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Non-breaking space</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c11">\&#732;</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&#732;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">#</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Macro parameter symbol</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c12">\#</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">#</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">{</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Argument start delimiter</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c13">$\{$</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">{</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">}</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Argument end delimiter</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="command"><a name="c14">$\}$</a></code></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">}</td>
                  </tr>
               </table>
            </div>
            <p>These characters were deliberately chosen, either because
               	they are rare in normal text, or (in the case of $,
               	#, &amp;, and %) they already had an
               	established special meaning on computers as <b><i><a name="metacharacters">metacharacters</a></i></b> (characters
               	standing as symbols for something else) by the time <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> was
               	written, and it would have been misleading to choose
               	others.
            </p>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.5.1 Using the special characters
               </h3>
               <p>We have already seen (<a href="chapter2.html#bsol">the first paragraph  in section 2.4</a>) how
                  to use the backslash to start a command, and curly braces to
                  delimit an argument. The remaining special
                  characters are:
               </p>
               <blockquote>
                  <dl>
                     <dt><b><tt class="keycap">$</tt></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p>Because of the special mathematical meaning
                           <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> uses for the dollar-sign on its own, if you
                           want to print $35.99 you type
                           <code class="literal">\$35.99</code></p>
                     </dd>
                     <dt><b><tt class="keycap">%</tt></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p><a name="comment"></a>The <b><i><a name="commentchar">comment character</a></i></b> makes
                           <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> ignore the remainder of the line in your
                           document, so you can see it in your editor, but it
                           will never get typeset. For example <br><code class="literal">Today's price per kilo is &pound;22.70   % get Mike to update this</code><br>If you want to print 45% you need
                           to type <code class="literal">45\%</code></p>
                     </dd>
                     <dt><b><tt class="keycap">^</tt></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p>The caret sign lets you type
                           <code class="literal">\(E=mc^2\)</code> to get <span class="math"><i>E=mc</i><sup>2</sup></span>. If you need the circumflex accent
                           on a letter like &ecirc;, just type the letter or use the
                           symbolic notation <code class="literal">\^e</code>.
                        </p>
                     </dd>
                     <dt><b><tt class="keycap">&amp;</tt></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p>The ampersand is used in tables to separate
                           		columns (see <a href="chapter6.html#tables">section 6.3</a>). If you want to
                           		print AT&amp;T you need to type
                           		<code class="literal">AT\&amp;T</code>.
                        </p>
                     </dd>
                     <dt><b><tt class="keycap">_</tt></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p>The underscore lets you type
                           <code class="literal">\(r_2\)</code> for <span class="math"><i>r</i><i>2</i></span>. If you want to underline text
                           (extremely rare in typesetting) see <a href="chapter8.html#uline">the last paragraph  in section 8.2.3</a>.
                        </p>
                     </dd>
                     <dt><b><a name="tilde"><tt class="keycap">&#732;</tt></a></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p>The tilde prints as a space, but prevents a
                           		linebreak ever occurring at that point. It's often
                           		used between a person's initials and their surname, eg
                           		<code class="literal">Prof D.E.~Knuth</code></p>
                     </dd>
                     <dt><b><tt class="keycap">#</tt></b></dt>
                     <dd>
                        <p>If you want a
                           <b><i><a name="hash">hash mark</a></i></b> (the
                           <b><i><a name="octothorpe">octothorpe</a></i></b> or
                           American number or &#8216;pound&#8217; [weight] sign)
                           you type <code class="literal">\#</code>. For a pound
                           (sterling)<a name="I19"></a>
                           sign &pound;, now nearly obsolete except in the UK and
                           some of its former dependencies, use your
                           <tt class="keycap">&pound;</tt> key or type
                           <code class="command"><a name="c15">\textsterling</a></code>.
                        </p>
                     </dd>
                  </dl>
               </blockquote>
               <p>While we're on the subject of money, an unusual but
                  	  interesting serif-font Euro<a name="I20"></a> sign <span style="font-family:serif; ">&#8364;</span>
                  	  is got with the <code class="command"><a name="c16">\texteuro</a></code> command from the
                  	  <span class="package"><a name="m3">textcomp</a></span> package. The standard
                  	  sans-serif <span style="font-family:sans-serif; ">&#8364;</span> needs the
                  	  <span class="package"><a name="m4">marvosym</a></span> package and is done with
                  	  the <code class="command"><a name="c17">\EUR</a></code> command.<sup><a href="#F14">6</a></sup></p>
               <ol class="footnotes" start="6">
                  <li><a name="F14">The European Commission has specified that everyone
                        	      use the sans-serif design, even in serif text, but this
                        	      is amazingly ugly and most designers rightly ignore
                        	      it.</a></li>
               </ol>
            </div>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.6 <a name="quotes">Quotation marks</a></h2><a name="I21"></a><p>Do <em>not</em> use the unidirectional
               typewriter keyboard <tt class="keycap">"</tt> key for quotation
               marks. Correct typographic quotes are got with the <tt class="keycap">`</tt> key and the <tt class="keycap">'</tt> key, doubled if you want double
               quotes:
            </p>
            <blockquote class="example"><pre>
He said, ``I'm just going out.''
        </pre><p class="example"><span style="font-family:Times; ">He said,
                     &#8216;&#8216;I'm just going out.&#8217;&#8217;</span></p>
            </blockquote>
            <p>This ensures you get real left-hand
               	and right-hand (opening and closing) quotes (usually shaped
               	like tiny
               	66&nbsp;and&nbsp;99 
               	or as symmetrically-balanced strokes). If you are using
               	<i><a name="p114">Emacs</a></i> as your editor, the
               	<tt class="keycap">"</tt> key is specially programmed in
               	<span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>-mode to think for itself and produce correct <span style="font-family:monospace; ">``</span> and
               	<code class="literal">''</code> characters (so this is one occasion when
               	you <em>can</em> use the <tt class="keycap">"</tt>
               	key).
            </p>
            <blockquote class="warning"><a name=""></a><p><img src="warning.png" align="left" alt="!!!">If you are reading this in a
                  browser, or if you have reprocessed the file using different
                  fonts, it may not show you real quotes (some old browser
                  fonts are defective) and the <code class="command"><a name="c18">\thinspace</a></code>
                  below may be too wide. Download the typeset (<small><a href="chapter4.html#PDF" class="acroref" name="A77" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a></small>) version of this document to see the
                  real effect.
               </p>
            </blockquote>
            <p><a name="thinspace"></a>When typing one quotation inside another,
               there is a special command <code class="command"><a name="c19">\thinspace</a></code> which
               provides just enough separation between double and single
               quotes (a normal space is too much and could allow an unwanted
               linebreak):
            </p>
            <blockquote class="example"><pre>
He said, `Her answer was ``never''\thinspace'.
        </pre><p class="example">He said, &#8216;Her answer was
                  &#8216;&#8216;never&#8217;&#8217;&#8201;&#8217;.
               </p>
            </blockquote>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.7 <a name="accents">Accents</a></h2><a name="I22"></a><p>For accented letters in western
               	European languages<sup><a href="#F15">7</a></sup>  or other Latin-alphabet character sets just use
               	the accented keys on your keyboard&nbsp;&#8212; if you have the right
               	ones. You must also tell <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> what character repertoire
               	(&#8216;input encoding&#8217;) you are using. You
               	specify this by using the <span class="package"><a name="m5">inputenc</a></span>
               	package<sup><a href="#F16">8</a></sup> in your preamble
               	with the relevant option. For example, to tell <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> you
               	will be typing ISO Latin&#8211;1 accented characters,
               	use:
            </p>
            <blockquote><pre>
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
      </pre></blockquote>
            <p>If you have a real Unicode editor, which lets you insert
               	any letter or symbol from any language on the planet (for
               	example, mixed European, Asian, and other languages), use
               	<code class="literal">utf8</code> instead of <code class="literal">latin1</code>.
               	The encoding definitions that are available on your system are
               	in <code>/texmf/tex/latex/base</code> (all files
               	ending in <code>.def</code>).
            </p>
            <div align="center" class="sidebar">
               <table width="75%">
                  <tr>
                     <td align="left" class="sidebar">
                        <h3><img src="ktip.png" align="middle"> &nbsp; <a name="keystrokes">If you don't have accented letters</a></h3>
                        <p>This is for users whose keyboards do not have native
                           	  accent characters on them. See your Operating System manual
                           	  for full details. Here are two common examples:
                        </p>
                        <ul>
                           <li>
                              <p>Under Linux systems the letter
                                 	      &eacute; is usually got with
                                 <tt class="keycap">AltGr</tt>&#8211;<tt class="keycap">;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;<tt class="keycap">e</tt>. Refer to the
                                 	      <i><a name="p115">xkeycaps</a></i> utility for a table
                                 	      of key codes and combinations (get it from <a href="http://www.jwz.org/xkeycaps/"><tt>http://www.jwz.org/xkeycaps/</tt></a>).
                              </p>
                           </li>
                           <li>
                              <p>Under Microsoft Windows the letter &eacute; is got with
                                 <tt class="keycap">Ctrl</tt>&#8211;<tt class="keycap">'</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;<tt class="keycap">e</tt> or by holding down the
                                 	      &nbsp;<tt class="keycap">Alt</tt> key and typing
                                 	      &nbsp;<tt class="keycap">0</tt>&nbsp;<tt class="keycap">1</tt>&nbsp;<tt class="keycap">3</tt>&nbsp;<tt class="keycap">0</tt> 
                                 	      on the numeric keypad (<em>not</em> the top
                                 	      row of shifted numerals). Refer to the
                                 	      <i><a name="p116">charmap</a></i> utility for a table
                                 	      of key codes and combinations (find it in the
                                 	      <code>C:\Windows</code> folder).
                              </p>
                           </li>
                        </ul>
                     </td>
                  </tr>
               </table>
            </div>
            <p>If you don't have accented letter keys on your
               	keyboard, you'll need to use your operating system's
               	standard keyboard <tt class="keycap">Ctrl</tt> or
               	<tt class="keycap">Alt</tt> key combinations to generate the
               	characters (see <a href="chapter2.html#keystrokes">the panel &#8216;If you don't have accented letters&#8217; in this section</a>).
            </p>
            <p>If you cannot generate accented characters from your
               	keyboard at all, or if you need additional accents or symbols
               	which are not in any of the keyboard tables, you can use the
               	symbolic notation in <a href="chapter2.html#accentcodes">Table 2.1</a>. In fact,
               	this can be used to put any accent over any letter: if you
               	particularly want a g&#732; you can have one with the command 
               	<code class="command"><a name="c20">\&#732;</a></code><code class="literal">g</code> (and Welsh
               	users can get &#373; with
               	<code class="command"><a name="c21">\^</a></code><code class="literal">w</code>).
            </p>
            <p>If you use this symbolic method only, you do not need to
               	use the <span class="package"><a name="m6">inputenc</a></span> package. Before the
               	days of keyboards and screens with their own real accented
               	characters, the symbolic notation was the
               	<em>only</em> way to get accents, so you may come
               	across a lot of older documents (and users!) using this method
               	all the time: it does have the advantage in portability that
               	the <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> file remains plain <small><a href="chapter2.html#ASCII" class="acroref" name="A78" title="American Standard Code for Information Interchange">ASCII</a></small>, which will work on all machines
               	everywhere, regardless of their internal encoding, and even
               	with very old <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> installations.<sup><a href="#F17">9</a></sup></p>
            <div align="center" class="table">
               <table>
                  <caption><i>Table 2.1</i>.&nbsp;<a name="accentcodes">Built-in <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> accents</a></caption>
                  <tr class="headfoot">
                     <th valign="bottom" align="left">Accent</th>
                     <th valign="bottom" align="center">Example</th>
                     <th valign="bottom" align="center">Characters to type</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Acute (fada)</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&eacute;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\'e</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Grave</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&egrave;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\`e</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Circumflex</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&ecirc;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\^e</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Umlaut or di&aelig;resis</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&euml;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\"e</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Tilde</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&ntilde;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\~n</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Macron</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&#333;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\=o</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Bar-under</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><span style=""><u>o</u></span></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\b o</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Dot-over (s&eacute;&#305;mh&#305;&uacute;)</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><span style=""><img src="mdot.png" width="100%" class="invisible"></span></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\.m</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Dot-under</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><span style=""><img src="sdot.png" width="100%" class="invisible"></span></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\d s</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Breve</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&#365;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\u u</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">H&aacute;&#269;ek (caron)</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&#365;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\v u</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Long umlaut</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&#337;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\H o</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Tie-after</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><span style=""><img src="ootie.png" width="100%" class="invisible"></span></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\t oo</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Cedilla</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&ccedil;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\c c</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">O-E ligature</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&#339;, &#338;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\oe</code>,
                        		<code class="literal">\OE</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">A-E ligature</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&aelig;, &AElig;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\ae</code>,
                        		<code class="literal">\AE</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">A-ring</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&aring;, &Aring;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\aa</code>,
                        		<code class="literal">\AA</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">O-slash</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&oslash;, &Oslash;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\o</code>,
                        		<code class="literal">\O</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Soft-l</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><span style="font-family:Times; ">&#322;, &#321;</span></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\l</code>,
                        		<code class="literal">\L</code></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Ess-zet (scharfes-S)</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center">&szlig;</td>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><code class="literal">\ss</code></td>
                  </tr>
               </table>
            </div>
            <p>Irish and Turkish dotless-&#305; is done with the
               	special command <code class="command"><a name="c22">\i</a></code>, so an &iacute;-fada
               	(which is normally typed with <tt class="keycap">&iacute;</tt>)
               	requires <code class="literal">\'\i</code> if you need to type it in
               	the long format, followed by a backslash-space or dummy pair of
               	curly braces if it comes at the end of a word and there is no
               	punctuation, because of the rule that <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> control
               	sequences which end in a letter (see <a href="chapter2.html#swallow">the first paragraph  in section 2.4.1</a>) always absorb any following space.  So
               	what you might see as <cite>R&iacute;
                  	  Teamhra&#267;</cite> has to be <code class="literal">R\'\i\
                  	  Tea\.mra\.c</code> when typed in full (there are not
               	usually any keyboard keys for the dotless-&#305; or the
               	lenited characters). A similar rule applies to dotless-<span style="font-family:Times; ">j</span> and to uppercase
               	&Iacute;.
            </p>
            <ol class="footnotes" start="7">
               <li><a name="F15">ISO 8859-1 (Latin&#8211;1, Western European) to
                     	    8859-15 (includes the Euro).</a></li>
               <li><a name="F16">We haven't covered the use of
                     	    packages yet. Don't worry, see <a href="chapter5.html#packages">section 5.1</a>
                     	    if you're curious.</a></li>
               <li><a name="F17">Remember not everyone is lucky enough to be able to
                     	    install new software: many users on corporate and academic
                     	    networks still have to use old versions of <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> because
                     	    their system administrators are too busy to
                     	    install new ones.</a></li>
            </ol>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8 <a name="handj">Dimensions, hyphenation, justification, and breaking</a></h2><a name="I23"></a><a name="I24"></a><a name="I25"></a><p><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>'s internal measurement system is
               	extraordinarily accurate. The underlying <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> engine
               	conducts all its business in units smaller than the wavelength
               	of visible light, so if you ask for 15mm space, that's
               	what you'll get&nbsp;&#8212; within the limitations of your
               	screen or printer, of course. Most screens cannot show
               	dimensions of less than
               <span class="math">1/96</span>&#8243; without resorting to magnification
               	or scaling; and on printers, even at 600dpi, fine oblique
               	lines or curves can still sometimes be seen to stagger the
               	dots.
            </p>
            <p>At the same time, many dimensions in <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>'s
               	preprogrammed formatting are specially set up to be flexible:
               	so much space, plus or minus certain limits to allow the
               	system to make its own adjustments to accommodate variations
               	like overlong lines, unevenly-sized images, and non-uniform
               	spacing around headings.
            </p>
            <p><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> uses a very sophisticated
               justification algorithm to achieve a smooth, even texture to
               normal paragraph text. The programming for this has been
               borrowed by a large number of other DTP systems, and users of
               these are often quite unaware that they are in fact using a
               significant part of <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> in their work.
               Occasionally, however, you will need to hand-correct an
               unusual word-break or line-break, and there are facilities for
               doing this on individual occasions as well as throughout a
               document.
            </p>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8.1 <a name="dimensions">Specifying size units</a></h3><a name="I27"></a><a name="I28"></a><p>Most people in printing and publishing habitually use
                  points and picas and ems. Some designers use cm and mm. Many
                  English-language speakers still use inches. You can specify
                  lengths in <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> in any of these units, plus some others
                  (see <a href="chapter2.html#units">Table 2.1</a>).
               </p><a name="I29"></a><a name="I30"></a><a name="I31"></a><a name="I32"></a><a name="I33"></a><a name="I34"></a><a name="I35"></a><a name="I36"></a><a name="I37"></a><a name="I38"></a><a name="I39"></a><a name="I40"></a><a name="I41"></a><div align="center" class="table">
                  <table>
                     <caption><i>Table 2.1</i>.&nbsp;<a name="units">Units in <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span></a></caption>
                     <tr class="headfoot">
                        <th valign="bottom" align="left">Unit</th>
                        <th valign="bottom" align="left" width="576">Size</th>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left"><b><i></i></b></td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style=""><b><i>Printers' fixed measures</i></b></td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">pt</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">Anglo-American standard points (72.27 to the
                           inch)
                        </td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">pc</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">pica ems (12pt)</td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">bp</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">Adobe &#8216;big&#8217; points (72
                           to the inch)
                        </td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">sp</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style=""><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span>&nbsp;&#8216;scaled&#8217; points
                           (65,536 to the pt)
                        </td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">dd</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">Didot (European standard) points (67.54 to the
                           inch)
                        </td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">cc</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">Ciceros (European pica ems, 12dd)</td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left"><b><i></i></b></td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style=""><b><i>Printers' relative measures</i></b></td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">em</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">ems of the current point size (historically the
                           width of a letter &#8216;M&#8217; but see
                           below)
                        </td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">ex</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">x-height of the current font (height of letter
                           &#8216;x&#8217;)
                        </td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left"><b><i></i></b></td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style=""><b><i>Other measures</i></b></td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">cm</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">centimeters (2.54 to the inch)</td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">mm</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">millimeters (25.4 to the inch)</td>
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td valign="top" align="left">in</td>
                        <td valign="top" width="576" align="left" style="">inches</td>
                     </tr>
                  </table>
               </div>
               <p>The em can cause beginners some puzzlement because
                  it's based on the &#8216;point size&#8217;
                  of the type, which is itself misleading. The point size
                  refers to the depth of the metal body on which foundry type
                  was cast in the days of metal typesetting,
                  <em>not</em> the printed height of the letters
                  themselves. Thus the letter-size of 10pt type in one face
                  can be radically different from 10pt type in another (look
                  at <a href="chapter8.html#fontable-adobe">the table  in section 8.2</a>, where all the examples are
                  10pt). An em is the height of the type-body in a specific size,
                  so 1em of 10pt type is 10pt and 1em of 24pt type is
                  24pt.
               </p>
               <p>Another name for a 1em space is a
                  	  &#8216;quad&#8217;, and <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> has a command
                  	  <code class="command"><a name="c23">\quad</a></code> for leaving exactly that much
                  	  horizontal space.  A special name is given to the 12pt em, a
                  	  &#8216;pica&#8217; em, as it has become a fixed
                  	  measure in its own right.
               </p>
               <p>If you are working with other DTP users, watch out for
                  those who think that Adobe points (bp) are the only ones.
                  The difference is only .27pt per inch, but in 10&#8243; of
                  text (a full page of A4) that's 2.7pt, which is nearly
                  1mm, enough to be clearly visible if you're trying to
                  align one sample with another.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8.2 <a name="hyph">Hyphenation</a></h3>
               <p><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> hyphenates automatically according to the
                  language you use (see <a href="chapter2.html#langs">section 2.8.6</a>). To specify
                  different breakpoints for an individual word, you can insert
                  soft-hyphens<a name="I42"></a> (discretionary hyphens, done with
                  <code class="command"><a name="c24">\-</a></code>) wherever you need them, for
                  example:
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
When in Mexico, we visited Popoca\-t&eacute;petl by helicopter.
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>To specify hyphenation points for all occurrences of a
                  word, use the <code class="command"><a name="c25">\hyphenation</a></code> command in your
                  preamble (see <a href="chapter3.html#preamble">the panel &#8216;The Preamble&#8217; in section 3.4</a>) with one or more
                  words in its argument, separated by spaces.  This will even
                  let you break &#8216;helico-<br>pter&#8217; correctly. In this command
                  you use normal hyphens, not soft-hyphens.<a name="I43"></a></p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\hyphenation{helico-pter Popoca-t&eacute;petl 
im-mer-sion}
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>If you have frequent hyphenation problems with long,
                  unusual, or technical words, ask an expert about changing
                  the value of <tt>\<a name="d8">spaceskip</a></tt>,
                  which controls the flexibility of the space between words.
                  This is not something you would normally want to do, as it
                  can change the appearance of your document quite
                  significantly.
               </p>
               <p>If you are using a lot of unbreakable text (see next
                  section and also <a href="chapter6.html#inlineverb">section 6.6.1</a>) it may also
                  cause justification problems. One possible solution to this
                  is shown in <a href="chapter9.html#macargs">section 9.3</a>.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8.3 Unbreakable text
               </h3>
               <p>To force <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> to treat a word as unbreakable, use
                  	  the <code class="command"><a name="c26">\mbox</a></code> command:
                  	  <code class="literal">\mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}</code>. 
                  	  <br>This may have undesirable results, however, if
                  	  you change margins or the width of the text:
                  	  
                  <nobr>pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis</nobr>...
               </p>
               <p>To tie two words together with an unbreakable
                  space<a name="I44"></a><a name="I45"></a> (hard space), use a tilde (<code class="literal">~</code>)
                  instead of the space (see <a href="chapter2.html#tilde">the item &#8216;&#732;&#8217; in section 2.5.1</a>). This
                  will print as a normal space but
                  <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> will never break the line at that point. You should
                  make this standard typing practice for things like
                  people's initials followed by their surname, as in
                  Prof. D.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Knuth:
                  <code class="literal">Prof.\ D.~E.~Knuth</code>.
               </p>
               <blockquote class="warning"><a name=""></a><p><img src="warning.png" align="left" alt="!!!">Note that a full point after a lowercase letter is
                     treated as the end of a sentence, and creates more space
                     before the next word. Here, after
                     &#8216;Prof.&#8217;, it's
                     <em>not</em> the end of a sentence, and the
                     backslash-space forces <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> to insert just an ordinary
                     word-space because it's OK to break the line after
                     &#8216;Prof.&#8217;, whereas it would look
                     wrong to have initials separated with Prof.&nbsp;D.<br>E.&nbsp;Knuth broken over a line-end.
                  </p>
               </blockquote>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8.4 Dashes
               </h3>
               <p>For a long dash&nbsp;&#8212; what printers call an
                  &#8216;em rule&#8217; like this&nbsp;&#8212; use three
                  hyphens typed together, <code class="literal">like~--- this</code>,
                  and bind them to the preceding word with a tilde to avoid
                  the line being broken before the dash. It's also common
                  to see the dash printed without spaces&#8212;like that: the
                  difference is purely &aelig;sthetic. <em>Never</em>
                  use a single hyphen for this purpose.
               </p>
               <p>Between digits like page ranges (35&#8211;47), it is
                  normal to use the short dash (what printers call an en-rule)
                  which you get by typing two hyphens together, as in
                  <code class="literal">35--47</code>. If you want a minus sign, use math
                  mode (<a href="chapter2.html#math">section 2.9</a>).
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8.5 Justification
               </h3>
               <p>The default mode for typesetting is justified (two
                  parallel margins, with word-spacing adjusted automatically
                  for the best optical fit). In justifying, <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> will never
                  add space between letters, only between words. There is a
                  special package called <span class="package"><a name="m7">so</a></span>
                  (&#8216;space-out&#8217;) if you need special
                  effects like letter-spacing, but these are best left to the
                  expert.
               </p>
               <p>There are two commands
                  <code class="command"><a name="c27">\raggedright</a></code> and
                  <code class="command"><a name="c28">\raggedleft</a></code> which set ragged-right (ranged
                  left) and ragged-left (ranged right). Use them inside a
                  group (see <a href="chapter8.html#grouping">the panel &#8216;Grouping&#8217; in section 8.2.2</a>) to confine their
                  action to a part of your text.
               </p>
               <p align="right">These modes also exist as
                  &#8216;environments&#8217; (see <a href="chapter3.html#environments">the last paragraph  in section 3.2</a>) called
                  <span class="environment"><a name="e2">raggedright</a></span> and
                  <span class="environment"><a name="e3">raggedleft</a></span> which are more convenient
                  when applying this formatting to a whole paragraph or more,
                  like this one.
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\begin{raggedleft} 
These modes also exist as environments called raggedright 
and raggedleft which is more convenient when applying this 
formatting to a whole paragraph or more, like this one.
\end{raggedleft}
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>Ragged setting turns off hyphenation. There is a package
                  	  <span class="package"><a name="m8">ragged2e</a></span> which retains hyphenation
                  	  in ragged setting, useful when you have a lot of long
                  	  words.
               </p>
            </div>
            <div class="sect2">
               <h3><a href="#doctoc"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.8.6 <a name="langs">Languages</a></h3>
               <p><span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> can typeset in the native manner for several
                  dozen languages. This affects hyphenation, word-spacing,
                  indentation, and the names of the parts of documents used as
                  headings (e.g.&nbsp;Table of Contents).
               </p>
               <p>Most distributions of <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> come with US English and
                  one or more other languages installed by default, but it is
                  easy to add the <span class="package"><a name="m9">babel</a></span> package and
                  specify any of the supported languages or variants, for
                  example:
               </p>
               <blockquote><pre>
\usepackage[frenchb]{babel}
...
\selectlanguage{frenchb}
        </pre></blockquote>
               <p>Changing the language with
                  <span class="package"><a name="m10">babel</a></span> automatically changes the
                  names of the structural units and identifiers like
                  &#8216;Abstract&#8217;,
                  &#8216;Index&#8217;, etc.&nbsp;to their
                  translated version. For example, using French as above,
                  chapters will start with
                  &#8216;<i>Chapitre</i>&#8217;.<sup><a href="#F18">10</a></sup></p>
               <ol class="footnotes" start="10">
                  <li><a name="F18">Note that the <span class="package"><a name="m11">babel</a></span> package
                        	      also sets the hyphenation patterns <em>provided
                           		your version of <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> has them
                           		precompiled</em> (see the start of your log
                        	      files for a list). For other languages you need to set
                        	      the hyphenation separately (outside the scope of this
                        	      book).</a></li>
               </ol>
            </div>
         </div>
         <div class="sect1">
            <h2><a href="#plaintext"><img src="up.png" title="Chapter Contents" width="32" alt="ToC" align="right" border="0"></a>2.9 <a name="math">Mathematics</a></h2><a name="I46"></a><p>As explained in <a href="preface.html#mathtex">the text in the Preface</a>, <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> was
               originally written to automate the typesetting of books
               containing mathematics. The careful reader will already have
               noticed that mathematics is handled differently from normal
               text, which is why it has to be typeset specially. This
               document does not cover mathematical typesetting, which is
               explained in detail in many other books and Web pages, so all
               we will cover here is the existence of the math mode commands,
               and some characters which have special meaning, so they
               don't trip you up elsewhere.
            </p>
            <p>In addition to the 10 special characters listed in <a href="chapter2.html#specials">section 2.5</a>, there are three more characters which
               only have any meaning inside mathematics mode:<a name="I47"></a></p>
            <div align="center">
               <table>
                  <tr class="headfoot">
                     <th valign="bottom" align="center">Key</th>
                     <th valign="bottom" align="left">Meaning</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">|</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Vertical bar</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">&lt;</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Less-than</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                     <td valign="top" align="center"><tt class="keycap">&gt;</tt></td>
                     <td valign="top" align="left">Greater-than</td>
                  </tr>
               </table>
            </div>
            <p>If you type any of these in normal text (ie outside math
               	mode), you will get very weird things happening and lots of
               	error messages. If you need to print these characters, you
               	<em>must</em> type them using math mode, or use
               	their symbolic names from the <span class="environment"><a name="e4">textcomp</a></span>
               	package (<code class="command"><a name="c29">\textbrokenbar</a></code>,
               	<code class="command"><a name="c30">\textlangle</a></code>, and
               	<code class="command"><a name="c31">\textrangle</a></code>).
            </p>
            <p>The hyphen also has an extra meaning in math mode: it
               typesets as a minus sign, so if you want to write about
               negative numbers you need to type the number in math mode so
               the minus sign and the spacing come out right.
            </p>
            <p>To use math mode within a paragraph, enclose your math
               expression in <code class="command"><a name="c32">\(</a></code> and <code class="command"><a name="c33">\)</a></code>
               commands. You can get the much-quoted equation
               <span class="math"><i>E=mc</i><sup>2</sup></span> by typing
               <code class="literal">\(E=mc^2\)</code>, and to get a temperature like
               &#8722;30&deg; you need to type
               <code class="literal">\(-30\)&deg;</code>.<sup><a href="#F19">11</a></sup></p>
            <p>To typeset a math expression as &#8216;displayed
               math&#8217; (centered between paragraphs), enclose it
               in the commands <code class="command"><a name="c35">\[</a></code> and
               <code class="command"><a name="c36">\]</a></code>.<sup><a href="#F20">12</a></sup></p>
            <blockquote class="example"><pre>
\[\bar n^*_j(s)=\frac{\left\{s\sum_{i=1}^k
n_i(0)p^*{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\}\sum_{i=1}^k
p_{0i}p^*{ij}(s)}{1-s\sum_{i=1}^kp_{0i}p^*_{i,
k+1}(s)}+\sum_{i=1}^kn_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)[j=
1,2,\dots,k].\]
        </pre><p class="example"><img src="math.png" width="75%"></p>
            </blockquote>
            <p>Displayed equations can be auto-numbered with the
               <span class="environment"><a name="e5">equation</a></span> environment instead of the
               <code class="command"><a name="c41">\[</a></code> and <code class="command"><a name="c42">\]</a></code> commands.
            </p>
            <ol class="footnotes" start="11">
               <li><a name="F19">Bear in mind that the degree symbol is a non-<small><a href="chapter2.html#ASCII" class="acroref" name="A79" title="American Standard Code for Information Interchange">ASCII</a></small> character, so you must specify
                     what input encoding you are using if you want to type it:
                     see the example of the <span class="package"><a name="m12">inputenc</a></span>
                     package in <a href="chapter2.html#accents">section 2.7</a>. If you don't
                     want to use non-<small><a href="chapter2.html#ASCII" class="acroref" name="A80" title="American Standard Code for Information Interchange">ASCII</a></small> characters
                     (or if you are using a system which cannot generate them),
                     you can use the command <code class="command"><a name="c34">\textdegree</a></code> to
                     get the degree sign.</a></li>
               <li><a name="F20">You will also see dollar signs used for math mode.
                     This is quite common but deprecated: it's what plain
                     <span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span> used in the days before <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span>, and the habit got
                     ingrained in many mathematicians. It still works as a
                     convenient shorthand like <code class="literal">$x=y$</code>, as do
                     double-dollars for display-mode math like
                     <code class="literal">$$E=mc^2$$</code>, but they are only mentioned
                     here to warn readers seeing them in other authors'
                     work that <code class="command"><a name="c37">\(</a></code>...<code class="command"><a name="c38">\)</a></code>
                     and <code class="command"><a name="c39">\[</a></code>...<code class="command"><a name="c40">\]</a></code> are
                     the proper <span class="LATEX">L<span class="A">A</span><span class="TEX">T<span class="E">E</span>X</span></span> commands.</a></li>
            </ol>
         </div>
      </div>
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