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diff --git a/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt b/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt
index e0acffde016..bfb0410d602 100644
--- a/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt
+++ b/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt
@@ -1,17 +1,252 @@
LaTeX2e
+1 About this document
+2 Overview of LaTeX
+3 Starting & ending
+4 Document classes
+5 Typefaces
+6 Layout
+7 Sectioning
+8 Cross references
+9 Environments
+10 Line breaking
+11 Page breaking
+12 Footnotes
+13 Definitions
+14 Counters
+15 Lengths
+16 Making paragraphs
+17 Math formulas
+18 Modes
+19 Page styles
+20 Spaces
+21 Boxes
+22 Special insertions
+23 Splitting the input
+24 Front/back matter
+25 Letters
+26 Terminal input/output
+27 Command line
+Appendix A Document templates
+Concept Index
+Command Index
+LaTeX2e
+1 About this document
+2 Overview of LaTeX
+3 Starting & ending
+4 Document classes
+ 4.1 Document class options
+5 Typefaces
+ 5.1 Font styles
+ 5.2 Font sizes
+ 5.3 Low-level font commands
+6 Layout
+ 6.1 '\onecolumn'
+ 6.2 '\twocolumn'
+ 6.3 '\flushbottom'
+ 6.4 '\raggedbottom'
+ 6.5 Page layout parameters
+7 Sectioning
+8 Cross references
+ 8.1 '\label'
+ 8.2 '\pageref{KEY}'
+ 8.3 '\ref{KEY}'
+9 Environments
+ 9.1 'abstract'
+ 9.2 'array'
+ 9.3 'center'
+ 9.3.1 '\centering'
+ 9.4 'description'
+ 9.5 'displaymath'
+ 9.6 'document'
+ 9.7 'enumerate'
+ 9.8 'eqnarray'
+ 9.9 'equation'
+ 9.10 'figure'
+ 9.11 'flushleft'
+ 9.11.1 '\raggedright'
+ 9.12 'flushright'
+ 9.12.1 '\raggedleft'
+ 9.13 'itemize'
+ 9.14 'letter' environment: writing letters
+ 9.15 'list'
+ 9.16 'math'
+ 9.17 'minipage'
+ 9.18 'picture'
+ 9.18.1 '\circle'
+ 9.18.2 '\makebox'
+ 9.18.3 '\framebox'
+ 9.18.4 '\dashbox'
+ 9.18.5 '\frame'
+ 9.18.6 '\line'
+ 9.18.7 '\linethickness'
+ 9.18.8 '\thicklines'
+ 9.18.9 '\thinlines'
+ 9.18.10 '\multiput'
+ 9.18.11 '\oval'
+ 9.18.12 '\put'
+ 9.18.13 '\shortstack'
+ 9.18.14 '\vector'
+ 9.19 'quotation'
+ 9.20 'quote'
+ 9.21 'tabbing'
+ 9.22 'table'
+ 9.23 'tabular'
+ 9.23.1 '\multicolumn'
+ 9.23.2 '\cline'
+ 9.23.3 '\hline'
+ 9.23.4 '\vline'
+ 9.24 'thebibliography'
+ 9.24.1 '\bibitem'
+ 9.24.2 '\cite'
+ 9.24.3 '\nocite'
+ 9.24.4 Using BibTeX
+ 9.25 'theorem'
+ 9.26 'titlepage'
+ 9.27 'verbatim'
+ 9.27.1 '\verb'
+ 9.28 'verse'
+10 Line breaking
+ 10.1 '\\'[*][MORESPACE]
+ 10.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr'
+ 10.3 '\newline'
+ 10.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen)
+ 10.5 '\fussy'
+ 10.6 '\sloppy'
+ 10.7 '\hyphenation'
+ 10.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak'
+11 Page breaking
+ 11.1 '\cleardoublepage'
+ 11.2 '\clearpage'
+ 11.3 '\newpage'
+ 11.4 '\enlargethispage'
+ 11.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak'
+12 Footnotes
+ 12.1 '\footnote'
+ 12.2 '\footnotemark'
+ 12.3 '\footnotetext'
+ 12.4 Symbolic footnotes
+ 12.5 Footnote parameters
+13 Definitions
+ 13.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand'
+ 13.2 '\newcounter'
+ 13.3 '\newlength'
+ 13.4 '\newsavebox'
+ 13.5 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment'
+ 13.6 '\newtheorem'
+ 13.7 '\newfont'
+ 13.8 '\protect'
+14 Counters
+ 14.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
+ 14.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}'
+ 14.3 '\value{COUNTER}'
+ 14.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
+ 14.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
+ 14.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'
+ 14.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}'
+ 14.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters
+15 Lengths
+ 15.1 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}'
+ 15.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}
+ 15.3 '\settodepth'
+ 15.4 '\settoheight'
+ 15.5 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}'
+ 15.6 Predefined lengths
+16 Making paragraphs
+ 16.1 '\indent'
+ 16.2 '\noindent'
+ 16.3 '\parskip'
+ 16.4 Marginal notes
+17 Math formulas
+ 17.1 Subscripts & superscripts
+ 17.2 Math symbols
+ 17.3 Math functions
+ 17.4 Math accents
+ 17.5 Spacing in math mode
+ 17.6 Math miscellany
+18 Modes
+19 Page styles
+ 19.1 '\maketitle'
+ 19.2 '\pagenumbering'
+ 19.3 '\pagestyle'
+ 19.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}'
+20 Spaces
+ 20.1 '\hspace'
+ 20.2 '\hfill'
+ 20.3 '\SPACE'
+ 20.4 '\@'
+ 20.5 '\thinspace'
+ 20.6 '\/'
+ 20.7 '\hrulefill'
+ 20.8 '\dotfill'
+ 20.9 '\addvspace'
+ 20.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip'
+ 20.11 '\vfill'
+ 20.12 '\vspace[*]{LENGTH}'
+21 Boxes
+ 21.1 '\mbox{TEXT}'
+ 21.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox'
+ 21.3 'lrbox'
+ 21.4 '\makebox'
+ 21.5 '\parbox'
+ 21.6 '\raisebox'
+ 21.7 '\savebox'
+ 21.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}'
+ 21.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD'
+22 Special insertions
+ 22.1 Reserved characters
+ 22.2 Text symbols
+ 22.3 Accents
+ 22.4 Non-English characters
+ 22.5 '\rule'
+ 22.6 '\today'
+23 Splitting the input
+ 23.1 '\include'
+ 23.2 \'includeonly'
+ 23.3 \input
+24 Front/back matter
+ 24.1 Tables of contents
+ 24.1.1 \addcontentsline
+ 24.1.2 \addtocontents
+ 24.2 Glossaries
+ 24.3 Indexes
+25 Letters
+ 25.1 \address{RETURN-ADDRESS}
+ 25.2 '\cc'
+ 25.3 '\closing'
+ 25.4 '\encl'
+ 25.5 '\location'
+ 25.6 '\makelabels'
+ 25.7 '\name'
+ 25.8 '\opening{TEXT}'
+ 25.9 '\ps'
+ 25.10 '\signature{TEXT}'
+ 25.11 '\startbreaks'
+ 25.12 '\stopbreaks'
+ 25.13 '\telephone'
+26 Terminal input/output
+ 26.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}'
+ 26.2 '\typeout{MSG}'
+27 Command line
+Appendix A Document templates
+ A.1 'book' template
+ A.2 'beamer' template
+ A.3 'tugboat' template
+Concept Index
+Command Index
+LaTeX2e
*******
This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document
-preparation system, version as of May 2011. It is intended to cover
+preparation system, version as of May 2012. It is intended to cover
LaTeX2e, which has been the standard version of LaTeX for many years.
-1 Overview of LaTeX
-*******************
+1 About this document
+*********************
The LaTeX document preparation system is implemented as a macro package
for Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program. LaTeX was originally
created by Leslie Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers
-(`http://latex-project.org'). The official documentation written by the
+('http://latex-project.org'). The official documentation written by the
LaTeX project is available from their web site.
The present document is completely unofficial and has not been
@@ -19,10 +254,22 @@ reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything
else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to
<latexrefman-discuss@gna.org>.
- The home page for this document is `http://home.gna.org/latexrefman'.
+ The home page for this document is 'http://home.gna.org/latexrefman'.
That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources,
mailing lists, and other infrastructure.
+ Of course, there are many, many other sources of information about
+LaTeX. Here are a few:
+
+ Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.
+
+ Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.
+
+ The guide for document authors maintained as part of LaTeX; there
+ are several others.
+
+ Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX.
+
2 Overview of LaTeX
*******************
@@ -37,44 +284,44 @@ output:
1. The main output file, which is one of:
- `.dvi'
- If invoked as `latex', a "Device Independent" (`.dvi') file is
+ '.dvi'
+ If invoked as 'latex', a "Device Independent" ('.dvi') file is
produced. This contains commands that can be translated into
commands for virtually any output device. You can view such
- `.dvi' output of LaTeX by using a program such as `xdvi'
- (display directly), `dvips' (convert to PostScript), or
- `dvipdfmx' (convert to PDF).
+ '.dvi' output of LaTeX by using a program such as 'xdvi'
+ (display directly), 'dvips' (convert to PostScript), or
+ 'dvipdfmx' (convert to PDF).
- `.pdf'
- If invoked as `pdflatex', a "Portable Document Format"
- (`.pdf') file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with
+ '.pdf'
+ If invoked as 'pdflatex', a "Portable Document Format"
+ ('.pdf') file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with
all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but
- it does make the output much larger than the `.dvi' produced
+ it does make the output much larger than the '.dvi' produced
from the same document.
- If invoked as `lualatex', a `.pdf' file is created using the
- LuaTeX engine (`http://luatex.org').
+ If invoked as 'lualatex', a '.pdf' file is created using the
+ LuaTeX engine ('http://luatex.org').
- If invoked as `xelatex', a `.pdf' file is created using the
- XeTeX engine (`http://tug.org/xetex').
+ If invoked as 'xelatex', a '.pdf' file is created using the
+ XeTeX engine ('http://tug.org/xetex').
Many other less-common variants of LaTeX (and TeX) exist, which can
produce HTML, XML, and other things.
- 2. The "transcript" or `.log' file that contains summary information
+ 2. The "transcript" or '.log' file that contains summary information
and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input
file.
- 3. An "auxiliary" or `.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for
+ 3. An "auxiliary" or '.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for
things such as cross-references.
An open-ended list of other files might be created. We won't try to
list them all. Xxx components?
- In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a `\', followed
+ In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a '\', followed
by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. Arguments
-contained in square brackets, `[]', are optional while arguments
-contained in braces, `{}', are required.
+contained in square brackets, '[]', are optional while arguments
+contained in braces, '{}', are required.
LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless
explicitly directed to do otherwise.
@@ -93,8 +340,8 @@ where the CLASS is a valid document class for LaTeX. *Note Document
classes::, for details of the various document classes available
locally.
- You may include other LaTeX commands between the `\documentclass' and
-the `\begin{document}' commands (this area is called the "preamble").
+ You may include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and
+the '\begin{document}' commands (this area is called the "preamble").
4 Document classes
******************
@@ -103,7 +350,7 @@ The class of a given document is defined with the command:
\documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS}
-The `\documentclass' command must be the first command in a LaTeX source
+The '\documentclass' command must be the first command in a LaTeX source
file.
Built-in LaTeX document CLASS names are (many other document classes
@@ -117,71 +364,66 @@ are available as add-ons; *note Overview::):
==========================
You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the
-`\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual.
+'\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual.
To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma:
\documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS}
Here is the list of the standard class options.
- All of the standard classes except `slides' accept the following
-options for selecting the typeface size (default is `10pt'):
+ All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following
+options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'):
10pt 11pt 12pt
All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the
-paper size (default is `letterpaper'):
+paper size (default is 'letterpaper'):
a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper
Miscellaneous other options:
-`draft, final'
+'draft, final'
mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is
- `final'.
-
-`fleqn'
+ 'final'.
+'fleqn'
Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
-
-`landscape'
+'landscape'
Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
-
-`leqno'
+'leqno'
Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the
right side.
-
-`openbib'
+'openbib'
Use "open" bibliography format.
-
-`titlepage, notitlepage'
+'titlepage, notitlepage'
Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on
the class.
These options are not available with the slides class:
-`onecolumn'
-`twocolumn'
- Typeset in one or two columns; default is `onecolumn'.
+'onecolumn'
+'twocolumn'
+ Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'.
-`oneside'
-`twoside'
- Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is `oneside', except for
- the `book' class.
+'oneside'
+'twoside'
+ Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except for
+ the 'book' class.
- The `\evensidemargin' (`\oddsidemargin' parameter determines the
+ The '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin' parameter determines the
distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the
page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper
size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For
one-sided printing the text is centered, for two-sided,
- `\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between `\paperwidth' and
- `\textwidth', with `\evensidemargin' the remainder.
+ '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and
+ '\textwidth', with '\evensidemargin' the remainder.
-`openright'
-`openany'
+'openright'
+'openany'
Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default
- is `openright' for book.
+ is 'openright' for book.
- The `slides' class offers the option `clock' for printing the time at
+ The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at
the bottom of each note.
Additional packages are loaded like this:
@@ -189,11 +431,11 @@ the bottom of each note.
\usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}
To specify more than one PKG, you can separate them with a comma, or
-use multiple `\usepackage' commands.
+use multiple '\usepackage' commands.
- Any options given in the `\documentclass' command that are unknown by
+ Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown by
the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
-`\usepackage'.
+'\usepackage'.
5 Typefaces
***********
@@ -206,106 +448,96 @@ style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.
The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.
- These commands are used like `\textit{italic text}'. The
-corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration form", which
-takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the
-next type style command or the end of the current group.
+ This first group of commands is typically used like '\textit{italic
+text}'. The corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration
+form", which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form
+lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group.
The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either
-`\sffamily\bfseries' or `\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif.
+'\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif.
- You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for
-instance, `\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'.
+ You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations;
+for instance, '\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'.
-`\textrm (\rmfamily)'
+ These commands automatically supply an italic correction if the
+'\textrm (\rmfamily)'
Roman.
-`\textit (\itshape)'
+'\textit (\itshape)'
Italics.
-`\emph'
- Emphasis (switches between `\textit' and `\textrm').
+'\emph'
+ Emphasis (switches between '\textit' and '\textrm').
-`\textmd (\mdseries)'
+'\textmd (\mdseries)'
Medium weight (default).
-`\textbf (\bfseries)'
+'\textbf (\bfseries)'
Boldface.
-
-`\textup (\upshape)'
- Upright (default). The opposite of slanted.
-
-`\textsl (\slshape)'
+'\textup (\upshape)'
+ Upright (default). The opposite of slanted.
+'\textsl (\slshape)'
Slanted.
-
-`\textsf (\sffamily)'
+'\textsf (\sffamily)'
Sans serif.
-
-`\textsc (\scshape)'
+'\textsc (\scshape)'
Small caps.
-
-`\texttt (\ttfamily)'
+'\texttt (\ttfamily)'
Typewriter.
-
-`\textnormal (\normalfont)'
+'\textnormal (\normalfont)'
Main document font.
-
-`\mathrm'
+'\mathrm'
Roman, for use in math mode.
-
-`\mathbf'
+'\mathbf'
Boldface, for use in math mode.
-
-`\mathsf'
+'\mathsf'
Sans serif, for use in math mode.
-
-`\mathtt'
+'\mathtt'
Typewriter, for use in math mode.
-`\mathit'
-`(\mit)'
+'\mathit'
+'(\mit)'
Italics, for use in math mode.
-`\mathnormal'
- For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration.
-
-`\mathcal'
- `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode.
+'\mathnormal'
+ For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration.
+'\mathcal'
+ 'Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode.
- In addition, the command `\mathversion{bold}' can be used for
+ In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for
switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas.
-`\mathversion{normal}' restores the default.
+'\mathversion{normal}' restores the default.
LaTeX also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to
the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. They are used
-differently than the above commands, too: `{\CMD ...}' instead of
-`\CMD{...}'. These are two very different things.
+differently than the above commands, too: '{\CMD ...}' instead of
+'\CMD{...}'. These are two very different things.
-`\bf'
+'\bf'
Switch to bold face.
-`\cal'
+'\cal'
Switch to calligraphic letters for math.
-`\em'
+'\em'
Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics).
-`\it'
+'\it'
Italics.
-`\rm'
+'\rm'
Roman.
-`\sc'
+'\sc'
Small caps.
-`\sf'
+'\sf'
Sans serif.
-`\sl'
+'\sl'
Slanted (oblique).
-`\tt'
+'\tt'
Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
5.2 Font sizes
@@ -313,26 +545,26 @@ differently than the above commands, too: `{\CMD ...}' instead of
The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The
table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used
-(in points) with the `10pt', `11pt', and `12pt' document size options,
+(in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options,
respectively (*note Document class options::).
-Command `10pt' `11pt' `12pt'
+Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt'
--------------------------------------------------
-`\tiny' 5 6 6
-`\scriptsize' 7 8 8
-`\footnotesize' 8 9 10
-`\small' 9 10 10.95
-`\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12
-`\large' 12 12 14.4
-`\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28
-`\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74
-`\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88
-`\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88
-
- The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the
-declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of
-the current group. You can also use the environment form of these
-commands; for instance, `\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.
+'\tiny' 5 6 6
+'\scriptsize' 7 8 8
+'\footnotesize' 8 9 10
+'\small' 9 10 10.95
+'\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12
+'\large' 12 12 14.4
+'\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28
+'\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74
+'\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88
+'\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88
+
+ The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of
+the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end
+of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these
+commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.
5.3 Low-level font commands
===========================
@@ -341,238 +573,221 @@ These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
ones.
-`\fontencoding{enc}'
- Select font encoding. Valid encodings include `OT1' and `T1'.
-
-`\fontfamily{family}'
- Select font family. Valid families include:
+'\fontencoding{enc}'
+ Select font encoding. Valid encodings include 'OT1' and 'T1'.
- * `cmr' for Computer Modern Roman
+'\fontfamily{family}'
+ Select font family. Valid families include:
- * `cmss' for Computer Modern Sans Serif
-
- * `cmtt' for Computer Modern Typewriter
+ * 'cmr' for Computer Modern Roman
+ * 'cmss' for Computer Modern Sans Serif
+ * 'cmtt' for Computer Modern Typewriter
and numerous others.
-`\fontseries{series}'
- Select font series. Valid series include:
-
- * `m' Medium (normal)
+'\fontseries{series}'
+ Select font series. Valid series include:
- * `b' Bold
-
- * `c' Condensed
-
- * `bc' Bold condensed
-
- * `bx' Bold extended
+ * 'm' Medium (normal)
+ * 'b' Bold
+ * 'c' Condensed
+ * 'bc' Bold condensed
+ * 'bx' Bold extended
and various other combinations.
-`\fontshape{shape}'
- Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
-
- * `n' Upright (normal)
-
- * `it' Italic
-
- * `sl' Slanted (oblique)
+'\fontshape{shape}'
+ Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
- * `sc' Small caps
-
- * `ui' Upright italics
-
- * `ol' Outline
+ * 'n' Upright (normal)
+ * 'it' Italic
+ * 'sl' Slanted (oblique)
+ * 'sc' Small caps
+ * 'ui' Upright italics
+ * 'ol' Outline
The two last shapes are not available for most font families.
-`\fontsize{size}{skip}'
- Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to
+'\fontsize{size}{skip}'
+ Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to
and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a
- parameter named `\baselineskip'. The unit of both parameters
- defaults to pt. The default `\baselineskip' for the Computer
- Modern typeface is 1.2 times the `\fontsize'.
+ parameter named '\baselineskip'. The unit of both parameters
+ defaults to pt. The default '\baselineskip' for the Computer
+ Modern typeface is 1.2 times the '\fontsize'.
The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the
- `\baselinestretch' parameter when the type size changes; the
+ '\baselinestretch' parameter when the type size changes; the
default is 1. However, the best way to "double space" a document,
if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use
- the `setspace' package; see
- `http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace'.
+ the 'setspace' package; see
+ 'http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace'.
-`\linespread{FACTOR}'
- Equivalent to `\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and
- therefore must be followed by `\selectfont' to have any effect.
- Best specified in the preamble, or use the `setspace' package, as
+'\linespread{FACTOR}'
+ Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and
+ therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect.
+ Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as
described just above.
The changes made by calling the font commands described above do
- not come into effect until `\selectfont' is called.
+ not come into effect until '\selectfont' is called.
-`\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}'
- The same as invoking `\fontencoding', `\fontfamily', `\fontseries'
- and `\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by
- `\selectfont'.
+'\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}'
+ The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries'
+ and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by
+ '\selectfont'.
6 Layout
********
Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.
-6.1 `\onecolumn'
+6.1 '\onecolumn'
================
-The `\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
+The '\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output. This is the default.
-6.2 `\twocolumn'
+6.2 '\twocolumn'
================
Synopsis:
\twocolumn[TEXT1COL]
- The `\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
-two-column output. If the optional TEXT1COL argument is present, it is
+ The '\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
+two-column output. If the optional TEXT1COL argument is present, it is
typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.
These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
-`\columnsep'
+'\columnsep'
The distance between columns (35pt by default).
-`\columnseprule'
+'\columnseprule'
The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there
is no rule.
-`\columnwidth'
- The width of the current column; this is equal to `\textwidth' in
+'\columnwidth'
+ The width of the current column; this is equal to '\textwidth' in
single-column text.
These parameters control float behavior in two-column output:
-`\dbltopfraction'
+'\dbltopfraction'
Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be
- occupied by floats. Default `.7', can be usefully redefined to
- (say) `.9' to avoid going to float pages so soon.
+ occupied by floats. Default '.7', can be usefully redefined to
+ (say) '.9' to avoid going to float pages so soon.
-`\dblfloatpagefraction'
+'\dblfloatpagefraction'
The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by
- floats, for a two-column float page. Default `.5'.
+ floats, for a two-column float page. Default '.5'.
-`\dblfloatsep'
+'\dblfloatsep'
Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float
- page. Default `12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' and `11pt'
- documents, `14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for `12pt'.
+ page. Default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for '10pt' and '11pt'
+ documents, '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for '12pt'.
-`\dbltextfloatsep'
+'\dbltextfloatsep'
Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a
- page and the main text. Default `20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.
+ page and the main text. Default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.
-6.3 `\flushbottom'
+6.3 '\flushbottom'
==================
-The `\flushbottom' declaration makes all text pages the same height,
+The '\flushbottom' declaration makes all text pages the same height,
adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page.
- This is the default if `twocolumn' mode is selected (*note Document
+ This is the default if 'twocolumn' mode is selected (*note Document
class options::).
-6.4 `\raggedbottom'
+6.4 '\raggedbottom'
===================
-The `\raggedbottom' declaration makes all pages the natural height of
+The '\raggedbottom' declaration makes all pages the natural height of
the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched.
6.5 Page layout parameters
==========================
-`\headheight'
+'\headheight'
Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is
- `30pt', except in the `book' class, where it varies with the type
+ '30pt', except in the 'book' class, where it varies with the type
size.
-`\headsep'
+'\headsep'
Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top
- of the main text. Default is `25pt', except in the `book' class,
+ of the main text. Default is '25pt', except in the 'book' class,
where it varies with the type size.
-`\footskip'
+'\footskip'
Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline
- of the page footer. Default is `30pt', except in the `book' class,
+ of the page footer. Default is '30pt', except in the 'book' class,
where it varies with the type size.
-`\linewidth'
- Width of the current line, decreased for each nested `list' (*note
- list::). Specifically, it is smaller than `\textwidth' by the sum
- of `\leftmargin' and `\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). The default
+'\linewidth'
+ Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note
+ list::). Specifically, it is smaller than '\textwidth' by the sum
+ of '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). The default
varies with the font size, paper width, two-column mode, etc. For
- an `article' document in `10pt', it's set to `345pt'; in two-column
- mode, that becomes `229.5pt'.
+ an 'article' document in '10pt', it's set to '345pt'; in two-column
+ mode, that becomes '229.5pt'.
-`\textheight'
+'\textheight'
The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies
- with the font size, document class, etc. For an `article' or
- `report' document in `10pt', it's set to `43\baselineskip'; for
- `book', it's `41\baselineskip'. For `11pt', it's `38\baselineskip'
- and for `12pt', `36\baselineskip'.
+ with the font size, document class, etc. For an 'article' or
+ 'report' document in '10pt', it's set to '43\baselineskip'; for
+ 'book', it's '41\baselineskip'. For '11pt', it's '38\baselineskip'
+ and for '12pt', '36\baselineskip'.
-`\textwidth'
+'\textwidth'
The full horizontal width of the entire page body; the default
- varies as usual. For an `article' or `report' document, it's
- `345pt' at `10pt', `360pt' at `11pt', and `390pt' at `12pt'. For a
- `book' document, it's `4.5in' at `10pt', and `5in' at `11pt' or
- `12pt'.
+ varies as usual. For an 'article' or 'report' document, it's
+ '345pt' at '10pt', '360pt' at '11pt', and '390pt' at '12pt'. For a
+ 'book' document, it's '4.5in' at '10pt', and '5in' at '11pt' or
+ '12pt'.
- In multi-column output, `\textwidth' remains the width of the
- entire page body, while `\columnwidth' is the width of one column
+ In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the
+ entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column
(*note \twocolumn::).
- In lists (*note list::), `\textwidth' remains the width of the
- entire page body (and `\columnwidth' the width of the entire
- column), while `\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists.
+ In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the
+ entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire
+ column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists.
- Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or `\parbox' (*note
+ Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note
\parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the
specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of
- the `minipage' or `\parbox'.
+ the 'minipage' or '\parbox'.
- For completeness: `\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when
+ For completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when
text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX
documents.
-`\topmargin'
+'\topmargin'
Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the
paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is
- computed based on many other parameters: `\paperheight - 2in -
+ computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in -
\headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided
by two.
-`\topskip'
+'\topskip'
Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline
of the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is
- the same as the font size, e.g., `10pt' at `10pt'.
+ the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at '10pt'.
7 Sectioning
************
Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:
-`\part'
-
-`\chapter'
+'\part'
+'\chapter'
(report and book class only)
-
-`\section'
-
-`\subsection'
-
-`\subsubsection'
-
-`\paragraph'
-
-`\subparagraph'
+'\section'
+'\subsection'
+'\subsubsection'
+'\paragraph'
+'\subparagraph'
All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,
@@ -582,21 +797,20 @@ Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:
section title can appear in two other places:
1. The table of contents.
-
2. The running head at the top of the page.
You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text.
To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument
TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.
- Also, all sectioning commands have `*'-forms that print TITLE as
+ Also, all sectioning commands have '*'-forms that print TITLE as
usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table
of contents. For instance:
\section*{Preamble}
- The `\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are
-numbered. The `\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not
+ The '\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are
+numbered. The '\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not
affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is
something like
@@ -605,12 +819,12 @@ something like
\appendix
\chapter{The First Appendix}
- The `secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers. The
+ The 'secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers. The
setting
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL}
-suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where `chapter' is
+suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where 'chapter' is
level zero. (*Note \setcounter::.)
8 Cross references
@@ -619,14 +833,14 @@ level zero. (*Note \setcounter::.)
One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer
the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details."
-8.1 `\label'
+8.1 '\label'
============
Synopsis:
\label{KEY}
- A `\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the
+ A '\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the
number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered
environment assigns that number to KEY.
@@ -635,47 +849,43 @@ punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished.
To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is
common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a
-colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes:
+colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes:
-`ch'
+'ch'
for chapters
-
-`sec'
+'sec'
for lower-level sectioning commands
-
-`fig'
+'fig'
for figures
-
-`tab'
+'tab'
for tables
-
-`eq'
+'eq'
for equations
- Thus, a label for a figure would look like `fig:snark' or
-`fig.snark'.
+ Thus, a label for a figure would look like 'fig:snark' or
+'fig.snark'.
-8.2 `\pageref{KEY}'
+8.2 '\pageref{KEY}'
===================
Synopsis:
\pageref{KEY}
- The `\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in
-the text where the corresponding `\label'{KEY} command appears.
+ The '\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in
+the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears.
-8.3 `\ref{KEY}'
+8.3 '\ref{KEY}'
===============
Synopsis:
\ref{KEY}
- The `\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit,
-equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding `\label' command
+ The '\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit,
+equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command
(*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word
-`Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself.
+'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself.
9 Environments
**************
@@ -687,7 +897,7 @@ environment begins and ends in the same manner:
...
\end{ENVNAME}
-9.1 `abstract'
+9.1 'abstract'
==============
Synopsis:
@@ -698,7 +908,7 @@ Synopsis:
Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple
paragraphs.
-9.2 `array'
+9.2 'array'
===========
Synopsis:
@@ -708,25 +918,23 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{array}
- Math arrays are produced with the `array' environment, normally
-within an `equation' environment (*note equation::). It has a single
+ Math arrays are produced with the 'array' environment, normally
+within an 'equation' environment (*note equation::). It has a single
mandatory TEMPLATE argument describing the number of columns and the
alignment within them. Each column COL is specified by a single letter
that tells how items in that row should be formatted, as follows:
-`c'
+'c'
centered
-
-`l'
+'l'
flush left
-
-`r'
+'r'
flush right
- Column entries are separated by `&'. Column entries may include
-other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with `\\'.
+ Column entries are separated by '&'. Column entries may include
+other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with '\\'.
- In the template, the construct `@{TEXT}' puts TEXT between columns in
+ In the template, the construct '@{TEXT}' puts TEXT between columns in
each row.
Here's an example:
@@ -738,14 +946,14 @@ each row.
\end{array}
\end{equation}
- The `\arraycolsep' parameter defines half the width of the space
-separating columns; the default is `5pt'. *Note tabular::, for other
-parameters which affect formatting in `array' environments, namely
-`\arrayrulewidth' and `\arraystretch'.
+ The '\arraycolsep' parameter defines half the width of the space
+separating columns; the default is '5pt'. *Note tabular::, for other
+parameters which affect formatting in 'array' environments, namely
+'\arrayrulewidth' and '\arraystretch'.
- The `array' environment can only be used in math mode.
+ The 'array' environment can only be used in math mode.
-9.3 `center'
+9.3 'center'
============
Synopsis:
@@ -755,23 +963,23 @@ Synopsis:
LINE2 \\
\end{center}
- The `center' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting
+ The 'center' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting
of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the
-current page. Each line is terminated with the string `\\'.
+current page. Each line is terminated with the string '\\'.
-9.3.1 `\centering'
+9.3.1 '\centering'
------------------
-The `\centering' declaration corresponds to the `center' environment.
-This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote' or in
-a `parbox'. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the
-page by putting a `\centering' command at the beginning of the figure or
+The '\centering' declaration corresponds to the 'center' environment.
+This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in
+a 'parbox'. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the
+page by putting a '\centering' command at the beginning of the figure or
table environment.
- Unlike the `center' environment, the `\centering' command does not
+ Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not
start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
-declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command (of an
+declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command (of an
environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
Here's an example:
@@ -782,7 +990,7 @@ environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
second line \\
\end{quote}
-9.4 `description'
+9.4 'description'
=================
Synopsis:
@@ -793,19 +1001,19 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{description}
- The `description' environment is used to make labelled lists. Each
+ The 'description' environment is used to make labelled lists. Each
LABEL is typeset in bold, flush right. The ITEM text may contain
multiple paragraphs.
Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if
-you typeset a label in typewriter using `\texttt', you'll get bold
-typewriter: `\item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]'. This may be too
-bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use `\tt', which
-resets all other style variations: `\item[{\tt plain typewriter}]'.
+you typeset a label in typewriter using '\texttt', you'll get bold
+typewriter: '\item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]'. This may be too
+bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use '\tt', which
+resets all other style variations: '\item[{\tt plain typewriter}]'.
For details about list spacing, see *note itemize::.
-9.5 `displaymath'
+9.5 'displaymath'
=================
Synopsis:
@@ -818,20 +1026,20 @@ or
\[MATH\]
- The `displaymath' environment (`\[...\]' is a synonym) typesets the
-MATH text on its own line, centered by default. The global `fleqn'
+ The 'displaymath' environment ('\[...\]' is a synonym) typesets the
+MATH text on its own line, centered by default. The global 'fleqn'
option makes equations flush left; see *note Document class options::.
- No equation number is added to `displaymath' text; to get an equation
-number, use the `equation' environment (*note equation::).
+ No equation number is added to 'displaymath' text; to get an equation
+number, use the 'equation' environment (*note equation::).
-9.6 `document'
+9.6 'document'
==============
-The `document' environment encloses the body of a document. It is
+The 'document' environment encloses the body of a document. It is
required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting & ending::.
-9.7 `enumerate'
+9.7 'enumerate'
===============
Synopsis:
@@ -842,63 +1050,69 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{enumerate}
- The `enumerate' environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
+ The 'enumerate' environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
-be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as `itemize'
-(*note itemize::) and `description' (*note description::).
+be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'itemize'
+(*note itemize::) and 'description' (*note description::).
- Each item of an enumerated list begins with an `\item' command.
-There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment.
+ Each item of an enumerated list begins with an '\item' command.
+There must be at least one '\item' command within the environment.
By default, the numbering at each level is done like this:
1. 1., 2., ...
-
2. (a), (b), ...
-
3. i., ii., ...
-
4. A., B., ...
- The `enumerate' environment uses the counters `\enumi' through
-`\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::). If the optional argument to
-`\item' is given, the counter is not incremented for that item.
+ The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through
+'\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::). If the optional argument to
+'\item' is given, the counter is not incremented for that item.
- The `enumerate' environment uses the commands `\labelenumi' through
-`\labelenumiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use
-`\renewcommand' to change the labels (*note \newcommand &
+ The 'enumerate' environment uses the commands '\labelenumi' through
+'\labelenumiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use
+'\renewcommand' to change the labels (*note \newcommand &
\renewcommand::). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase
letters:
\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}
-9.8 `eqnarray'
+9.8 'eqnarray'
==============
- \begin{eqnarray} (or `eqnarray*')
+First, a caveat: the 'eqnarray' environment has some infelicities which
+cannot be overcome; the article "Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen
+describes them in detail
+('http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf'). The bottom line is
+that it is better to use the 'align' environment (and others) from the
+'amsmath' package.
+
+ Nevertheless, here is a description of 'eqnarray':
+
+ \begin{eqnarray} (or 'eqnarray*')
FORMULA1 \\
FORMULA2 \\
...
\end{eqnarray}
- The `eqnarray' environment is used to display a sequence of equations
-or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column `array'
-environment, with consecutive rows separated by `\\' and consecutive
-items within a row separated by an `&'.
+ The 'eqnarray' environment is used to display a sequence of equations
+or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column 'array'
+environment, with consecutive rows separated by '\\' and consecutive
+items within a row separated by an '&'.
- `\\*' can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning
+ '\\*' can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning
of not allowing a page break at that line.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
-`\nonumber' command. Alternatively, The `*'-form of the environment
-(`\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}') will omit equation numbering
-entirely, while otherwise being the same as `eqnarray'.
+'\nonumber' command. Alternatively, The '*'-form of the environment
+('\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}') will omit equation numbering
+entirely, while otherwise being the same as 'eqnarray'.
- The command `\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across
-lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
+ The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across
+lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
-9.9 `equation'
+9.9 'equation'
==============
Synopsis:
@@ -907,11 +1121,11 @@ Synopsis:
MATH
\end{equation}
- The `equation' environment starts a `displaymath' environment (*note
+ The 'equation' environment starts a 'displaymath' environment (*note
displaymath::), e.g., centering the MATH text on the page, and also
places an equation number in the right margin.
-9.10 `figure'
+9.10 'figure'
=============
\begin{figure[*]}[PLACEMENT]
@@ -927,71 +1141,102 @@ Figures will not be split between two pages.
When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a
full-width figure (across both columns).
- The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try
+ The optional argument '[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
-`t'
+'t'
(Top)--at the top of a text page.
-`b'
- (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. However, `b' is not
- allowed for full-width floats (`figure*') with double-column
- output. To ameliorate this, use the `stfloats' or `dblfloatfix'
+'b'
+ (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. However, 'b' is not
+ allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column
+ output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix'
package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ:
- `http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat'.
+ 'http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat'.
-`h'
+'h'
(Here)--at the position in the text where the figure environment
- appears. However, this is not allowed by itself, `t' is
- automatically added. To absolutely force a figure to appear
- "here", use the `float' and use its `H' placement letter. (That
- package also provides other options.)
+ appears. However, this is not allowed by itself; 't' is
+ automatically added.
+
+ To absolutely force a figure to appear "here", you can
+ '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines.
+ For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
+ 'http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere'.
-`p'
+'p'
(Page of floats)--on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
+'!'
+ Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX
+ ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can
+ appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the
+ page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see
+ above.
+
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
-`tbp'.
+'tbp'.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands,
-etc. you wish.
+etc. you wish.
- The `\caption' command specifies caption TEXT for the figure. The
+ The '\caption' command specifies caption TEXT for the figure. The
caption is numbered by default. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in
the list of figures instead of TEXT (*note Tables of contents::).
+ Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
+non-float text:
+
The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at
- the bottom; default `.3'.
+ the bottom; default '.3'.
-`\floatpagefraction'
+'\floatpagefraction'
The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by
- floats; default `.5'.
+ floats; default '.5'.
-`\floatsep'
- Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default `12pt
+'\textfraction'
+ Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
+ much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
+ different page. The default is '.2'.
+
+'\topfraction'
+ Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
+ floats; default '.7'.
+
+ Parameters relating to vertical space around floats:
+
+'\floatsep'
+ Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt
plus2pt minus2pt'.
-`\intextsep'
+'\intextsep'
Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text;
- default `12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' and `11pt' styles, `14pt
- plus4pt minus4pt' for `12pt'.
+ default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for '10pt' and '11pt' styles, '14pt
+ plus4pt minus4pt' for '12pt'.
-`\textfloatsep'
+'\textfloatsep'
Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
- default `20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.
+ default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.
-`\textfraction'
- Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
- much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
- different page. The default is `.2'.
+ Parameters relating to the number of floats on a page:
-`\topfraction'
- Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
- floats; default is `.7'.
+'\bottomnumber'
+ Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text
+ page; default 1.
-9.11 `flushleft'
+'\topnumber'
+ Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page;
+ default 2.
+
+'\totalnumber'
+ Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.
+
+ The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats:
+'http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats'.
+
+9.11 'flushleft'
================
\begin{flushleft}
@@ -1000,24 +1245,24 @@ the list of figures instead of TEXT (*note Tables of contents::).
...
\end{flushleft}
- The `flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph
+ The 'flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
-right Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'.
+right Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'.
-9.11.1 `\raggedright'
+9.11.1 '\raggedright'
---------------------
-The `\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the `flushleft'
+The '\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the 'flushleft'
environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
-`quote' or in a `parbox'.
+'quote' or in a 'parbox'.
- Unlike the `flushleft' environment, the `\raggedright' command does
+ Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does
not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
-declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command that ends the
+declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
paragraph unit.
-9.12 `flushright'
+9.12 'flushright'
=================
\begin{flushright}
@@ -1026,24 +1271,24 @@ paragraph unit.
...
\end{flushright}
- The `flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph
+ The 'flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
-left. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'.
+left. Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'.
-9.12.1 `\raggedleft'
+9.12.1 '\raggedleft'
--------------------
-The `\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the `flushright'
+The '\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the 'flushright'
environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
-`quote' or in a `parbox'.
+'quote' or in a 'parbox'.
- Unlike the `flushright' environment, the `\raggedleft' command does
+ Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does
not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
-declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command that ends the
+declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
paragraph unit.
-9.13 `itemize'
+9.13 'itemize'
==============
Synopsis:
@@ -1054,37 +1299,34 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{itemize}
- The `itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list.
+ The 'itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list.
Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.
They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such
-as `enumerate' (*note enumerate::).
+as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::).
- Each item of an `itemize' list begins with an `\item' command. There
-must be at least one `\item' command within the environment.
+ Each item of an 'itemize' list begins with an '\item' command. There
+must be at least one '\item' command within the environment.
By default, the marks at each level look like this:
1. * (bullet)
-
2. -- (bold en-dash)
-
3. * (asterisk)
+ 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period)
- 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period)
-
- The `itemize' environment uses the commands `\labelitemi' through
-`\labelitemiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use
-`\renewcommand' to change the labels. For instance, to have the first
+ The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through
+'\labelitemiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use
+'\renewcommand' to change the labels. For instance, to have the first
level use diamonds:
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
- The `\leftmargini' through `\leftmarginvi' parameters define the
+ The '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi' parameters define the
distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the
-left margin of the list. By convention, `\leftmargin' is set to the
-appropriate `\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered.
+left margin of the list. By convention, '\leftmargin' is set to the
+appropriate '\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered.
- The defaults vary from `.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to `2.5em'
+ The defaults vary from '.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to '2.5em'
(first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example
greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:
@@ -1092,53 +1334,53 @@ greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:
Some parameters that affect list formatting:
-`\itemindent'
+'\itemindent'
Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.
-`\labelsep'
- Space between the label and text of an item; default `.5em'.
+'\labelsep'
+ Space between the label and text of an item; default '.5em'.
-`\labelwidth'
- Width of the label; default `2em', or `1.5em' in two-column mode.
+'\labelwidth'
+ Width of the label; default '2em', or '1.5em' in two-column mode.
-`\listparindent'
+'\listparindent'
Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within
- a list item; default `0pt'.
+ a list item; default '0pt'.
-`\rightmargin'
+'\rightmargin'
Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the
- enclosing environment; default `0pt', except in the `quote',
- `quotation', and `verse' environments, where it is set equal to
- `\leftmargin'.
+ enclosing environment; default '0pt', except in the 'quote',
+ 'quotation', and 'verse' environments, where it is set equal to
+ '\leftmargin'.
Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather
loose, by default).
-`\itemsep'
- Vertical space between items. The default is `2pt plus1pt
- minus1pt' for `10pt' documents, `3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for `11pt',
- and `4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for `12pt'.
+'\itemsep'
+ Vertical space between items. The default is '2pt plus1pt
+ minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '11pt',
+ and '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '12pt'.
-`\parsep'
+'\parsep'
Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item.
- Defaults are the same as `\itemsep'.
+ Defaults are the same as '\itemsep'.
-`\topsep'
+'\topsep'
Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph.
- For top-level lists, the default is `8pt plus2pt minus4pt' for
- `10pt' documents, `9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for `11pt', and `10pt
- plus4pt minus6pt' for `12pt'. These are reduced for nested lists.
+ For top-level lists, the default is '8pt plus2pt minus4pt' for
+ '10pt' documents, '9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for '11pt', and '10pt
+ plus4pt minus6pt' for '12pt'. These are reduced for nested lists.
-`\partopsep'
- Extra space added to `\topsep' when the list environment starts a
- paragraph. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for `10pt'
- documents, `3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for `11pt', and `3pt plus2pt
- minus2pt' for `12pt'.
+'\partopsep'
+ Extra space added to '\topsep' when the list environment starts a
+ paragraph. The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt'
+ documents, '3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '3pt plus2pt
+ minus2pt' for '12pt'.
Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
-space between items. Here is an example defining an `itemize*'
+space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*'
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
-within a single item (`\parskip' is not list-specific, *note
+within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note
\parskip::):
\newenvironment{itemize*}%
@@ -1148,16 +1390,16 @@ within a single item (`\parskip' is not list-specific, *note
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
{\end{itemize}}
-9.14 `letter' environment: writing letters
+9.14 'letter' environment: writing letters
==========================================
This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::.
-9.15 `list'
+9.15 'list'
===========
-The `list' environment is a generic environment which is used for
-defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
+The 'list' environment is a generic environment which is used for
+defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING}
@@ -1167,18 +1409,18 @@ documents, but often in macros.
\end{list}
The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be
-labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to `\item'). This
+labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to '\item'). This
argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label.
It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be
-empty, i.e., `{}', which leaves the default spacing.
+empty, i.e., '{}', which leaves the default spacing.
The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by
-`\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::).
+'\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::).
-9.16 `math'
+9.16 'math'
===========
Synopsis:
@@ -1187,73 +1429,73 @@ Synopsis:
MATH
\end{math}
- The `math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running
-text. `\(...\))' and `$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::.
+ The 'math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running
+text. '\(...\))' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::.
-9.17 `minipage'
+9.17 'minipage'
===============
\begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}
TEXT
\end{minipage}
- The `minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that
-will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the `\parbox'
-command (*note \parbox::), but unlike `\parbox', other paragraph-making
+ The 'minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that
+will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the '\parbox'
+command (*note \parbox::), but unlike '\parbox', other paragraph-making
environments can be used inside a minipage.
- The arguments are the same as for `\parbox' (*note \parbox::).
+ The arguments are the same as for '\parbox' (*note \parbox::).
- By default, paragraphs are not indented in the `minipage'
+ By default, paragraphs are not indented in the 'minipage'
environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as
-`\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command.
+'\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command.
- Footnotes in a `minipage' environment are handled in a way that is
+ Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
-`\footnote' or `\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom
+'\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom
of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the
-`\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary `footnote' counter (*note
+'\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note
Counters::).
However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using
footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
-9.18 `picture'
+9.18 'picture'
==============
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
... PICTURE COMMANDS ...
\end{picture}
- The `picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of
+ The 'picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of
picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell
LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
-a minus sign--a number like `5', `0.3' or `-3.1416'. A coordinate
-specifies a length in multiples of the unit length `\unitlength', so if
-`\unitlength' has been set to `1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies
+a minus sign--a number like '5', '0.3' or '-3.1416'. A coordinate
+specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if
+'\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies
a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of
-`\unitlength', using the `\setlength' command, outside of a `picture'
+'\unitlength', using the '\setlength' command, outside of a 'picture'
environment.
- A position is a pair of coordinates, such as `(2.4,-5)', specifying
-the point with x-coordinate `2.4' and y-coordinate `-5'. Coordinates
+ A position is a pair of coordinates, such as '(2.4,-5)', specifying
+the point with x-coordinate '2.4' and y-coordinate '-5'. Coordinates
are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is
normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a
position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the
parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
- The `picture' environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
-`position'. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
+ The 'picture' environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
+'position'. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
- The `picture' environment also has an optional `position' argument,
-following the `size' argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike
+ The 'picture' environment also has an optional 'position' argument,
+following the 'size' argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike
ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square
-brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at
+brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at
the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin).
-For example, if `\unitlength' has been set to `1mm', the command
+For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
@@ -1270,216 +1512,211 @@ is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or
even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in
determining how much room to leave for it.
- Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the `\put' command.
+ Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the '\put' command.
The command
\put (11.3,-.3){...}
-puts the object specified by `...' in the picture, with its reference
+puts the object specified by '...' in the picture, with its reference
point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various
objects will be described below.
- The `\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that
-can go in an `\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the `\put'
+ The '\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that
+can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the '\put'
command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left
corner of the box.
- The `picture' commands are described in the following sections.
+ The 'picture' commands are described in the following sections.
-9.18.1 `\circle'
+9.18.1 '\circle'
----------------
\circle[*]{DIAMETER}
- The `\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to
-the specified one as possible. The `*'-form of the command draws a
+ The '\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to
+the specified one as possible. The '*'-form of the command draws a
solid circle.
Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.
-9.18.2 `\makebox'
+9.18.2 '\makebox'
-----------------
-`\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}'
+'\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}'
- The `\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the
-normal `\makebox' command except that you must specify a `width' and
-`height' in multiples of `\unitlength'.
+ The '\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the
+normal '\makebox' command except that you must specify a 'width' and
+'height' in multiples of '\unitlength'.
- The optional argument, `[position]', specifies the quadrant that your
+ The optional argument, '[position]', specifies the quadrant that your
text appears in. You may select up to two of the following:
-`t'
+'t'
Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.
-`b'
+'b'
Moves the item to the bottom.
-`l'
+'l'
Moves the item to the left.
-`r'
+'r'
Moves the item to the right.
*Note \makebox::.
-9.18.3 `\framebox'
+9.18.3 '\framebox'
------------------
Synopsis:
\framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...}
- The `\framebox' command is like `\makebox' (see previous section),
+ The '\framebox' command is like '\makebox' (see previous section),
except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it
creates.
- The `\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule', and
-leaves a space `\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.
+ The '\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness '\fboxrule', and
+leaves a space '\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.
-9.18.4 `\dashbox'
+9.18.4 '\dashbox'
-----------------
Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis:
\dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT}
- `\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a `picture'
+ '\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a 'picture'
environment. Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall
width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT. The TEXT is positioned at optional
POS.
- A dashed box looks best when the `rwidth' and `rheight' are multiples
-of the `dlen'.
+ A dashed box looks best when the 'rwidth' and 'rheight' are multiples
+of the 'dlen'.
-9.18.5 `\frame'
+9.18.5 '\frame'
---------------
Synopsis:
\frame{TEXT}
- The `\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The
+ The '\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The
reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space
is put between the frame and the object.
-9.18.6 `\line'
+9.18.6 '\line'
--------------
Synopsis:
\line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH}
- The `\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope
+ The '\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope
XSLOPE/YSLOPE.
Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y
have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, not to
-mention other shapes, see the `curve2e' and many many other packages on
+mention other shapes, see the 'curve2e' and many many other packages on
CTAN.
-9.18.7 `\linethickness'
+9.18.7 '\linethickness'
-----------------------
-The `\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal
+The '\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a
positive length.
- `\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
-circles, or the quarter circles drawn by `\oval'.
+ '\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
+circles, or the quarter circles drawn by '\oval'.
-9.18.8 `\thicklines'
+9.18.8 '\thicklines'
--------------------
-The `\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal
+The '\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness::
and *note \thinlines::.
-9.18.9 `\thinlines'
+9.18.9 '\thinlines'
-------------------
-The `\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal
+The '\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness::
and *note \thicklines::.
-9.18.10 `\multiput'
+9.18.10 '\multiput'
-------------------
Synopsis:
\multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ}
- The `\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern
+ The '\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern
across a picture. OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at
(x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times.
-9.18.11 `\oval'
+9.18.11 '\oval'
---------------
Synopsis:
\oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION]
- The `\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The
+ The '\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The
optional argument PORTION allows you to select part of the oval via the
following:
-`t'
+'t'
selects the top portion;
-
-`b'
+'b'
selects the bottom portion;
-
-`r'
+'r'
selects the right portion;
-
-`l'
+'l'
selects the left portion.
The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a
maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with
rounded corners.
-9.18.12 `\put'
+9.18.12 '\put'
--------------
-`\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }'
+'\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }'
- The `\put' command places the item specified by the mandatory
+ The '\put' command places the item specified by the mandatory
argument at the given coordinates.
-9.18.13 `\shortstack'
+9.18.13 '\shortstack'
---------------------
Synopsis:
\shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...}
- The `\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid
+ The '\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid
positions are:
-`r'
+'r'
Move the objects to the right of the stack.
-
-`l'
+'l'
Move the objects to the left of the stack
-
-`c'
+'c'
Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)
- Objects are separated with `\\'.
+ Objects are separated with '\\'.
-9.18.14 `\vector'
+9.18.14 '\vector'
-----------------
Synopsis:
\vector(X-SLOPE,Y-SLOPE){LENGTH}
- The `\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
+ The '\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope. The x and y values must lie between -4 and +4,
inclusive.
-9.19 `quotation'
+9.19 'quotation'
================
Synopsis:
@@ -1488,13 +1725,13 @@ Synopsis:
TEXT
\end{quotation}
- The margins of the `quotation' environment are indented on both the
+ The margins of the 'quotation' environment are indented on both the
left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a
blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
- Unlike the `quote' environment, each paragraph is indented normally.
+ Unlike the 'quote' environment, each paragraph is indented normally.
-9.20 `quote'
+9.20 'quote'
============
Snyopsis:
@@ -1503,13 +1740,13 @@ Snyopsis:
TEXT
\end{quote}
- The margins of the `quote' environment are indented on both the left
+ The margins of the 'quote' environment are indented on both the left
and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank
line between text produces a new paragraph.
- Unlike the `quotation' environment, paragraphs are not indented.
+ Unlike the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are not indented.
-9.21 `tabbing'
+9.21 'tabbing'
==============
Synopsis:
@@ -1520,73 +1757,73 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{tabbing}
- The `tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns.
+ The 'tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns.
It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an
ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of
each column is constant and known in advance.
- This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the `tabular'
+ This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the 'tabular'
environment.
- The following commands can be used inside a `tabbing' enviroment:
+ The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' enviroment:
-`\\ (tabbing)'
+'\\ (tabbing)'
End a line.
-`\= (tabbing)'
+'\= (tabbing)'
Sets a tab stop at the current position.
-`\> (tabbing)'
+'\> (tabbing)'
Advances to the next tab stop.
-`\<'
+'\<'
Put following text to the left of the local margin (without
changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line.
-`\+'
+'\+'
Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
-`\-'
+'\-'
Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
-`\' (tabbing)'
+'\' (tabbing)'
Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column,
- i.e. everything from the most recent `\>', `\<', `\'', `\\', or
- `\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against
+ i.e. everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or
+ '\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against
the current column's tab stop.
-`\` (tabbing)'
+'\` (tabbing)'
Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including
tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last
- column because there's no tab stop there. The `\`' command moves
- all the text that follows it, up to the `\\' or `\end{tabbing}'
+ column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves
+ all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}'
command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
- environment. There must be no `\>' or `\'' command between the
- `\`' and the command that ends the line.
+ environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the
+ '\`' and the command that ends the line.
-`\a (tabbing)'
- In a `tabbing' environment, the commands `\=', `\'' and `\`' do not
+'\a (tabbing)'
+ In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not
produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, the commands
- `\a=', `\a'' and `\a`' are used.
+ '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`' are used.
-`\kill'
- Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like `\\' except
+'\kill'
+ Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except
that it throws away the current line instead of producing output
- for it. The effect of any `\=', `\+' or `\-' commands in that line
+ for it. The effect of any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line
remain in effect.
-`\poptabs'
- Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last `\pushtabs'.
+'\poptabs'
+ Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'.
-`\pushtabs'
- Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily
- changing tab stop positions in the middle of a `tabbing'
+'\pushtabs'
+ Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily
+ changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing'
environment.
-`\tabbingsep'
- Distance to left of tab stop moved by `\''.
+'\tabbingsep'
+ Distance to left of tab stop moved by '\''.
This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:
@@ -1600,7 +1837,7 @@ environment.
end;\\
\end{tabbing}
-9.22 `table'
+9.22 'table'
============
Synopsis:
@@ -1616,18 +1853,18 @@ Synopsis:
usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables
will not be split between two pages.
- The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try
+ The optional argument '[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try
to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put
-a float; these are the same as that used with the `figure' environment,
+a float; these are the same as that used with the 'figure' environment,
and described there (*note figure::).
- The standard `report' and `article' classes use the default placement
-`[tbp]'.
+ The standard 'report' and 'article' classes use the default placement
+'[tbp]'.
The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands,
-etc., you wish. The `\caption' command allows you to title your table.
+etc., you wish. The '\caption' command allows you to title your table.
-9.23 `tabular'
+9.23 'tabular'
==============
Synopsis:
@@ -1637,7 +1874,7 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{tabular}
- or
+or
\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
@@ -1647,110 +1884,114 @@ Synopsis:
These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of
items, aligned vertically in columns.
- `\\' must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except
-for the last, where it is optional--unless an `\hline' command (to put a
+ '\\' must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except
+for the last, where it is optional--unless an '\hline' command (to put a
rule below the table) follows.
The mandatory and optional arguments consist of:
-`width'
- Specifies the width of the `tabular*' environment. There must be
+'width'
+ Specifies the width of the 'tabular*' environment. There must be
rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the
specified width.
-`pos'
+'pos'
Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre
of the environment.
- `t'
+ 't'
align on top row
- `b'
+ 'b'
align on bottom row
-`cols'
+'cols'
Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the
following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and
intercolumn material.
- `l'
+ 'l'
A column of left-aligned items.
- `r'
+ 'r'
A column of right-aligned items.
- `c'
+ 'c'
A column of centered items.
- `|'
+ '|'
A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
- `@{TEXT}'
+ '@{TEXT}'
This inserts TEXT in every row. An @-expression suppresses
the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any
- desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items
- must be included in TEXT. An `\extracolsep{wd}' command in an
- @-expression causes an extra space of width `wd' to appear to
- the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by
- another `\extracolsep' command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn
- space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression.
- An `\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression
- in the `cols' argument.
-
- `p{WD}'
+ desired space before the adjacent item must be included in
+ TEXT.
+
+ To insert commands that are automatically executed before a
+ given column, you have to load the 'array' package and use the
+ '>{...}' specifier.
+
+ An '\extracolsep{wd}' command in an @-expression causes an
+ extra space of width 'wd' to appear to the left of all
+ subsequent columns, until countermanded by another
+ '\extracolsep' command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space,
+ this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An
+ '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in
+ the 'cols' argument.
+
+ 'p{WD}'
Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width
- WD, as if it were the argument of a `\parbox[t]{WD}' command.
- However, a `\\' may not appear in the item, except in the
+ WD, as if it were the argument of a '\parbox[t]{WD}' command.
+ However, a '\\' may not appear in the item, except in the
following situations:
- 1. inside an environment like `minipage', `array', or
- `tabular'.
-
- 2. inside an explicit `\parbox'.
-
- 3. in the scope of a `\centering', `\raggedright', or
- `\raggedleft' declaration. The latter declarations must
+ 1. inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or
+ 'tabular'.
+ 2. inside an explicit '\parbox'.
+ 3. in the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or
+ '\raggedleft' declaration. The latter declarations must
appear inside braces or an environment when used in a
- `p'-column element.
+ 'p'-column element.
- `*{NUM}{COLS}'
+ '*{NUM}{COLS}'
Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive
integer and COLS is any list of column-specifiers, which may
- contain another `*-expression'.
+ contain another '*-expression'.
Parameters that control formatting:
-`\arrayrulewidth'
- Thickness of the rule created by `|', `\hline', and `\vline' in the
- `tabular' and `array' environments; the default is `.4pt'.
+'\arrayrulewidth'
+ Thickness of the rule created by '|', '\hline', and '\vline' in the
+ 'tabular' and 'array' environments; the default is '.4pt'.
-`\arraystretch'
- Scaling of spacing between rows in the `tabular' and `array'
- environments; default is `1', for no scaling.
+'\arraystretch'
+ Scaling of spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and 'array'
+ environments; default is '1', for no scaling.
-`\doublerulesep'
- Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by `||' in
- the `tabular' and `array' environments; default is `2pt'.
+'\doublerulesep'
+ Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by '||' in
+ the 'tabular' and 'array' environments; default is '2pt'.
-`\tabcolsep'
- Half the width of the space between columns; default is `6pt'.
+'\tabcolsep'
+ Half the width of the space between columns; default is '6pt'.
- These commands can be used inside a `tabular' environment:
+ The following commands can be used inside a 'tabular' environment:
-9.23.1 `\multicolumn'
+9.23.1 '\multicolumn'
---------------------
Synopsis:
\multicolumn{COLS}{POS}{TEXT}
- The `\multicolumn' command makes an entry that spans several columns.
+ The '\multicolumn' command makes an entry that spans several columns.
The first mandatory argument, COLS, specifies the number of columns to
span. The second mandatory argument, POS, specifies the formatting of
-the entry; `c' for centered, `l' for flushleft, `r' for flushright. The
+the entry; 'c' for centered, 'l' for flushleft, 'r' for flushright. The
third mandatory argument, TEXT, specifies what text to put in the entry.
Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash;
-`\multicolumn' is used for the heading:
+'\multicolumn' is used for the heading:
\begin{tabular}{r@{--}l}
\multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr
@@ -1759,32 +2000,32 @@ third mandatory argument, TEXT, specifies what text to put in the entry.
0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr
\end{tabular}
-9.23.2 `\cline'
+9.23.2 '\cline'
---------------
Synopsis:
\cline{I-J}
- The `\cline' command draws horizontal lines across the columns
+ The '\cline' command draws horizontal lines across the columns
specified, beginning in column I and ending in column J, which are
specified in the mandatory argument.
-9.23.3 `\hline'
+9.23.3 '\hline'
---------------
-The `\hline' command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing
-`tabular' or `array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a
+The '\hline' command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing
+'tabular' or 'array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a
line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.
-9.23.4 `\vline'
+9.23.4 '\vline'
---------------
-The `\vline' command will draw a vertical line extending the full height
-and depth of its row. An `\hfill' command can be used to move the line
+The '\vline' command will draw a vertical line extending the full height
+and depth of its row. An '\hfill' command can be used to move the line
to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @-expression.
-9.24 `thebibliography'
+9.24 'thebibliography'
======================
Synopsis:
@@ -1794,39 +2035,39 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{thebibliography}
- The `thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or
+ The 'thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.
- In the `article' class, this reference list is labelled "References";
-in the `report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". You can change
+ In the 'article' class, this reference list is labelled "References";
+in the 'report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". You can change
the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command
-`\refname'. For instance, this eliminates it entirely:
+'\refname'. For instance, this eliminates it entirely:
\renewcommand{\refname}{}
The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is as
-wide as the widest item label produced by the `\bibitem' commands. It
-is typically given as `9' for bibliographies with less than 10
-references, `99' for ones with less than 100, etc.
+wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. It
+is typically given as '9' for bibliographies with less than 10
+references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc.
-9.24.1 `\bibitem'
+9.24.1 '\bibitem'
-----------------
Synopsis:
\bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}
- The `\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the
+ The '\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the
LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the
-`enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, and
+'enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, and
punctuation symbols not containing a comma.
- This command writes an entry to the `.aux' file containing the item's
-CITE_KEY and label. When the `.aux' file is read by the
-`\begin{document}' command, the item's `label' is associated with
-`cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a `\cite' command (see
+ This command writes an entry to the '.aux' file containing the item's
+CITE_KEY and label. When the '.aux' file is read by the
+'\begin{document}' command, the item's 'label' is associated with
+'cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a '\cite' command (see
next section) to produce the associated label.
-9.24.2 `\cite'
+9.24.2 '\cite'
--------------
Synopsis:
@@ -1835,60 +2076,57 @@ Synopsis:
The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated
by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references
-associated with KEYS by entries in the `.aux' file.
+associated with KEYS by entries in the '.aux' file.
The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the citation.
-For example, `\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce `[Knuth, p. 314]'.
+For example, '\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce '[Knuth, p. 314]'.
-9.24.3 `\nocite'
+9.24.3 '\nocite'
----------------
-`\nocite{key_list}'
+'\nocite{key_list}'
- The `\nocite' command produces no text, but writes `key_list', which
-is a list of one or more citation keys, on the `.aux' file.
+ The '\nocite' command produces no text, but writes 'key_list', which
+is a list of one or more citation keys, on the '.aux' file.
9.24.4 Using BibTeX
-------------------
If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if
you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain
-your bibliography, you don't use the `thebibliography' environment
-(*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines
+your bibliography, you don't use the 'thebibliography' environment
+(*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines
\bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE}
\bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2}
- The `\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its
+ The '\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its
own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be
-produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE`.bst', which defines how
+produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE'.bst', which defines how
your citations will look. The standard STYLE names distributed with
BibTeX are:
-`alpha'
- Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and
+'alpha'
+ Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and
year of publication.
-
-`plain'
- Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
-
-`unsrt'
- Like `plain', but entries are in order of citation.
-
-`abbrv'
- Like `plain', but more compact labels.
+'plain'
+ Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
+'unsrt'
+ Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation.
+'abbrv'
+ Like 'plain', but more compact labels.
In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the
demands of various publications. See
-`http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib'.
+'http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib'.
- The `\bibliography' command is what actually produces the
-bibliography. The argument to `\bibliography' refers to files named
-`BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format.
-Only the entries referred to via `\cite' and `\nocite' will be listed in
+ The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the
+bibliography. The argument to '\bibliography' refers to files named
+'BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format.
+Only the entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in
the bibliography.
-9.25 `theorem'
+9.25 'theorem'
==============
Synopsis:
@@ -1897,11 +2135,11 @@ Synopsis:
THEOREM-TEXT
\end{theorem}
- The `theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed
+ The 'theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed
by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described
-under `\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::).
+under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::).
-9.26 `titlepage'
+9.26 'titlepage'
================
Synopsis:
@@ -1910,15 +2148,15 @@ Synopsis:
TEXT
\end{titlepage}
- The `titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with
+ The 'titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with
no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to
be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The
-`\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::).
+'\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::).
- You can use the `\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce
-a standard title page without a `titlepage' environment.
+ You can use the '\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce
+a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment.
-9.27 `verbatim'
+9.27 'verbatim'
===============
Synopsis:
@@ -1927,15 +2165,15 @@ Synopsis:
LITERAL-TEXT
\end{verbatim}
- The `verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which
-LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the `\' character
-produces a printed `\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage
+ The 'verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which
+LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the '\' character
+produces a printed '\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage
returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a
typewriter.
- The `verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (`\tt').
+ The 'verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt').
-9.27.1 `\verb'
+9.27.1 '\verb'
--------------
Synopsis:
@@ -1943,16 +2181,16 @@ Synopsis:
\verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR
\verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR
- The `\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including
-special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (`\tt') font. No
-spaces are allowed between `\verb' or `\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR,
+ The '\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including
+special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font. No
+spaces are allowed between '\verb' or '\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR,
which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear
in LITERAL-TEXT.
- The `*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible
+ The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible
space" character.
-9.28 `verse'
+9.28 'verse'
============
Synopsis:
@@ -1963,12 +2201,12 @@ Synopsis:
...
\end{verse}
- The `verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
+ The 'verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.
The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are
not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each
-stanza with `\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the
+stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.
10 Line breaking
@@ -1980,82 +2218,82 @@ printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these
lines must be broken into pages).
LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some
-environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the `\\' command,
+environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the '\\' command,
and you can always manually force breaks.
-10.1 `\\'[*][MORESPACE]
+10.1 '\\'[*][MORESPACE]
=======================
-The `\\' command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an optional
+The '\\' command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an optional
argument, MORESPACE, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to
be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount.
- The `\\*' command is the same as the ordinary `\\' command except
+ The '\\*' command is the same as the ordinary '\\' command except
that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.
-10.2 `\obeycr' & `\restorecr'
+10.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr'
=============================
-The `\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file (`^^M',
-internally) the same as `\\' (followed by `\relax'). So each new line
+The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M',
+internally) the same as '\\' (followed by '\relax'). So each new line
in the input will also be a new line in the output.
- `\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior.
+ '\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior.
-10.3 `\newline'
+10.3 '\newline'
===============
-The `\newline' command breaks the line at the present point, with no
+The '\newline' command breaks the line at the present point, with no
stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph
mode.
-10.4 `\-' (discretionary hyphen)
+10.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen)
================================
-The `\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that
+The '\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that
point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find most
of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an incorrect
-one. The `\-' command is used for the exceptional cases.
+one. The '\-' command is used for the exceptional cases.
- When you insert `\-' commands in a word, the word will only be
+ When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that
LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.
-10.5 `\fussy'
+10.5 '\fussy'
=============
-The declaration `\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about
+The declaration '\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about
line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the
cost of an occasional overfull box.
- This command cancels the effect of a previous `\sloppy' command
+ This command cancels the effect of a previous '\sloppy' command
(*note \sloppy::.
-10.6 `\sloppy'
+10.6 '\sloppy'
==============
-The declaration `\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This
-will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing.
+The declaration '\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking.
+This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing.
- Lasts until a `\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::).
+ Lasts until a '\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::).
-10.7 `\hyphenation'
+10.7 '\hyphenation'
===================
Synopsis:
\hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO}
- The `\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a
-`-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces.
+ The '\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a
+'-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces.
TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are
-tried. Multiple `\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples (the
+tried. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples (the
default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these
words):
\hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}
-10.8 `\linebreak' & `\nolinebreak'
+10.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak'
==================================
Synopses:
@@ -2063,8 +2301,8 @@ Synopses:
\linebreak[PRIORITY]
\nolinebreak[PRIORITY]
- By default, the `\linebreak' (`\nolinebreak') command forces
-(prevents) a line break at the current position. For `\linebreak', the
+ By default, the '\linebreak' ('\nolinebreak') command forces
+(prevents) a line break at the current position. For '\linebreak', the
spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right
margin as usual.
@@ -2079,42 +2317,42 @@ LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has
accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but
sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.
-11.1 `\cleardoublepage'
+11.1 '\cleardoublepage'
=======================
-The `\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all
+The '\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand
(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.
-11.2 `\clearpage'
+11.2 '\clearpage'
=================
-The `\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all figures
+The '\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all figures
and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
-11.3 `\newpage'
+11.3 '\newpage'
===============
-The `\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats
-(see `\clearpage' above).
+The '\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats
+(see '\clearpage' above).
-11.4 `\enlargethispage'
+11.4 '\enlargethispage'
=======================
-`\enlargethispage{size}'
+'\enlargethispage{size}'
- `\enlargethispage*{size}'
+ '\enlargethispage*{size}'
- Enlarge the `\textheight' for the current page by the specified
-amount; e.g. `\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one additional
-line.
+ Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page by the specified
+amount; e.g. '\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one
+additional line.
The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page
-as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
-`\pagebreak'.
+as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
+'\pagebreak'.
-11.5 `\pagebreak' & `\nopagebreak'
+11.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak'
==================================
Synopses:
@@ -2122,12 +2360,12 @@ Synopses:
\pagebreak[PRIORITY]
\nopagebreak[PRIORITY]
- By default, the `\pagebreak' (`\nopagebreak') command forces
-(prevents) a page break at the current position. For `\linebreak', the
+ By default, the '\pagebreak' ('\nopagebreak') command forces
+(prevents) a page break at the current position. With '\pagebreak', the
vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it
extends to the normal bottom margin.
- With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the `\pagebreak'
+ With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the '\pagebreak'
command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0
to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.
@@ -2135,49 +2373,49 @@ to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.
************
Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced with
-one command, the `\footnote' command. They can also be produced with
-two commands, the `\footnotemark' and the `\footnotetext' commands.
+one command, the '\footnote' command. They can also be produced with
+two commands, the '\footnotemark' and the '\footnotetext' commands.
-12.1 `\footnote'
+12.1 '\footnote'
================
Synopsis:
\footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT}
- The `\footnote' command places the numbered footnote TEXT at the
+ The '\footnote' command places the numbered footnote TEXT at the
bottom of the current page. The optional argument NUMBER changes the
default footnote number.
This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you
-cannot use it in sectioning commands like `\chapter', in figures, tables
-or in a `tabular' environment. (See following sections.)
+cannot use it in sectioning commands like '\chapter', in figures, tables
+or in a 'tabular' environment. (See following sections.)
-12.2 `\footnotemark'
+12.2 '\footnotemark'
====================
-With no optional argument, the `\footnotemark' command puts the current
+With no optional argument, the '\footnotemark' command puts the current
footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner
paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the
-`\footnotetext' command.
+'\footnotetext' command.
This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote
markers referring to the same footnote with
\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
-after the first `\footnote' command.
+after the first '\footnote' command.
-12.3 `\footnotetext'
+12.3 '\footnotetext'
====================
Synopsis:
\footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT}
- The `\footnotetext' command places TEXT at the bottom of the page as
-a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the `\footnotemark'
-command. The `\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph
+ The '\footnotetext' command places TEXT at the bottom of the page as
+a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the '\footnotemark'
+command. The '\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph
mode.
The optional argument NUMBER changes the default footnote number.
@@ -2186,40 +2424,40 @@ mode.
=======================
If you want to use symbols for footnotes, rather than increasing
-numbers, redefine `\thefootnote' like this:
+numbers, redefine '\thefootnote' like this:
\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
- The `\fnsymbol' command produces a predefined series of symbols
+ The '\fnsymbol' command produces a predefined series of symbols
(*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). If you want to
use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you'll need to also
-redefine `\@fnsymbol'.
+redefine '\@fnsymbol'.
12.5 Footnote parameters
========================
-`\footnoterule'
+'\footnoterule'
Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the
- page's footnotes. Default dimensions: `0.4pt' thick (or wide), and
- `0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except
+ page's footnotes. Default dimensions: '0.4pt' thick (or wide), and
+ '0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except
slides, where it does not appear).
-`\footnotesep'
+'\footnotesep'
The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote.
- By default, this is set to the normal strut for `\footnotesize'
+ By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize'
fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space
- between footnotes. This is `6.65pt' for `10pt', `7.7pt' for
- `11pt', and `8.4pt' for `12pt'.
+ between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for
+ '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'.
13 Definitions
**************
LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
-13.1 `\newcommand' & `\renewcommand'
+13.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand'
====================================
-`\newcommand' and `\renewcommand' define and redefine a command,
+'\newcommand' and '\renewcommand' define and redefine a command,
respectively. Synopses:
\newcommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
@@ -2228,9 +2466,9 @@ respectively. Synopses:
\renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{DEFN}
CMD
- The command name beginning with `\'. For `\newcommand', it must
- not be already defined and must not begin with `\end'; for
- `\renewcommand', it must already be defined.
+ The command name beginning with '\'. For '\newcommand', it must
+ not be already defined and must not begin with '\end'; for
+ '\renewcommand', it must already be defined.
NARGS
An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments
@@ -2241,53 +2479,53 @@ DEFAULT
If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's
first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the
default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not
- specified in the call) is the string `def'.
+ specified in the call) is the string 'def'.
DEFN
- The text to be substituted for every occurrence of `cmd'; a
- construct of the form `#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the
+ The text to be substituted for every occurrence of 'cmd'; a
+ construct of the form '#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the
Nth argument.
-13.2 `\newcounter'
+13.2 '\newcounter'
==================
Synopsis:
\newcounter{CNT}[COUNTERNAME]
- The `\newcounter' command defines a new counter named CNT. The new
+ The '\newcounter' command defines a new counter named CNT. The new
counter is initialized to zero.
- Given the optional argument `[COUNTERNAME]', CNT will be reset
+ Given the optional argument '[COUNTERNAME]', CNT will be reset
whenever COUNTERNAME is incremented.
*Note Counters::, for more information about counters.
-13.3 `\newlength'
+13.3 '\newlength'
=================
Synopsis:
\newlength{\ARG}
- The `\newlength' command defines the mandatory argument as a `length'
-command with a value of `0in'. The argument must be a control sequence,
-as in `\newlength{\foo}'. An error occurs if `\foo' is already defined.
+ The '\newlength' command defines the mandatory argument as a 'length'
+command with a value of '0in'. The argument must be a control sequence,
+as in '\newlength{\foo}'. An error occurs if '\foo' is already defined.
*Note Lengths::, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value,
and for more information about lengths in general.
-13.4 `\newsavebox'
+13.4 '\newsavebox'
==================
Synopsis:
\newsavebox{CMD}
- Defines `\CMD', which must be a command name not already defined, to
+ Defines '\CMD', which must be a command name not already defined, to
refer to a new bin for storing boxes.
-13.5 `\newenvironment' & `\renewenvironment'
+13.5 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment'
============================================
Synopses:
@@ -2297,12 +2535,12 @@ Synopses:
\renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is,
-`\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'.
+'\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'.
ENV
- The name of the environment. For `\newenvironment', ENV must not
- be an existing environment, and the command `\ENV' must be
- undefined. For `\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an
+ The name of the environment. For '\newenvironment', ENV must not
+ be an existing environment, and the command '\ENV' must be
+ undefined. For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an
existing environment.
NARGS
@@ -2314,15 +2552,15 @@ DEFAULT
gives the default value for that argument.
BEGDEF
- The text expanded at every occurrence of `\begin{ENV}'; a construct
- of the form `#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of the Nth
+ The text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'; a construct
+ of the form '#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of the Nth
argument.
ENDDEF
- The text expanded at every occurrence of `\end{ENV}'. It may not
+ The text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'. It may not
contain any argument parameters.
-13.6 `\newtheorem'
+13.6 '\newtheorem'
==================
\newtheorem{NEWENV}{LABEL}[WITHIN]
@@ -2336,7 +2574,7 @@ NEWENV
LABEL
The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
- number. For example, `Theorem'.
+ number. For example, 'Theorem'.
NUMBERED_LIKE
(Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like
@@ -2350,47 +2588,47 @@ WITHIN
At most one of NUMBERED_LIKE and WITHIN can be specified, not both.
-13.7 `\newfont'
+13.7 '\newfont'
===============
Synopsis:
\newfont{CMD}{FONTNAME}
- Defines a control sequence `\CMD', which must not already be defined,
+ Defines a control sequence '\CMD', which must not already be defined,
to make FONTNAME be the current font. The file looked for on the system
-is named `FONTNAME.tfm'.
+is named 'FONTNAME.tfm'.
This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font.
-More commonly, fonts are defined in families through `.fd' files.
+More commonly, fonts are defined in families through '.fd' files.
-13.8 `\protect'
+13.8 '\protect'
===============
Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and
many more are so-called "fragile" commands. When a fragile command is
used in certain contexts, called "moving arguments", it must be preceded
-by `\protect'. In addition, any fragile commands within the arguments
-must have their own `\protect'.
+by '\protect'. In addition, any fragile commands within the arguments
+must have their own '\protect'.
- Some examples of moving arguments are `\caption' (*note figure::),
-`\thanks' (*note \maketitle::), and expressions in `tabular' and `array'
+ Some examples of moving arguments are '\caption' (*note figure::),
+'\thanks' (*note \maketitle::), and expressions in 'tabular' and 'array'
environments (*note tabular::).
Commands which are not fragile are called "robust". They must not be
-preceded by `\protect'.
+preceded by '\protect'.
See also:
-`http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html'
-`http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect'
+'http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html'
+'http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect'
14 Counters
***********
-Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The
+Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The
name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or
-command that produces the number, except with no `\'. (`enumi'-`enumiv'
+command that produces the number, except with no '\'. ('enumi'-'enumiv'
are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list of the
counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering.
@@ -2400,193 +2638,193 @@ counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering.
subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
subsubsection
-14.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
+14.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
=====================================================================
All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
-instance, `\alph{enumi}'.
+instance, '\alph{enumi}'.
-`\alph'
- prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: `a', `b', ...
+'\alph'
+ prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ...
-`\Alph'
- uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', ...
+'\Alph'
+ uses uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ...
-`\arabic'
- uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', ...
+'\arabic'
+ uses Arabic numbers: '1', '2', ...
-`\roman'
- uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', ...
+'\roman'
+ uses lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ...
-`\roman'
- uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', ...
+'\roman'
+ uses uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ...
-`\fnsymbol'
+'\fnsymbol'
prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols
(conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of COUNTER
must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.
The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the
names:
-
asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel
double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger
-14.2 `\usecounter{COUNTER}'
+14.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}'
===========================
Synopsis:
\usecounter{COUNTER}
- The `\usecounter' command is used in the second argument of the
-`list' environment to specify COUNTER to be used to number the list
+ The '\usecounter' command is used in the second argument of the
+'list' environment to specify COUNTER to be used to number the list
items.
-14.3 `\value{COUNTER}'
+14.3 '\value{COUNTER}'
======================
Synopsis:
\value{COUNTER}
- The `\value' command produces the value of COUNTER. It can be used
+ The '\value' command produces the value of COUNTER. It can be used
anywhere LaTeX expects a number, for example:
\setcounter{myctr}{3}
\addtocounter{myctr}{1}
\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
-14.4 `\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
+14.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
==================================
Synopsis:
\setcounter{\COUNTER}{VALUE}
- The `\setcounter' command sets the value of \COUNTER to the VALUE
+ The '\setcounter' command sets the value of \COUNTER to the VALUE
argument.
-14.5 `\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
+14.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
====================================
-The `\addtocounter' command increments COUNTER by the amount specified
+The '\addtocounter' command increments COUNTER by the amount specified
by the VALUE argument, which may be negative.
-14.6 `\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'
+14.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'
===============================
-The `\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as `\stepcounter'
-*Note \stepcounter::, except it also defines the current `\ref' value to
-be the result of `\thecounter'.
+The '\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as '\stepcounter'
+*Note \stepcounter::, except it also defines the current '\ref' value to
+be the result of '\thecounter'.
-14.7 `\stepcounter{COUNTER}'
+14.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}'
============================
-The `\stepcounter' command adds one to COUNTER and resets all subsidiary
+The '\stepcounter' command adds one to COUNTER and resets all subsidiary
counters.
-14.8 `\day \month \year': Predefined counters
+14.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters
=============================================
-LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (`\day', 1-31), month of
-the year (`\month', 1-12), and year (`\year', Common Era). When TeX
+LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month ('\day', 1-31), month of
+the year ('\month', 1-12), and year ('\year', Common Era). When TeX
starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is
running. They are not updated as the job progresses.
- The related command `\today' produces a string representing the
+ The related command '\today' produces a string representing the
current day (*note \today::).
15 Lengths
**********
-A `length' is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length
+A 'length' is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length
as an argument.
-15.1 `\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}'
+15.1 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}'
==============================
-The `\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which can
-be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches (`in'),
-millimeters (`mm'), points (`pt'), big points (`bp', etc.
+The '\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which can
+be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches ('in'),
+millimeters ('mm'), points ('pt'), big points ('bp', etc.
15.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}
===============================
-The `\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the
+The '\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the
amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative.
-15.3 `\settodepth'
+15.3 '\settodepth'
==================
-`\settodepth{\gnat}{text}'
+'\settodepth{\gnat}{text}'
- The `\settodepth' command sets the value of a `length' command equal
-to the depth of the `text' argument.
+ The '\settodepth' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal
+to the depth of the 'text' argument.
-15.4 `\settoheight'
+15.4 '\settoheight'
===================
-`\settoheight{\gnat}{text}'
+'\settoheight{\gnat}{text}'
- The `\settoheight' command sets the value of a `length' command equal
-to the height of the `text' argument.
+ The '\settoheight' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal
+to the height of the 'text' argument.
-15.5 `\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}'
+15.5 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}'
==============================
-The `\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the
+The '\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the
width of the TEXT argument.
15.6 Predefined lengths
=======================
-`\width'
+'\width'
- `\height'
+ '\height'
- `\depth'
+ '\depth'
- `\totalheight'
+ '\totalheight'
These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the
-box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width etc.
-of the text in the box. `\totalheight' equals `\height' + `\depth'. To
-make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say
+box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width,
+etc., of the text in the box. '\totalheight' equals '\height' +
+'\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural
+size, e.g., say
- `\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}'
+ '\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}'
16 Making paragraphs
********************
A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not
-containing even a `%'. A blank line should not appear where a new
+containing even a '%'. A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.
-16.1 `\indent'
+16.1 '\indent'
==============
-`\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of
-the `\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used
+'\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of
+the '\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used
to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.
- The default value for `\parindent' is `1em' in two-column mode,
-otherwise `15pt' for `10pt' documents, `17pt' for `11pt', and `1.5em'
-for `12pt'.
+ The default value for '\parindent' is '1em' in two-column mode,
+otherwise '15pt' for '10pt' documents, '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em'
+for '12pt'.
-16.2 `\noindent'
+16.2 '\noindent'
================
-When used at the beginning of the paragraph, `\noindent' suppresses any
+When used at the beginning of the paragraph, '\noindent' suppresses any
paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a
paragraph.
-16.3 `\parskip'
+16.3 '\parskip'
===============
-`\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before
-each paragraph. The default is `0pt plus1pt'.
+'\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before
+each paragraph. The default is '0pt plus1pt'.
16.4 Marginal notes
===================
@@ -2595,44 +2833,42 @@ Synopsis:
\marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT}
- The `\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first
+ The '\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
-where the `\marginpar' occurs.
+where the '\marginpar' occurs.
When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be
placed
* in the right margin for one-sided layout;
-
* in the outside margin for two-sided layout;
-
* in the nearest margin for two-column layout.
- The command `\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in
-the opposite (inside) margin. `\normalmarginpar' places them in the
+ The command '\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in
+the opposite (inside) margin. '\normalmarginpar' places them in the
default position.
When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin,
and RIGHT is used for the right margin.
The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
-hyphenation there by beginning the node with `\hspace{0pt}'.
+hyphenation there by beginning the node with '\hspace{0pt}'.
These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
-`\marginparpush'
- Minimum vertical space between notes; default `7pt' for `12pt'
- documents, `5pt' else.
+'\marginparpush'
+ Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt'
+ documents, '5pt' else.
-`\marginparsep'
- Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default `11pt'
- for `10pt' documents, `10pt' else.
+'\marginparsep'
+ Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt'
+ for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else.
-`\marginparwidth'
- Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided `10pt' document
- is `90pt', `83pt' for `11pt', and `68pt' for `12pt'; `17pt' more in
+'\marginparwidth'
+ Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document
+ is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in
each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the
- default is `48pt'.
+ default is '48pt'.
The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes
from falling off the bottom of the page.
@@ -2642,36 +2878,34 @@ from falling off the bottom of the page.
There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:
-`math'
+'math'
For formulas that appear right in the text.
-
-`displaymath'
+'displaymath'
For formulas that appear on their own line.
-
-`equation'
+'equation'
The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an
equation number in the right margin.
- The `math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but
-the `displaymath' and `equation' environments can be used only in
-paragraph mode. The `math' and `displaymath' environments are used so
+ The 'math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but
+the 'displaymath' and 'equation' environments can be used only in
+paragraph mode. The 'math' and 'displaymath' environments are used so
often that they have the following short forms:
\(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math}
\[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
- In fact, the `math' environment is so common that it has an even
+ In fact, the 'math' environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:
$ ... $ instead of \(...\)
- The `\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a
+ The '\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a
bold font. It is used _outside_ of math mode. Conversely, the
-`\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too
+'\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too
is used _outside_ of math mode.
- The `\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the
-formula to be that of `displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below
+ The '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the
+formula to be that of 'displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below
summations. For example
$\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $
@@ -2679,7 +2913,7 @@ summations. For example
==============================
To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type
-`_{'exp`}'. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type `^{'exp`}'.
+'_{'exp'}'. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type '^{'exp'}'.
LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the
natural way. It even does the right thing when something has both a
subscript and a superscript.
@@ -2687,637 +2921,637 @@ subscript and a superscript.
17.2 Math symbols
=================
-LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. The
-commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For
-example, if you include `$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi
+LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need.
+The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For
+example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi
symbol (\pi) in your output.
-`\|'
+'\|'
\|
-`\aleph'
+'\aleph'
\aleph
-`\alpha'
+'\alpha'
\alpha
-`\amalg'
+'\amalg'
\amalg (binary operation)
-`\angle'
+'\angle'
\angle
-`\approx'
+'\approx'
\approx (relation)
-`\ast'
+'\ast'
\ast (binary operation)
-`\asymp'
+'\asymp'
\asymp (relation)
-`\backslash'
+'\backslash'
\ (delimiter)
-`\beta'
+'\beta'
\beta
-`\bigcap'
+'\bigcap'
\bigcap
-`\bigcirc'
+'\bigcirc'
\bigcirc (binary operation)
-`\bigcup'
+'\bigcup'
\bigcup
-`\bigodot'
+'\bigodot'
\bigodot
-`\bigoplus'
+'\bigoplus'
\bigoplus
-`\bigotimes'
+'\bigotimes'
\bigotimes
-`\bigtriangledown'
+'\bigtriangledown'
\bigtriangledown (binary operation)
-`\bigtriangleup'
+'\bigtriangleup'
\bigtriangleup (binary operation)
-`\bigsqcup'
+'\bigsqcup'
\bigsqcup
-`\biguplus'
+'\biguplus'
\biguplus
-`\bigcap'
+'\bigcap'
\bigvee
-`\bigwedge'
+'\bigwedge'
\bigwedge
-`\bot'
+'\bot'
\bot
-`\bowtie'
+'\bowtie'
\bowtie (relation)
-`\Box'
+'\Box'
(square open box symbol)
-`\bullet'
+'\bullet'
\bullet (binary operation)
-`\cap'
+'\cap'
\cap (binary operation)
-`\cdot'
+'\cdot'
\cdot (binary operation)
-`\chi'
+'\chi'
\chi
-`\circ'
+'\circ'
\circ (binary operation)
-`\clubsuit'
+'\clubsuit'
\clubsuit
-`\cong'
+'\cong'
\cong (relation)
-`\coprod'
+'\coprod'
\coprod
-`\cup'
+'\cup'
\cup (binary operation)
-`\dagger'
+'\dagger'
\dagger (binary operation)
-`\dashv'
+'\dashv'
\dashv (relation)
-`\ddagger'
+'\ddagger'
\dagger (binary operation)
-`\Delta'
+'\Delta'
\Delta
-`\delta'
+'\delta'
\delta
-`\Diamond'
+'\Diamond'
bigger \diamond
-`\diamond'
+'\diamond'
\diamond (binary operation)
-`\diamondsuit'
+'\diamondsuit'
\diamondsuit
-`\div'
+'\div'
\div (binary operation)
-`\doteq'
+'\doteq'
\doteq (relation)
-`\downarrow'
+'\downarrow'
\downarrow (delimiter)
-`\Downarrow'
+'\Downarrow'
\Downarrow (delimiter)
-`\ell'
+'\ell'
\ell
-`\emptyset'
+'\emptyset'
\emptyset
-`\epsilon'
+'\epsilon'
\epsilon
-`\equiv'
+'\equiv'
\equiv (relation)
-`\eta'
+'\eta'
\eta
-`\exists'
+'\exists'
\exists
-`\flat'
+'\flat'
\flat
-`\forall'
+'\forall'
\forall
-`\frown'
+'\frown'
\frown (relation)
-`\Gamma'
+'\Gamma'
\Gamma
-`\gamma'
+'\gamma'
\gamma
-`\ge'
+'\ge'
\ge
-`\geq'
+'\geq'
\geq (relation)
-`\gets'
+'\gets'
\gets
-`\gg'
+'\gg'
\gg (relation)
-`\hbar'
+'\hbar'
\hbar
-`\heartsuit'
+'\heartsuit'
\heartsuit
-`\hookleftarrow'
+'\hookleftarrow'
\hookleftarrow
-`\hookrightarrow'
+'\hookrightarrow'
\hookrightarrow
-`\iff'
+'\iff'
\iff
-`\Im'
+'\Im'
\Im
-`\in'
+'\in'
\in (relation)
-`\infty'
+'\infty'
\infty
-`\int'
+'\int'
\int
-`\iota'
+'\iota'
\iota
-`\Join'
+'\Join'
condensed bowtie symbol (relation)
-`\kappa'
+'\kappa'
\kappa
-`\Lambda'
+'\Lambda'
\Lambda
-`\lambda'
+'\lambda'
\lambda
-`\land'
+'\land'
\land
-`\langle'
+'\langle'
\langle (delimiter)
-`\lbrace'
+'\lbrace'
\lbrace (delimiter)
-`\lbrack'
+'\lbrack'
\lbrack (delimiter)
-`\lceil'
+'\lceil'
\lceil (delimiter)
-`\le'
+'\le'
\le
-`\leadsto'
+'\leadsto'
-`\Leftarrow'
+'\Leftarrow'
\Leftarrow
-`\leftarrow'
+'\leftarrow'
\leftarrow
-`\leftharpoondown'
+'\leftharpoondown'
\leftharpoondown
-`\leftharpoonup'
+'\leftharpoonup'
\leftharpoonup
-`\Leftrightarrow'
+'\Leftrightarrow'
\Leftrightarrow
-`\leftrightarrow'
+'\leftrightarrow'
\leftrightarrow
-`\leq'
+'\leq'
\leq (relation)
-`\lfloor'
+'\lfloor'
\lfloor (delimiter)
-`\lhd'
+'\lhd'
(left-pointing arrow head)
-`\ll'
+'\ll'
\ll (relation)
-`\lnot'
+'\lnot'
\lnot
-`\longleftarrow'
+'\longleftarrow'
\longleftarrow
-`\longleftrightarrow'
+'\longleftrightarrow'
\longleftrightarrow
-`\longmapsto'
+'\longmapsto'
\longmapsto
-`\longrightarrow'
+'\longrightarrow'
\longrightarrow
-`\lor'
+'\lor'
\lor
-`\mapsto'
+'\mapsto'
\mapsto
-`\mho'
+'\mho'
-`\mid'
+'\mid'
\mid (relation)
-`\models'
+'\models'
\models (relation)
-`\mp'
+'\mp'
\mp (binary operation)
-`\mu'
+'\mu'
\mu
-`\nabla'
+'\nabla'
\nabla
-`\natural'
+'\natural'
\natural
-`\ne'
+'\ne'
\ne
-`\nearrow'
+'\nearrow'
\nearrow
-`\neg'
+'\neg'
\neg
-`\neq'
+'\neq'
\neq (relation)
-`\ni'
+'\ni'
\ni (relation)
-`\not'
+'\not'
Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=.
-`\notin'
+'\notin'
\ni
-`\nu'
+'\nu'
\nu
-`\nwarrow'
+'\nwarrow'
\nwarrow
-`\odot'
+'\odot'
\odot (binary operation)
-`\oint'
+'\oint'
\oint
-`\Omega'
+'\Omega'
\Omega
-`\omega'
+'\omega'
\omega
-`\ominus'
+'\ominus'
\ominus (binary operation)
-`\oplus'
+'\oplus'
\oplus (binary operation)
-`\oslash'
+'\oslash'
\oslash (binary operation)
-`\otimes'
+'\otimes'
\otimes (binary operation)
-`\owns'
+'\owns'
\owns
-`\parallel'
+'\parallel'
\parallel (relation)
-`\partial'
+'\partial'
\partial
-`\perp'
+'\perp'
\perp (relation)
-`\phi'
+'\phi'
\phi
-`\Pi'
+'\Pi'
\Pi
-`\pi'
+'\pi'
\pi
-`\pm'
+'\pm'
\pm (binary operation)
-`\prec'
+'\prec'
\prec (relation)
-`\preceq'
+'\preceq'
\preceq (relation)
-`\prime'
+'\prime'
\prime
-`\prod'
+'\prod'
\prod
-`\propto'
+'\propto'
\propto (relation)
-`\Psi'
+'\Psi'
\Psi
-`\psi'
+'\psi'
\psi
-`\rangle'
+'\rangle'
\rangle (delimiter)
-`\rbrace'
+'\rbrace'
\rbrace (delimiter)
-`\rbrack'
+'\rbrack'
\rbrack (delimiter)
-`\rceil'
+'\rceil'
\rceil (delimiter)
-`\Re'
+'\Re'
\Re
-`\rfloor'
+'\rfloor'
\rfloor
-`\rhd'
+'\rhd'
(binary operation)
-`\rho'
+'\rho'
\rho
-`\Rightarrow'
+'\Rightarrow'
\Rightarrow
-`\rightarrow'
+'\rightarrow'
\rightarrow
-`\rightharpoondown'
+'\rightharpoondown'
\rightharpoondown
-`\rightharpoonup'
+'\rightharpoonup'
\rightharpoonup
-`\rightleftharpoons'
+'\rightleftharpoons'
\rightleftharpoons
-`\searrow'
+'\searrow'
\searrow
-`\setminus'
+'\setminus'
\setminus (binary operation)
-`\sharp'
+'\sharp'
\sharp
-`\Sigma'
+'\Sigma'
\Sigma
-`\sigma'
+'\sigma'
\sigma
-`\sim'
+'\sim'
\sim (relation)
-`\simeq'
+'\simeq'
\simeq (relation)
-`\smallint'
+'\smallint'
\smallint
-`\smile'
+'\smile'
\smile (relation)
-`\spadesuit'
+'\spadesuit'
\spadesuit
-`\sqcap'
+'\sqcap'
\sqcap (binary operation)
-`\sqcup'
+'\sqcup'
\sqcup (binary operation)
-`\sqsubset'
+'\sqsubset'
(relation)
-`\sqsubseteq'
+'\sqsubseteq'
\sqsubseteq (relation)
-`\sqsupset'
+'\sqsupset'
(relation)
-`\sqsupseteq'
+'\sqsupseteq'
\sqsupseteq (relation)
-`\star'
+'\star'
\star (binary operation)
-`\subset'
+'\subset'
\subset (relation)
-`\subseteq'
+'\subseteq'
\subseteq (relation)
-`\succ'
+'\succ'
\succ (relation)
-`\succeq'
+'\succeq'
\succeq (relation)
-`\sum'
+'\sum'
\sum
-`\supset'
+'\supset'
\supset (relation)
-`\supseteq'
+'\supseteq'
\supseteq (relation)
-`\surd'
+'\surd'
\surd
-`\swarrow'
+'\swarrow'
\swarrow
-`\tau'
+'\tau'
\tau
-`\theta'
+'\theta'
\theta
-`\times'
+'\times'
\times (binary operation)
-`\to'
+'\to'
\to
-`\top'
+'\top'
\top
-`\triangle'
+'\triangle'
\triangle
-`\triangleleft'
+'\triangleleft'
\triangleleft (binary operation)
-`\triangleright'
+'\triangleright'
\triangleright (binary operation)
-`\unlhd'
+'\unlhd'
left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation)
-`\unrhd'
+'\unrhd'
right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation)
-`\Uparrow'
+'\Uparrow'
\Uparrow (delimiter)
-`\uparrow'
+'\uparrow'
\uparrow (delimiter)
-`\Updownarrow'
+'\Updownarrow'
\Updownarrow (delimiter)
-`\updownarrow'
+'\updownarrow'
\updownarrow (delimiter)
-`\uplus'
+'\uplus'
\uplus (binary operation)
-`\Upsilon'
+'\Upsilon'
\Upsilon
-`\upsilon'
+'\upsilon'
\upsilon
-`\varepsilon'
+'\varepsilon'
\varepsilon
-`\varphi'
+'\varphi'
\varphi
-`\varpi'
+'\varpi'
\varpi
-`\varrho'
+'\varrho'
\varrho
-`\varsigma'
+'\varsigma'
\varsigma
-`\vartheta'
+'\vartheta'
\vartheta
-`\vdash'
+'\vdash'
\vdash (relation)
-`\vee'
+'\vee'
\vee (binary operation)
-`\Vert'
+'\Vert'
\Vert (delimiter)
-`\vert'
+'\vert'
\vert (delimiter)
-`\wedge'
+'\wedge'
\wedge (binary operation)
-`\wp'
+'\wp'
\wp
-`\wr'
+'\wr'
\wr (binary operation)
-`\Xi'
+'\Xi'
\Xi
-`\xi'
+'\xi'
\xi
-`\zeta'
+'\zeta'
\zeta
17.3 Math functions
@@ -3326,106 +3560,106 @@ symbol (\pi) in your output.
These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
spacing.
-`\arccos'
+'\arccos'
\arccos
-`\arcsin'
+'\arcsin'
\arcsin
-`\arctan'
+'\arctan'
\arctan
-`\arg'
+'\arg'
\arg
-`\bmod'
+'\bmod'
Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y)
-`\cos'
+'\cos'
\cos
-`\cosh'
+'\cosh'
\cosh
-`\cot'
+'\cot'
\cos
-`\coth'
+'\coth'
\cosh
-`\csc'
+'\csc'
\csc
-`\deg'
+'\deg'
\deg
-`\det'
+'\det'
\deg
-`\dim'
+'\dim'
\dim
-`\exp'
+'\exp'
\exp
-`\gcd'
+'\gcd'
\gcd
-`\hom'
+'\hom'
\hom
-`\inf'
+'\inf'
\inf
-`\ker'
+'\ker'
\ker
-`\lg'
+'\lg'
\lg
-`\lim'
+'\lim'
\lim
-`\liminf'
+'\liminf'
\liminf
-`\limsup'
+'\limsup'
\limsup
-`\ln'
+'\ln'
\ln
-`\log'
+'\log'
\log
-`\max'
+'\max'
\max
-`\min'
+'\min'
\min
-`\pmod'
+'\pmod'
parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1)
-`\Pr'
+'\Pr'
\Pr
-`\sec'
+'\sec'
\sec
-`\sin'
+'\sin'
\sin
-`\sinh'
+'\sinh'
\sinh
-`\sup'
+'\sup'
\sup
-`\tan'
+'\tan'
\tan
-`\tanh'
+'\tanh'
\tanh
17.4 Math accents
@@ -3435,117 +3669,117 @@ LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in
math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note
Accents::).
-`\acute'
+'\acute'
Math acute accent: \acute{x}.
-`\bar'
+'\bar'
Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}.
-`\breve'
+'\breve'
Math breve accent: \breve{x}.
-`\check'
+'\check'
Math ha'c<ek (check) accent: \check{x}.
-`\ddot'
+'\ddot'
Math dieresis accent: \ddot{x}.
-`\dot'
+'\dot'
Math dot accent: \dot{x}.
-`\grave'
+'\grave'
Math grave accent: \grave{x}.
-`\hat'
+'\hat'
Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hat{x}.
-`\imath'
+'\imath'
Math dotless i.
-`\jmath'
+'\jmath'
Math dotless j.
-`\tilde'
+'\mathring'
+ Math ring accent: x*.
+
+'\tilde'
Math tilde accent: \tilde{x}.
-`\vec'
+'\vec'
Math vector symbol: \vec{x}.
-`\widehat'
+'\widehat'
Math wide hat accent: \widehat{x+y}.
-`\widehat'
+'\widehat'
Math wide tilde accent: \widetilde{x+y}.
17.5 Spacing in math mode
=========================
-In a `math' environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts in
+In a 'math' environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts in
the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If you
want different spacing, LaTeX provides the following commands for use in
math mode:
-`\;'
+'\;'
A thick space (5\over18\,quad).
-
-`\:'
-`\>'
+'\:'
+'\>'
Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad).
-
-`\,'
+'\,'
A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode.
-
-`\!'
+'\!'
A negative thin space (-{1\over6}\,quad).
17.6 Math miscellany
====================
-`\*'
+'\*'
A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is
allowed.
-`\cdots'
+'\cdots'
A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the
line.
-`\ddots'
+'\ddots'
A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots.
-`\frac{num}{den}'
- Produces the fraction `num' divided by `den'.
+'\frac{num}{den}'
+ Produces the fraction 'num' divided by 'den'.
-`\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2'
- The two delimiters need not match; `.' acts as a null delimiter,
+'\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2'
+ The two delimiters need not match; '.' acts as a null delimiter,
producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the
- math in between. Example: `\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'.
+ math in between. Example: '\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'.
-`\overbrace{TEXT}'
+'\overbrace{TEXT}'
Generates a brace over TEXT. For example,
\overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}.
-`\overline{TEXT}'
+'\overline{TEXT}'
Generates a horizontal line over TEX. For exampe, \overline{x+y}.
-`\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}'
+'\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}'
Produces the representation of the square root of ARG. The
optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce. For
- example, the cube root of `x+y' would be typed as
- `$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'.
+ example, the cube root of 'x+y' would be typed as
+ '$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'.
-`\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}'
+'\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}'
Puts TEXT above RELATION. For example,
- `\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'.
+ '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'.
-`\underbrace{math}'
+'\underbrace{math}'
Generates MATH with a brace underneath.
-`\underline{text}'
+'\underline{text}'
Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be
underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of
descenders.
-`\vdots'
+'\vdots'
Produces a vertical ellipsis.
18 Modes
@@ -3555,9 +3789,7 @@ When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three
modes:
* Paragraph mode
-
* Math mode
-
* Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short
LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a
@@ -3572,16 +3804,16 @@ it's generating a mathematical formula. In "LR mode", as in paragraph
mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of
words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX
keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode.
-Even if you put a hundred words into an `\mbox', LaTeX would keep
+Even if you put a hundred words into an '\mbox', LaTeX would keep
typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then
complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.
- LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an `\mbox'
+ LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an '\mbox'
command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for
example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.
There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of
-these commands or environments will be called a `parbox'. When LaTeX is
+these commands or environments will be called a 'parbox'. When LaTeX is
in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner
paragraph mode". Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is
called "outer paragraph mode".
@@ -3589,36 +3821,36 @@ called "outer paragraph mode".
19 Page styles
**************
-The `\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the
+The '\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the
page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.
-19.1 `\maketitle'
+19.1 '\maketitle'
=================
-The `\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title
-page--except in the `article' class, where the title is placed at the
+The '\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title
+page--except in the 'article' class, where the title is placed at the
top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is
obtained from the following declarations:
-`\author{NAME \and NAME2}'
- The `\author' command declares the document author(s), where the
- argument is a list of authors separated by `\and' commands. Use
- `\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example,
+'\author{NAME \and NAME2}'
+ The '\author' command declares the document author(s), where the
+ argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. Use
+ '\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example,
to give the author's institution or address.
-`\date{TEXT}'
- The `\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With
- no `\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used.
+'\date{TEXT}'
+ The '\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With
+ no '\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used.
-`\thanks{TEXT}'
- The `\thanks' command produces a `\footnote' to the title, usually
+'\thanks{TEXT}'
+ The '\thanks' command produces a '\footnote' to the title, usually
used for credit acknowledgements.
-`\title{TEXT}'
- The `\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document.
- Use `\\' to force a line break, as usual.
+'\title{TEXT}'
+ The '\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document.
+ Use '\\' to force a line break, as usual.
-19.2 `\pagenumbering'
+19.2 '\pagenumbering'
=====================
Synopsis:
@@ -3627,62 +3859,58 @@ Synopsis:
Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE:
-`arabic'
+'arabic'
arabic numerals
-
-`roman'
+'roman'
lowercase Roman numerals
-
-`Roman'
+'Roman'
uppercase Roman numerals
-
-`alph'
+'alph'
lowercase letters
-
-`Alph'
+'Alph'
uppercase letters
-19.3 `\pagestyle'
+19.3 '\pagestyle'
=================
Synopsis:
\pagestyle{STYLE}
- The `\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are
+ The '\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are
typeset from the current page onwards. Values for STYLE:
-`plain'
+'plain'
Just a plain page number.
-`empty'
+'empty'
Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.
-`headings'
+'headings'
Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies
what goes in the headers.
-`myheadings'
- Custom headers, specified via the `\markboth' or the `\markright'
+'myheadings'
+ Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright'
commands.
- Here are the descriptions of `\markboth' and `\markright':
+ Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright':
-`\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}'
+'\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}'
Sets both the left and the right heading. A "left-hand heading"
- (LEFT) is generated by the last `\markboth' command before the end
+ (LEFT) is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end
of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT is generated by
- the first `\markboth' or `\markright' that comes on the page if
+ the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if
there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page.
-`\markright{RIGHT}'
+'\markright{RIGHT}'
Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.
-19.4 `\thispagestyle{STYLE}'
+19.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}'
============================
-The `\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the
-`\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to
+The '\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the
+'\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to
STYLE for the current page only.
20 Spaces
@@ -3690,70 +3918,70 @@ STYLE for the current page only.
LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.
- Another space-producing command is `\,' to produce a "thin" space
+ Another space-producing command is '\,' to produce a "thin" space
(usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is more often
-useful in math mode (*note Spacing in math mode::).
+useful in math mode (*note Spacing in math mode::).
-20.1 `\hspace'
+20.1 '\hspace'
==============
Synopsis:
\hspace[*]{LENGTH}
- The `\hspace' command adds horizontal space. The LENGTH argument can
+ The '\hspace' command adds horizontal space. The LENGTH argument can
be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands: points, inches, etc.
It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive space
-with an `\hspace' command; adding negative space is like backspacing.
+with an '\hspace' command; adding negative space is like backspacing.
LaTeX normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning
-or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional `*' form.
+or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional '*' form.
-20.2 `\hfill'
+20.2 '\hfill'
=============
-The `\hfill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which has no
+The '\hfill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which has no
natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed.
- The `\fill' parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the
-glue value `0pt plus1fill'); thus, `\hspace\fill' is equivalent to
-`\hfill'.
+ The '\fill' parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the
+glue value '0pt plus1fill'); thus, '\hspace\fill' is equivalent to
+'\hfill'.
-20.3 `\SPACE'
+20.3 '\SPACE'
=============
-The `\ ' (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's useful
-after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example `Knuth's
+The '\ ' (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's useful
+after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example 'Knuth's
article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental'. It is also often
-used after control sequences, as in `\TeX\ is a nice system.'
+used after control sequences, as in '\TeX\ is a nice system.'
- In normal circumstances, `\'<tab> and `\'<newline> are equivalent to
-`\ '.
+ In normal circumstances, '\'<tab> and '\'<newline> are equivalent to
+'\ '.
-20.4 `\@'
+20.4 '\@'
=========
-The `\@' command makes the following punctuation character end a
+The '\@' command makes the following punctuation character end a
sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a
-capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without `\@':
+capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without '\@':
- ... in C\@. Pascal, though ...
- ... in C. Pascal, though ...
+ ... in C\@. Pascal, though ...
+ ... in C. Pascal, though ...
produces
- ... in C. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ...
+ ... in C. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ...
-20.5 `\thinspace'
+20.5 '\thinspace'
=================
-`\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6
+'\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6
of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as in '".
-20.6 `\/'
+20.6 '\/'
=========
-The `\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small space
+The '\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small space
defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the
character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character
typically has a large italic correction value.
@@ -3761,75 +3989,75 @@ typically has a large italic correction value.
If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary
to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a
very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as
-normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the `f's
+normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the 'f's
are nicely separated) with f: f;.
Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic
correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space
-after the `f') with pdfTeX.
+after the 'f') with pdfTeX.
-20.7 `\hrulefill'
+20.7 '\hrulefill'
=================
-The `\hrulefill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can
+The '\hrulefill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can
stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal
rule.
-20.8 `\dotfill'
+20.8 '\dotfill'
===============
-The `\dotfill' command produces a "rubber length" that fills with dots
+The '\dotfill' command produces a "rubber length" that fills with dots
instead of just white space.
-20.9 `\addvspace'
+20.9 '\addvspace'
=================
-`\addvspace{length}'
+'\addvspace{length}'
- The `\addvspace' command normally adds a vertical space of height
+ The '\addvspace' command normally adds a vertical space of height
length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same
-point in the output by a previous `\addvspace' command, then this
+point in the output by a previous '\addvspace' command, then this
command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length
-of the total vertical space equal to `length'.
+of the total vertical space equal to 'length'.
-20.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip'
+20.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip'
====================================
These commands produce a given amount of space.
-`\bigskip'
- The same as `\vspace{bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line
+'\bigskip'
+ The same as '\vspace{bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line
space (with stretch and shrink).
-`\medskip'
- The same as `\vspace{medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a
+'\medskip'
+ The same as '\vspace{medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a
line space (with stretch and shrink).
-`\smallskip'
- The same as `\vspace{smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter
+'\smallskip'
+ The same as '\vspace{smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter
of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
- The `\...amount' parameters are determined by the document class.
+ The '\...amount' parameters are determined by the document class.
-20.11 `\vfill'
+20.11 '\vfill'
==============
-The `\vfill' fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can
+The '\vfill' fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can
stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to
-`\vspace{\fill}' (*note \hfill::).
+'\vspace{\fill}' (*note \hfill::).
-20.12 `\vspace[*]{LENGTH}'
+20.12 '\vspace[*]{LENGTH}'
==========================
Synopsis:
\vspace[*]{LENGTH}
- The `\vspace' command adds the vertical space LENGTH, i.e., a rubber
+ The '\vspace' command adds the vertical space LENGTH, i.e., a rubber
length. LENGTH can be negative or positive.
- Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by `\vspace' at the
-top or bottom of a page. With the optional `*' argument, the space is
+ Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by '\vspace' at the
+top or bottom of a page. With the optional '*' argument, the space is
not removed.
21 Boxes
@@ -3838,14 +4066,14 @@ not removed.
All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be
used in the arguments of the box-making commands.
-21.1 `\mbox{TEXT}'
+21.1 '\mbox{TEXT}'
==================
-The `\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text
+The '\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text
created by its argument. The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can
be used to prevent hyphenation.
-21.2 `\fbox' and `\framebox'
+21.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox'
============================
Synopses:
@@ -3853,77 +4081,73 @@ Synopses:
\fbox{TEXT}
\framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}
- The `\fbox' and `\framebox' commands are like `\mbox', except that
+ The '\fbox' and '\framebox' commands are like '\mbox', except that
they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.
- In addition, the `\framebox' command allows for explicit
+ In addition, the '\framebox' command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a
dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument.
- Both commands produce a rule of thickness `\fboxrule' (default
-`.4pt'), and leave a space of `\fboxsep' (default `3pt') between the
+ Both commands produce a rule of thickness '\fboxrule' (default
+'.4pt'), and leave a space of '\fboxsep' (default '3pt') between the
rule and the contents of the box.
- *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the `\framebox' command in the
-`picture' environment.
+ *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the '\framebox' command in the
+'picture' environment.
-21.3 `lrbox'
+21.3 'lrbox'
============
-`\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}'
+'\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}'
- This is the environment form of `\sbox'.
+ This is the environment form of '\sbox'.
- The text inside the environment is saved in the box `cmd', which must
-have been declared with `\newsavebox'.
+ The text inside the environment is saved in the box 'cmd', which must
+have been declared with '\newsavebox'.
-21.4 `\makebox'
+21.4 '\makebox'
===============
Synopsis:
\makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}
- The `\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the
+ The '\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the
TEXT specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional WIDTH
argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the
optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values:
-`c'
+'c'
Centered (default).
-
-`l'
+'l'
Flush left.
-
-`r'
+'r'
Flush right.
-
-`s'
+'s'
Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain
stretchable space for this to work.
- `\makebox' is also used within the picture environment *note \makebox
+ '\makebox' is also used within the picture environment *note \makebox
(picture)::.
-21.5 `\parbox'
+21.5 '\parbox'
==============
Synopsis:
\parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT}
- The `\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in
-`paragraph' mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text,
+ The '\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in
+'paragraph' mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text,
with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any
-paragraph-making environments inside a `\parbox' argument. For larger
+paragraph-making environments inside a '\parbox' argument. For larger
pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making
-environment, you should use a `minipage' environment (*note minipage::).
+environment, you should use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::).
- `\parbox' has two mandatory arguments:
+ '\parbox' has two mandatory arguments:
WIDTH
the width of the parbox;
-
TEXT
the text that goes inside the parbox.
@@ -3936,27 +4160,24 @@ bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text
The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the
box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used.
-`t'
+'t'
text is placed at the top of the box.
-
-`c'
+'c'
text is centered in the box.
-
-`b'
+'b'
text is placed at the bottom of the box.
-
-`s'
+'s'
stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable
space for this to work.
-21.6 `\raisebox'
+21.6 '\raisebox'
================
Synopsis:
\raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text}
- The `\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory
+ The '\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory
argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a
negative amount). TEXT itself is processed in LR mode.
@@ -3965,39 +4186,39 @@ specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the
baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and
depth.
-21.7 `\savebox'
+21.7 '\savebox'
===============
Synopsis:
\savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT}
- This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with `\makebox' (*note
+ This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with '\makebox' (*note
\makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves
it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with
-`\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).
+'\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).
-21.8 `\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}'
+21.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}'
===========================
Synopsis:
\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}
- `\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with `\mbox' (*note \mbox::)
+ '\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with '\mbox' (*note \mbox::)
except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal
output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD. \BOXCMD must have been
-previously declared with `\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).
+previously declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).
-21.9 `\usebox{\BOXCMD'
+21.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD'
======================
Synopsis:
\usebox{\BOXCMD}
- `\usebox' producesthe box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by a
-`\savebox' command (*note \savebox::).
+ '\usebox' producesthe box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by a
+'\savebox' command (*note \savebox::).
22 Special insertions
*********************
@@ -4015,294 +4236,294 @@ The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called
Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX will
do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as
-itself, include a `\' in front of the character. For example, `\$' will
-produce `$' in your output.
+itself, include a '\' in front of the character. For example, '\$' will
+produce '$' in your output.
- One exception to this rule is `\' itself, because `\\' has its own
+ One exception to this rule is '\' itself, because '\\' has its own
special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing
-`$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter `\' is produced by using
-`\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::).
+'$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter '\' is produced by using
+'\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::).
- Also, `\~' and `\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the
+ Also, '\~' and '\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the
following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a standalone
-`~' or `^', you can again use a verbatim command.
+'~' or '^', you can again use a verbatim command.
Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
-know its number by using the `\symbol' command. For example, the visible
-space character used in the `\verb*' command has the code decimal 32, so
-it can be typed as `\symbol{32}'.
+know its number by using the '\symbol' command. For example, the
+visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code
+decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'.
- You can also specify octal numbers with `'' or hexadecimal numbers
-with `"', so the previous example could also be written as
-`\symbol{'40}' or `\symbol{"20}'.
+ You can also specify octal numbers with ''' or hexadecimal numbers
+with '"', so the previous example could also be written as
+'\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.
22.2 Text symbols
=================
LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in
running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not
-available in OT1; you may need to load the `textcomp' package.
+available in OT1; you may need to load the 'textcomp' package.
-`\copyright'
-`\textcopyright'
+'\copyright'
+'\textcopyright'
The copyright symbol, (C).
-`\dag'
+'\dag'
The dagger symbol (in text).
-`\ddag'
+'\ddag'
The double dagger symbol (in text).
-`\LaTeX'
+'\LaTeX'
The LaTeX logo.
-`\guillemotleft (<<)'
-`\guillemotright (>>)'
-`\guilsinglleft (<)'
-`\guilsinglright (>)'
+'\guillemotleft (<<)'
+'\guillemotright (>>)'
+'\guilsinglleft (<)'
+'\guilsinglright (>)'
Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French:
<<, >>, <, >.
-`\ldots'
-`\dots'
-`\textellipsis'
- An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `...'. `\ldots' and
- `\dots' also work in math mode.
+'\ldots'
+'\dots'
+'\textellipsis'
+ An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '...'. '\ldots' and
+ '\dots' also work in math mode.
-`\lq'
- Left (opening) quote: `.
+'\lq'
+ Left (opening) quote: '.
-`\P'
-`\textparagraph'
+'\P'
+'\textparagraph'
Paragraph sign (pilcrow).
-`\pounds'
-`\textsterling'
+'\pounds'
+'\textsterling'
English pounds sterling: #.
-`\quotedblbase (,,)'
-`\quotesinglbase (,)'
+'\quotedblbase (,,)'
+'\quotesinglbase (,)'
Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: ,, and ,.
-`\rq'
+'\rq'
Right (closing) quote: '.
-`\S'
+'\S'
Section symbol.
-`\TeX'
+'\TeX'
The TeX logo.
-`\textasciicircum'
+'\textasciicircum'
ASCII circumflex: ^.
-`\textasciitilde'
+'\textasciitilde'
ASCII tilde: ~.
-`\textasteriskcentered'
+'\textasteriskcentered'
Centered asterisk: *.
-`\textbackslash'
+'\textbackslash'
Backslash: \.
-`\textbar'
+'\textbar'
Vertical bar: |.
-`\textbardbl'
+'\textbardbl'
Double vertical bar.
-`\textbigcircle'
+'\textbigcircle'
Big circle symbol.
-`\textbraceleft'
+'\textbraceleft'
Left brace: {.
-`\textbraceright'
+'\textbraceright'
Right brace: }.
-`\textbullet'
+'\textbullet'
Bullet: *.
-`\textcircled{LETTER}'
+'\textcircled{LETTER}'
LETTER in a circle, as in (R).
-`\textcompwordmark'
-`\textcapitalwordmark'
-`\textascenderwordmark'
- Composite word mark (invisible). The `\textcapital...' form has
- the cap height of the font, while the `\textascender...' form has
+'\textcompwordmark'
+'\textcapitalwordmark'
+'\textascenderwordmark'
+ Composite word mark (invisible). The '\textcapital...' form has
+ the cap height of the font, while the '\textascender...' form has
the ascender height.
-`\textdagger'
+'\textdagger'
Dagger: \dag.
-`\textdaggerdbl'
+'\textdaggerdbl'
Double dagger: \ddag.
-`\textdollar (or `$')'
+'\textdollar (or '$')'
Dollar sign: $.
-`\textemdash (or `---')'
+'\textemdash (or '---')'
Em-dash: -- (for punctuation).
-`\textendash (or `--')'
+'\textendash (or '--')'
En-dash: -- (for ranges).
-`\texteuro'
+'\texteuro'
The Euro symbol: Euro.
-`\textexclamdown (or `!`')'
+'\textexclamdown (or '!`')'
Upside down exclamation point: !.
-`\textgreater'
+'\textgreater'
Greater than: >.
-`\textless'
+'\textless'
Less than: <.
-`\textleftarrow'
+'\textleftarrow'
Left arrow.
-`\textordfeminine'
-`\textordmasculine'
+'\textordfeminine'
+'\textordmasculine'
Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: a, o.
-`\textperiodcentered'
+'\textperiodcentered'
Centered period: \cdot.
-`\textquestiondown (or `?`')'
+'\textquestiondown (or '?`')'
Upside down questionation point: ?.
-`\textquotedblleft (or ```')'
+'\textquotedblleft (or '``')'
Double left quote: ".
-`\textquotedblright (or `'')'
+'\textquotedblright (or ''')'
Double right quote: ".
-`\textquoteleft (or ``')'
- Single left quote: `.
+'\textquoteleft (or '`')'
+ Single left quote: '.
-`\textquoteright (or `'')'
+'\textquoteright (or ''')'
Single right quote: '.
-`\textquotestraightbase'
-`\textquotestraightdblbase'
+'\textquotestraightbase'
+'\textquotestraightdblbase'
Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.
-`\textregistered'
+'\textregistered'
Registered symbol: (R).
-`\textrightarrow'
+'\textrightarrow'
Right arrow.
-`\textthreequartersemdash'
+'\textthreequartersemdash'
"Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
-`\texttrademark'
+'\texttrademark'
Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}.
-`\texttwelveudash'
+'\texttwelveudash'
"Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
-`\textunderscore'
+'\textunderscore'
Underscore: _.
-`\textvisiblespace'
+'\textvisiblespace'
Visible space symbol.
22.3 Accents
============
LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages,
-through the `babel' package and related support. This section does not
+through the 'babel' package and related support. This section does not
attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core LaTeX
commands for creating accented characters.
- The `\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with
+ The '\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with
capital letters. These are not available with OT1.
-`\"'
-`\capitaldieresis'
+'\"'
+'\capitaldieresis'
Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in o".
-`\''
-`\capitalacute'
- Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the `tabbing' environment,
+'\''
+'\capitalacute'
+ Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the 'tabbing' environment,
pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note
tabbing::).
-`\.'
+'\.'
Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o..
-`\='
-`\capitalmacron'
+'\='
+'\capitalmacron'
Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=.
-`\^'
-`\capitalcircumflex'
+'\^'
+'\capitalcircumflex'
Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^.
-`\`'
-`\capitalgrave'
+'\`'
+'\capitalgrave'
Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`. In the
- `tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin
+ 'tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin
(*note tabbing::).
-`\~'
-`\capitaltilde'
+'\~'
+'\capitaltilde'
Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~.
-`\b'
+'\b'
Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_.
-`\c'
-`\capitalcedilla'
+'\c'
+'\capitalcedilla'
Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in c,.
-`\d'
-`\capitaldotaccent'
+'\d'
+'\capitaldotaccent'
Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o.
-`\H'
-`\capitalhungarumlaut'
+'\H'
+'\capitalhungarumlaut'
Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in
o''.
-`\i'
- Produces a dotless i, as in `i'.
+'\i'
+ Produces a dotless i, as in 'i'.
-`\j'
- Produces a dotless j, as in `j'.
+'\j'
+ Produces a dotless j, as in 'j'.
-`\k'
-`\capitalogonek'
- Produces a letter with ogonek, as in `o;'. Not available in the
+'\k'
+'\capitalogonek'
+ Produces a letter with ogonek, as in 'o;'. Not available in the
OT1 encoding.
-`\r'
-`\capitalring'
- Produces a ring accent, as in `o*'.
+'\r'
+'\capitalring'
+ Produces a ring accent, as in 'o*'.
-`\t'
-`\capitaltie'
-`\newtie'
-`\capitalnewtie'
- Produces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. The `\newtie' form is
+'\t'
+'\capitaltie'
+'\newtie'
+'\capitalnewtie'
+ Produces a tie-after accent, as in 'oo['. The '\newtie' form is
centered in its box.
-`\u'
-`\capitalbreve'
- Produces a breve accent, as in `o('.
+'\u'
+'\capitalbreve'
+ Produces a breve accent, as in 'o('.
-`\underbar'
+'\underbar'
Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text.
The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is
always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through
- descenders. See also `\underline' in *note Math miscellany::.
+ descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::.
-`\v'
-`\capitalcaron'
- Produces a ha'c<ek (check, caron) accent, as in `o<'.
+'\v'
+'\capitalcaron'
+ Produces a ha'c<ek (check, caron) accent, as in 'o<'.
22.4 Non-English characters
===========================
@@ -4310,58 +4531,58 @@ capital letters. These are not available with OT1.
Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly used
in languages other than English.
-`\aa'
-`\AA'
+'\aa'
+'\AA'
aa and AA.
-`\ae'
-`\AE'
+'\ae'
+'\AE'
ae and AE.
-`\dh'
-`\DH'
+'\dh'
+'\DH'
Icelandic letter eth: d and D.
-`\dj'
-`\DJ'
+'\dj'
+'\DJ'
xxxx
-`\ij'
-`\IJ'
+'\ij'
+'\IJ'
ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
-`\l'
-`\L'
+'\l'
+'\L'
/l and /L.
-`\ng'
-`\NG'
+'\ng'
+'\NG'
xxxx
-`\o'
-`\O'
+'\o'
+'\O'
/o and /O.
-`\oe'
-`\OE'
+'\oe'
+'\OE'
oe and OE.
-`\ss'
-`\SS'
+'\ss'
+'\SS'
ss and SS.
-`\th'
-`\TH'
+'\th'
+'\TH'
Icelandic letter thorn: th and TH.
-22.5 `\rule'
+22.5 '\rule'
============
Synopsis:
\rule[RAISE]{WIDTH}{THICKNESS}
- The `\rule' command produces "rules", that is, lines or rectangles.
+ The '\rule' command produces "rules", that is, lines or rectangles.
The arguments are:
RAISE
@@ -4373,15 +4594,15 @@ WIDTH
THICKNESS
The thickness of the rule (mandatory).
-22.6 `\today'
+22.6 '\today'
=============
-The `\today' command produces today's date, in the format `MONTH DD,
-YYYY'; for example, `July 4, 1976'. It uses the predefined counters
-`\day', `\month', and `\year' (*note \day \month \year::) to do this.
+The '\today' command produces today's date, in the format 'MONTH DD,
+YYYY'; for example, 'July 4, 1976'. It uses the predefined counters
+'\day', '\month', and '\year' (*note \day \month \year::) to do this.
It is not updated as the program runs.
- The `datetime' package, among others, can produce a wide variety of
+ The 'datetime' package, among others, can produce a wide variety of
other date formats.
23 Splitting the input
@@ -4393,35 +4614,35 @@ several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run LaTeX.
-23.1 `\include'
+23.1 '\include'
===============
Synopsis:
\include{FILE}
- If no `\includeonly' command is present, the `\include' command
-executes `\clearpage' to start a new page (*note \clearpage::), then
-reads FILE, then does another `\clearpage'.
+ If no '\includeonly' command is present, the '\include' command
+executes '\clearpage' to start a new page (*note \clearpage::), then
+reads FILE, then does another '\clearpage'.
- Given an `\includeonly' command, the `\include' actions are only run
-if FILE is listed as an argument to `\includeonly'. See the next
+ Given an '\includeonly' command, the '\include' actions are only run
+if FILE is listed as an argument to '\includeonly'. See the next
section.
- The `\include' command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
-read by another `\include' command.
+ The '\include' command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
+read by another '\include' command.
-23.2 \`includeonly'
+23.2 \'includeonly'
===================
Synopsis:
\includeonly{FILE1,FILE2,...}
- The `\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by
-subsequent `\include' commands. The list of filenames is
-comma-separated. Each FILE must exactly match a filename specified in a
-`\include' command for the selection to be effective.
+ The '\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by
+subsequent '\include' commands. The list of filenames is
+comma-separated. Each FILE must exactly match a filename specified in a
+'\include' command for the selection to be effective.
This command can only appear in the preamble.
@@ -4432,13 +4653,13 @@ Synopsis:
\input{FILE}
- The `\input' command causes the specified FILE to be read and
+ The '\input' command causes the specified FILE to be read and
processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at
that point.
- If FILE does not end in `.tex' (e.g., `foo' or `foo.bar'), it is
-first tried with that extension (`foo.tex' or `foo.bar.tex'). If that
-is not found, the original FILE is tried (`foo' or `foo.bar').
+ If FILE does not end in '.tex' (e.g., 'foo' or 'foo.bar'), it is
+first tried with that extension ('foo.tex' or 'foo.bar.tex'). If that
+is not found, the original FILE is tried ('foo' or 'foo.bar').
24 Front/back matter
********************
@@ -4446,64 +4667,62 @@ is not found, the original FILE is tried (`foo' or `foo.bar').
24.1 Tables of contents
=======================
-A table of contents is produced with the `\tableofcontents' command.
+A table of contents is produced with the '\tableofcontents' command.
You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go;
LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must have generated a
-`.toc' file.
+'.toc' file.
- The `\tableofcontents' command produces a heading, but it does not
+ The '\tableofcontents' command produces a heading, but it does not
automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the table
-of contents, write a `\newpage' command after the `\tableofcontents'
+of contents, write a '\newpage' command after the '\tableofcontents'
command.
- The analogous commands `\listoffigures' and `\listoftables' produce a
+ The analogous commands '\listoffigures' and '\listoftables' produce a
list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. Everything works
exactly the same as for the table of contents.
- The command `\nofiles' overrides these commands, and _prevents_ any
+ The command '\nofiles' overrides these commands, and _prevents_ any
of these lists from being generated.
24.1.1 \addcontentsline
-----------------------
-The `\addcontentsline'{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT} command adds an entry to the
+The '\addcontentsline'{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT} command adds an entry to the
specified list or table where:
EXT
The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
- typically one of: `toc' (table of contents), `lof' (list of
- figures), or `lot' (list of tables).
+ typically one of: 'toc' (table of contents), 'lof' (list of
+ figures), or 'lot' (list of tables).
UNIT
The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the
following, matching the value of the EXT argument:
- `toc'
- The name of the sectional unit: `part', `chapter', `section',
- `subsection', `subsubsection'.
-
- `lof'
+ 'toc'
+ The name of the sectional unit: 'part', 'chapter', 'section',
+ 'subsection', 'subsubsection'.
+ 'lof'
For the list of figures.
-
- `lot'
+ 'lot'
For the list of tables.
ENTRY
The actual text of the entry.
- What is written to the `.EXT' file is the command
-`\contentsline{UNIT}{NAME}'.
+ What is written to the '.EXT' file is the command
+'\contentsline{UNIT}{NAME}'.
24.1.2 \addtocontents
---------------------
-The `\addtocontents'{EXT}{TEXT} command adds text (or formatting
-commands) directly to the `.EXT' file that generates the table of
+The '\addtocontents'{EXT}{TEXT} command adds text (or formatting
+commands) directly to the '.EXT' file that generates the table of
contents or lists of figures or tables.
EXT
The extension of the file on which information is to be written:
- `toc' (table of contents), `lof' (list of figures), or `lot' (list
+ 'toc' (table of contents), 'lof' (list of figures), or 'lot' (list
of tables).
TEXT
@@ -4512,66 +4731,66 @@ TEXT
24.2 Glossaries
===============
-The command `\makeglossary' enables creating glossaries.
+The command '\makeglossary' enables creating glossaries.
- The command `\glossary{TEXT}' writes a glossary entry for TEXT to an
-auxiliary file with the `.glo' extension.
+ The command '\glossary{TEXT}' writes a glossary entry for TEXT to an
+auxiliary file with the '.glo' extension.
Specifically, what gets written is the command
-`\glossaryentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current `\thepage'
+'\glossaryentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current '\thepage'
value.
- The `glossary' package on CTAN provides support for fancier
+ The 'glossary' package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.
24.3 Indexes
============
-The command `\makeindex' enables creating indexes. Put this in the
+The command '\makeindex' enables creating indexes. Put this in the
preamble.
- The command `\index{TEXT}' writes an index entry for TEXT to an
-auxiliary file with the `.idx' extension.
+ The command '\index{TEXT}' writes an index entry for TEXT to an
+auxiliary file with the '.idx' extension.
Specifically, what gets written is the command
-`\indexentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current `\thepage'
+'\indexentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current '\thepage'
value.
- To generate a index entry for `bar' that says `See foo', use a
-vertical bar: `\index{bar|see{foo}}'. Use `seealso' instead of `see' to
-make a `See also' entry.
+ To generate a index entry for 'bar' that says 'See foo', use a
+vertical bar: '\index{bar|see{foo}}'. Use 'seealso' instead of 'see' to
+make a 'See also' entry.
- The text `See' is defined by the macro `\seename', and `See also' by
-the macro `\alsoname'. These can be redefined for other languages.
+ The text 'See' is defined by the macro '\seename', and 'See also' by
+the macro '\alsoname'. These can be redefined for other languages.
- The generated `.idx' file is then sorted with an external command,
-usually either `makeindex' (`http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex')
-or (the multi-lingual) `xindy' (`http://xindy.sourceforge.net'). This
-results in a `.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index.
+ The generated '.idx' file is then sorted with an external command,
+usually either 'makeindex' ('http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex')
+or (the multi-lingual) 'xindy' ('http://xindy.sourceforge.net'). This
+results in a '.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index.
- The index is usually generated with the `\printindex' command. This
-is defined in the `makeidx' package, so `\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to
+ The index is usually generated with the '\printindex' command. This
+is defined in the 'makeidx' package, so '\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to
be in the preamble.
- The rubber length `\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in
-the printed index; its default value is `10pt plus5pt minus3pt'.
+ The rubber length '\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in
+the printed index; its default value is '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'.
- The `showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the
+ The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the
margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing
the index.
- The `multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX
+ The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX
FAQ entry on this topic,
-`http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind'.
+'http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind'.
25 Letters
**********
You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The
-`letter' document class is designed to make a number of letters at once,
+'letter' document class is designed to make a number of letters at once,
although you can make just one if you so desire.
- Your `.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other
+ Your '.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other
document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a
minimum:
@@ -4580,7 +4799,7 @@ minimum:
... letters ...
\end{document}
- Each letter is a `letter' environment, whose argument is the name and
+ Each letter is a 'letter' environment, whose argument is the name and
address of the recipient. For example, you might have:
\begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
@@ -4588,32 +4807,32 @@ address of the recipient. For example, you might have:
...
\end{letter}
- The letter itself begins with the `\opening' command. The text of
+ The letter itself begins with the '\opening' command. The text of
the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that
-make no sense in a letter, like `\chapter', do not work. The letter
-closes with a `\closing' command.
+make no sense in a letter, like '\chapter', do not work. The letter
+closes with a '\closing' command.
- After the `closing', you can have additional material. The `\cc'
-command produces the usual "cc: ...". There's also a similar `\encl'
-command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use `\\' to
+ After the 'closing', you can have additional material. The '\cc'
+command produces the usual "cc: ...". There's also a similar '\encl'
+command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use '\\' to
separate the items.
- These commands are used with the `letter' class.
+ These commands are used with the 'letter' class.
25.1 \address{RETURN-ADDRESS}
=============================
-The `\address' specifies the return address of a letter, as it should
+The '\address' specifies the return address of a letter, as it should
appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the address
-should be separated by `\\' commands.
+should be separated by '\\' commands.
- If you do not make an `\address' declaration, then the letter will be
+ If you do not make an '\address' declaration, then the letter will be
formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead.
(*Note Overview::, for details on your local implementation). If you
-give an `\address' declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a
+give an '\address' declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a
personal letter.
-25.2 `\cc'
+25.2 '\cc'
==========
Synopsis:
@@ -4623,17 +4842,17 @@ Synopsis:
Produce a list of NAMEs the letter was copied to. Each name is
printed on a separate line.
-25.3 `\closing'
+25.3 '\closing'
===============
Synopsis:
\closing{text}
- A letter closes with a `\closing' command, for example,
+ A letter closes with a '\closing' command, for example,
\closing{Best Regards,}
-25.4 `\encl'
+25.4 '\encl'
============
Synopsis:
@@ -4642,133 +4861,133 @@ Synopsis:
Declare a list of one more enclosures.
-25.5 `\location'
+25.5 '\location'
================
-`\location{address}'
+'\location{address}'
This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only
-appears if the `firstpage' pagestyle is selected.
+appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected.
-25.6 `\makelabels'
+25.6 '\makelabels'
==================
-`\makelabels{number}'
+'\makelabels{number}'
If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet
-of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.
+of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.
-25.7 `\name'
+25.7 '\name'
============
-`\name{June Davenport}'
+'\name{June Davenport}'
Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return
address.
-25.8 `\opening{TEXT}'
+25.8 '\opening{TEXT}'
=====================
Synopsis:
\opening{TEXT}
- A letter begins with the `\opening' command. The mandatory argument,
+ A letter begins with the '\opening' command. The mandatory argument,
TEXT, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. For instance:
\opening{Dear Joe,}
-25.9 `\ps'
+25.9 '\ps'
==========
-Use the `\ps' command to start a postscript in a letter, after
-`\closing'.
+Use the '\ps' command to start a postscript in a letter, after
+'\closing'.
-25.10 `\signature{TEXT}'
+25.10 '\signature{TEXT}'
========================
Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the
-space for your signature. `\\' starts a new line within TEXT as usual.
+space for your signature. '\\' starts a new line within TEXT as usual.
-25.11 `\startbreaks'
+25.11 '\startbreaks'
====================
-`\startbreaks'
+'\startbreaks'
- Used after a `\stopbreaks' command to allow page breaks again.
+ Used after a '\stopbreaks' command to allow page breaks again.
-25.12 `\stopbreaks'
+25.12 '\stopbreaks'
===================
-`\stopbreaks'
+'\stopbreaks'
- Inhibit page breaks until a `\startbreaks' command occurs.
+ Inhibit page breaks until a '\startbreaks' command occurs.
-25.13 `\telephone'
+25.13 '\telephone'
==================
-`\telephone{number}'
+'\telephone{number}'
- This is your telephone number. This only appears if the `firstpage'
+ This is your telephone number. This only appears if the 'firstpage'
pagestyle is selected.
26 Terminal input/output
************************
-26.1 `\typein[CMD]{MSG}'
+26.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}'
========================
Synopsis:
\typein[\CMD]{MSG}
- `\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and
+ '\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and
wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the
optional \CMD argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it
-had been included in the input file in place of the `\typein' command.
+had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command.
If the \CMD argument is present, it must be a command name. This
command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.
-26.2 `\typeout{MSG}'
+26.2 '\typeout{MSG}'
====================
Synopsis:
\typeout{MSG}
- Prints `msg' on the terminal and in the `log' file. Commands in
-`msg' that are defined with `\newcommand' or `\renewcommand' (among
+ Prints 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file. Commands in
+'msg' that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among
others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed.
LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
-and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to `msg'. A `\space'
-command in `msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of
-surrounding spaces. A `^^J' in `msg' prints a newline.
+and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. A '\space'
+command in 'msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of
+surrounding spaces. A '^^J' in 'msg' prints a newline.
27 Command line
***************
The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX
-uses `.tex' as a default file extension. If you omit the input file
+uses '.tex' as a default file extension. If you omit the input file
entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You specify command
options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g.
latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'
-will process `foo.tex' without pausing after every error.
+will process 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error.
- If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a `*'
-prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type `\stop' (and return) and
+ If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a '*'
+prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type '\stop' (and return) and
it will prematurely end the document.
Appendix A Document templates
*****************************
Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will
-be useful. Additional templates are collected at
-`http://www.howtotex.com/templates'.
+be useful. Additional template resources are listed
+'http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates'.
-A.1 `book' template
+A.1 'book' template
===================
\documentclass{book}
@@ -4788,10 +5007,10 @@ Some other text.
The end.
\end{document}
-A.2 `beamer' template
+A.2 'beamer' template
=====================
-The `beamer' class creates slides presentations.
+The 'beamer' class creates slides presentations.
\documentclass{beamer}
@@ -4815,23 +5034,24 @@ The `beamer' class creates slides presentations.
\end{document}
-A.3 `tugboat' template
+
+A.3 'tugboat' template
======================
-`TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group,
-`http://tug.org/TUGboat'.
+'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group,
+'http://tug.org/TUGboat'.
\documentclass{ltugboat}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
- \usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black,
- urlcolor=black]{hyperref}
+\usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black,
+ urlcolor=black]{hyperref}
\else
- \usepackage{url}
+\usepackage{url}
\fi
-\title{Example \TUB\ Article}
+\title{Example \TUB\ article}
% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
@@ -4839,12 +5059,12 @@ A.3 `tugboat' template
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}
-\maketitle
-
\begin{document}
+\maketitle
+
\begin{abstract}
-This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue.
+This is an example article for \TUB{}.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
@@ -4856,22 +5076,23 @@ We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the
hyperref package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output).
Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.
-The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others:
+The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more:
-{\small
-\begin{verbatim}
+% verbatim blocks are often better in \small
+\begin{verbatim}[\small]
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
-\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \LaTeXe
-\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas
+\ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
+\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX
\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
-\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug
+\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP
+\TUB \TUG \tug
\UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE
\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
\careof \thinskip
-\acro{FRED} -> {\small fred} % please use!
+\acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use!
\cs{fred} -> \fred
\env{fred} -> \begin{fred}
\meta{fred} -> <fred>
@@ -4879,14 +5100,13 @@ The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others:
\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}
-}
For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
+(we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references).
Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.
-
\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX