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+
+\input mmmacs
+\input mmtrmacs
+
+\def\q{\hfill\quad}
+\def\os{\oldstyle}
+\font\logo=logo10
+\def\MF{{\logo METAFONT}}
+\parindent=0pt
+
+\def\today{\number\day\space\ifcase\month\or January\or February\or March\or April\or May\or
+ June\or July\or August\or September\or October\or November\or December\fi
+ \space\number\year}
+
+\headline={{\it preliminary version of \today \hfil Typesetting Malayalam with \TeX}}
+
+
+\centerline{\twelvebf Typesetting Malayalam with \TeX}\bigskip
+\centerline{Jeroen Hellingman}\bigskip
+
+{\narrower
+\noindent{\bf Abstract}\medskip
+
+\noindent Malayalam, a language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala,
+employs a beautiful but complicated script. This script uses numerous
+ligatures and places glyphs on top of each other and out of phonetic
+order. To be able to typeset Malayalam, a \MF\ containing all
+necessary letter forms, a pre-processor and a collection of
+\TeX-macro's were designed. Together they form a package called
+Malayalam-\TeX. This package enables the user to type Malayalam in an
+adaptable roman transliteration, which after being processed by the
+pre-processor, can be typeset with \TeX.
+
+During the design and development of the package, several shortcomings
+of the \TeX\ system appeared, which made a straightforward
+implementation of the Malayalam script difficult. Several additions to
+\TeX\ would have made the pre-processor unnecessary. Still, \MF\ and
+\TeX\ together proved to be a powerful tool that made the development
+of the package an enjoyable task.\par}
+
+\beginsection Introduction
+
+The Malayalam language, ({\mm \X{\<46>}\X{\<50>}\X{\<47>\<62>}\X{\<51>}\X{\<2>}}), which is the first language of
+an estimated {\os30}~million people in the South Indian state Kerala,
+uses its own script, which is characterised by curly shaped
+characters. It is believed that those rounded shapes developed because
+it was written on palm leaves with a metal nib, which would have
+pricked through the medium, if the script had contained sharp curves.
+The same rounded shapes can be found in the other South Indian and
+Sri~Lankan scripts, which are all closely related to Malayalam script.
+
+Through the centuries, Malayalam has been written in various scripts
+and variations of scripts. Until a few centuries ago, the Malayalam
+language was normally written in the Old Tamil or {\mm \X{\<46>}\X{\<242>\<63>}\X{\<51>\K{-.2}\<51>}}
+({\mmtr Mappi\d l\d la}) alphabet, also known as {\mm \X{\<53>}\X{\<70>\<164>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>\<72>}}
+({\mmtr va\d t\d te\b zuttu}), the `rounded characters'. This script however, did
+not contain many letters necessary for writing Sanskrit. They became
+necessary in writing Malayalam since the language absorbed many
+Sanskrit loans, which could only be written in an ambiguous way.
+
+To overcome those problems, the {\os17}th~century poet {\mm \X{\<36>\<72>}\X{\<70>\<186>}\X{\<165>\<72>}
+\X{\<14>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>}\X{\mmV{\<26>}\<27>}\X{\<79>}} ({\mmtr Tu\~njettu E\b zuttaccha\b n})\footnote*{literally
+``Father of Letters.''} adopted the modern Malayalam script, the
+so-called {\mm \X{\<6>}\X{\<80>\<47>}\X{\<70>\<53>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>\<72>}} ({\mmtr \=Aryave\b zuttu}) or `Aryan characters'
+from the Tamil Grantha alphabet to render Sanskrit poetry in
+Malayalam. Tamil Grantha, in its turn, was derived from the ancient
+Brahmi script. His alphabet quickly became the standard for writing
+Malayalam. (however, a variant of the old script, called {\mm \X{\<71>\<21>\<62>}\X{\<70>\<50>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>\<72>}}
+({\mmtr k\=ole\b zuttu}) was in use far into this century for keeping records
+in the Raja's palaces.)
+
+The Malayalam script still looks very similar to the Tamil script, but
+unlike Tamil, it uses complex conjunct characters, with letters
+subscribed to others, and out of phonetic order, as can be seen in
+most Indian scripts.
+
+With the introduction of the printing press in Kerala, somewhere in
+the {\os18}th~century, printing letters for Malayalam where designed,
+modelled after the, at that time, popular Latin Bodoni types, with
+large differences between thin and thick strokes. Printing Malayalam,
+however, proved to be quite complicated; in traditional typography,
+several hundreds of distinct lead glyphs where needed to typeset the
+language.
+
+To ease learning and typesetting, the government of the state of
+Kerala adopted a reformed script in {\os1974}. It abandons most of the
+subscribed conjuncts and all the irregular vowel signs. Although this
+script is now teached in all schools in Kerala, and newspapers are
+printed in it, the original script is still in widespread use, and
+mixtures of the two styles in one document can be seen regularly. In
+the following section I will explain the reformed script.
+
+\beginsection The Malayalam Script
+
+Like all scripts derived from Brahmi, Malayalam script is neither
+purely syllabic, nor purely alphabetic. The modern alphabet consists
+of {\os61}~syllabic characters, {\os15}~for the pure vowel sounds, and
+{\os36}~for the consonants followed by an `inherent'~{\mmtr a}. To write a
+syllable with another vowel, a special sign is applied to the normal
+consonant character. When two consonants appear next to each other
+without an intermediate vowel, They are joined to each other in some
+way.
+
+Traditionally, the Malayalam syllabary has been ordered, following the
+Sanskrit order, on phonetic principles, putting related sounds
+together. For the sounds not used in Sanskrit, new letters where added
+to the end of the syllabary.
+
+\noindent The vowels are:\footnote*{The traditional alphabet also
+includes the Sanskrit vowels {\mm \X{\<96>}}, {\mm \X{\<12>}}, and {\mm \X{\<97>}} for respectively
+{\mmtr {\rii}}, {\mmtr \d l}, and {\mmtr {\lii}}.}
+
+\bigskip
+\centerline{\vbox{\twelvemmc\halign{#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\cr
+{\mm \X{\<5>}} & {\mm \X{\<6>}} & {\mm \X{\<7>}} & {\mm \X{\<7>\<87>}} & {\mm \X{\<9>}} & {\mm \X{\<9>\<87>}} & {\mm \X{\<11>}} \cr
+{\mmtr a} & {\mmtr \=a} & {\mmtr i} & {\mmtr {\=\i}} & {\mmtr u} & {\mmtr \=u} & {\mmtr \d r} \cr
+{\mm \X{\<14>}} & {\mm \X{\<15>}} & {\mm \X{\<70>\<14>}} & {\mm \X{\<18>}} & {\mm \X{\<18>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<18>\<87>}} \cr
+{\mmtr e} & {\mmtr \=e} & {\mmtr ai}& {\mmtr o} & {\mmtr \=o}& {\mmtr au} \cr
+}}}
+\bigskip
+
+\noindent After the vowels, are normally listed the modifiers {\mm \<2>},
+{\mmtr \d m}, and {\mm \<3>}, {\mmtr \d h}. They are called {\it anusvaram} and {\it
+visargam} and represent a nasal sound and a aspiration respectively.
+
+The consonants are:
+
+\bigskip
+\centerline{\vbox{\twelvemmc\halign{#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q\q\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\cr
+{\mm \X{\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<22>}} & {\mm \X{\<23>}} & {\mm \X{\<24>}} & {\mm \X{\<25>}} & {\mm \X{\<47>}} & {\mm \X{\<48>}} & {\mm \X{\<50>}} & {\mm \X{\<53>}} \cr
+{\mmtr ka} & {\mmtr kha} & {\mmtr ga} & {\mmtr gha} & {\mmtr \.na} & {\mmtr ya} & {\mmtr ra} & {\mmtr la} & {\mmtr va} \cr
+{\mm \X{\<26>}} & {\mm \X{\<27>}} & {\mm \X{\<28>}} & {\mm \X{\<29>}} & {\mm \X{\<30>}} & {\mm \X{\<54>}} & {\mm \X{\<55>}} & {\mm \X{\<56>}} \cr
+{\mmtr ca} & {\mmtr cha} & {\mmtr ja} & {\mmtr jha} & {\mmtr \~na} & {\mmtr \'sa} & {\mmtr \d sa} & {\mmtr sa} \cr
+{\mm \X{\<31>}} & {\mm \X{\<32>}} & {\mm \X{\<33>}} & {\mm \X{\<34>}} & {\mm \X{\<35>}} & {\mm \X{\<57>}} & {\mm \X{\<51>}} & {\mm \X{\<52>}} & {\mm \X{\<49>}} \cr
+{\mmtr \d ta} & {\mmtr \d tha} & {\mmtr \d da} & {\mmtr \d dha} & {\mmtr \d na} & {\mmtr ha} & {\mmtr \d la} & {\mmtr \b za} & {\mmtr \b ra} \cr
+{\mm \X{\<36>}} & {\mm \X{\<37>}} & {\mm \X{\<38>}} & {\mm \X{\<39>}} & {\mm \X{\<40>}} \cr
+{\mmtr ta} & {\mmtr tha} & {\mmtr da} & {\mmtr dha} & {\mmtr na} \cr
+{\mm \X{\<42>}} & {\mm \X{\<43>}} & {\mm \X{\<44>}} & {\mm \X{\<45>}} & {\mm \X{\<46>}} \cr
+{\mmtr pa} & {\mmtr pha} & {\mmtr ba} & {\mmtr bha} & {\mmtr ma} \cr
+}}}
+\bigskip
+
+\noindent When a vowel follows a consonant, it is written with a vowel
+sign, some of them standing to the left, or on both sides of the
+consonant to which they belong. This can be quite confusing in the
+when one starts learning the script. Here the vowel signs are given
+with the letter {\mm \X{\<21>}}, {\it{\mmtr ka}}:
+
+\bigskip
+\centerline{\vbox{\twelvemmc\halign{#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\cr
+{\mm \X{\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<63>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<64>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<72>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<73>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<75>}} \cr
+{\mmtr ka} & {\mmtr k\=a} & {\mmtr ki} & {\mmtr k{\=\i}} & {\mmtr ku} & {\mmtr k\=u} & {\mmtr k\d r} \cr
+{\mm \X{\<70>\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<71>\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<70>\<70>\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<70>\<21>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<71>\<21>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<87>}} \cr
+{\mmtr ke} & {\mmtr k\=e} & {\mmtr kai}& {\mmtr ko} & {\mmtr k\=o}& {\mmtr kau} \cr
+}}}
+\bigskip
+
+\noindent The biggest complexities arise when two consonants follow
+each other. In that case there are several alternatives. First, the
+consonants are joined with each other to form a new conjunct, like in
+{\mm \X{\<162>}}, {\mm \X{\<194>}}, and {\mm \X{\<187>}}; second one can write the second consonant as
+a subscript to the first, like in {\mm \X{\<242>}}, and {\mm \X{\<241>}}; the third option
+is to use a special symbol, {\mm \<77>}, called {\mm \X{\<26>}\X{\<74>\<195>}\X{\<21>}\X{\<50>}},
+{\it{\mmtr candrakala}}, to indicate the absence of the inherent vowel in
+a consonant. This symbol is also used when a word ends in a consonant.
+Several letters form a ligature with this sign: {\mm \X{\<94>}} for {\mm \X{\<21>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<78>}} for
+{\mm \X{\<35>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<81>}} for {\mm \X{\<36>}\<77>} or {\mm \X{\<50>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<79>}} for {\mm \X{\<40>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<2>}} for {\mm \X{\<46>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<80>}} for
+{\mm \X{\<48>}\<77>}, and {\mm \X{\<82>}} for {\mm \X{\<51>}\<77>}.
+
+Some consonants have a special sign when they occur as the last
+element of a consonant cluster:
+{\mm \X{\<47>}} becomes {\mm {}\hbox{}\<83>} as in {\mm \X{\<21>\<83>}}, {\it{\mmtr kya}};
+{\mm \X{\<48>}} becomes {\mm {}\<74>\hbox{}} , standing to the left of the cluster, as in
+{\mm \X{\<74>\<21>}}, {\it{\mmtr kra}};
+{\mm \X{\<50>}} becomes {\mm {}\M{\hbox{}}{\<85>}}, as in {\mm \X{\M{\<21>}{\<85>}}}, {\it{\mmtr kla}}; and
+{\mm \X{\<53>}} becomes {\mm {}\hbox{}\K{-.5}\<86>} as in {\mm \X{\<21>\K{-.5}\<86>}}, {\it{\mmtr kva}}.
+
+\beginsection The font
+
+I faced several problems while designing the font for Malayalam: I
+have no knowledge of the language; I had no clear arrangement of all
+needed conjuncts, nor a good example typeface, which I could use as a
+guideline; and finally, I also had very little experience with \MF.
+
+After some trials, in which I produced Malayalam letters in the
+traditional typographic style, I decided to switch to a `script' style
+of letters, for two reasons. First designing and coding a font in the
+traditional style, with unnatural thick-thin transistions --~i.e.,
+transistions that do not appear when writing with a calligraphic
+pen~--, would have costed a lot of time, which I could not spend on
+it. Second, the traditional design is hard on the eyes, because it has
+a big difference between thick and thin. It often produces a page
+which looks `stained' from distance, instead of the more evenly
+distributed gray you see when you look at a page typeset in English.
+
+After this decision was made, I proceeded as follows. First, I drew
+each character about {\os2}~centimetres high out of free hand on graph
+paper with a yellow marker-pen, the same type you use to highlight
+text. When I was satisfied with this character, I decided where to put
+control points, and marked them with a black dot, measured the
+positions of the dots on the graph paper and coded them, together with
+the path my pen had made through those points, in \MF. After running
+\MF\ the character appeared on the screen for the first time. When I
+was not satisfied with its look, I would move some control points a
+bit, and re-run \MF. I repeated this process until I was satisfied
+with the character.
+
+Because many conjuncts consist of a part of each of the characters it
+is build up of, I defined a macro for most consonants. This way all
+that was needed to define the shape of a conjunct was a macro-call for
+each of the constituent consonants, sometimes adjusting some points
+where one consonant goes over into the other.
+
+This way of producing characters has proven very productive. I spend
+on average about half an hour per character --~although I needed
+several hours to get some, notably {\mm \X{\<28>}} and {\mm \X{\<47>}}, right~-- Still the
+results are acceptable, thanks to \MF, which does a great job of
+producing nice curves.
+
+Malayalam script includes many conjuncts of consonants which are build
+by placing a smaller variant of the glyph of the second consonant
+below the normal sized glyph of the first consonant. To avoid coding
+these smaller consonants again, I decided to create a second font,
+called the {\it subfont\/}, which contains only the characters that
+can be subscribed. This font uses the same code to produce the glyphs,
+but \MF-parameters have been adjusted, so that this font combines well
+with the `main'-font. The job of combining glyphs from the `sub' and
+`main' font to create stacked conjuncts is left to \TeX.
+
+My way of coding glyphs results in little `{\logo META}-ness'. Unlike
+Donald Knuth's Computer Modern fonts, only a few variations in letter
+style can be derived from the \MF-source. I produced several styles: a
+regular, slanted, and bold style drawn with a circular pen, and a
+style drawn with a `calligraphic' (elliptical) pen, in {\os6}, {\os8},
+{\os10}, {\os12}, and {\os17} point sizes. Beside those those, I
+created some `big' bold fonts for headlines and a few more
+experimental fonts. A sample of each style is given in appendix~C.
+
+\beginsection Typesetting Malayalam
+
+When you have a font for the English alphabet, typesetting is
+straightforward. Roughly speaking, all you have to do is to place the
+letters in a row, in the same order as you type them, taking care to
+move to the next line when the current line is filled up. There is
+roughly a one-to-one relationship between characters, letters, and
+glyphs. Typesetting Malayalam text is much more complicated. You have
+to use conjuncts, stack glyphs on top of each other, or place glyphs
+that represent sounds that come after a consonant before the glyph of
+representing that consonant.
+
+But when we look at Malayalam script from a different position, it can
+be said to consist of syllables, which are just as easily placed on a
+line from left to right as English. The remaining problem is how to
+construct the syllables.
+
+Here it is where \TeX's box-building capabilities come to the rescue.
+To build a syllable, you can put a glyph in a box, place it relative
+to another character, and put the resulting construction into another
+box for use it in further constructing, until the syllable is
+complete, and it can be added to the current line.
+
+As has been shown by the implementation of Telugu-\TeX\ [???], it is
+possible to let \TeX\ do all the necessary processing, however, at a
+high cost in both processor load and memory usage at run time, which
+makes it impossible to use Telugu-\TeX\ on a small personal computer.
+Also, programming these tasks in the \TeX-programming language is
+awkward, requiring many `dirty tricks'. For these reasons I decided to
+implement a pre-processor, written in~C, which does most of the
+syllable-composing work.
+
+Another problem in typesetting Malayalam is that this language has
+many very long `words'. Both in speaking as in writing, the boundaries
+between words tend to disappear, and often the last letter of a word
+changes and/or forms a conjunct with the first of the next word. This
+effect, know as `Sandhi', appears in most languages, but in Malayalam
+it is quite prominent, and also reflected in the orthography. As a
+result, a text contains very long sequences of characters and few
+spaces, which can serve as line-break points. As a result, it is
+difficult to obtain even spacing between words, especially in narrow
+columns. Several of \TeX's line-breaking parameters had to be adjusted
+to get acceptable results.
+
+\beginsection Typing Malayalam
+
+Now that we have all the elements to {\it output\/} Malayalam, we need
+some way to {\it input\/} it. Unfortunately, I have no keyboard or
+editor on which I can type Malayalam script directly. So I was forced
+to use some transcription scheme in ASCII. The transcription I decided
+to use was based on the following principles. First it should be
+easily readable, avoiding as much as possible non-letters and capital
+letters in the middle of words, non-ambiguous, so that it can be
+converted automatically, easily recognisable, and finally, besides
+being able to produce Malayalam text from it, I wanted to be able to
+create a scientific transcription from the same source.
+
+However desirable some standard transcription may be, people can be
+very `religious' about what they consider a good transcription-scheme.
+Beside that they can also have huge texts already available in some
+transcription, and be unwilling to convert that, so I decided to have
+the pre-processor read the transcription from a file, which can easily
+be changed to reflect the users favourite transcription.
+
+The transcription method is only of limited use to native speakers,
+who may not even know the roman alphabet, and also awkward for
+entering large pieces of text, since many typing errors only show up
+when the text is seen after processing by \TeX, so it should be
+replaced by some way of entering text directly.
+
+\beginsection Some thoughts on a future \TeX\par
+
+Creating a typesetting system for Malayalam was an enjoyable task, in
+which \TeX\ and \MF\ proved to be very powerful tools. Still, many
+things remain to be desired. The pre-processing stage, and the need to
+represent non-Latin scripts with a sequence of inpenetratable commands
+to typeset glyphs is far from ideal. A much more workable scheme would
+be to have \TeX\ understand that some characters are Malayalam
+characters, while others are Latin or from yet another script, and
+have \TeX\ typeset them as such correctly, including contextual
+analysis.
+
+This first of all raises the issue of character-sets. Some few years
+ago, Donald Knuth decided to move from 7-bit to 8-bit characters, as a
+final concession to user-demand for multi-lingual support, but by now
+it would be very desirous to make the leap to 16-bit characters, and
+have \TeX\ understand the emerging 16-bit Unicode or ISO-10464~UCS
+character set standard, and make \TeX\ really
+multi-lingual.\footnote*{multi-lingual does not mean `omni'-lingual,
+since many more obscure or obsolete writing systems have been left
+out of ISO-10464}
+
+Having all the characters defined isn't enough. \TeX\ needs to deal
+with them in a way that makes sense. Nowadays, \TeX\ only truly
+understands two writing systems --~that of English, and that of
+mathematics~-- and does a wonderful, although not perfect, job in
+handling those. But other scripts require some kind of pre-processor,
+or extremely clever hacking with \TeX-macros, as is is done in Klaus
+Lagally's Arab\TeX\ or in Telugu-\TeX. A more elegant solution would
+be to add more modes to \TeX, for example an Arabic-mode for the
+Arabic script, and a Malayalam mode for Malayalam script --~one can,
+however, also imagine one generalized mode for all Indic scripts~--,
+and to take the idea further, a mode for music and dance notation, and
+chemical structure formulas.
+
+I suggest to take a modular approach in creating these modes, to make
+the development of these a managable task; no single person can know
+all the relevant details of all writing systems. A script or writing
+system `module' or `driver' would come into action whenever a
+character of its script, or token requiring the explicit change of
+mode, is encountered, and handle all consequent characters and tokens,
+until one arrives that it cannot handle --~these may include some
+normal tokens like a `space' character, which is common in most
+writing systems.
+
+While processing its part of the input, a module will add boxes to the
+current horizontal list, which will then be handled by \TeX's
+paragraph handling mechanism as usual --~although some extensions may
+be needed, as to handle right-to-left and top-down scripts correctly.
+
+Each script module would have its own active fonts, and knowledge of
+how to represent characters with the glyphs of that font. An extended
+font metric format should provide information about how to build
+conjunct forms or use contextual variants of glyphs available in a
+font.
+
+A nice starting point may be the Japanese P-\TeX-system, which already
+supports a 16-bit character set, and also incorporates code to do
+vertical typesetting as is required by some writing systems. The
+adaptation of P-\TeX\ to Unicode for at least the ideographic
+characters will be reasonable straightforward. Adding the various
+script modules and extra character-categories may be more difficult.
+
+In the long term, I favour, however, a completely redesigned batch
+oriented text formatter like \TeX, but one that understands Unicode
+and uses functional instead of typographical tagging of the input
+text. Preferably it would understand SGML, and format this using some
+lay-out style definition, which then should be defined in a language
+less arcane than \TeX's.
+
+\MF, I would like to see develop into an interactive program, in which
+points, constrains between points and pen strokes through them can be
+added or moved and their effects can be seen immediately. I very much
+prefer the its pen-stroke metaphor above the outline editing most
+other font design tools offer, but maybe the idea of changing
+`pressure' on or rotation of the a pen during its movement can be
+incorporated in this metaphor as well. Its output should ofcourse be
+typographically scalable, and also modifiable to add effects like
+slanting, bolding, or stretching, --~to align lines of
+Arabic or Hebrew script, or, as I have once seen in a beautiful
+handwritten letter in Tamil, in scripts where it has not been done
+before because of techical limitations~-- in a typographycally
+acceptable way.
+
+\beginsection Conclusion
+
+Because of the powers of \TeX, and its companion \MF, automated
+typesetting of the traditional script is no longer a big problem.
+Malayalam \TeX\ can both produce the traditional style script and the
+reformed script, as well as a scientific transliteration from the same
+input file.
+
+The world knows many scripts, many of them have only a very limited
+use, --~compared with some of them, Malayalam, is a very widely used
+script. As shown with my experience with Malayalam, it is only several
+months of work to obtain acceptable typesetting quality for most
+scripts (The exception being ideographic or logographic scripts as
+Chinese), thus bringing computerized typography within the reach of
+many people.
+
+\beginsection Appendix A
+
+The following table shows all glyphs in the Malayalam font {\tt mm10}.
+\bigskip
+\input mmchart.tex
+\table mm10
+
+\beginsection Appendix B
+
+A sample of text in Malayalam, typeset in {\tt mm10}, using the
+traditional script, followed by an automatically derived transcription,
+an English translation, and finally the transcription actually input.
+\bigskip
+\input lion.tex
+
+\beginsection Appendix C
+
+\input mmsample
+
+\beginsection Appendix D
+
+The following table shows the character(s) you have to type in order
+to produce a Malayalam character. The third column shows the
+scientific transliteration of each character.
+\bigskip
+\input mmtrans
+
+\bye