latex2e.xml
May 2011
&latex;2e reference manual (May 2011)
This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a
document preparation system, version of May 2011.
This was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS
Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by
George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The
&latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The
&latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl
Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges
using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and the
&latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway
and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as
&tex;niques number 10), as reference material (no text was
directly copied).
Copyright ©right; 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 Karl Berry.&linebreak;
Copyright ©right; 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.&linebreak;
Copyright ©right; 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.
TeX
(latex2e)
LaTeX2e
Unofficial LaTeX reference manual.
&latex;: Structured documents for &tex;
unofficial &latex; reference manual
May 2011
http://home.gna.org/latexrefman
This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a
document preparation system, version of May 2011.
This was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS
Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by
George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The
&latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The
&latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl
Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges
using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and the
&latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway
and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as
&tex;niques number 10), as reference material (no text was
directly copied).
Copyright ©right; 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 Karl Berry.&linebreak;
Copyright ©right; 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.&linebreak;
Copyright ©right; 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.
Top
About this document
(dir)
&latex;2e
This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a
document preparation system, version as of May 2011. It is
intended to cover &latex;2e, which has been the standard version of
&latex; for many years.
About this document
Overview
Top
Top
Overview of &latex;
Knuth, Donald E.Lamport, Leslie&latex; Project teamThe &latex; document preparation system is implemented as a macro
package for Donald E. Knuth's &tex; typesetting program.
&latex; was originally created by Leslie Lamport; it is now
maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org).
The official documentation written by the &latex; project is
available from their web site.
bug reportingreporting bugslatexrefman-discuss@gna.org email addressThe present document is completely unofficial and has not been
reviewed by the &latex; maintainers. Do not send bug reports or
anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all
comments to latexrefman-discuss@gna.org.
The home page for this document is
http://home.gna.org/latexrefman. That page has links to the
current output in various formats, sources, mailing lists, and other
infrastructure.
Overview
Starting & ending
About this document
Top
Overview of &latex;
What is &latex;?
overview of &latex;basics of &latex;&latex; overview&latex; typesets a file of text using the &tex; program and the
&latex; “macro package” for &tex;. That is, it processes an input
file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that
describe how the text should be formatted. &latex; files are plain
text that can be written in any reasonable editor. It produces at
least three files as output:
-
The main output file, which is one of:
.dvi
- .dvi filelatex commandIf invoked as latex, a “Device Independent” (.dvi)
file is produced. This contains commands that can be translated into
commands for virtually any output device. You can view such
.dvi output of &latex; by using a program such as
xdvi (display directly), dvips (convert to
PostScript), or dvipdfmx (convert to PDF).
.pdf
- .pdf filepdf&tex;pdflatex commandIf invoked as pdflatex, a “Portable Document Format”
(.pdf) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with
all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does
make the output much larger than the .dvi produced from the
same document.
lualatex commandLua&tex;If invoked as lualatex, a .pdf file is created using
the Lua&tex; engine (http://luatex.org).
xelatex commandXe&tex;If invoked as xelatex, a .pdf file is created using
the Xe&tex; engine (http://tug.org/xetex).
Many other less-common variants of &latex; (and &tex;) exist, which
can produce HTML, XML, and other things.
-
transcript filelog file.log fileThe “transcript” or .log file that contains summary
information and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the
input file.
-
auxiliary file.aux fileAn “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by &latex; itself,
for things such as cross-references.
An open-ended list of other files might be created. We won't try to
list them all. Xxx components?
\ character starting commands[...] for optional arguments{...} for required argumentsIn the &latex; input file, a command name starts with a \
,
followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single
non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, []
, are
optional while arguments contained in braces, {}
, are
required.
case sensitivity of &latex;&latex; is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless
explicitly directed to do otherwise.
Starting & ending
Document classes
Overview
Top
Starting & ending
starting & endingending & starting
A minimal input file looks like the following:
\documentclass{class}
\begin{document}
your text
\end{document}
where the class is a valid document class for &latex;.
See Document classes, for details of the various document classes
available locally.
preamble, definedYou may include other &latex; commands between the \documentclass
and the \begin{document}
commands (this area is called the
preamble).
Document classes
Typefaces
Starting & ending
Top
Document classes
document classesclasses of documents\documentclass
The class of a given document is defined with the command:
\documentclass[options]{class}
The \documentclass
command must be the first command in a
&latex; source file.
article classreport classbook classletter classslides classBuilt-in &latex; document class names are (many other document
classes are available as add-ons; see Overview):
article report book letter slides
Standard options are described below.
Document class options
Document classes
Document class options
document class optionsoptions, document classclass optionsglobal options
You can specify so-called global options or class options
to the \documentclass
command by enclosing them in square
brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate
them with a comma:
\documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}
Here is the list of the standard class options.
10pt option11pt option12pt optionAll of the standard classes except slides
accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt
):
10pt 11pt 12pt
a4paper optiona5paper optionb5paper optionexecutivepaper optionlegalpaper optionletterpaper optionAll of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper
size (default is letterpaper
):
a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper
draft optionfinal optionfleqn optionlandscape optionleqno optionopenbib optiontitlepage optionnotitlepage optionMiscellaneous other options:
draft, final
- black boxes, omittingmark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is
final
.
fleqn
- Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
landscape
- Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
leqno
- Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.
openbib
- Use “open” bibliography format.
titlepage, notitlepage
- Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class.
These options are not available with the slides class:
onecolumn optiontwocolumn optiononeside optiontwoside optionopenright optionopenany optiononecolumn
twocolumn
- Typeset in one or two columns; default is
onecolumn
.
oneside
twoside
- \evensidemargin\oddsidemarginSelects one- or two-sided layout; default is
oneside
, except
for the book
class.
The \evensidemargin
(\oddsidemargin
parameter determines
the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the
page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper
size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided
printing the text is centered, for two-sided, \oddsidemargin
is
40% of the difference between \paperwidth
and \textwidth
,
with \evensidemargin
the remainder.
openright
openany
- Determines if a chapter should start on a
right-hand page; default is
openright
for book.
The slides
class offers the option clock
for printing
the time at the bottom of each note.
packages, loadingloading additional packages\usepackageAdditional packages are loaded like this:
\usepackage[options]{pkg}
To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a
comma, or use multiple \usepackage
commands.
global optionsoptions, globalAny options given in the \documentclass
command that are unknown
by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
\usepackage
.
Typefaces
Layout
Document classes
Top
Typefaces
typefacesfonts
Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size
and a style. The &latex; commands for doing this are described here.
Font styles
Font sizes
Typefaces
Font styles
font stylestypeface stylesstyles of text
The following type style commands are supported by &latex;.
These commands are used like \textit{italic text}
. The
corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which
takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the
next type style command or the end of the current group.
The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either
\sffamily\bfseries
or \bfseries\sffamily
to get bold
sans serif.
You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance,
\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}
.
\textrm (\rmfamily)
- \textrm\rmfamilyRoman.
\textit (\itshape)
- \textit\itshapeItalics.
\emph
- \emphemphasisEmphasis (switches between
\textit
and \textrm
).
\textmd (\mdseries)
- \textmd\mdseriesMedium weight (default).
\textbf (\bfseries)
- \textbf\bfseriesBoldface.
\textup (\upshape)
- \textup\upshapeUpright (default). The opposite of slanted.
\textsl (\slshape)
- \textsl\slshapeSlanted.
\textsf (\sffamily)
- \textsf\sffamilySans serif.
\textsc (\scshape)
- \textsc\scshapeSmall caps.
\texttt (\ttfamily)
- \texttt\ttfamilyTypewriter.
\textnormal (\normalfont)
- \textnormal\normalfontMain document font.
\mathrm
- \mathrmRoman, for use in math mode.
\mathbf
- \mathbfBoldface, for use in math mode.
\mathsf
- \mathsfSans serif, for use in math mode.
\mathtt
- \mathttTypewriter, for use in math mode.
\mathit
(\mit)
- Italics, for use in math mode.
\mathnormal
- \mathnormalFor use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration.
\mathcal
- \mathcal`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode.
In addition, the command
\mathversion{bold}
\mathversioncan be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in
formulas. \mathversion{normal}
restores the default.
&latex; also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to
the given style, that is, are not cumulative. They are used
differently than the above commands, too: {\cmd ...}
instead of \cmd{...}
. These are two very different
things.
\bf\bf
- bold fontSwitch to bold face.
\cal\cal
- script letters for mathcalligraphic letters for mathSwitch to calligraphic letters for math.
\em\em
- emphasisEmphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics).
\it\it
- italic fontItalics.
\rm\rm
- roman fontRoman.
\sc\sc
- small caps fontSmall caps.
\sf\sf
- sans serif fontSans serif.
\sl\sl
- slanted fontoblique fontSlanted (oblique).
\tt\tt
- typewriter fontmonospace fontfixed-width fontTypewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
Font sizes
Low-level font commands
Font styles
Typefaces
Font sizes
font sizestypeface sizessizes of text
The following standard type size commands are supported by &latex;.
The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font
size used (in points) with the 10pt, 11pt, and
12pt document size options, respectively (see Document class options).
\tiny\scriptsize\footnotesize\small\normalsize\large\Large\LARGE\huge\Huge
36
7
7
7
Command 10pt
11pt
12pt
\tiny
5 6 6
\scriptsize
7 8 8
\footnotesize
8 9 10
\small
9 10 10.95
\normalsize
(default)
10 10.95 12
\large
12 12 14.4
\Large
14.4 14.4 17.28
\LARGE
17.28 17.28 20.74
\huge
20.74 20.74 24.88
\Huge
24.88 24.88 24.88
The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of
the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the
end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of
these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}
.
Low-level font commands
Font sizes
Typefaces
Low-level font commands
low-level font commandsfont commands, low-level
These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
ones.
\fontencoding{enc}
- \fontencodingSelect font encoding. Valid encodings include
OT1
and T1
.
\fontfamily{family}
- \fontfamilySelect font family. Valid families include:
•
-
cmr
for Computer Modern Roman
-
cmss
for Computer Modern Sans Serif
-
cmtt
for Computer Modern Typewriter
and numerous others.
\fontseries{series}
- \fontseriesSelect font series. Valid series include:
•
-
m
Medium (normal)
-
b
Bold
-
c
Condensed
-
bc
Bold condensed
-
bx
Bold extended
and various other combinations.
\fontshape{shape}
- \fontshapeSelect font shape. Valid shapes are:
•
-
n
Upright (normal)
-
it
Italic
-
sl
Slanted (oblique)
-
sc
Small caps
-
ui
Upright italics
-
ol
Outline
The two last shapes are not available for most font families.
\fontsize{size}{skip}
- \fontsize\baselineskipSet font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and
the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter
named
\baselineskip
. The unit of both parameters defaults to
pt. The default \baselineskip
for the Computer Modern typeface
is 1.2 times the \fontsize
.
\baselinestretchsetspace
packagedouble spacingThe line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the
\baselinestretch
parameter when the type size changes; the
default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document,
if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the
setspace
package; see
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace.
\linespread \linespread{factor}
- Equivalent to
\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{factor}
, and
therefore must be followed by \selectfont
to have any effect.
Best specified in the preamble, or use the setspace
package, as
described just above.
\selectfontThe changes made by calling the font commands described above do
not come into effect until \selectfont
is called.
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
- \usefontThe same as invoking
\fontencoding
, \fontfamily
,
\fontseries
and \fontshape
with the given parameters,
followed by \selectfont
.
Layout
Sectioning
Typefaces
Top
Layout
layout commands
Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.
\onecolumn
\twocolumn
Layout
\onecolumn
\onecolumnone-column output
The \onecolumn
declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output. This is the default.
\twocolumn
\flushbottom
\onecolumn
Layout
\twocolumn
\twocolumnmulticolumn texttwo-column output
Synopsis:
\twocolumn[text1col]
The \twocolumn
declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present,
it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting
starts.
These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
\columnsep\columnsep
- The distance between columns (35pt by default).
\columnseprule\columnseprule
- The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule.
\columnwidth\columnwidth
- The width of the current column; this is equal to
\textwidth
in
single-column text.
These parameters control float behavior in two-column output:
\dbltopfraction\dbltopfraction
- Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied
by floats. Default .7, can be usefully redefined to (say)
.9 to avoid going to float pages so soon.
\dblfloatpagefraction\dblfloatpagefraction
- The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats,
for a two-column float page. Default .5.
\dblfloatsep\dblfloatsep
- Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float
page. Default 12pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt and
11pt documents, 14pt plus2pt minus4pt for 12pt.
\dbltextfloatsep\dbltextfloatsep
- Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page
and the main text. Default 20pt plus2pt minus4pt.
\flushbottom
\raggedbottom
\twocolumn
Layout
\flushbottom
\flushbottom
The \flushbottom
declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the
page.
This is the default if twocolumn
mode is selected
(see Document class options).
\raggedbottom
Page layout parameters
\flushbottom
Layout
\raggedbottom
\raggedbottomstretch, omitting vertical
The \raggedbottom
declaration makes all pages the natural
height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be
stretched.
Page layout parameters
\raggedbottom
Layout
Page layout parameters
page layout parametersparameters, page layoutlayout, page parameters forheader, parameters forfooter, parameters forrunning header and footer
\headheight\headheight
- Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is
30pt, except in the
book
class, where it varies with the
type size.
\headsep\headsep
- Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of
the main text. Default is 25pt, except in the
book
class, where it varies with the type size.
\footskip\footskip
- Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of
the page footer. Default is 30pt, except in the
book
class, where it varies with the type size.
\linewidth\linewidth
- Width of the current line, decreased for each nested
list
(see list). Specifically, it is smaller than \textwidth
by
the sum of \leftmargin
and \rightmargin
(see itemize). The default varies with the font size, paper
width, two-column mode, etc. For an article
document in
10pt, it's set to 345pt; in two-column mode, that
becomes 229.5pt.
\textheight\textheight
- The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with
the font size, document class, etc. For an
article
or
report
document in 10pt, it's set to
43\baselineskip; for book
, it's 41\baselineskip.
For 11pt, it's 38\baselineskip and for 12pt,
36\baselineskip.
\textwidth\textwidth
- The full horizontal width of the entire page body; the default varies
as usual. For an
article
or report
document, it's
345pt at 10pt, 360pt at 11pt, and
390pt at 12pt. For a book
document, it's
4.5in at 10pt, and 5in at 11pt or
12pt.
In multi-column output, \textwidth
remains the width of the
entire page body, while \columnwidth
is the width of one column
(see \twocolumn).
In lists (see list), \textwidth
remains the width of the
entire page body (and \columnwidth
the width of the entire
column), while \linewidth
may decrease for nested lists.
Inside a minipage (see minipage) or \parbox
(see \parbox), all the width-related parameters are set to the
specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the
minipage
or \parbox
.
\hsizeFor completeness: \hsize
is the &tex; primitive parameter used
when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal
&latex; documents.
\topmargin\topmargin
- Space between the top of the &tex; page (one inch from the top of the
paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed
based on many other parameters:
\paperheight − 2in −
\headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip
, and
then divided by two.
\topskip\topskip
- Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of
the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the
same as the font size, e.g., 10pt at 10pt.
Sectioning
Cross references
Layout
Top
Sectioning
sectioning
Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:
\part\part
\chapter\chapter
- (report and book class only)
\section\section
\subsection\subsection
\subsubsection\subsubsection
\paragraph\paragraph
\subparagraph\subparagraph
All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,
\chapter[toctitle]{title}
In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the
section title can appear in two other places:
-
The table of contents.
-
The running head at the top of the page.
You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text.
To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument
toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other
places.
*-form of sectioning commandsAlso, all sectioning commands have *
-forms that print
title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an
entry in the table of contents. For instance:
\section*{Preamble}
\appendixappendix, creatingThe \appendix
command changes the way following sectional units
are numbered. The \appendix
command itself generates no text
and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this
command is something like
\chapter{A Chapter}
&dots;
\appendix
\chapter{The First Appendix}
secnumdepth countersection numbers, printingThe secnumdepth
counter controls printing of section numbers.
The setting
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{level}
suppresses heading numbers at any depth , where
chapter
is level zero. (See \setcounter.)
Cross references
Environments
Sectioning
Top
Cross references
cross references
One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer
the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.”
\label
\pageref
Cross references
\label
\label
Synopsis:
\label{key}
A \label
command appearing in ordinary text assigns to
key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing
inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key.
A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or
punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished.
To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is
common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by
a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes:
ch
- for chapters
sec
- for lower-level sectioning commands
fig
- for figures
tab
- for tables
eq
- for equations
Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:snark
or
fig.snark
.
\pageref
\ref
\label
Cross references
\pageref{key}
\pagerefcross referencing with page numberpage number, cross referencing
Synopsis:
\pageref{key}
The \pageref
{key} command produces the page number of
the place in the text where the corresponding
\label
{key} command appears.
\ref
\pageref
Cross references
\ref{key}
\refcross referencing, symbolicsection number, cross referencingequation number, cross referencingfigure number, cross referencingfootnote number, cross referencing
Synopsis:
\ref{key}
The \ref
command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, &dots;, of the corresponding
\label
command (see \label). It does not produce any text,
such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself.
Environments
Line breaking
Cross references
Top
Environments
environments
\begin\end
&latex; provides many environments for marking off certain text.
Each environment begins and ends in the same manner:
\begin{envname}
...
\end{envname}
abstract
array
Environments
abstract
abstract environmentabstracts
Synopsis:
\begin{abstract}
...
\end{abstract}
Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.
array
center
abstract
Environments
array
array environmentarrays, math
Synopsis:
\begin{array}{template}
col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\
...
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array
environment, normally
within an equation
environment (see equation). It has a
single mandatory template argument describing the number of
columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is
specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should
be formatted, as follows:
c
- centered
l
- flush left
r
- flush right
\\ (for array
)Column entries are separated by &
. Column entries may include
other &latex; commands. Each row of the array is terminated with
\\
.
@{...}In the template, the construct @{text}
puts text
between columns in each row.
Here's an example:
\begin{equation}
\begin{array}{lrc}
left1 & right1 & centered1 \\
left2 & right2 & centered2 \\
\end{array}
\end{equation}
\arraycolsepThe \arraycolsep
parameter defines half the width of the space
separating columns; the default is 5pt. See tabular, for other
parameters which affect formatting in array
environments,
namely \arrayrulewidth
and \arraystretch
.
The array
environment can only be used in math mode.
center
description
array
Environments
center
center environmentcentering text, environment for
Synopsis:
\begin{center}
line1 \\
line2 \\
\end{center}
\\ (for center
)The center
environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right
margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the
string \\
.
\centering
center
\centering
\centeringcentering text, declaration for
The \centering
declaration corresponds to the center
environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such
as quote
or in a parbox
. Thus, the text of a figure or
table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering
command at the beginning of the figure or table environment.
Unlike the center
environment, the \centering
command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how &latex; formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of
the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command (of
an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
Here's an example:
\begin{quote}
\centering
first line \\
second line \\
\end{quote}
description
displaymath
center
Environments
description
description environmentlabelled lists, creatingdescription lists, creating
Synopsis:
\begin{description}
\item [label1] item1
\item [label2] item2
...
\end{description}
\itemThe description
environment is used to make labelled lists. Each
label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may
contain multiple paragraphs.
bold typewriter, avoidingtypewriter labels in listsAnother variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if
you typeset a label in typewriter using \texttt
, you'll get
bold typewriter: \item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]
. This
may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use
\tt
, which resets all other style variations: \item[{\tt
plain typewriter}]
.
For details about list spacing, see itemize.
displaymath
document
description
Environments
displaymath
displaymath environment
Synopsis:
\begin{displaymath}
math
\end{displaymath}
or
\[math\]
The displaymath
environment (\[...\]
is a synonym)
typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default.
The global fleqn
option makes equations flush left; see
Document class options.
No equation number is added to displaymath
text; to get an
equation number, use the equation
environment (see equation).
document
enumerate
displaymath
Environments
document
document environment
The document
environment encloses the body of a document.
It is required in every &latex; document. See Starting & ending.
enumerate
eqnarray
document
Environments
enumerate
enumerate environmentlists of items, numbered
Synopsis:
\begin{enumerate}
\item item1
\item item2
...
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate
environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as
itemize
(see itemize) and description
(see description).
\itemEach item of an enumerated list begins with an \item
command.
There must be at least one \item
command within the environment.
By default, the numbering at each level is done like this:
- 1., 2., &dots;
- (a), (b), &dots;
- i., ii., &dots;
- A., B., &dots;
\enumi\enumii\enumiii\enumivThe enumerate
environment uses the counters \enumi
through \enumiv
counters (see Counters). If the optional
argument to \item
is given, the counter is not incremented for
that item.
\labelenumi\labelenumii\labelenumiii\labelenumivThe enumerate
environment uses the commands \labelenumi
through \labelenumiv
to produce the default label. So, you can
use \renewcommand
to change the labels (see \newcommand & \renewcommand). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase
letters:
\Alph example\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}
eqnarray
equation
enumerate
Environments
eqnarray
eqnarray environmentequations, aligningaligning Equations
\begin{eqnarray} (or eqnarray*
)
formula1 \\
formula2 \\
...
\end{eqnarray}
\\ (for eqnarray
)The eqnarray
environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array
environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &
.
\\* (for eqnarray
)\\*
can also be used to separate equations, with its normal
meaning of not allowing a page break at that line.
\nonumberequation numbers, omittingAn equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber
command. Alternatively, The *
-form of the
environment (\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}
) will
omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as
eqnarray
.
\lefteqnThe command \lefteqn
is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
equation
figure
eqnarray
Environments
equation
equation environmentequations, environment forformulas, environment for
Synopsis:
\begin{equation}
math
\end{equation}
The equation
environment starts a displaymath
environment (see displaymath), e.g., centering the math text
on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin.
figure
flushleft
equation
Environments
figure
figureinserting figuresfigures, inserting
\begin{figure[*]}[placement]
figbody
\label{label}
\caption[loftitle]{text}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are
instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page.
Figures will not be split between two pages.
When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a
full-width figure (across both columns).
The optional argument [placement]
determines where &latex; will try
to place your figure. There are four places where &latex; can possibly
put a float:
t
- (Top)—at the top of a text page.
b
- (Bottom)—at the bottom of a text page. However,
b
is not
allowed for full-width floats (figure*
) with double-column
output. To ameliorate this, use the stfloats
or
dblfloatfix
package, but see the discussion at caveats in the
FAQ: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat.
h
float
package(Here)—at the position in the text where the figure environment
appears. However, this is not allowed by itself, t
is
automatically added. To absolutely force a figure to appear “here”,
use the float
and use its H
placement letter. (That
package also provides other options.)
p
- (Page of floats)—on a separate float page, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp
.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc.
you wish.
\captionThe \caption
command specifies caption text for the
figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is
present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text
(see Tables of contents).
- \bottomfractionThe maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at
the bottom; default .3.
\floatpagefraction\floatpagefraction
- The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats;
default .5.
\floatsep\floatsep
- Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default
12pt plus2pt minus2pt.
\intextsep\intextsep
- Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default
12pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt and 11pt styles,
14pt plus4pt minus4pt for 12pt.
\textfloatsep\textfloatsep
- Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
default 20pt plus2pt minus4pt.
\textfraction\textfraction
- Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
different page. The default is .2.
\topfraction\topfraction
- Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
floats; default is .7.
flushleft
flushright
figure
Environments
flushleft
flushleft environmentleft-justifying text, environment forragged right text, environment for
\begin{flushleft}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{flushleft}
\\ for flushleft
The flushleft
environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
right Each line must be terminated with the string \\
.
\raggedright
flushleft
\raggedright
\raggedrightragged right textleft-justifying textjustification, ragged right
The \raggedright
declaration corresponds to the
flushleft
environment. This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as quote
or in a parbox
.
Unlike the flushleft
environment, the \raggedright
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex;
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command that ends the paragraph unit.
flushright
itemize
flushleft
Environments
flushright
flushright environmentragged left text, environment forright-justifying text, environment for
\begin{flushright}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{flushright}
\\ (for flushright
)The flushright
environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
left. Each line must be terminated with the string \\
.
\raggedleft
flushright
\raggedleft
\raggedleftragged left textjustification, ragged leftright-justifying text
The \raggedleft
declaration corresponds to the
flushright
environment. This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as quote
or in a parbox
.
Unlike the flushright
environment, the \raggedleft
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex;
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command that ends the paragraph unit.
itemize
letter
flushright
Environments
itemize
itemize environment\itemlists of itemsunordered listsbulleted lists
Synopsis:
\begin{itemize}
\item item1
\item item2
...
\end{itemize}
The itemize
environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted”
list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four
levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making
environments, such as enumerate
(see enumerate).
Each item of an itemize
list begins with an \item
command.
There must be at least one \item
command within the environment.
By default, the marks at each level look like this:
- • (bullet)
- -- (bold en-dash)
- * (asterisk)
- . (centered dot, rendered here as a period)
\labelitemi\labelitemii\labelitemiii\labelitemivThe itemize
environment uses the commands \labelitemi
through \labelitemiv
to produce the default label. So, you can
use \renewcommand
to change the labels. For instance, to have
the first level use diamonds:
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
\leftmargin\leftmargini\leftmarginii\leftmarginiii\leftmarginiv\leftmarginv\leftmarginviThe \leftmargini
through \leftmarginvi
parameters define
the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin
is set
to the appropriate \leftmarginN
when a new level of
nesting is entered.
The defaults vary from .5em (highest levels of nesting) to
2.5em (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode.
This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:
\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
Some parameters that affect list formatting:
\itemindent\itemindent
- Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.
\labelsep\labelsep
- Space between the label and text of an item; default .5em.
\labelwidth\labelwidth
- Width of the label; default 2em, or 1.5em in two-column mode.
\listparindent\listparindent
- Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a
list item; default 0pt.
\rightmargin\rightmargin
- Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the
enclosing environment; default 0pt, except in the
quote
,
quotation
, and verse
environments, where it is set equal
to \leftmargin
.
Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather
loose, by default).
\itemsep\itemsep
- Vertical space between items. The default is
2pt plus1pt
minus1pt
for 10pt
documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt
for
11pt
, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt
for 12pt
.
\parsep\parsep
- Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults
are the same as
\itemsep
.
\topsep\topsep
- Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph.
For top-level lists, the default is
8pt plus2pt minus4pt
for
10pt
documents, 9pt plus3pt minus5pt
for 11pt
,
and 10pt plus4pt minus6pt
for 12pt
. These are reduced
for nested lists.
\partopsep\partopsep
- Extra space added to
\topsep
when the list environment starts a
paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt
for 10pt
documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt
for 11pt
, and 3pt
plus2pt minus2pt
for 12pt
.
\parskip exampleEspecially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize*
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item (\parskip
is not list-specific,
see \parskip):
\newenvironment{itemize*}%
{\begin{itemize}%
\setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
\setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
{\end{itemize}}
letter
list
itemize
Environments
letter
environment: writing letters
letter
This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.
list
math
letter
Environments
list
listlists of items, generic
The list
environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{labeling}{spacing}
\item item1
\item item2
...
\end{list}
The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be
labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item
).
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. It can and usually does contain other &latex; commands.
The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be
empty, i.e., {}
, which leaves the default spacing.
The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by
\linewidth
(see Page layout parameters).
math
minipage
list
Environments
math
math environmentin-line formulas
Synopsis:
\begin{math}
math
\end{math}
The math
environment inserts the given math within the
running text. \(...\))
and $...$
are synonyms.
See Math formulas.
minipage
picture
math
Environments
minipage
minipage environmentminipage, creating a
\begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage
environment typesets its body text in a
block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the
\parbox
command (see \parbox), but unlike \parbox
,
other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage.
The arguments are the same as for \parbox
(see \parbox).
indentation of paragraphs, in minipageparagraph indentation, in minipage\parindentBy default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage
environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as
\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}
command.
footnotes in figuresfigures, footnotes inFootnotes in a minipage
environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote
or \footnotetext
command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the \mpfootnote
counter instead of the ordinary
footnote
counter (see Counters).
However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using
footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
picture
quotation
minipage
Environments
picture
picturecreating picturespictures, creating
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
&dots; picture commands &dots;
\end{picture}
\unitlengthThe picture
environment allows you to create just about any
kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.
You tell &latex; where to put things in the picture by specifying
their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal
point and a minus sign—a number like 5
, 0.3
or
-3.1416
. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the
unit length \unitlength
, so if \unitlength
has been set
to 1cm
, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54
centimeters. You should only change the value of \unitlength
,
using the \setlength
command, outside of a picture
environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5)
, specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4
and y-coordinate -5
.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture
environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position
. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture
environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size
argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm
, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200
millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose
upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first
draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the
origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your
picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate
optional argument.
The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the
picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is;
&latex; will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even
off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by &latex; in determining
how much room to leave for it.
Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put
command. The command
\put (11.3,-.3){...}
puts the object specified by ...
in the
picture, with its reference point at coordinates .
The reference points for various objects will be described below.
lR boxThe \put
command creates an LR box. You can put anything
that can go in an \mbox
(see \mbox) in the text argument of
the \put
command. When you do this, the reference point will
be the lower left corner of the box.
The picture
commands are described in the following sections.
\circle
\makebox (picture)
picture
\circle
\circle
\circle[*]{diameter}
The \circle
command produces a circle with a diameter as close
to the specified one as possible. The *
-form of the command
draws a solid circle.
Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.
\makebox (picture)
\framebox (picture)
\circle
picture
\makebox
\makebox (picture)
\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}
The \makebox
command for the picture environment is similar to
the normal \makebox
command except that you must specify a
width
and height
in multiples of \unitlength
.
The optional argument, [position]
, specifies the quadrant that
your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following:
t
- Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.
b
- Moves the item to the bottom.
l
- Moves the item to the left.
r
- Moves the item to the right.
See \makebox.
\framebox (picture)
\dashbox
\makebox (picture)
picture
\framebox
\framebox
Synopsis:
\framebox(width,height)[pos]{...}
The \framebox
command is like \makebox
(see previous
section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box
that it creates.
\fboxrule\fboxsepThe \framebox
command produces a rule of thickness
\fboxrule
, and leaves a space \fboxsep
between the rule
and the contents of the box.
\dashbox
\frame
\framebox (picture)
picture
\dashbox
\dashbox
Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis:
\dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text}
\dashbox
creates a dashed rectangle around text in a
picture
environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the
rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight.
The text is positioned at optional pos.
A dashed box looks best when the rwidth
and rheight
are
multiples of the dlen
.
\frame
\line
\dashbox
picture
\frame
\frame
Synopsis:
\frame{text}
The \frame
command puts a rectangular frame around text.
The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra
space is put between the frame and the object.
\line
\linethickness
\frame
picture
\line
\line
Synopsis:
\line(xslope,yslope){length}
The \line
command draws a line with the given length and
slope xslope/yslope.
Standard &latex; can only draw lines with ,
where and have integer values from −6
through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes,
see the curve2e
and many many other packages on CTAN.
\linethickness
\thicklines
\line
picture
\linethickness
\linethickness
The \linethickness{dim}
command declares the thickness
of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be
dim, which must be a positive length.
\linethickness
does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval
.
\thicklines
\thinlines
\linethickness
picture
\thicklines
\thicklines
The \thicklines
command is an alternate line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf. \linethickness and \thinlines.
\thinlines
\multiput
\thicklines
picture
\thinlines
\thinlines
The \thinlines
command is the default line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf. \linethickness and \thicklines.
\multiput
\oval
\thinlines
picture
\multiput
\multiput
Synopsis:
\multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj}
The \multiput
command copies the object obj in a regular
pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position
, then at , and so on,
n times.
\oval
\put
\multiput
picture
\oval
\oval
Synopsis:
\oval(width,height)[portion]
The \oval
command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.
The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the
oval via the following:
t
- selects the top portion;
b
- selects the bottom portion;
r
- selects the right portion;
l
- selects the left portion.
The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a
maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like
boxes with rounded corners.
\put
\shortstack
\oval
picture
\put
\put
\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }
The \put
command places the item specified by the mandatory
argument at the given coordinates.
\shortstack
\vector
\put
picture
\shortstack
\shortstack
Synopsis:
\shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...}
The \shortstack
command produces a stack of objects. The valid
positions are:
r
- Move the objects to the right of the stack.
l
- Move the objects to the left of the stack
c
- Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)
\\ (for \shortstack
objects)Objects are separated with \\
.
\vector
\shortstack
picture
\vector
\vector
Synopsis:
\vector(x-slope,y-slope){length}
The \vector
command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope. The and values must lie between
−4 and +4, inclusive.
quotation
quote
picture
Environments
quotation
quotationquoted text with paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text with paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text
Synopsis:
\begin{quotation}
text
\end{quotation}
The margins of the quotation
environment are indented on both
the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins.
Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
Unlike the quote
environment, each paragraph is indented
normally.
quote
tabbing
quotation
Environments
quote
quotequoted text without paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text without paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text, omitting
Snyopsis:
\begin{quote}
text
\end{quote}
The margins of the quote
environment are indented on both the
left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a
blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
Unlike the quotation
environment, paragraphs are not indented.
tabbing
table
quote
Environments
tabbing
tabbing environmenttab stops, usinglining text up in columns using tab stopsalignment via tabbing
Synopsis:
\begin{tabbing}
row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\
row2col1 \> \> row2col3 \\
...
\end{tabbing}
The tabbing
environment provides a way to align text in
columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as
was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where
the width of each column is constant and known in advance.
This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular
environment.
The following commands can be used inside a tabbing
enviroment:
\\ (tabbing)\\ (tabbing)
- End a line.
\= (tabbing)\= (tabbing)
- Sets a tab stop at the current position.
\> (tabbing)\> (tabbing)
- \>Advances to the next tab stop.
\<\<
- Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing
the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line.
\+\+
- Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
\-\-
- Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
\' (tabbing)\' (tabbing)
- Moves everything that you have typed so far in the
current column, i.e. everything from the most recent
\>
,
\<
, \'
, \\
, or \kill
command, to the right
of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop.
\` (tabbing)\` (tabbing)
- Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab
stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column
because there's no tab stop there. The
\`
command moves all the
text that follows it, up to the \\
or \end{tabbing}
command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
environment. There must be no \>
or \'
command between
the \`
and the command that ends the line.
\a (tabbing)\a (tabbing)
- \a' (acute accent in tabbing)\a` (grave accent in tabbing)\a= (macron accent in tabbing)In a
tabbing
environment, the commands \=
, \'
and
\`
do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead,
the commands \a=
, \a'
and \a`
are used.
\kill\kill
- Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like
\\
except that it throws away the current line instead of producing
output for it. The effect of any \=
, \+
or \-
commands in that line remain in effect.
\poptabs\poptabs
- \poptabsRestores the tab stop positions saved by the last
\pushtabs
.
\pushtabs\pushtabs
- Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing
tab stop positions in the middle of a
tabbing
environment.
\tabbingsep\tabbingsep
- Distance to left of tab stop moved by
\'
.
This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:
\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
\> begin \= \+ \\
\> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
else \+ \\
fact := 1; \-\- \\
end;\\
\end{tabbing}
table
tabular
tabbing
Environments
table
tabletables, creatingcreating tables
Synopsis:
\begin{table}[placement]
body of the table
\caption{table title}
\end{table}
Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are
usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page.
Tables will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement]
determines where &latex; will try
to place your table. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put
a float; these are the same as that used with the figure
environment, and described there (see figure).
The standard report
and article
classes use the default
placement [tbp]
.
The body of the table is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc.,
you wish. The \caption
command allows you to title your table.
tabular
thebibliography
table
Environments
tabular
tabular environmentlines in tableslining text up in tables
Synopsis:
\begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
...
\end{tabular}
or
\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
...
\end{tabular*}
These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of
items, aligned vertically in columns.
\\ for tabular
\\
must be used to specify the end of each row of the table,
except for the last, where it is optional—unless an \hline
command (to put a rule below the table) follows.
The mandatory and optional arguments consist of:
width
- Specifies the width of the
tabular*
environment. There must be
rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified
width.
pos
- Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of
the environment.
t
- align on top row
b
- align on bottom row
cols
- Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the
following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and
intercolumn material.
l
- A column of left-aligned items.
r
- A column of right-aligned items.
c
- A column of centered items.
|
- A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
@{text}
- This inserts text in every row. An @-expression suppresses the
intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space
between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be included in
text. An
\extracolsep{wd}
command in an @-expression
causes an extra space of width wd
to appear to the left of all
subsequent columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep
command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not
suppressed by an @-expression. An \extracolsep
command can be
used only in an @-expression in the cols
argument.
p{wd}
- Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width
wd, as if it were the argument of a
\parbox[t]{wd}
command. However, a \\
may not
appear in the item, except in the following situations:
-
inside an environment like
minipage
, array
, or tabular
.
-
inside an explicit
\parbox
.
-
in the scope of a
\centering
, \raggedright
, or \raggedleft
declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an
environment when used in a p
-column element.
*{num}{cols}
- Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is a
positive integer and cols is any list of column-specifiers,
which may contain another
*-expression
.
Parameters that control formatting:
\arrayrulewidth\arrayrulewidth
- Thickness of the rule created by
|
, \hline
, and
\vline
in the tabular
and array
environments; the
default is .4pt.
\arraystretch\arraystretch
- Scaling of spacing between rows in the
tabular
and array
environments; default is 1, for no scaling.
\doublerulesep\doublerulesep
- Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by
||
in the tabular
and array
environments; default is 2pt.
\tabcolsep\tabcolsep
- Half the width of the space between columns; default is 6pt.
These commands can be used inside a tabular
environment:
\multicolumn
\cline
tabular
\multicolumn
\multicolumn
Synopsis:
\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}
The \multicolumn
command makes an entry that spans several
columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the
number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos,
specifies the formatting of the entry; c
for centered, l
for flushleft, r
for flushright. The third mandatory argument,
text, specifies what text to put in the entry.
Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash;
\multicolumn
is used for the heading:
\begin{tabular}{r@{--}l}
\multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr
0x80&0x7FF \cr
0x800&0xFFFF \cr
0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr
\end{tabular}
\cline
\hline
\multicolumn
tabular
\cline
\cline
Synopsis:
\cline{i-j}
The \cline
command draws horizontal lines across the columns
specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j,
which are specified in the mandatory argument.
\hline
\vline
\cline
tabular
\hline
\hline
The \hline
command draws a horizontal line the width of the
enclosing tabular
or array
environment. It's most
commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows
of a table.
\vline
\hline
tabular
\vline
\vline
The \vline
command will draw a vertical line extending the full
height and depth of its row. An \hfill
command can be used to
move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an
@-expression.
thebibliography
theorem
tabular
Environments
thebibliography
thebibliographybibliography, creating (manually)
Synopsis:
\begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
...
\end{thebibliography}
The thebibliography
environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.
In the article
class, this reference list is labelled
“References”; in the report
class, it is labelled
“Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes)
by redefining the command \refname
. For instance, this
eliminates it entirely:
\renewcommand{\refname}{}
The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset,
is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem
commands. It is typically given as 9
for bibliographies with
less than 10 references, 99
for ones with less than 100, etc.
\bibitem
\cite
thebibliography
\bibitem
\bibitem
Synopsis:
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
The \bibitem
command generates an entry labelled by
label. If the label argument is missing, a number is
automatically generated using the enumi
counter. The
cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
symbols not containing a comma.
This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the
item's cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by
the \begin{document}
command, the item's label
is
associated with cite_key
, causing references to cite_key
with a \cite
command (see next section) to produce the
associated label.
\cite
\nocite
\bibitem
thebibliography
\cite
\cite
Synopsis:
\cite[subcite]{keys
The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys,
separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to
the references associated with keys by entries in the
.aux file.
The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the
citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth}
might produce
`[Knuth, p. 314]'.
\nocite
Using BibTeX
\cite
thebibliography
\nocite
\nocite
\nocite{key_list}
The \nocite
command produces no text, but writes key_list
,
which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file.
Using BibTeX
\nocite
thebibliography
Using Bib&tex;
using Bib&tex;bib&tex;, usingbibliography, creating (automatically)\bibliographystyle\bibliography
If you use the Bib&tex; program by Oren Patashnik (highly
recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of
titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the
thebibliography
environment (see thebibliography). Instead,
you include the lines
\bibliographystyle{bibstyle}
\bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2}
The \bibliographystyle
command does not produce any output of
its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will
be produced: bibstyle refers to a file
bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look.
The standard style names distributed with Bib&tex; are:
alpha
- Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of
publication.
plain
- Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
unsrt
- Like
plain
, but entries are in order of citation.
abbrv
- Like
plain
, but more compact labels.
In addition, numerous other Bib&tex; style files exist tailored to
the demands of various publications. See
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib.
The \bibliography
command is what actually produces the
bibliography. The argument to \bibliography
refers to files
named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in
Bib&tex; format. Only the entries referred to via \cite
and
\nocite
will be listed in the bibliography.
theorem
titlepage
thebibliography
Environments
theorem
theorem environmenttheorems, typesetting
Synopsis:
\begin{theorem}
theorem-text
\end{theorem}
The theorem
environment produces “Theorem n” in
boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering
possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem
(see \newtheorem).
titlepage
verbatim
theorem
Environments
titlepage
titlepage environmentmaking a title pagetitle pages, creating
Synopsis:
\begin{titlepage}
text
\end{titlepage}
The titlepage
environment creates a title page, i.e., a page
with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following
page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to
you. The \today
command may be useful on title pages
(see \today).
You can use the \maketitle
command (see \maketitle) to
produce a standard title page without a titlepage
environment.
verbatim
verse
titlepage
Environments
verbatim
verbatim environmentverbatim textsimulating typed texttyped text, simulatingcode, typesettingcomputer programs, typesetting
Synopsis:
\begin{verbatim}
literal-text
\end{verbatim}
The verbatim
environment is a paragraph-making environment in
which &latex; produces exactly what you type in; for instance the
\
character produces a printed \. It turns &latex;
into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same
effect that they would on a typewriter.
The verbatim
uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt
).
\verb
verbatim
\verb
\verbverbatim text, inline
Synopsis:
\verbcharliteral-textchar
\verb*charliteral-textchar
The \verb
command typesets literal-text as it is input,
including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter
(\tt
) font. No spaces are allowed between \verb
or
\verb*
and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the
verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text.
visible spaceThe *
-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a
“visible space” character.
verse
verbatim
Environments
verse
verse environmentpoetry, an environment for
Synopsis:
\begin{verse}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{verse}
The verse
environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.
\\ for verse
The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not
indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each
stanza with \\
, and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.
Line breaking
Page breaking
Environments
Top
Line breaking
line breakingbreaking lines
The first thing &latex; does when processing ordinary text is to
translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To
produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines
(and these lines must be broken into pages).
&latex; usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in
some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the
\\
command, and you can always manually force breaks.
\\
\obeycr & \restorecr
Line breaking
\\
[*][morespace]
\\ force line breaknew line, startingline break, forcing
The \\
command tells &latex; to start a new line. It has an
optional argument, morespace, that specifies how much extra
vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a
negative amount.
The \\*
command is the same as the ordinary \\
command
except that it tells &latex; not to start a new page after the line.
\obeycr & \restorecr
\newline
\\
Line breaking
\obeycr
& \restorecr
\obeycr\restorecrnew line, output as input
The \obeycr
command makes a return in the input file
(^^M, internally) the same as \\
(followed by
\relax
). So each new line in the input will also be a new line
in the output.
\restorecr
restores normal line-breaking behavior.
\newline
\- (hyphenation)
\obeycr & \restorecr
Line breaking
\newline
\newlinenew line, starting (paragraph mode)
The \newline
command breaks the line at the present point, with
no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph
mode.
\- (hyphenation)
\fussy
\newline
Line breaking
\-
(discretionary hyphen)
\- (hyphenation)hyphenation, forcing
The \-
command tells &latex; that it may hyphenate the word at
that point. &latex; is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually
find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an
incorrect one. The \-
command is used for the exceptional
cases.
When you insert \-
commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points
that &latex; might otherwise have chosen.
\fussy
\sloppy
\- (hyphenation)
Line breaking
\fussy
\fussy
The declaration \fussy
(which is the default) makes &tex;
picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between
words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.
This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy
command
(see \sloppy.
\sloppy
\hyphenation
\fussy
Line breaking
\sloppy
The declaration \sloppy
makes &tex; less fussy about line
breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose
interword spacing.
Lasts until a \fussy
command is issued (see \fussy).
\hyphenation
\linebreak & \nolinebreak
\sloppy
Line breaking
\hyphenation
\hyphenationhyphenation, defining
Synopsis:
\hyphenation{word-one word-two}
The \hyphenation
command declares allowed hyphenation points
with a -
character in the given words. The words are separated
by spaces. &tex; will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no
inflections are tried. Multiple \hyphenation
commands
accumulate. Some examples (the default &tex; hyphenation patterns
misses the hyphenations in these words):
\hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}
\linebreak & \nolinebreak
\hyphenation
Line breaking
\linebreak
& \nolinebreak
\linebreak\nolinebreakline breaks, forcingline breaks, preventing
Synopses:
\linebreak[priority]
\nolinebreak[priority]
By default, the \linebreak
(\nolinebreak
) command forces
(prevents) a line break at the current position. For
\linebreak
, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it
extends to the right margin as usual.
With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command
from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from
0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.
Page breaking
Footnotes
Line breaking
Top
Page breaking
page breakingbreaking pages
&latex; starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has
accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically,
but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.
\cleardoublepage
\clearpage
Page breaking
\cleardoublepage
\cleardoublepagestarting on a right-hand page
The \cleardoublepage
command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand
(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.
\clearpage
\newpage
\cleardoublepage
Page breaking
\clearpage
\clearpageflushing floats and starting a pagestarting a new page and clearing floats
The \clearpage
command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
\newpage
\enlargethispage
\clearpage
Page breaking
\newpage
\newpagenew page, startingstarting a new page
The \newpage
command ends the current page, but does not clear
floats (see \clearpage
above).
\enlargethispage
\pagebreak & \nopagebreak
\newpage
Page breaking
\enlargethispage
\enlargethispageenlarge current page
\enlargethispage{size}
\enlargethispage*{size}
Enlarge the \textheight
for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip}
will allow one
additional line.
The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as
much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
\pagebreak
.
\pagebreak & \nopagebreak
\enlargethispage
Page breaking
\pagebreak
& \nopagebreak
\pagebreak\nopagebreakpage break, forcingpage break, preventing
Synopses:
\pagebreak[priority]
\nopagebreak[priority]
By default, the \pagebreak
(\nopagebreak
) command forces
(prevents) a page break at the current position. For
\linebreak
, the vertical space on the page is stretched out
where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin.
With the optional argument priority, you can convert the
\pagebreak
command from a demand to a request. The number must
be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.
Footnotes
Definitions
Page breaking
Top
Footnotes
footnotes, creating
Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced
with one command, the \footnote
command. They can also be
produced with two commands, the \footnotemark
and the
\footnotetext
commands.
\footnote
\footnotemark
Footnotes
\footnote
\footnote
Synopsis:
\footnote[number]{text}
The \footnote
command places the numbered footnote text
at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument number
changes the default footnote number.
This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you
cannot use it in sectioning commands like \chapter
, in figures,
tables or in a tabular
environment. (See following sections.)
\footnotemark
\footnotetext
\footnote
Footnotes
\footnotemark
\footnotemark
With no optional argument, the \footnotemark
command puts the
current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in
inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately,
with the \footnotetext
command.
This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote
markers referring to the same footnote with
\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
after the first \footnote
command.
\footnotetext
Symbolic footnotes
\footnotemark
Footnotes
\footnotetext
\footnotetext
Synopsis:
\footnotetext[number]{text}
The \footnotetext
command places text at the bottom of
the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the
\footnotemark
command. The \footnotetext
command must
appear in outer paragraph mode.
The optional argument number changes the default footnote number.
Symbolic footnotes
Footnote parameters
\footnotetext
Footnotes
Symbolic footnotes
footnotes, symbolic instead of numberedIf you want to use symbols for footnotes, rather than increasing
numbers, redefine \thefootnote
like this:
\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
\fnsymbol, and footnotes\@fnsymbolThe \fnsymbol
command produces a predefined series of symbols
(see \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol). If you want to
use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you'll need to also
redefine \@fnsymbol
.
Footnote parameters
Symbolic footnotes
Footnotes
Footnote parameters
footnote parametersparameters, for footnotes
\footnoterule\footnoterule
- Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's
footnotes. Default dimensions:
0.4pt
thick (or wide), and
0.4\columnwidth
long in the standard document classes (except
slides, where it does not appear).
\footnotesep\footnotesep
- The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By
default, this is set to the normal strut for
\footnotesize
fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between
footnotes. This is 6.65pt for 10pt, 7.7pt for
11pt, and 8.4pt for 12pt.
Definitions
Counters
Footnotes
Top
Definitions
definitions
&latex; has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
\newcommand & \renewcommand
\newcounter
Definitions
\newcommand
& \renewcommand
\newcommandcommands, defining new onesdefining a new commandnew commands, defining
\newcommand
and \renewcommand
define and redefine a
command, respectively. Synopses:
\newcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\newcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn}
\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn}
cmd
- The command name beginning with
\
. For \newcommand
, it
must not be already defined and must not begin with \end
; for
\renewcommand
, it must already be defined.
nargs
- An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments
that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no
arguments.
default
- If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's
first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the
default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not specified
in the call) is the string def.
defn
- The text to be substituted for every occurrence of
cmd
; a
construct of the form #n
in defn is replaced by the
text of the nth argument.
\newcounter
\newlength
\newcommand & \renewcommand
Definitions
\newcounter
\newcountercounters, defining new
Synopsis:
\newcounter{cnt}[countername]
The \newcounter
command defines a new counter named cnt.
The new counter is initialized to zero.
Given the optional argument [countername]
, cnt
will be reset whenever countername is incremented.
See Counters, for more information about counters.
\newlength
\newsavebox
\newcounter
Definitions
\newlength
\newlengthlengths, defining new
Synopsis:
\newlength{\arg}
The \newlength
command defines the mandatory argument as a
length
command with a value of 0in
. The argument must
be a control sequence, as in \newlength{\foo}
. An error
occurs if \foo
is already defined.
See Lengths, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and
for more information about lengths in general.
\newsavebox
\newenvironment & \renewenvironment
\newlength
Definitions
\newsavebox
\newsavebox
Synopsis:
\newsavebox{cmd}
Defines \cmd
, which must be a command name not already
defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.
\newenvironment & \renewenvironment
\newtheorem
\newsavebox
Definitions
\newenvironment
& \renewenvironment
\newenvironment\renewenvironmentenvironments, definingdefining new environmentsredefining environments
Synopses:
\newenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment{env}[nargs][default]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is,
\begin{env} &dots; \end{env}
.
env
- The name of the environment. For
\newenvironment
, env
must not be an existing environment, and the command \env
must be undefined. For \renewenvironment
, env must be
the name of an existing environment.
nargs
- An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments.
default
- If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default
gives the default value for that argument.
begdef
- The text expanded at every occurrence of
\begin{env}
; a
construct of the form #n
in begdef is replaced by
the text of the nth argument.
enddef
- The text expanded at every occurrence of
\end{env}
. It
may not contain any argument parameters.
\newtheorem
\newfont
\newenvironment & \renewenvironment
Definitions
\newtheorem
\newtheoremtheorems, definingdefining new theorems
\newtheorem{newenv}{label}[within]
\newtheorem{newenv}[numbered_like]{label}
This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments:
newenv
- The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an
existing environment or otherwise defined.
label
- The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
number. For example, Theorem.
numbered_like
- (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment;
the new environment will be numbered just like numbered_like.
within
- (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit.
The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the
within counter.
At most one of numbered_like and within can be specified,
not both.
\newfont
\protect
\newtheorem
Definitions
\newfont
\newfontfonts, new commands fordefining new fonts
Synopsis:
\newfont{cmd}{fontname}
Defines a control sequence \cmd
, which must not already
be defined, to make fontname be the current font. The file
looked for on the system is named fontname.tfm.
This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font.
More commonly, fonts are defined in families through .fd files.
\protect
\newfont
Definitions
\protect
\protect
fragile commandsmoving argumentsFootnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and
many more are so-called fragile commands. When a fragile
command is used in certain contexts, called moving arguments, it
must be preceded by \protect
. In addition, any fragile
commands within the arguments must have their own \protect
.
Some examples of moving arguments are \caption
(see figure), \thanks
(see \maketitle), and
expressions in tabular
and array
environments
(see tabular).
robust commandsCommands which are not fragile are called robust. They must not
be preceded by \protect
.
See also:
http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect
Counters
Lengths
Definitions
Top
Counters
counters, a list ofvariables, a list of
Everything &latex; numbers for you has a counter associated with
it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment
or command that produces the number, except with no \
.
(enumi
–enumiv
are used for the nested enumerate
environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in &latex;'s
standard document classes to control numbering.
part paragraph figure enumi
chapter subparagraph table enumii
section page footnote enumiii
subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
subsubsection
\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
\usecounter
Counters
\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
: Printing counters
All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, \alph{enumi}
.
\alph\alph
- prints counter using lowercase letters: `a', `b', &enddots;
\Alph\Alph
- uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', &enddots;
\arabic\arabic
- uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', &enddots;
\roman\roman
- uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', &enddots;
\roman\roman
- uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', &enddots;
\fnsymbol\fnsymbol
- prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine
symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of
counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.
The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the names:
asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel
double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger
\usecounter
\value
\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
Counters
\usecounter{counter}
\usecounterlist items, specifying counternumbered items, specifying counter
Synopsis:
\usecounter{counter}
The \usecounter
command is used in the second argument of the
list
environment to specify counter to be used to number
the list items.
\value
\setcounter
\usecounter
Counters
\value{counter}
\valuecounters, getting value of
Synopsis:
\value{counter}
The \value
command produces the value of counter. It can
be used anywhere &latex; expects a number, for example:
\setcounter{myctr}{3}
\addtocounter{myctr}{1}
\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
\setcounter
\addtocounter
\value
Counters
\setcounter{counter}{value}
\setcountercounters, settingsetting counters
Synopsis:
\setcounter{\counter}{value}
The \setcounter
command sets the value of \counter to the
value argument.
\addtocounter
\refstepcounter
\setcounter
Counters
\addtocounter{counter}{value}
\addtocounter
The \addtocounter
command increments counter by the
amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative.
\refstepcounter
\stepcounter
\addtocounter
Counters
\refstepcounter{counter}
\refstepcounter
The \refstepcounter
command works in the same way as
\stepcounter
See \stepcounter, except it also defines the
current \ref
value to be the result of \thecounter
.
\stepcounter
\day \month \year
\refstepcounter
Counters
\stepcounter{counter}
\stepcounter
The \stepcounter
command adds one to counter and
resets all subsidiary counters.
\day \month \year
\stepcounter
Counters
\day \month \year
: Predefined counters
\day\month\year
&latex; defines counters for the day of the month (\day
,
1–31), month of the year (\month
, 1–12), and year
(\year
, Common Era). When &tex; starts up, they are
set to the current values on the system where &tex; is running. They
are not updated as the job progresses.
The related command \today
produces a string representing the
current day (see \today).
Lengths
Making paragraphs
Counters
Top
Lengths
lengths, defining and using
A length
is a measure of distance. Many &latex; commands take a
length as an argument.
\setlength
\addtolength
Lengths
\setlength{\len}{value}
\setlengthlengths, setting
The \setlength
sets the value of \len to the value
argument, which can be expressed in any units that &latex;
understands, i.e., inches (in
), millimeters (mm
), points
(pt
), big points (bp
, etc.
\addtolength
\settodepth
\setlength
Lengths
\addtolength{\len}{amount}
\addtolengthlengths, adding to
The \addtolength
command increments a “length command”
\len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which
may be negative.
\settodepth
\settoheight
\addtolength
Lengths
\settodepth
\settodepth
\settodepth{\gnat}{text}
The \settodepth
command sets the value of a length
command
equal to the depth of the text
argument.
\settoheight
\settowidth
\settodepth
Lengths
\settoheight
\settoheight
\settoheight{\gnat}{text}
The \settoheight
command sets the value of a length
command
equal to the height of the text
argument.
\settowidth
Predefined lengths
\settoheight
Lengths
\settowidth{\len}{text}
\settowidth
The \settowidth
command sets the value of the command \len
to the width of the text argument.
Predefined lengths
\settowidth
Lengths
Predefined lengths
lengths, predefinedpredefined lengths
\width
\width
\height
\height
\depth
\depth
\totalheight
\totalheight
These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making
commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width etc. of the
text in the box. \totalheight
equals \height
+
\depth
. To make a box with the text stretched to double the
natural size, e.g., say
\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}
Making paragraphs
Math formulas
Lengths
Top
Making paragraphs
making paragraphsparagraphs
A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not
containing even a %
. A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.
\indent
\noindent
Making paragraphs
\indent
\indent\parindentindent, forcing
\indent
produces a horizontal space whose width equals the
width of the \parindent
length, the normal paragraph
indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would
otherwise be suppressed.
The default value for \parindent
is 1em
in two-column
mode, otherwise 15pt
for 10pt
documents, 17pt
for
11pt
, and 1.5em
for 12pt
.
\noindent
\parskip
\indent
Making paragraphs
\noindent
\noindentindent, suppressing
When used at the beginning of the paragraph, \noindent
suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in
the middle of a paragraph.
\parskip
Marginal notes
\noindent
Making paragraphs
\parskip
\parskipvertical space before paragraphs
\parskip
is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added
before each paragraph. The default is 0pt plus1pt
.
Marginal notes
\parskip
Making paragraphs
Marginal notes
marginal notesnotes in the marginremarks in the margin\marginpar
Synopsis:
\marginpar[left]{right}
The \marginpar
command creates a note in the margin. The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
where the \marginpar
occurs.
When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text
will be placed
•-
in the right margin for one-sided layout;
-
in the outside margin for two-sided layout;
-
in the nearest margin for two-column layout.
\reversemarginpar\normalmarginparThe command \reversemarginpar
places subsequent marginal notes
in the opposite (inside) margin. \normalmarginpar
places them
in the default position.
When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left
margin, and right is used for the right margin.
The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation there by beginning the node with \hspace{0pt}
.
These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
\marginparpush\marginparpush
- Minimum vertical space between notes; default 7pt for
12pt documents, 5pt else.
\marginparsep\marginparsep
- Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default
11pt for 10pt documents, 10pt else.
\marginparwidth\marginparwidth
- Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided 10pt document
is 90pt, 83pt for 11pt, and 68pt for
12pt; 17pt more in each case for a two-sided document.
In two column mode, the default is 48pt.
The standard &latex; routine for marginal notes does not prevent
notes from falling off the bottom of the page.
Math formulas
Modes
Making paragraphs
Top
Math formulas
math formulasformulas, mathmath mode, entering
math environmentdisplaymath environmentequation environmentThere are three environments that put &latex; in math mode:
math
- For formulas that appear right in the text.
displaymath
- For formulas that appear on their own line.
equation
- The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation
number in the right margin.
\(\)\[\]The math
environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode,
but the displaymath
and equation
environments can be used
only in paragraph mode. The math
and displaymath
environments are used so often that they have the following short forms:
\(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math}
\[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
$In fact, the math
environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:
$ ... $ instead of \(...\)
\boldmath\unboldmathThe \boldmath
command changes math letters and symbols to be in
a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the
\unboldmath
command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font;
it too is used outside of math mode.
\displaystyleThe \displaystyle
declaration forces the size and style of the
formula to be that of displaymath
, e.g., with limits above and
below summations. For example
$\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $
Subscripts & superscripts
Math symbols
Math formulas
Subscripts & superscripts
superscriptsubscriptexponent_^
To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type
_{
exp}
. To get exp to appear as a
superscript, you type ^{
exp}
. &latex; handles
superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way.
It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a
superscript.
Math symbols
Math functions
Subscripts & superscripts
Math formulas
Math symbols
math symbolssymbols, mathgreek letters
&latex; provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to
need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.
For example, if you include $\pi$
in your source, you will get
the pi symbol () in your output.
\|\|
-
\aleph\aleph
-
\alpha\alpha
-
\amalg\amalg
- (binary operation)
\angle\angle
-
\approx\approx
- (relation)
\ast\ast
- (binary operation)
\asymp\asymp
- (relation)
\backslash\backslash
- \ (delimiter)
\beta\beta
-
\bigcap\bigcap
-
\bigcirc\bigcirc
- (binary operation)
\bigcup\bigcup
-
\bigodot\bigodot
-
\bigoplus\bigoplus
-
\bigotimes\bigotimes
-
\bigtriangledown\bigtriangledown
- (binary operation)
\bigtriangleup\bigtriangleup
- (binary operation)
\bigsqcup\bigsqcup
-
\biguplus\biguplus
-
\bigcap\bigcap
-
\bigwedge\bigwedge
-
\bot\bot
-
\bowtie\bowtie
- (relation)
\Box\Box
- (square open box symbol)
\bullet\bullet
- bullet symbol (binary operation)
\cap\cap
- (binary operation)
\cdot\cdot
- (binary operation)
\chi\chi
-
\circ\circ
- (binary operation)
\clubsuit\clubsuit
-
\cong\cong
- (relation)
\coprod\coprod
-
\cup\cup
- (binary operation)
\dagger\dagger
- (binary operation)
\dashv\dashv
- (relation)
\ddagger\ddagger
- (binary operation)
\Delta\Delta
-
\delta\delta
-
\Diamond\Diamond
- bigger
\diamond\diamond
- (binary operation)
\diamondsuit\diamondsuit
-
\div\div
- (binary operation)
\doteq\doteq
- (relation)
\downarrow\downarrow
- (delimiter)
\Downarrow\Downarrow
- (delimiter)
\ell\ell
-
\emptyset\emptyset
-
\epsilon\epsilon
-
\equiv\equiv
- (relation)
\eta\eta
-
\exists\exists
-
\flat\flat
-
\forall\forall
-
\frown\frown
- (relation)
\Gamma\Gamma
-
\gamma\gamma
-
\ge\ge
-
\geq\geq
- (relation)
\gets\gets
-
\gg\gg
- (relation)
\hbar\hbar
-
\heartsuit\heartsuit
-
\hookleftarrow\hookleftarrow
-
\hookrightarrow\hookrightarrow
-
\iff\iff
-
\Im\Im
-
\in\in
- (relation)
\infty\infty
-
\int\int
-
\iota\iota
-
\Join\Join
- condensed bowtie symbol (relation)
\kappa\kappa
-
\Lambda\Lambda
-
\lambda\lambda
-
\land\land
-
\langle\langle
- (delimiter)
\lbrace\lbrace
- (delimiter)
\lbrack\lbrack
- (delimiter)
\lceil\lceil
- (delimiter)
\le\le
-
\leadsto\leadsto
\Leftarrow\Leftarrow
-
\leftarrow\leftarrow
-
\leftharpoondown\leftharpoondown
-
\leftharpoonup\leftharpoonup
-
\Leftrightarrow\Leftrightarrow
-
\leftrightarrow\leftrightarrow
-
\leq\leq
- (relation)
\lfloor\lfloor
- (delimiter)
\lhd\lhd
- (left-pointing arrow head)
\ll\ll
- (relation)
\lnot\lnot
-
\longleftarrow\longleftarrow
-
\longleftrightarrow\longleftrightarrow
-
\longmapsto\longmapsto
-
\longrightarrow\longrightarrow
-
\lor\lor
-
\mapsto\mapsto
-
\mho\mho
\mid\mid
- (relation)
\models\models
- (relation)
\mp\mp
- (binary operation)
\mu\mu
-
\nabla\nabla
-
\natural\natural
-
\ne\ne
-
\nearrow\nearrow
-
\neg\neg
-
\neq\neq
- (relation)
\ni\ni
- (relation)
\not\not
- Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in .
\notin\notin
-
\nu\nu
-
\nwarrow\nwarrow
-
\odot\odot
- (binary operation)
\oint\oint
-
\Omega\Omega
-
\omega\omega
-
\ominus\ominus
- (binary operation)
\oplus\oplus
- (binary operation)
\oslash\oslash
- (binary operation)
\otimes\otimes
- (binary operation)
\owns\owns
-
\parallel\parallel
- (relation)
\partial\partial
-
\perp\perp
- (relation)
\phi\phi
-
\Pi\Pi
-
\pi\pi
-
\pm\pm
- (binary operation)
\prec\prec
- (relation)
\preceq\preceq
- (relation)
\prime\prime
-
\prod\prod
-
\propto\propto
- (relation)
\Psi\Psi
-
\psi\psi
-
\rangle\rangle
- (delimiter)
\rbrace\rbrace
- (delimiter)
\rbrack\rbrack
- (delimiter)
\rceil\rceil
- (delimiter)
\Re\Re
-
\rfloor\rfloor
-
\rhd\rhd
- (binary operation)
\rho\rho
-
\Rightarrow\Rightarrow
-
\rightarrow\rightarrow
-
\rightharpoondown\rightharpoondown
-
\rightharpoonup\rightharpoonup
-
\rightleftharpoons\rightleftharpoons
-
\searrow\searrow
-
\setminus\setminus
- (binary operation)
\sharp\sharp
-
\Sigma\Sigma
-
\sigma\sigma
-
\sim\sim
- (relation)
\simeq\simeq
- (relation)
\smallint\smallint
-
\smile\smile
- (relation)
\spadesuit\spadesuit
-
\sqcap\sqcap
- (binary operation)
\sqcup\sqcup
- (binary operation)
\sqsubset\sqsubset
- (relation)
\sqsubseteq\sqsubseteq
- (relation)
\sqsupset\sqsupset
- (relation)
\sqsupseteq\sqsupseteq
- (relation)
\star\star
- (binary operation)
\subset\subset
- (relation)
\subseteq\subseteq
- (relation)
\succ\succ
- (relation)
\succeq\succeq
- (relation)
\sum\sum
-
\supset\supset
- (relation)
\supseteq\supseteq
- (relation)
\surd\surd
-
\swarrow\swarrow
-
\tau\tau
-
\theta\theta
-
\times\times
- (binary operation)
\to\to
-
\top\top
-
\triangle\triangle
-
\triangleleft\triangleleft
- (binary operation)
\triangleright\triangleright
- (binary operation)
\unlhd\unlhd
- left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation)
\unrhd\unrhd
- right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation)
\Uparrow\Uparrow
- (delimiter)
\uparrow\uparrow
- (delimiter)
\Updownarrow\Updownarrow
- (delimiter)
\updownarrow\updownarrow
- (delimiter)
\uplus\uplus
- (binary operation)
\Upsilon\Upsilon
-
\upsilon\upsilon
-
\varepsilon\varepsilon
-
\varphi\varphi
-
\varpi\varpi
-
\varrho\varrho
-
\varsigma\varsigma
-
\vartheta\vartheta
-
\vdash\vdash
- (relation)
\vee\vee
- (binary operation)
\Vert\Vert
- (delimiter)
\vert\vert
- (delimiter)
\wedge\wedge
- (binary operation)
\wp\wp
-
\wr\wr
- (binary operation)
\Xi\Xi
-
\xi\xi
-
\zeta\zeta
-
Math functions
Math accents
Math symbols
Math formulas
Math functions
math functionsfunctions, math
These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
spacing.
\arccos\arccos
-
\arcsin\arcsin
-
\arctan\arctan
-
\arg\arg
-
\bmod\bmod
- Binary modulo operator ()
\cos\cos
-
\cosh\cosh
-
\cot\cot
-
\coth\coth
-
\csc\csc
-
\deg\deg
-
\det\det
-
\dim\dim
-
\exp\exp
-
\gcd\gcd
-
\hom\hom
-
\inf\inf
-
\ker\ker
-
\lg\lg
-
\lim\lim
-
\liminf\liminf
-
\limsup\limsup
-
\ln\ln
-
\log\log
-
\max\max
-
\min\min
-
\pmod\pmod
- parenthesized modulus, as in ()
\Pr\Pr
-
\sec\sec
-
\sin\sin
-
\sinh\sinh
-
\sup\sup
-
\tan\tan
-
\tanh\tanh
-
Math accents
Spacing in math mode
Math functions
Math formulas
Math accents
math accentsaccents, mathematical
&latex; provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters
in math. These are different from accents in normal text
(see Accents).
\acute\acute
- acute accent, mathMath acute accent: .
\bar\bar
- bar-over accent, mathmacron accent, mathMath bar-over accent: .
\breve\breve
- breve accent, mathMath breve accent: .
\check\check
- check accent, mathhác<ek accent, mathMath hác<ek (check) accent: .
\ddot\ddot
- double dot accent, mathMath dieresis accent: .
\dot\dot
- overdot accent, mathdot over accent, mathMath dot accent: .
\grave\grave
- grave accent, mathMath grave accent: .
\hat\hat
- hat accent, mathcircumflex accent, mathMath hat (circumflex) accent: .
\imath\imath
- dotless i, mathMath dotless i.
\jmath\jmath
- dotless j, mathMath dotless j.
\tilde\tilde
- tilde accent, mathMath tilde accent: .
\vec\vec
- vector symbol, mathMath vector symbol: .
\widehat\widehat
- wide hat accent, mathMath wide hat accent: .
\widehat\widehat
- wide tile accent, mathMath wide tilde accent: .
Spacing in math mode
Math miscellany
Math accents
Math formulas
Spacing in math mode
spacing within math modemath mode, spacing
In a math
environment, &latex; ignores the spaces you type and
puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics
texts. If you want different spacing, &latex; provides the following
commands for use in math mode:
\;
- \;A thick space (quad).
\:
\>
- \:\>Both of these produce a medium space (quad).
\,
- \,A thin space (quad); not restricted to math mode.
\!
- A negative thin space (quad).
Math miscellany
Spacing in math mode
Math formulas
Math miscellany
math miscellany
\*\*
- discretionary multiplicationmultiplication symbol, discretionary line breakA “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is
allowed.
\cdots\cdots
- A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line.
\ddots\ddots
- A diagonal ellipsis: .
\frac{num}{den}\frac{num}{den}
- \fracProduces the fraction
num
divided by den
.
\left delim1 ... \right delim2\left delim1 ... \right delim2
- \rightnull delimiterThe two delimiters need not match; . acts as a null delimiter,
producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math
in between. Example:
\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]
.
\overbrace{text}\overbrace{text}
- Generates a brace over text.
For example, .
\overline{text}\overline{text}
- Generates a horizontal line over tex.
For exampe, .
\sqrt[root]{arg}\sqrt[root]{arg}
- Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The
optional argument root determines what root to produce. For
example, the cube root of
x+y
would be typed as
$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$
.
\stackrel{text}{relation}\stackrel{text}{relation}
- Puts text above relation. For example,
\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}
.
\underbrace{math}\underbrace{math}
- Generates math with a brace underneath.
\underline{text}\underline{text}
- Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be
underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of
descenders.
\vdots\vdots
- \vdotsProduces a vertical ellipsis.
Modes
Page styles
Math formulas
Top
Modes
modesparagraph modemath modeleft-to-right modelR mode
When &latex; is processing your input text, it is always in one of three
modes:
•-
Paragraph mode
-
Math mode
-
Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short
&latex; changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a
different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes.
Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when
&latex; is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.
“Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one &latex; is in
when processing ordinary text. In that mode, &latex; breaks your
text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. &latex; is in
“math mode” when it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR
mode”, as in paragraph mode, &latex; considers the output that it
produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However,
unlike paragraph mode, &latex; keeps going from left to right; it
never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words
into an \mbox
, &latex; would keep typesetting them from left
to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting
box was too wide to fit on the line.
&latex; is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox
command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for
example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.
There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put &latex; in paragraph mode. The box make by one of
these commands or environments will be called a parbox
. When
&latex; is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in
“inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out
in, is called “outer paragraph mode”.
Page styles
Spaces
Modes
Top
Page styles
styles, pagepage styles
The \documentclass
command determines the size and position of
the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.
\maketitle
\pagenumbering
Page styles
\maketitle
titles, making\maketitle
The \maketitle
command generates a title on a separate title
page—except in the article
class, where the title is placed
at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title
is obtained from the following declarations:
\author{name \and name2}\author{name \and name2}
- author, for titlepage\\ for
\author
\and for \author
The \author
command declares the document author(s), where the
argument is a list of authors separated by \and
commands. Use
\\
to separate lines within a single author's entry—for
example, to give the author's institution or address.
\date{text}\date{text}
- date, for titlepageThe
\date
command declares text to be the document's
date. With no \date
command, the current date (see \today)
is used.
\thanks{text}\thanks{text}
- thanks, for titlepagecredit footnoteThe
\thanks
command produces a \footnote
to the title,
usually used for credit acknowledgements.
\title{text}\title{text}
- title, for titlepage\\ for
\title
The \title
command declares text to be the title of the
document. Use \\
to force a line break, as usual.
\pagenumbering
\pagestyle
\maketitle
Page styles
\pagenumbering
\pagenumberingpage numbering style
Synopsis:
\pagenumbering{style}
Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style:
arabic
- arabic numerals
roman
- lowercase Roman numerals
Roman
- uppercase Roman numerals
alph
- lowercase letters
Alph
- uppercase letters
\pagestyle
\thispagestyle
\pagenumbering
Page styles
\pagestyle
\pagestyleheader stylefooter stylerunning header and footer style
Synopsis:
\pagestyle{style}
The \pagestyle
command specifies how the headers and footers
are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style:
plain
- Just a plain page number.
empty
- Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.
headings
- Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what
goes in the headers.
myheadings
- Custom headers, specified via the
\markboth
or the
\markright
commands.
Here are the descriptions of \markboth
and \markright
:
\markboth{left}{right}\markboth{left}{right}
- Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading”
(left) is generated by the last
\markboth
command before
the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right is
generated by the first \markboth
or \markright
that
comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before
the page.
\markright{right}\markright{right}
- Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.
\thispagestyle
\pagestyle
Page styles
\thispagestyle{style}
\thispagestyle
The \thispagestyle
command works in the same manner as the
\pagestyle
command (see previous section) except that it
changes to style for the current page only.
Spaces
Boxes
Page styles
Top
Spaces
spaces
&latex; has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.
Another space-producing command is \,
to produce a “thin”
space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is
more often useful in math mode (see Spacing in math mode).
\hspace
\hfill
Spaces
\hspace
\hspace
Synopsis:
\hspace[*]{length}
The \hspace
command adds horizontal space. The length
argument can be expressed in any terms that &latex; understands:
points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both
negative and positive space with an \hspace
command; adding
negative space is like backspacing.
&latex; normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning
or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional *
form.
\hfill
\SPACE
\hspace
Spaces
\hfill
\hfillThe \hfill
fill command produces a “rubber length” which has
no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as
needed.
\fillThe \fill
parameter is the rubber length itself (technically,
the glue value 0pt plus1fill); thus, \hspace\fill
is
equivalent to \hfill
.
\SPACE
\AT
\hfill
Spaces
\SPACE
\SPACE\TAB\NEWLINE
The \
(space) command produces a normal interword space. It's
useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example
Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental
.
It is also often used after control sequences, as in \TeX\ is a
nice system.
In normal circumstances, \
tab and \
newline
are equivalent to \
.
\AT
\thinspace
\SPACE
Spaces
\@
\@
The \@
command makes the following punctuation character end a
sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after
a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without
\@
:
&dots; in C\@. Pascal, though &dots;
&dots; in C. Pascal, though &dots;
produces
&dots; in C&eosperiod; Pascal, though &dots;
&dots; in C. Pascal, though &dots;
\thinspace
\/
\AT
Spaces
\thinspace
\thinspace
\thinspace
produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that
is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as
in '”.
\/
\hrulefill
\thinspace
Spaces
\/
\/
The \/
command produces an italic correction. This is a
small space defined by the font designer for a given character,
to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic
f character typically has a large italic correction value.
If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to
insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a
very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as
normal letters, it can help. Compare
f: f; (in the &tex; output, the `f's are nicely separated)
with f: f;.
Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic
correction. Compare
pdf&tex; (in the &tex; output, there is a small space after the `f')
with pdf&tex;.
\hrulefill
\dotfill
\/
Spaces
\hrulefill
\hrulefill
The \hrulefill
fill command produces a “rubber length” which can
stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal
rule.
\dotfill
\addvspace
\hrulefill
Spaces
\dotfill
\dotfill
The \dotfill
command produces a “rubber length” that fills
with dots instead of just white space.
\addvspace
\bigskip \medskip \smallskip
\dotfill
Spaces
\addvspace
\addvspacevertical spacespace, inserting vertical
\addvspace{length}
The \addvspace
command normally adds a vertical space of height
length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same
point in the output by a previous \addvspace
command, then this
command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length
of the total vertical space equal to length
.
\bigskip \medskip \smallskip
\vfill
\addvspace
Spaces
\bigskip \medskip \smallskip
These commands produce a given amount of space.
\bigskip
- \bigskip\bigskipamountThe same as
\vspace{bigskipamount}
, ordinarily about one line
space (with stretch and shrink).
\medskip
- \medskip\medskipamountThe same as
\vspace{medskipamount}
, ordinarily
about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
\smallskip
- \smallskip\smallskipamountThe same as
\vspace{smallskipamount}
, ordinarily about a
quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
The \...amount
parameters are determined by the document class.
\vfill
\vspace
\bigskip \medskip \smallskip
Spaces
\vfill
\vfill
The \vfill
fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which
can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to
\vspace{\fill}
(see \hfill).
\vspace
\vfill
Spaces
\vspace[*]{length}
\vspace
Synopsis:
\vspace[*]{length}
The \vspace
command adds the vertical space length, i.e.,
a rubber length. length can be negative or positive.
Ordinarily, &latex; removes vertical space added by \vspace
at
the top or bottom of a page. With the optional *
argument, the
space is not removed.
Boxes
Special insertions
Spaces
Top
Boxes
boxes
All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be
used in the arguments of the box-making commands.
\mbox
\fbox and \framebox
Boxes
\mbox{text}
\mbox
hyphenation, preventingThe \mbox
command creates a box just wide enough to hold the
text created by its argument. The text is not broken into
lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.
\fbox and \framebox
lrbox
\mbox
Boxes
\fbox
and \framebox
\fbox\framebox
Synopses:
\fbox{text}
\framebox[width][position]{text}
The \fbox
and \framebox
commands are like \mbox
,
except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.
In addition, the \framebox
command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional width argument
(a dimension), and positioning with the optional position
argument.
\fboxrule\fboxsepBoth commands produce a rule of thickness \fboxrule
(default
.4pt), and leave a space of \fboxsep
(default
3pt) between the rule and the contents of the box.
See \framebox (picture), for the \framebox
command in the
picture
environment.
lrbox
\makebox
\fbox and \framebox
Boxes
lrbox
lrbox
\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}
This is the environment form of \sbox
.
The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd
, which
must have been declared with \newsavebox
.
\makebox
\parbox
lrbox
Boxes
\makebox
\makebox
Synopsis:
\makebox[width][position]{text}
The \makebox
command creates a box just wide enough to contain
the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the
optional width argument. The position of the text within the box
is determined by the optional position argument, which may take
the following values:
c
- Centered (default).
l
- Flush left.
r
- Flush right.
s
- Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain
stretchable space for this to work.
\makebox
is also used within the picture environment
see \makebox (picture).
\parbox
\raisebox
\makebox
Boxes
\parbox
\parbox
Synopsis:
\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}
The \parbox
command produces a box whose contents are created
in paragraph
mode. It should be used to make a box small
pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you
shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a
\parbox
argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones
containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a
minipage
environment (see minipage).
\parbox
has two mandatory arguments:
width
- the width of the parbox;
text
- the text that goes inside the parbox.
The optional position argument allows you to align either the
top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding
text (default is top).
The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box.
The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside
the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used.
t
- text is placed at the top of the box.
c
- text is centered in the box.
b
- text is placed at the bottom of the box.
s
- stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space
for this to work.
\raisebox
\savebox
\parbox
Boxes
\raisebox
\raisebox
Synopsis:
\raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}
The \raisebox
command raises or lowers text. The first
mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or
lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed
in LR mode.
The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions.
If they are specified, &latex; treats text as extending a
certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth),
ignoring its natural height and depth.
\savebox
\sbox
\raisebox
Boxes
\savebox
\savebox
Synopsis:
\savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text}
This command typeset text in a box just as with \makebox
(see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box,
it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been
declared with \newsavebox
(see \newsavebox).
\sbox
\usebox
\savebox
Boxes
\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}
\sbox
Synopsis:
\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}
\sbox
types text in a box just as with \mbox
(see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being
included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled
\boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with
\newsavebox
(see \newsavebox).
\usebox
\sbox
Boxes
\usebox{\boxcmd
\usebox
Synopsis:
\usebox{\boxcmd}
\usebox
producesthe box most recently saved in the bin
\boxcmd by a \savebox
command (see \savebox).
Special insertions
Splitting the input
Boxes
Top
Special insertions
&latex; provides commands for inserting characters that have a
special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.
Reserved characters
Text symbols
Special insertions
Reserved characters
reserved characterscharacters, reserved
The following characters play a special role in &latex; and are called
“reserved characters” or “special characters”.
# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
\#\$\%\&\_\{\}Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, &latex;
will do something special. If you simply want the character to be
printed as itself, include a \
in front of the character. For
example, \$
will produce $
in your output.
\backslashOne exception to this rule is \
itself, because \\
has
its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by
typing $\backslash$
in your file, and a typewriter \
is
produced by using \ in a verbatim command (see verbatim).
\~\^Also, \~
and \^
place tilde and circumflex accents over
the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get
a standalone ~
or ^
, you can again use a verbatim
command.
\symbolaccessing any character of a font
Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
know its number by using the \symbol
command. For example, the
visible space character used in the \verb*
command has the code
decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}
.
You can also specify octal numbers with '
or hexadecimal numbers
with "
, so the previous example could also be written as
\symbol{'40}
or \symbol{"20}
.
Text symbols
Accents
Reserved characters
Special insertions
Text symbols
text symbolstextcomp package&latex; provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols
in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are
not available in OT1; you may need to load the textcomp
package.
\copyright\copyright
\textcopyright\textcopyright
- copyright symbolThe copyright symbol, ©right;.
\dag\dag
- dagger, in textThe dagger symbol (in text).
\ddag\ddag
- double dagger, in textThe double dagger symbol (in text).
\LaTeX\LaTeX
- &latex; logologo, &latex;The &latex; logo.
\guillemotleft («)\guillemotleft («)
\guillemotright (»)\guillemotright (»)
\guilsinglleft (‹)\guilsinglleft (‹)
\guilsinglright (›)\guilsinglright (›)
- double guillemetssingle guillemetsleft angle quotation marksright angle quotation marksdouble angle quotation markssingle angle quotation marksFrench quotation marksquotation marks, FrenchDouble and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French:
«, », ‹, ›.
\ldots\ldots
\dots\dots
\textellipsis\textellipsis
- ellipsisAn ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `&dots;'.
\ldots
and \dots
also work in math mode.
\lq\lq
- left quoteopening quoteLeft (opening) quote: `.
\P\P
\textparagraph\textparagraph
- paragraph symbolpilcrowParagraph sign (pilcrow).
\pounds\pounds
\textsterling\textsterling
- pounds symbolsterling symbolEnglish pounds sterling: £.
\quotedblbase („)\quotedblbase („)
\quotesinglbase (‚)\quotesinglbase (‚)
- double low-9 quotation marksingle low-9 quotation marklow-9 quotation marks, single and doubleDouble and single quotation marks on the baseline:
„ and ‚.
\rq\rq
- right quoteclosing quoteRight (closing) quote: '.
\S\S
- section symbolSection symbol.
\TeX\TeX
- &tex; logologo, &tex;The &tex; logo.
\textasciicircum\textasciicircum
- circumflex, ASCII, in textASCII circumflex, in textASCII circumflex: ^.
\textasciitilde\textasciitilde
- tilde, ASCII, in textASCII tilde, in textASCII tilde: ~.
\textasteriskcentered\textasteriskcentered
- asterisk, centered, in textcentered asterisk, in textCentered asterisk: *.
\textbackslash\textbackslash
- backslash, in textBackslash: \.
\textbar\textbar
- vertical bar, in textbar, vertical, in textVertical bar: |.
\textbardbl\textbardbl
- vertical bar, double, in textbar, double vertical, in textdouble vertical bar, in textDouble vertical bar.
\textbigcircle\textbigcircle
- big circle symbols, in textcircle symbol, big, in textBig circle symbol.
\textbraceleft\textbraceleft
- left brace, in textbrace, left, in textLeft brace: {.
\textbraceright\textbraceright
- right brace, in textbrace, right, in textRight brace: }.
\textbullet\textbullet
- bullet, in textBullet: •.
\textcircled{letter}\textcircled{letter}
- circled letter, in textletter in a circle, as in ®istered;.
\textcompwordmark\textcompwordmark
\textcapitalwordmark\textcapitalwordmark
\textascenderwordmark\textascenderwordmark
- composite word mark, in textcap heightascender heightComposite word mark (invisible). The
\textcapital...
form
has the cap height of the font, while the \textascender...
form
has the ascender height.
\textdagger\textdagger
- dagger, in textDagger: .
\textdaggerdbl\textdaggerdbl
- dagger, double, in textdouble dagger, in textDouble dagger: .
\textdollar (or $
)\textdollar (or $
)
- dollar signcurrency, dollarDollar sign: $.
\textemdash (or ---
)\textemdash (or ---
)
- em-dashEm-dash: — (for punctuation).
\textendash (or --
)\textendash (or --
)
- e-dashEn-dash: — (for ranges).
\texteuro\texteuro
- euro symbolcurrency, euroThe Euro symbol: €.
\textexclamdown (or !`
)\textexclamdown (or !`
)
- exclamation point, upside-downUpside down exclamation point: ¡.
\textgreater\textgreater
- greater than symbol, in textGreater than: >.
\textless\textless
- less than symbol, in textLess than: <.
\textleftarrow\textleftarrow
- arrow, left, in textleft arrow, in textLeft arrow.
\textordfeminine\textordfeminine
\textordmasculine\textordmasculine
- feminine ordinal symbolmasculine ordinal symbolordinals, feminine and masculineSpanish ordinals, feminine and masculineFeminine and masculine ordinal symbols: ª, º.
\textperiodcentered\textperiodcentered
- period, centered, in textcentered period, in textCentered period: .
\textquestiondown (or ?`
)\textquestiondown (or ?`
)
- questionation point, upside-downUpside down questionation point: ¿.
\textquotedblleft (or ``
)\textquotedblleft (or ``
)
- left quote, doubledouble left quoteDouble left quote: “.
\textquotedblright (or '
)\textquotedblright (or '
)
- right quote, doubledouble right quoteDouble right quote: ”.
\textquoteleft (or `
)\textquoteleft (or `
)
- left quote, singlesingle left quoteSingle left quote: `.
\textquoteright (or '
)\textquoteright (or '
)
- right quote, singlesingle right quoteSingle right quote: '.
\textquotestraightbase\textquotestraightbase
\textquotestraightdblbase\textquotestraightdblbase
- quote, straight basestraight quote, basedouble quote, straight basestraight double quote, baseSingle and double straight quotes on the baseline.
\textregistered\textregistered
- registered symbolRegistered symbol: ®istered;.
\textrightarrow\textrightarrow
- arrow, right, in textright arrow, in textRight arrow.
\textthreequartersemdash\textthreequartersemdash
- three-quarters em-dashem-dash, three-quarters“Three-quarters” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
\texttrademark\texttrademark
- trademark symbolTrademark symbol: .
\texttwelveudash\texttwelveudash
- two-thirds em-dashem-dash, two-thirds“Two-thirds” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
\textunderscore\textunderscore
- underscore, in textUnderscore: _.
\textvisiblespace\textvisiblespace
- visible space symbol, in textVisible space symbol.
Accents
Non-English characters
Text symbols
Special insertions
Accents
accentscharacters, accentedletters, accented
&latex; has wide support for many of the world's scripts and
languages, through the babel
package and related support. This
section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists
the core &latex; commands for creating accented characters.
The \capital...
commands produce alternative forms for use with
capital letters. These are not available with OT1.
\"
\capitaldieresis
- \" (umlaut accent)\capitaldieresisumlaut accentdieresis accentProduces an umlaut (dieresis), as in ö.
\'
\capitalacute
- \' (acute accent)\capitalacuteacute accentProduces an acute accent, as in ó. In the
tabbing
environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column
(see tabbing).
\.
- \. (dot-over accent)dot accentdot-over accentProduces a dot accent over the following, as in o..
\=
\capitalmacron
- \= (macron accent)\capitalmacronmacron accentoverbar accentbar-over accentProduces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o¯.
\^
\capitalcircumflex
- \^ (circumflex accent)\capitalcircumflexcircumflex accenthat accentProduces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô.
\`
\capitalgrave
- \` (grave accent)\capitalgravegrave accentProduces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the
tabbing
environment, move following text to the right margin
(see tabbing).
\~
\capitaltilde
- \~ (tilde accent)\capitaltildetilde accentProduces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ.
\b
- \b (bar-under accent)bar-under accentProduces a bar accent under the following, as in o_.
\c
\capitalcedilla
- \c (cedilla accent)\capitalcedillacedilla accentProduces a cedilla accent under the following, as in ç.
\d
\capitaldotaccent
- \d (dot-under accent)\capitaldotaccentdot-under accentProduces a dot accent under the following, as in .o.
\H
\capitalhungarumlaut
- \H (Hungarian umlaut accent)\capitalhungarumlauthungarian umlaut accentProduces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''.
\i
- \i (dotless i)dotless iProduces a dotless i, as in `i'.
\j
- \j (dotless j)dotless jProduces a dotless j, as in `j'.
\k
\capitalogonek
- \k (ogonek)\capitalogonekogonekProduces a letter with ogonek, as in `o;'. Not available in
the OT1 encoding.
\r
\capitalring
- \r (ring accent)\capitalringring accentProduces a ring accent, as in `o*'.
\t
\capitaltie
\newtie
\capitalnewtie
- \t (tie-after accent)\capitaltie\newtie\capitalnewtietie-after accentProduces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. The
\newtie
form is centered in its box.
\u
\capitalbreve
- \u (breve accent)\capitalbrevebreve accentProduces a breve accent, as in `o('.
\underbar
- \underbarunderbarNot exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text.
The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is
always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through
descenders. See also
\underline
in Math miscellany.
\v
\capitalcaron
- \v (breve accent)\capitalcaronhacek accentcheck accentcaron accentProduces a hác<ek (check, caron) accent, as in `o<'.
Non-English characters
\rule
Accents
Special insertions
Non-English characters
special charactersnon-English characterscharacters, non-Englishletters, non-English
Here are the basic &latex; commands for inserting characters commonly
used in languages other than English.
\aa
\AA
- \aa (å)\AA (Å)aringå and Å.
\ae
\AE
- \ae (æ)\AE (Æ)ae ligatureæ and Æ.
\dh
\DH
- \dh (æ)\DH (Æ)Icelandic etheth, Icelandic letterIcelandic letter eth: ð and Ð.
\dj
\DJ
- \dj\DJxxxx
\ij
\IJ
- \ij (ij)\IJ (IJ)ij letter, Dutchij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
\l
\L
- \l (/l)\L (/L)polish l/l and /L.
\ng
\NG
- \ng\NGxxxx
\o
\O
- \o (ø)\O (Ø)oslashø and Ø.
\oe
\OE
- \oe (œ)\OE (Œ)oe ligatureœ and Œ.
\ss
\SS
- \ss (ß)\SS (SS)es-zet German lettersharp S lettersß and SS.
\th
\TH
- \th (þ)\TH (Þ)Icelandic thornthorn, Icelandic letterIcelandic letter thorn: þ and Þ.
\rule
\today
Non-English characters
Special insertions
\rule
\rule
Synopsis:
\rule[raise]{width}{thickness}
The \rule
command produces rules, that is, lines or
rectangles. The arguments are:
raise
- How high to raise the rule (optional).
width
- The length of the rule (mandatory).
thickness
- The thickness of the rule (mandatory).
\today
\rule
Special insertions
\today
\today
The \today
command produces today's date, in the format
month dd, yyyy; for example, `July 4, 1976'.
It uses the predefined counters \day
, \month
, and
\year
(see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not
updated as the program runs.
datetime
packageThe datetime
package, among others, can produce a wide variety
of other date formats.
Splitting the input
Front/back matter
Special insertions
Top
Splitting the input
splitting the input fileinput file
A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole
input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into
several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run &latex;.
\include
\includeonly
Splitting the input
\include
\include
Synopsis:
\include{file}
If no \includeonly
command is present, the \include
command executes \clearpage
to start a new page
(see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another
\clearpage
.
Given an \includeonly
command, the \include
actions are
only run if file is listed as an argument to
\includeonly
. See the next section.
nested \include
, not allowedThe \include
command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another \include
command.
\includeonly
\input
\include
Splitting the input
\includeonly
\includeonly
Synopsis:
\includeonly{file1,file2,...}
The \includeonly
command controls which files will be read by
subsequent \include
commands. The list of filenames is
comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename
specified in a \include
command for the selection to be
effective.
This command can only appear in the preamble.
\input
\includeonly
Splitting the input
\input
\input
Synopsis:
\input{file}
The \input
command causes the specified file to be read
and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current
file at that point.
If file does not end in .tex (e.g., foo or
foo.bar), it is first tried with that extension (foo.tex
or foo.bar.tex). If that is not found, the original file
is tried (foo or foo.bar).
Front/back matter
Letters
Splitting the input
Top
Front/back matter
Tables of contents
Glossaries
Front/back matter
Tables of contents
table of contents, creating
\tableofcontents.toc fileA table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents
command. You put the command right where you want the table of
contents to go; &latex; does the rest for you. A previous run must
have generated a .toc file.
The \tableofcontents
command produces a heading, but it does
not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the
table of contents, write a \newpage
command after the
\tableofcontents
command.
\listoffigures\listoftablesThe analogous commands \listoffigures
and \listoftables
produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.
\nofilesThe command \nofiles
overrides these commands, and
prevents any of these lists from being generated.
\addcontentsline
\addtocontents
Tables of contents
\addcontentsline
\addcontentsline{ext}{unit}{text}table of contents entry, manually adding
The \addcontentsline
{ext}{unit}{text}
command adds an entry to the specified list or table where:
ext
- The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
typically one of:
toc
(table of contents), lof
(list of
figures), or lot
(list of tables).
unit
- The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the
following, matching the value of the ext argument:
toc
- The name of the sectional unit:
part
, chapter
,
section
, subsection
, subsubsection
.
lof
- For the list of figures.
lot
- For the list of tables.
entry
- The actual text of the entry.
\contentslineWhat is written to the .ext file is the
command \contentsline{unit}{name}
.
\addtocontents
\addcontentsline
Tables of contents
\addtocontents
\addtocontents{ext}{text}
The \addtocontents
{ext}{text} command adds text
(or formatting commands) directly to the .ext file that
generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables.
ext
- The extension of the file on which information is to be written:
toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or
lot (list of tables).
text
- The text to be written.
Glossaries
Indexes
Tables of contents
Front/back matter
Glossaries
glossaries
\makeglossaryThe command \makeglossary
enables creating glossaries.
\glossary.glo fileThe command \glossary{text}
writes a glossary entry for
text to an auxiliary file with the .glo extension.
\glossaryentrySpecifically, what gets written is the command
\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}
, where
pageno is the current \thepage
value.
The glossary
package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.
Indexes
Glossaries
Front/back matter
Indexes
indexes
\makeindexThe command \makeindex
enables creating indexes. Put this in
the preamble.
\index.idx fileThe command \index{text}
writes an index entry for
text to an auxiliary file with the .idx extension.
\indexentrySpecifically, what gets written is the command
\indexentry{text}{pageno}
, where pageno
is the current \thepage
value.
`see' and `see also' index entriesTo generate a index entry for `bar' that says `See foo', use a
vertical bar: \index{bar|see{foo}}
. Use seealso
instead of see
to make a `See also' entry.
\seename\alsonameThe text `See' is defined by the macro \seename
, and `See also'
by the macro \alsoname
. These can be redefined for other
languages.
makeindex programxindy program.ind fileThe generated .idx file is then sorted with an external
command, usually either makeindex
(http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex) or (the
multi-lingual) xindy (http://xindy.sourceforge.net).
This results in a .ind file, which can then be read to typeset
the index.
printindexmakeidx
packageThe index is usually generated with the \printindex
command.
This is defined in the makeidx
package, so
\usepackage{makeidx}
needs to be in the preamble.
indexspaceThe rubber length \indexspace
is inserted before each new
letter in the printed index; its default value is 10pt plus5pt
minus3pt.
showidx
packageThe showidx
package causes each index entries to be shown in
the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in
preparing the index.
multind
packageThe multind
package supports multiple indexes. See also the
&tex; FAQ entry on this topic,
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind.
Letters
Terminal input/output
Front/back matter
Top
Letters
letterscreating letters
You can use &latex; to typeset letters, both personal and business. The
letter
document class is designed to make a number of letters at
once, although you can make just one if you so desire.
Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other
document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a
minimum:
\documentclass{letter}
\begin{document}
... letters ...
\end{document}
Each letter is a letter
environment, whose argument is the name
and address of the recipient. For example, you might have:
\begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
\\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
...
\end{letter}
The letter itself begins with the \opening
command. The text of
the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary &latex; input. Commands that
make no sense in a letter, like \chapter
, do not work. The letter
closes with a \closing
command.
\\ for lettersAfter the closing
, you can have additional material. The
\cc
command produces the usual “cc: &dots;”. There's also a
similar \encl
command for a list of enclosures. With both these
commands, use \\
to separate the items.
These commands are used with the letter
class.
\address
\cc
Letters
\address{return-address}
\address
The \address
specifies the return address of a letter, as it
should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the
address should be separated by \\
commands.
If you do not make an \address
declaration, then the letter
will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard
letterhead. (See Overview, for details on your local
implementation). If you give an \address
declaration, then the
letter will be formatted as a personal letter.
\cc
\closing
\address
Letters
\cc
\cccc list, in letters
Synopsis:
\cc{name1\\name2}
Produce a list of names the letter was copied to. Each name is
printed on a separate line.
\closing
\encl
\cc
Letters
\closing
\closingletters, endingclosing letters
Synopsis:
\closing{text}
A letter closes with a \closing
command, for example,
\closing{Best Regards,}
\encl
\location
\closing
Letters
\encl
\enclenclosure list
Synopsis:
\encl{line1\\line2}
Declare a list of one more enclosures.
\location
\makelabels
\encl
Letters
\location
\location
\location{address}
This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears
if the firstpage
pagestyle is selected.
\makelabels
\name
\location
Letters
\makelabels
\makelabels
\makelabels{number}
If you issue this command in the preamble, &latex; will create a sheet of
address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.
\name
\opening
\makelabels
Letters
\name
\name
\name{June Davenport}
Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return
address.
\opening
\ps
\name
Letters
\opening{text}
\openingletters, starting
Synopsis:
\opening{text}
A letter begins with the \opening
command. The mandatory
argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter.
For instance:
\opening{Dear Joe,}
\ps
\signature
\opening
Letters
\ps
\pspostscript, in letters
Use the \ps
command to start a postscript in a letter, after
\closing
.
\signature
\startbreaks
\ps
Letters
\signature{text}
\signature
Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the
space for your signature. \\
starts a new line within
text as usual.
\startbreaks
\stopbreaks
\signature
Letters
\startbreaks
\startbreaks
\startbreaks
Used after a \stopbreaks
command to allow page breaks again.
\stopbreaks
\telephone
\startbreaks
Letters
\stopbreaks
\stopbreaks
\stopbreaks
Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks
command occurs.
\telephone
\stopbreaks
Letters
\telephone
\telephone
\telephone{number}
This is your telephone number. This only appears if the
firstpage
pagestyle is selected.
Terminal input/output
Command line
Letters
Top
Terminal input/output
input/outputterminal input/output
\typein
\typeout
Terminal input/output
\typein[cmd]{msg}
\typein
Synopsis:
\typein[\cmd]{msg}
\typein
prints msg on the terminal and causes &latex; to
stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If
the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is
processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the
\typein
command. If the \cmd argument is present, it
must be a command name. This command name is then defined or
redefined to be the typed input.
\typeout
\typein
Terminal input/output
\typeout{msg}
\typeout
Synopsis:
\typeout{msg}
Prints msg
on the terminal and in the log
file.
Commands in msg
that are defined with \newcommand
or
\renewcommand
(among others) are replaced by their definitions
before being printed.
&latex;'s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg
. A
\space
command in msg
causes a single space to be
printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A ^^J
in
msg
prints a newline.
Command line
Document templates
Terminal input/output
Top
Command line
command line
The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted;
&tex; uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the
input file entirely, &tex; accepts input from the terminal. You
specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the
command; e.g.
latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'
will process foo.tex without pausing after every error.
* promptprompt, *\stopIf &latex; stops in the middle of the document and gives you a
* prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type \stop
(and return) and it will prematurely end the document.
Document templates
Concept Index
Command line
Top
Document templates
document templates
Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will
be useful. Additional templates are collected at
http://www.howtotex.com/templates.
book template
beamer template
Document templates
book
template
\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\chapter{First}
Some text.
\chapter{Second}
Some other text.
\section{A subtopic}
The end.
\end{document}
beamer template
tugboat template
book template
Document templates
beamer
template
The beamer
class creates slides presentations.
\documentclass{beamer}
\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2007}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
\frametitle{First Slide}
\begin{verbatim}
This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}
\end{frame}
\end{document}
tugboat template
beamer template
Document templates
tugboat
template
TUGboat is the journal of the &tex; Users Group,
http://tug.org/TUGboat.
\documentclass{ltugboat}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
\usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black,
urlcolor=black]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage{url}
\fi
\title{Example \TUB\ Article}
% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}
\maketitle
\begin{document}
\begin{abstract}
This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
This is an example article for \TUB, from
\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.
We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the
hyperref package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output).
Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.
The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others:
{\small
\begin{verbatim}
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \LaTeXe
\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas
\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug
\UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE
\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
\careof \thinskip
\acro{FRED} -> {\small fred} % please use!
\cs{fred} -> \fred
\env{fred} -> \begin{fred}
\meta{fred} -> <fred>
\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ...
\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}
}
For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.
\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX
\makesignature
\end{document}
Concept Index
Command Index
Document templates
Top
Concept Index
cp
Command Index
Concept Index
Top
Command Index
fn