LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual 1 About this document 2 Overview of LaTeX 3 Document classes 4 Fonts 5 Layout 6 Sectioning 7 Cross references 8 Environments 9 Line breaking 10 Page breaking 11 Footnotes 12 Definitions 13 Counters 14 Lengths 15 Making paragraphs 16 Math formulas 17 Modes 18 Page styles 19 Spaces 20 Boxes 21 Special insertions 22 Splitting the input 23 Front/back matter 24 Letters 25 Terminal input/output 26 Command line Appendix A Document templates Concept Index Command Index LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual 1 About this document 2 Overview of LaTeX 2.1 Starting and ending 2.2 Output files 2.3 TeX engines 2.4 LaTeX command syntax 3 Document classes 3.1 Document class options 4 Fonts 4.1 Font styles 4.2 Font sizes 4.3 Low-level font commands 5 Layout 5.1 '\onecolumn' 5.2 '\twocolumn' 5.3 '\flushbottom' 5.4 '\raggedbottom' 5.5 Page layout parameters 5.6 Floats 6 Sectioning 7 Cross references 7.1 '\label' 7.2 '\pageref{KEY}' 7.3 '\ref{KEY}' 8 Environments 8.1 'abstract' 8.2 'array' 8.3 'center' 8.3.1 '\centering' 8.4 'description' 8.5 'displaymath' 8.6 'document' 8.7 'enumerate' 8.8 'eqnarray' 8.9 'equation' 8.10 'figure' 8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file 8.12 'flushleft' 8.12.1 '\raggedright' 8.13 'flushright' 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' 8.14 'itemize' 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters 8.16 'list' 8.17 'math' 8.18 'minipage' 8.19 'picture' 8.19.1 '\circle' 8.19.2 '\makebox' 8.19.3 '\framebox' 8.19.4 '\dashbox' 8.19.5 '\frame' 8.19.6 '\line' 8.19.7 '\linethickness' 8.19.8 '\thicklines' 8.19.9 '\thinlines' 8.19.10 '\multiput' 8.19.11 '\oval' 8.19.12 '\put' 8.19.13 '\shortstack' 8.19.14 '\vector' 8.20 'quotation' and 'quote' 8.21 'tabbing' 8.22 'table' 8.23 'tabular' 8.23.1 '\multicolumn' 8.23.2 '\vline' 8.23.3 '\cline' 8.23.4 '\hline' 8.24 'thebibliography' 8.24.1 '\bibitem' 8.24.2 '\cite' 8.24.3 '\nocite' 8.24.4 Using BibTeX 8.25 'theorem' 8.26 'titlepage' 8.27 'verbatim' 8.27.1 '\verb' 8.28 'verse' 9 Line breaking 9.1 '\\' 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' 9.3 '\newline' 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) 9.5 '\fussy' 9.6 '\sloppy' 9.7 '\hyphenation' 9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' 10 Page breaking 10.1 '\cleardoublepage' 10.2 '\clearpage' 10.3 '\newpage' 10.4 '\enlargethispage' 10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' 11 Footnotes 11.1 '\footnote' 11.2 '\footnotemark' 11.3 '\footnotetext' 11.4 Footnotes in a table 11.5 Footnotes in section headings 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes 11.7 Multiple references to footnotes 11.8 Footnote parameters 12 Definitions 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' 12.2 '\providecommand' 12.3 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter 12.4 '\newlength': Allocating a length 12.5 '\newsavebox': Allocating a box 12.6 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' 12.7 '\newtheorem' 12.8 '\newfont': Define a new font (obsolete) 12.9 '\protect' 13 Counters 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters 13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}' 13.3 '\value{COUNTER}' 13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' 13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' 13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' 13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}' 13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters 14 Lengths 14.1 Units of length 14.2 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' 14.3 '\addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}' 14.4 '\settodepth' 14.5 '\settoheight' 14.6 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' 14.7 Predefined lengths 15 Making paragraphs 15.1 '\indent' 15.2 '\noindent' 15.3 '\parskip' 15.4 Marginal notes 16 Math formulas 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts 16.2 Math symbols 16.3 Math functions 16.4 Math accents 16.5 Spacing in math mode 16.6 Math miscellany 17 Modes 18 Page styles 18.1 '\maketitle' 18.2 '\pagenumbering' 18.3 '\pagestyle' 18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}' 19 Spaces 19.1 '\hspace' 19.2 '\hfill' 19.3 '\(SPACE)' and \@ 19.4 '\ ' after a control sequence 19.5 '\frenchspacing' 19.6 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em 19.7 '\/': Insert italic correction 19.8 '\hrulefill \dotfill' 19.9 '\addvspace' 19.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' 19.11 '\vfill' 19.12 '\vspace{LENGTH}' 20 Boxes 20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}' 20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox' 20.3 'lrbox' 20.4 '\makebox' 20.5 '\parbox' 20.6 '\raisebox' 20.7 '\savebox' 20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' 20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}' 21 Special insertions 21.1 Reserved characters 21.2 Text symbols 21.3 Accents 21.4 Non-English characters 21.5 '\rule' 21.6 '\today' 22 Splitting the input 22.1 '\include' 22.2 \'includeonly' 22.3 '\input' 23 Front/back matter 23.1 Tables of contents 23.1.1 '\addcontentsline' 23.1.2 '\addtocontents' 23.2 Glossaries 23.3 Indexes 24 Letters 24.1 '\address' 24.2 '\cc' 24.3 '\closing' 24.4 '\encl' 24.5 '\location' 24.6 '\makelabels' 24.7 '\name' 24.8 '\opening' 24.9 '\ps' 24.10 '\signature' 24.11 '\telephone' 25 Terminal input/output 25.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}' 25.2 '\typeout{MSG}' 26 Command line Appendix A Document templates A.1 'beamer' template A.2 'book' template A.3 'tugboat' template Concept Index Command Index LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual *************************************** This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October 2015) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. 1 About this document ********************* This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (*note Overview::). This document's home page is . That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and subscriptions, and other infrastructure. In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than 'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was retired many years ago. LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to . This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions. Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation. Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math. The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX; there are plenty of others available elsewhere. A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages. Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references. 2 Overview of LaTeX ******************* LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics. A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the TeX engine. The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user. The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX". It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with '\LaTeX'. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'. 2.1 Starting and ending ======================= LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. Here is a "hello, world" example: \documentclass{article} \begin{document} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end{document} Here, the 'article' is the so-called "document class", implemented in a file 'article.cls'. Any document class can be used. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. *Note Document classes::. You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and the '\begin{document}' commands. This area is called the "preamble". The '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' is a so-called "environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in all LaTeX documents (*note document::). LaTeX provides many environments itself, and many more are defined separately. *Note Environments::. The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file. 2.2 Output files ================ LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files. The main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'. '.dvi' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'. You can view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (). '.pdf' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included. LaTeX also produces at least two additional files. '.log' This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors. '.aux' Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark '??'. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux' file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location. LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file used to make a table of contents. A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended. 2.3 TeX engines =============== LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX implementation (*note Overview::). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs. 'latex' 'pdflatex' In TeX Live (), if LaTeX is invoked via either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX engine is run (). When invoked as 'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main output is a '.pdf' file. pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original program (), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi'). In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be available in LaTeX. 'lualatex' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX engine is run (). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua () to interact with TeX's typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a '.pdf' file by default. There is also 'dvilualatex' to produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used. 'xelatex' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX engine is run (). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output. Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this process is automatic. The '.xdv' file is only useful for debugging. Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX, , ). 2.4 LaTeX command syntax ======================== In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash character, '\'. The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command). Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined. A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, '{...}'. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, '[...]'. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments. Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket {]}]'. Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make the first character of the following text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces. LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'. The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command. This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs). Synopsis: \begin{ENVIRONMENT NAME} .. \end{ENVIRONMENT NAME} An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between '\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'. \begin{verse} There once was a man from Nantucket \\ .. \end{verse} The ENVIRONMENT NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT NAME ends in a star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star. Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns). \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l} .. rows of table .. \end{tabular} A command that changes the value, or changes the meaning, of some other command or parameter. For instance, the '\mainmatter' command changes the setting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic. 3 Document classes ****************** The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file. \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.) 'article' For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use. 'book' Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (*note Front/back matter::). 'letter' Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::). 'report' For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters. 'slides' For slide presentations--rarely used today. In its place the 'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer template::). Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section. 3.1 Document class options ========================== You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the '\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma, as in: \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} Here is the list of the standard class options. All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'): 10pt 11pt 12pt All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these show height by width): 'a4paper' 210 by 297 mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches) 'b5paper' 176 by 250 mm (about 7 by 9.875 inches) 'executivepaper' 7.25 by 10.5 inches 'legalpaper' 8.5 by 14 inches 'letterpaper' 8.5 by 11 inches (the default) When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but you must also set the physical paper size. One way to do that is to put '\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your document's preamble. The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of setting the print area and physical page size. Miscellaneous other options: 'draft' 'final' Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is 'final'. 'fleqn' Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. 'landscape' Selects landscape format; default is portrait. 'leqno' Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. 'openbib' Use "open" bibliography format. 'titlepage' 'notitlepage' Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. The following options are not available with the 'slides' class. 'onecolumn' 'twocolumn' Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'. 'oneside' 'twoside' Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'. For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin') parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. 'openright' 'openany' Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'. The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at the bottom of each note. Additional packages are loaded like this: \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG} To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma, as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage' commands. Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with '\usepackage'. 4 Fonts ******* Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. 4.1 Font styles =============== The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in '\textit{TEXT}'. In the table below, the corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration form", which takes no arguments, as in '{\itshape TEXT}'. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; e.g., you can say either '\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif. You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for instance, '\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'. These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections if needed. (*Note \/::, for the details of italic corrections.) Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument, such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'. '\textrm (\rmfamily)' Roman. '\textit (\itshape)' Italics. '\textmd (\mdseries)' Medium weight (default). '\textbf (\bfseries)' Boldface. '\textup (\upshape)' Upright (default). '\textsl (\slshape)' Slanted. '\textsf (\sffamily)' Sans serif. '\textsc (\scshape)' Small caps. '\texttt (\ttfamily)' Typewriter. '\textnormal (\normalfont)' Main document font. Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a substitute for '\textit'. For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics, but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman. LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. Also, they are used differently than the above commands: '{\CMD...}' instead of '\CMD{...}'. These are two unrelated constructs. '\bf' Switch to bold face. '\cal' Switch to calligraphic letters for math. '\it' Italics. '\rm' Roman. '\sc' Small caps. '\sf' Sans serif. '\sl' Slanted (oblique). '\tt' Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'. (Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such as '\tt', obsolete and that only the cumulative commands ('\texttt') should be used. Others think that both sets of commands have their place and sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely what you want; for one example, *note 'description': description.) The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment. '\mathrm' Roman, for use in math mode. '\mathbf' Boldface, for use in math mode. '\mathsf' Sans serif, for use in math mode. '\mathtt' Typewriter, for use in math mode. '\mathit' '(\mit)' Italics, for use in math mode. '\mathnormal' For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration. '\mathcal' Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode. In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. '\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called "old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have the same height as upper-case letters. LaTeX's default fonts support this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: . 4.2 Font sizes ============== The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options, respectively (*note Document class options::). Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt' -------------------------------------------------- '\tiny' 5 6 6 '\scriptsize' 7 8 8 '\footnotesize' 8 9 10 '\small' 9 10 10.95 '\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 '\large' 12 12 14.4 '\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 '\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 '\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 '\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'. 4.3 Low-level font commands =========================== These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. '\fontencoding{ENCODING}' Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a large number of valid encodings. The most common are 'OT1', Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and 'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the accented characters used by the most widespread European languages (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to hyphenate words containing accented letters. '\fontfamily{FAMILY}' Select the font family. The web page provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are examples of some common families: 'pag' Avant Garde 'fvs' Bitstream Vera Sans 'pbk' Bookman 'bch' Charter 'ccr' Computer Concrete 'cmr' Computer Modern 'pcr' Courier 'phv' Helvetica 'fi4' Inconsolata 'lmr' Latin Modern 'lmss' Latin Modern Sans 'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter 'pnc' New Century Schoolbook 'ppl' Palatino 'ptm' Times 'uncl' Uncial 'put' Utopia 'pzc' Zapf Chancery '\fontseries{SERIES}' Select the font series. A "series" combines a "weight" and a "width". Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combined series values include: 'm' Medium (normal) 'b' Bold 'c' Condensed 'bc' Bold condensed 'bx' Bold extended The possible values for weight, individually, are: 'ul' Ultra light 'el' Extra light 'l' Light 'sl' Semi light 'm' Medium (normal) 'sb' Semi bold 'b' Bold 'eb' Extra bold 'ub' Ultra bold The possible values for width, individually, are (the percentages are just guides and are not followed precisely by all fonts): 'uc' Ultra condensed, 50% 'ec' Extra condensed, 62.5% 'c' Condensed, 75% 'sc' Semi condensed, 87.5% 'm' Medium, 100% 'sx' Semi expanded, 112.5% 'x' Expanded, 125% 'ex' Extra expanded, 150% 'ux' Ultra expanded, 200% When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the 'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m''). '\fontshape{SHAPE}' Select font shape. Valid shapes are: 'n' Upright (normal) 'it' Italic 'sl' Slanted (oblique) 'sc' Small caps 'ui' Upright italics 'ol' Outline The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps are often missing as well. '\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}' Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters defaults to points ('pt'). The line spacing is the nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'. The default '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the '\fontsize'. Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see '\baselinestretch', next. '\baselinestretch' LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the '\baselinestretch' parameter; the default factor is 1. A change takes effect when '\selectfont' (see below) is called. You can make line skip changes happen for the entire document by doing '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}' in the preamble. However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the 'setspace' package. In addition to offering a number of spacing options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and figure captions. See the package documentation. '\linespread{FACTOR}' Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as just described. '\selectfont' The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until '\selectfont' is called, as in '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'. It is often useful to put this in a macro: '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). '\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}' The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries' and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by '\selectfont'. For example: \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n} 5 Layout ******** Commands for controlling the general page layout. 5.1 '\onecolumn' ================ The '\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. If the document is given the class option 'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior (*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). 5.2 '\twocolumn' ================ Synopsis: \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT] The '\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the document is given the class option 'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note Document class options::). If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: '\columnsep' The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}' You must change it before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good place. '\columnseprule' The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway between the two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column environment starts. '\columnwidth' The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to '\textwidth'. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width of each of the two columns to be half of '\textwidth' minus '\columnsep'. In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and 'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments 'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note table::). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page. The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output. '\dbltopfraction' The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not exceed '0.7\textheight' . If the height of your starred float environment exceeeds this then you can take one of the following actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document: * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page. * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float. * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large number, to avoid going to float pages so soon. You can redefine it, for instance with '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'. '\dblfloatpagefraction' For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space. LaTeX's default is '0.5'. Change it with '\renewcommand'. '\dblfloatsep' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt' or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at '12pt'. '\dbltextfloatsep' This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. The default is '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. '\dbltopnumber' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX default is '2'. This example shows the use of the optional argument of '\twocolumn' to create a title that spans the two-column article: \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}} \begin{document} \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text \centering \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em] \large Author One\authormark{1}, Author Two\authormark{2}, Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em] \normalsize \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}} \authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\ School one &School two \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part }] Two column text here. 5.3 '\flushbottom' ================== The '\flushbottom' command can go at any point in the document body. It makes all later pages the same height, stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'. You can change to '\raggedbottom' (see below). Alternatively, you can try to adjust the 'textheight' to be compatible, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in '\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'. In a final editing stage you can adjust the height of individual pages (*note \enlargethispage::). This is the default only if you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::). 5.4 '\raggedbottom' =================== The '\raggedbottom' command can go at any point in the document body. It makes all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no rubber lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided document the facing pages may be different heights. See also '\flushbottom' above. This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::). 5.5 Page layout parameters ========================== '\columnsep' '\columnseprule' '\columnwidth' The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::). *Note \twocolumn::. '\headheight' Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type sizes. '\headsep' Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '25pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: if the document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt and 12pt it is '0.275in'. '\footskip' Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '30pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: when the type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'. '\linewidth' Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note list::). That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). '\marginparpush' '\marginsep' '\marginparwidth' The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of the notes. Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and '\normalmarginpar' changes it back). The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article' classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt. For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the default is '11pt'. For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode. For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth', while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance. '\oddsidemargin' '\evensidemargin' The '\oddsidemargin' is the extra distance between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when 'oneside' is in effect. When 'twoside' is in effect, on even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is 'evensidemargin'. LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. '\paperheight' The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area. It is normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\paperwidth' The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area. It is normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\textheight' The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or 'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is '41\baselineskip'. At a type size of 11pt the default is '38\baselineskip' for all document classes. At 12pt it is '36\baselineskip' for all classes. '\textwidth' The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an 'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is '390pt' at 12pt. For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt. In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column (*note \twocolumn::). In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists. Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the 'minipage' or '\parbox'. This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX documents. '\topmargin' Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in - \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided by two. '\topskip' Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt. 5.6 Floats ========== Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a later page. LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material. The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table' (*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package 'float'. Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it appears in the output after it. The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued up that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may be typset far from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big can migrate to the end of the document. But then because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order, every subsequent float in that class also appears at the end. In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its PLACEMENT argument. The possible values are a sequence of the letters below. The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and 'book' classes, is 'tbp'. 't' (Top)--at the top of a text page. 'b' (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. (However, 'b' is not allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix' package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: . 'h' (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment appears. However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is automatically added. To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at . 'p' (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page containing no text, only floats. '!' Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see above. Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'. All that PLACEMENT does is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that location. Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location except placing the float where it occurs in the source. To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'. This will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all outstanding floats. LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source (although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the PLACEMENT paramater. If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the top position on this page to moved to the next page. Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'): '\bottomfraction' The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default '.3'. '\floatpagefraction' The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default '.5'. '\textfraction' Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is '.2'. '\topfraction' Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default '.7'. Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with '\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'): '\floatsep' Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt'. '\intextsep' Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents. '\textfloatsep' Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with '\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'): 'bottomnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1. 'dbltopnumber' Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2. 'topnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2. 'totalnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3. The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats contains suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explaination of the float placement algorithm is Frank Mittelbach's article "How to infuence the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?" . 6 Sectioning ************ Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: '\part' '\chapter' ('report' and 'book' class only) '\section' '\subsection' '\subsubsection' '\paragraph' '\subparagraph' All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places: 1. The table of contents. 2. The running head at the top of the page. You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. Also, all sectioning commands have '*'-forms that print TITLE as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance: \section*{Preamble} The '\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The '\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like \chapter{A Chapter} ... \appendix \chapter{The First Appendix} The 'secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers. The setting \setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL} suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where 'chapter' is level zero. (*Note \setcounter::.) 7 Cross references ****************** One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details." 7.1 '\label' ============ Synopsis: \label{KEY} A '\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to KEY. The assigned number can be retrieved with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::). Thus, in the example below the key 'sec:test' holds the number of the current section and the key 'fig:test' that of the figure. (Incidentally, labels must appear after captions in figures and tables.) \section{section name} \label{sec:test} This is Section~\ref{sec:test}. \begin{figure} ... \caption{caption text} \label{fig:test} \end{figure} See Figure~\ref{fig:test}. A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual. Although the name can be more or less anything, a common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name. Some commonly-used prefixes: 'ch' for chapters 'sec' for lower-level sectioning commands 'fig' for figures 'tab' for tables 'eq' for equations Thus, a label for a figure would look like 'fig:test' or 'fig.test'. 7.2 '\pageref{KEY}' =================== Synopsis: \pageref{KEY} The '\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears. 7.3 '\ref{KEY}' =============== Synopsis: \ref{KEY} The '\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command (*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word 'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself. 8 Environments ************** LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: \begin{ENVNAME} ... \end{ENVNAME} 8.1 'abstract' ============== Synopsis: \begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract} Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. 8.2 'array' =========== Synopsis: \begin{array}{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} or \begin{array}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::). Column entries are separated by an ampersand ('&'). Rows are terminated with double-backslashes ('\\') (*note \\::). The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. See *note tabular:: for the complete description of COLS, and of the other common features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument. There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'. The first is that 'array' entries are typeset in mathematics mode, in textstyle (except if the COLS definition specifies the column with '@p{..}', which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode). The second is that, instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's intercolumn space in an array is governed by '\arraycolsep' which gives half the width between columns. The default for this is '5pt'. To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath' package. It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded by parentheses '(..)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square brackets '[..]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly braces '{..}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical bars '|..|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical bars '||..||', along with a number of other array constructs. Here is an example of an array: \begin{equation} \begin{array}{cr} \sqrt{y} &12.3 \\ x^2 &3.4 \end{array} \end{equation} 8.3 'center' ============ Synopsis: \begin{center} .. text .. \end{center} Environment to create a sequence of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. If the text in the environment body is too long to fit on a line, LaTeX will insert line breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any interword space. To force a line break at a particular spot use double-backslash '\\' (*note \\::). This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See *note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure' environment. In this example, depending on the line width, LaTeX may choose a break for the part before the double backslash, will center the line or two, then will break at the double backslash, and will center the ending. \begin{center} My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton \end{center} A double backslash after the final line is optional. 8.3.1 '\centering' ------------------ Declaration that causes material in its scope to be centered. It is most often used inside an environment such as 'figure', or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not add vertical space above and below the text. It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or 'table' that ends the paragraph unit. Thus, if '{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with 'zz' that is formatted as usual. See also the following example. This example's '\centering' causes the graphic to be horizontally centered. \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png} \caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion} \end{figure} The scope of the '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'. 8.4 'description' ================= Synopsis: \begin{description} \item [FIRST LABEL] text of first item \item [SECOND LABEL] text of second item ... \end{description} Environment to make a labelled list of items. Each item's LABEL is typeset in bold, flush-left. Each item's text may contain multiple paragraphs. Although the labels on the items are optional there is no sensible default, so all items should have labels. The list consists of at least one item; see *note \item:: (having no items causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'). Each item is produced with an '\item' command. Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it will come out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way to get non-bolded typewriter is to use declaritive style '\item[{\tt label text}]'. Similarly, get normal text use '\item[{\rm label text}]'. For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize:: and *note enumerate::. For information about customizing list layout, see *note list::; also, the package 'enumitem' is useful for this. This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions. \begin{definition} \item[lama] A priest. \item[llama] A beast. \end{definition} 8.5 'displaymath' ================= Synopsis: \begin{displaymath} .. math text .. \end{displaymath} Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::. LaTeX will not break the math text across lines. In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation' environment (*note equation::). Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents. For example, there are a number of options in that package for having math text broken across lines. The construct '\[..math text..\]' is essentially a synonym for '\begin{displaymath}..math text..\end{displaymath}' but the latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will likely be unique. (The construct '$$..math text..$$' from Plain TeX is sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'. It is not a synonym, because the 'displaymath' environment checks that it isn't started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching environment start, because the 'displaymath' environment has different vertical spacing, and because the 'displaymath' environment honors the 'fleqn' option.) The output from this example is centered and alone on its line. \begin{displaymath} \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \end{displaymath} Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces. 8.6 'document' ============== The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document. It is required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting and ending::. Synopsis: \AtBeginDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the very end of the preamble. The code is executed after the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them. Synopsis: \AtEndDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically, it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them. 8.7 'enumerate' =============== Synopsis: \begin{enumerate} \item [FIRST LABEL] text of first item \item [SECOND LABEL] text of second item ... \end{enumerate} Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numbering depends on whether this environment is nested within another; see below. The list consists of at least one item. Having no items causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. Each item is produced with an '\item' command. This example lists the top two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon. \begin{enumerate} \item Johnny Hayes (USA) \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) \end{enumerate} Enumerations may be nested within a paragraph-making environment, including 'itemize' (*note itemize::), 'description' (*note description::) and 'enumeration', up to four levels deep. The format of the label produced depends on the place in the nesting. This gives LaTeX's default for the format at each nesting level (where 1 is the outermost level): 1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ... 2. lower case letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ... 3. lower case roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ... 4. upper case letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ... The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through '\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::). If you use the optional argument to '\item' then the counter is not incremented for that item (*note \item::). To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through '\labelenumiv'. For instance, this first level list will be labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period: \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}} \begin{enumerate} \item eI \item bi: \item si: \end{enumerate} For a list of counter-labelling commands like '\Alph' see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::. For more on customizing the layout see *note list::. Also, the package 'enumitem' is useful for this. 8.8 'eqnarray' ============== First, a caveat: the 'eqnarray' environment is depreciated. It has infelicities that cannot be overcome, including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements (see the article "Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen ). New documents should include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment. Nevertheless, for completeness and for a reference when working with old documents, a synopsis: \begin{eqnarray} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray} or \begin{eqnarray*} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray*} Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode. It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by double backslash '\\'). The starred form of line break ('\\*') can also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there (*note \\::). The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line (using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber' command. The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while otherwise being the same. The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side. \begin{eqnarray*} \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\ &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\ &= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n \end{eqnarray*} 8.9 'equation' ============== Synopsis: \begin{equation} math text \end{equation} Make a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) with an equation number in the right margin. The equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter. Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents. 8.10 'figure' ============= Synopsis: \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT] figure body \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} \label{LABEL} \end{figure} or \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT] figure body \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} \label{LABEL} \end{figure*} A class of floats (*note Floats::). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page. For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::). It produces a figure that spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note Floats::. The figure body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so it can contain text, commands, etc. The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (*note Cross references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text for the figure. By default it is numbered. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Tables of contents::). This example makes a figure out of a graphic. It requires one of the packages 'graphics' or 'graphicx'. The graphic, with its caption, will be placed at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page of floats. \begin{figure}[t] \centering \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png} \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby} \end{figure} 8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file =========================================== Synopsis: \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents} or \begin{filecontents*}{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents*} Create a file named FILENAME and fill it with TEXT. The unstarred version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the created file with a header; see the example below. The starred version 'filecontents*' does not include the header. This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often appears before the '\documentclass' command. It is typically used when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file. The environment will write that file to the directory containing the source and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to include 'bib' references in the file, again to make it self-contained. The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if so, does not do anything. There is a 'filecontents' package that redefines the 'filecontents' environment so that instead of doing nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file. For example, this document \documentclass{article} \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty} \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} \end{filecontents} \usepackage{JH} \begin{document} Article by \myname. \end{document} produces this file 'JH.sty'. %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty' %% generated by the `filecontents' environment %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12. %% \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} 8.12 'flushleft' ================ \begin{flushleft} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushleft} The 'flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right. Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'. 8.12.1 '\raggedright' --------------------- The '\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the 'flushleft' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit. 8.13 'flushright' ================= \begin{flushright} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushright} The 'flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the control sequence '\\'. 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' -------------------- The '\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the 'flushright' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit. 8.14 'itemize' ============== Synopsis: \begin{itemize} \item ITEM1 \item ITEM2 ... \end{itemize} The 'itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::). Each item of an 'itemize' list begins with an '\item' command. There must be at least one '\item' command within the environment. By default, the marks at each level look like this: 1. * (bullet) 2. -- (bold en-dash) 3. * (asterisk) 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through '\labelitemiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use '\renewcommand' to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds: \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} The '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi' parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, '\leftmargin' is set to the appropriate '\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered. The defaults vary from '.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to '2.5em' (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em Some parameters that affect list formatting: '\itemindent' Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. '\labelsep' Space between the label and text of an item; default '.5em'. '\labelwidth' Width of the label; default '2em', or '1.5em' in two-column mode. '\listparindent' Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default '0pt'. '\rightmargin' Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default '0pt', except in the 'quote', 'quotation', and 'verse' environments, where it is set equal to '\leftmargin'. Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default). '\itemsep' Vertical space between items. The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '12pt'. '\parsep' Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as '\itemsep'. '\topsep' Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. For top-level lists, the default is '8pt plus2pt minus4pt' for '10pt' documents, '9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for '11pt', and '10pt plus4pt minus6pt' for '12pt'. These are reduced for nested lists. '\partopsep' Extra space added to '\topsep' when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '3pt plus2pt minus2pt' for '12pt'. Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*' environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note \parskip::): \newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}} 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters ========================================== This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::. 8.16 'list' =========== The 'list' environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros. \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} \item ITEM1 \item ITEM2 ... \end{list} The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to '\item'). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., '{}', which leaves the default spacing. The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by '\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). Synopsis: \item text of item or \item[OPTIONAL LABEL] text of item An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the list type. Because the optional argument OPTIONAL LABEL is surrounded by square brackets ('[' and ']'), to use square brackets inside the optional argument you must hide them inside curly braces, as in '\item[Close square bracket, {]}]'. Similarly, to use an open square bracket as first character in the text of the item, also hide it inside curly braces. *Note LaTeX command syntax::. In this example the 'enumerate' list has two items that use the default label and one that uses the optional label. \begin{enumerate} \item Moe \item[sometimes] Shemp \item Larry \end{enumerate} The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled 'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.' (note that, because of the optional label in the second item, the third item does not get a '3.'). 8.17 'math' =========== Synopsis: \begin{math} MATH \end{math} The 'math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running text. '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::. 8.18 'minipage' =============== \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH} TEXT \end{minipage} The 'minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the '\parbox' command (*note \parbox::), but unlike '\parbox', other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage. The arguments are the same as for '\parbox' (*note \parbox::). By default, paragraphs are not indented in the 'minipage' environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as '\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command. Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A '\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the '\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note Counters::). However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. 8.19 'picture' ============== \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET) ... PICTURE COMMANDS ... \end{picture} The 'picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign--a number like '5', '0.3' or '-3.1416'. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if '\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of '\unitlength', using the '\setlength' command, outside of a 'picture' environment. The default value is '1pt'. A "position" is a pair of coordinates, such as '(2.4,-5)', specifying the point with x-coordinate '2.4' and y-coordinate '-5'. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. The 'picture' environment has one mandatory argument which is a position (WIDTH,HEIGHT), which specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with these WIDTH and HEIGHT. The 'picture' environment also has an optional position argument (XOFFSET,YOFFSET), following the size argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it. Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the '\put' command. The command \put (11.3,-.3){...} puts the object specified by '...' in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. The '\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the '\put' command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. The 'picture' commands are described in the following sections. 8.19.1 '\circle' ---------------- Synopsis: \circle[*]{DIAMETER} The '\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The '*'-form of the command draws a solid circle. Circles up to 40pt can be drawn. 8.19.2 '\makebox' ----------------- Synopsis: \makebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} The '\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the normal '\makebox' command except that you must specify a WIDTH and HEIGHT in multiples of '\unitlength'. The optional argument, '[POSITION]', specifies the quadrant that your TEXT appears in. You may select up to two of the following: 't' Moves the item to the top of the rectangle. 'b' Moves the item to the bottom. 'l' Moves the item to the left. 'r' Moves the item to the right. *Note \makebox::. 8.19.3 '\framebox' ------------------ Synopsis: \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...} The '\framebox' command is like '\makebox' (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The '\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness '\fboxrule', and leaves a space '\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box. 8.19.4 '\dashbox' ----------------- Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT} '\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a 'picture' environment. Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT. The TEXT is positioned at optional POS. A dashed box looks best when the RWIDTH and RHEIGHT are multiples of the DLEN. 8.19.5 '\frame' --------------- Synopsis: \frame{TEXT} The '\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object. 8.19.6 '\line' -------------- Synopsis: \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} The '\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope XSLOPE/YSLOPE. Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, and plenty of other shapes, see 'pict2e' and many other packages on CTAN. 8.19.7 '\linethickness' ----------------------- The '\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a positive length. '\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by '\oval'. 8.19.8 '\thicklines' -------------------- The '\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: and *note \thinlines::. 8.19.9 '\thinlines' ------------------- The '\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: and *note \thicklines::. 8.19.10 '\multiput' ------------------- Synopsis: \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ} The '\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern across a picture. OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times. 8.19.11 '\oval' --------------- Synopsis: \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] The '\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument PORTION allows you to produce only half of the oval via the following: 't' selects the top half; 'b' selects the bottom half; 'r' selects the right half; 'l' selects the left half. It is also possible to produce only one quarter of the oval by setting PORTION to 'tr', 'br', 'bl', or 'tl'. The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with rounded corners. 8.19.12 '\put' -------------- Synopsis: \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){ ... } The '\put' command places the material specified by the (mandatory) argument in braces at the given coordinate, (XCOORD,YCOORD). 8.19.13 '\shortstack' --------------------- Synopsis: \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...} The '\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: 'r' Move the objects to the right of the stack. 'l' Move the objects to the left of the stack 'c' Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) Objects are separated with '\\'. 8.19.14 '\vector' ----------------- Synopsis: \vector(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} The '\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The XSLOPE and YSLOPE values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive. 8.20 'quotation' and 'quote' ============================ Synopsis: \begin{quotation} TEXT \end{quotation} or \begin{quote} TEXT \end{quote} Include a quotation. In both environments, margins are indented on both sides by '\leftmargin' and the text is justified at both. As with the main text, leaving a blank line produces a new paragraph. To compare the two: in the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, '0pt plus 1pt'. In the 'quote' environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length '\parsep'). Thus, the 'quotation' environment may be more suitable for documents where new paragraphs are marked by an indent rather than by a vertical separation. In addition, 'quote' may be more suitable for a short quotation or a sequence of short quotations. \begin{quotation} \it Four score and seven years ago .. shall not perish from the earth. \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln \end{quotation} 8.21 'tabbing' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabbing} ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 \= ROW1COL3 \= ROW1COL4 \\ ROW2COL1 \> \> ROW2COL3 \\ ... \end{tabbing} The 'tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the 'tabular' environment. The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment: '\\ (tabbing)' End a line. '\= (tabbing)' Sets a tab stop at the current position. '\> (tabbing)' Advances to the next tab stop. '\<' Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. '\+' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\-' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\' (tabbing)' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or '\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. '\` (tabbing)' Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the '\`' and the command that ends the line. '\a (tabbing)' In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, the commands '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`' are used. '\kill' Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line remain in effect. '\poptabs' Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'. '\pushtabs' Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing' environment. '\tabbingsep' Distance to left of tab stop moved by '\''. This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing} 8.22 'table' ============ Synopsis: \begin{table}[PLACEMENT] table body \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} \label{LABEL} \end{table} A class of floats (*note Floats::). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page. For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The table body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so it can contain text, commands, etc. The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (*note Cross references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text for the table. By default it is numbered. If LOTTITLE is present, it is used in the list of tables instead of TITLE (*note Tables of contents::). In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end. \begin{table}[b] \centering \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline One &The loneliest number \\ Two &Can be as sad as one. It's the loneliest number since the number one. \end{tabular} \caption{Cardinal virtues} \label{tab:CardinalVirtues} \end{table} 8.23 'tabular' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular*} These environments produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features. \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\ \hline Hank Aaron &755 \\ Babe Ruth &714 \end{tabular} The vertical format of two left-aligned columns, with a vertical bar between them, is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'. Columns are separated with an ampersand '&'. A horizontal rule between two rows is created with '\hline'. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash '\\'. This '\\' is optional after the last row unless an '\hline' command follows, to put a rule below the table. The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of: WIDTH Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'. Specifies the width of the 'tabular*' environment. The space between columns should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment ..' warning. POS Optional. Specifies the table's vertical position. The default is to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: 't' aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row. This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no difference. COLS Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumn material. 'l' A column of left-aligned items. 'r' A column of right-aligned items. 'c' A column of centered items. '|' A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. '@{TEXT OR SPACE}' This inserts TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row. The TEXT OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (*note \protect::). This specifier is optional: unless you put in your own @-expression then LaTeX's book, article, and report classes will put on either side of each column a space of length '\tabcolsep', which by default is '6pt'. That is, by default adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is misleadingly-named since it is not the separation between tabular columns). Also by default a space of 6pt comes before the first column as well as after the final column, unless you put a '@{..}' or '|' there. If you override the default and use an @-expression then you must insert any desired space yourself, as in '@{\hspace{1em}}'. An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space, including the space at the start or end, as in the example below where the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin. \begin{flushleft} \begin{tabular}{@{}l} .. \end{tabular} \end{flushleft} This example shows text, a decimal point, between the columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on that decimal point. \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l} $3$ &$14$ \\ $9$ &$80665$ \end{tabular} An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another '\extracolsep' command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in the 'cols' argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide. \begin{center} \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\ \ldots\extracolsep{\fill}}l} Seven times down, eight times up &such is life! \end{tabular*} \end{center} To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}' specifier. 'p{WD}' Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD. Note that a line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in the item, except inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft' declaration (when used in a 'p'-column element these declarations must appear inside braces, as with '{\centering .. \\ ..}'). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as ending the row. '*{NUM}{COLS}' Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive integer and COLS is a list of specifiers. Thus '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'. Note that COLS may contain another '*-expression'. Parameters that control formatting: '\arrayrulewidth' A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|', '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments. The default is '.4pt'. Change it as in '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'. '\arraystretch' A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments is multiplied. The default is '1', for no scaling. Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'. '\doublerulesep' A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the '||' specifier. The default is '2pt'. '\tabcolsep' A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is '6pt'. Change it with '\setlength'. The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular' environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between lines: 8.23.1 '\multicolumn' --------------------- Synopsis: \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT} Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns. The first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span. The second argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right. The third argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry. In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the single heading 'Name'. \begin{tabular}{lccl} \textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline % row one 978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick &55 \\ % row two .. \end{tabular} What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the 'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part (except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'. So from '\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c', and 'p{1.5in}|'. The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the placement of vertical rules, and '@{..}' expressions. Thus if COLS is '|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior. \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|} \multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three &z % entry four \end{tabular} Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical rule; although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the second COLS does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn' leaves it out, and that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a vertical rule because of the default. The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1. Besides giving the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area specification, including the placement of vertical rules. In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'. Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with '\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page range en-dash. \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}} &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline Baroque &1600 &1760 \\ Classical &1730 &1820 \\ Romantic &1780 &1910 \\ Impressionistic &1875 &1925 \end{tabular} Note that although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a vertical rule between the first and second columns, because there is no vertical bar in the COLS of either of the first row's '\multicolumn' commands, no rule appears in the first row. 8.23.2 '\vline' --------------- Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the full height and depth of an entry's row. Can also be used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common. This command is rarely used; typically a table's vertical lines are specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overriden as needed with '\multicolumn'. This example illustrates some pitfalls. In the first line's second entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so in that row between the first and second columns there are two vertical rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one produced by the '\vline\hfill'. In contrast, the first line's third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns. In the second line, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the '\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace. \begin{tabular}{c|cc} x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi \end{tabular} 8.23.3 '\cline' --------------- Synopsis: \cline{I-J} Draw a horizontal rule in an 'array' or 'tabular' environment beginning in column I and ending in column J. The dash '-' must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single column use the number twice. This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same height. \begin{tabular}{llrr} a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} e &f &g &h \end{tabular} 8.23.4 '\hline' --------------- Draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single rule spanning both columns. Because of the '\hline', the 'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required. \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline Baseball &Red Sox \\ Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline \end{tabular} 8.24 'thebibliography' ====================== Synopsis: \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} ... \end{thebibliography} The 'thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or reference list. In the 'article' class, this reference list is labelled "References"; in the 'report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command '\refname'. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: \renewcommand{\refname}{} The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. It is typically given as '9' for bibliographies with less than 10 references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc. 8.24.1 '\bibitem' ----------------- Synopsis: \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} The '\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the 'enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry to the '.aux' file containing the item's CITE_KEY and label. When the '.aux' file is read by the '\begin{document}' command, the item's 'label' is associated with 'cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a '\cite' command (see next section) to produce the associated label. 8.24.2 '\cite' -------------- Synopsis: \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS} The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with KEYS by entries in the '.aux' file. The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the citation. For example, '\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce '[Knuth, p. 314]'. 8.24.3 '\nocite' ---------------- '\nocite{KEYS}' The '\nocite' command produces no text, but writes KEYS, which is a list of one or more citation keys, to the '.aux' file. 8.24.4 Using BibTeX ------------------- If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the 'thebibliography' environment (*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2} The '\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE'.bst', which defines how your citations will look. The standard STYLE names distributed with BibTeX are: 'alpha' Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. 'plain' Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. 'unsrt' Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation. 'abbrv' Like 'plain', but more compact labels. In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See . The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to '\bibliography' refers to files named 'BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in the bibliography. 8.25 'theorem' ============== Synopsis: \begin{theorem} THEOREM-TEXT \end{theorem} The 'theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::). 8.26 'titlepage' ================ Synopsis: \begin{titlepage} TEXT \end{titlepage} The 'titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The '\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::). You can use the '\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment. 8.27 'verbatim' =============== Synopsis: \begin{verbatim} LITERAL-TEXT \end{verbatim} The 'verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the '\' character produces a printed '\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter. The 'verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt'). 8.27.1 '\verb' -------------- Synopsis: \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR The '\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font. No spaces are allowed between '\verb' or '\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in LITERAL-TEXT. The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible space" character. 8.28 'verse' ============ Synopsis: \begin{verse} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{verse} The 'verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it. The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas. 9 Line breaking *************** The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in some environments you manually force line breaks. 9.1 '\\' ======== Synopsis: \\[MORESPACE] or \\*[MORESPACE] Start a new line. The optional argument MORESPACE specifies extra vertical space to be insert before the next line. This can be a negative length. The text before the break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width. Explicit line breaks in the text body are unusual in LaTeX. In particular, to start a new paragraph instead leave a blank line. This command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment. Under ordinary circumstances (e.g., outside of a 'p{..}' column in a 'tabular' environment) the '\newline' command is a synonym for '\\' (*note \newline::). In addition to starting a new line, the starred form '\\*' tells LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a '\nobreak'. \title{My story: \\[0.25in] a tale of woe} 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' ============================ The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M', internally) the same as '\\' (followed by '\relax'). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. '\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior. 9.3 '\newline' ============== In ordinary text this is equivalent to double-backslash (*note \\::); it breaks a line, with no stretching of the text before it. Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, in a column with a specifier producing a paragraph box, like typically 'p{..}', '\newline' will insert a line break inside of the column, that is, it does not break the entire row. To break the entire row use '\\' or its equivalent '\tabularnewline'. This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell of the table. \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}} Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline \end{tabular} The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'. 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) =============================== The '\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The '\-' command is used for the exceptional cases. When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. 9.5 '\fussy' ============ The declaration '\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. This command cancels the effect of a previous '\sloppy' command (*note \sloppy::. 9.6 '\sloppy' ============= The declaration '\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. Lasts until a '\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::). 9.7 '\hyphenation' ================== Synopsis: \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO} The '\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a '-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words): \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases} 9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' ================================= Synopses: \linebreak[PRIORITY] \nolinebreak[PRIORITY] By default, the '\linebreak' ('\nolinebreak') command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For '\linebreak', the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual. With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. 10 Page breaking **************** LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. 10.1 '\cleardoublepage' ======================= The '\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. 10.2 '\clearpage' ================= The '\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. 10.3 '\newpage' =============== The '\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (*note \clearpage::). 10.4 '\enlargethispage' ======================= '\enlargethispage{size}' '\enlargethispage*{size}' Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page by the specified amount; e.g., '\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one additional line. The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit '\pagebreak'. 10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' ================================== Synopses: \pagebreak[PRIORITY] \nopagebreak[PRIORITY] By default, the '\pagebreak' ('\nopagebreak') command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. With '\pagebreak', the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the '\pagebreak' command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is. 11 Footnotes ************ Place a numbered footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here. Noe"l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making love.\footnote{I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.} You can place multiple footnotes on a page. If the text becomes too long it will flow to the next page. You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances. To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a bibliographic style with that behavior. 11.1 '\footnote' ================ Synopsis: \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place a numbered footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page. There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained, ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''} The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the footnote number. If you use this option then the footnote number counter is not incremented, and if you do not use it then the counter is incremented. Change how LaTeX shows the footnote counter with something like '\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with '\setcounter{footnote}{0}'. By default LaTeX uses arabic numbers. LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a '\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer paragraph mode). There are some workarounds; see following sections. In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the 'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are shown alphabetically. *Note minipage::. 11.2 '\footnotemark' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotemark \footnotemark[NUMBER] Put the current footnote number in the text. (See *note \footnotetext:: for giving the text of the footnote separately.) The version with the optional argument NUMBER uses that number to determine the mark printed. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version of 'footnote'). \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem} \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds} \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University} \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]} \begin{document} \maketitle If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then it does not. This produces several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote. The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.} and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] 11.3 '\footnotetext' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotetext{TEXT} \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the '\footnotemark' command. The optional argument NUMBER changes the displayed footnote number. The '\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph mode. 11.4 Footnotes in a table ========================= Inside a 'table' environment the '\footnote' command does not work. For instance, if the code below appears on its own then the footnote simply disappears; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but nothing is set at the bottom of the page. \begin{center} \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline \textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\ \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{Starting with HMS Surprise.} \end{tabular} \end{center} The solution is to surround the 'tabular' environment with a 'minipage' environment, as here (*note minipage::). \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{.5\textwidth} .. tabular material .. \end{minipage} \end{center} The same technique will work inside a floating 'table' environment (*note table::). To get the footnote at the bottom of the page use the 'tablefootnote' package, as illustrated in this example. If you put '\usepackage{tablefootnote}' in the preamble and use the code shown then the footnote appears at the bottom and is numbered in sequence with other footnotes. \begin{table} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline 1862 &Fort Donelson \\ 1863 &Vicksburg \\ 1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\footnote{Ending the war.} \end{tabular} \caption{Forces captured by US Grant} \end{table} 11.5 Footnotes in section headings ================================== Putting a footnote in a section heading \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}} causes the footnote to appear both at the bottom of the page where the section starts and at the bottom of the table of contents page. To have it not appear on the table of contents use the package 'footmisc' with the 'stable' option. \usepackage[stable]{footmisc} .. \begin{document} .. \section{Full sets\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}} Note that the '\protect' is gone; putting it in causes the footnote to reappear on the table of contents. 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes =========================== Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package 'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example. \usepackage{bigfoot} \DeclareNewFootnote{Default} \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{} .. \begin{document} .. The third theorem is a partial converse of the second.\footnotefrom{First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}} .. 11.7 Multiple references to footnotes ===================================== You can refer to a single footnote more than once. This example uses the package 'cleverref'. \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % this version of package or later \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3} .. \begin{document} .. The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker and Evers, 1994.} The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers and Chance, 1990.} But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE} .. This solution will work with the package 'hyperref'. See *note \footnotemark:: for a simpler solution in the common case of multiple authors with the same affiliation. 11.8 Footnote parameters ======================== '\footnoterule' Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions: '0.4pt' thick (or wide), and '0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except 'slides', where it does not appear). '\footnotesep' The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize' fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'. 12 Definitions ************** LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' ==================================== '\newcommand' and '\renewcommand' define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses: \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \newcommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \renewcommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} The '*'-form of these two commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not '\long', in plain TeX terms). CMD Required; the command name. It must begin with '\'. For '\newcommand', it must not be already defined and must not begin with '\end'. For '\renewcommand', it must already be defined. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. If this argument is not present, the default is for the command to have no arguments. When redefining a command, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of defined command \CMD is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then \CMD does not take an optional argument. That is, if \CMD is used with square brackets following, as in '\CMD[MYVAL]', then within DEFN '#1' expands MYVAL. While if \CMD is called without square brackets following, then within DEFN the '#1' expands to the default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments will be referred to starting with '#2'. Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1' expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to the empty string. DEFN The text to be substituted for every occurrence of 'cmd'; a construct of the form '#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the Nth argument. A command with no arguments that is followed in the source by a space will swallow that space. The solution is to type '{}' after the command and before the space. A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\JH}{Jim Hef{}feron}' causes the abbreviation '\JH' to be replaced by the longer text. Redefining a command is basically the same: '\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}'. Here's a command definition that uses arguments: \newcommand{\defreference}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}} Then, '\defreference{def:basis}' will expand to something like 'Definition~3.14'. An example with two arguments: '\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{#1\!\times\!#2}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'. An example with optional arguments: \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:} Then, '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]' gives 'Dear John:'. And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'. The braces around DEFN do not delimit the scope of the result of expanding DEFN. So '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}' is wrong since in the sentence The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Virginia}. the words 'met the' will incorrectly be in italics. An extra pair of braces '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}' fixes it. 12.2 '\providecommand' ====================== Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. Synopses: \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect as '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). If a command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a style file, or other file that may be loaded more than once. 12.3 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter ======================================== Synopsis: \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER] The '\newcounter' command globally defines a new counter named COUNTERNAME. The name consists of letters only and does not begin with a backslash ('\'). The name must not already be used by another counter. The new counter is initialized to zero. If the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' appears, then COUNTERNAME will be numbered within, or subsidiary to, the existing counter SUPERCOUNTER. For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within 'section'. Any time SUPERCOUNTER is incremented with '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::) then COUNTERNAME is reset to zero. *Note Counters::, for more information about counters. 12.4 '\newlength': Allocating a length ====================================== Allocate a new "length" register. Synopsis: \newlength{\ARG} This command takes one required argument, which must begin with a backslash ('\'). It creates a new length register named '\ARG', which is a place to hold (rubber) lengths such as '1in plus.2in minus.1in' (what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register). The register gets an initial value of zero. The control sequence '\ARG' must not already be defined. *Note Lengths::, for more about lengths. 12.5 '\newsavebox': Allocating a box ==================================== Allocate a "bin" for holding a box. Synopsis: \newsavebox{\CMD} Defines '\CMD' to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. Such a box is for holding typeset material, to use multiple times (*note Boxes::) or to measure or manipulate. The name '\CMD' must start with a backslash ('\'), and must not be already defined. The allocation of a box is global. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). 12.6 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' ============================================ These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is, '\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'. Synopses: \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} Unlike '\newcommand' and '\renewcommand', the '*'-forms '\newenvironment*' and '\renewcommand*' have the same effect as the forms with no '*'. ENV Required; the environment name. It does not begin with backslash ('\'). It must not begin with the string 'end'. For '\newenvironment', the name ENV must not be the name of an already existing environment, and also the command '\ENV' must be undefined. For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an existing environment. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of that the environment will take. These arguments appear after the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1}...{ARGN}'. If this argument is not present then the default is for the environment to have no arguments. When redefining an environment, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of the defined environment is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then the environment does not take an optional argument. That is, when '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is present in the environment definition, if '\begin{ENV}' is used with square brackets following, as in '\begin{ENV}[MYVAL]', then within the environment '#1' expands MYVAL. If '\begin{ENV}' is called without square brackets following, then within the environment the '#1' expands to the default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments will be referred to starting with '#2'. Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1' expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to the empty string. BEGDEFN Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'; a construct of the form '#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of the Nth argument. ENDDEFN Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'. Note that it may not contain any argument parameters, so '#N' cannot be used here. The environment ENV delimits the scope of the result of expanding BEGDEFN and ENDDEFN. Thus, in the first example below, the effect of the '\small' is limited to the quote and does not extend to material following the environment. This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except that it will be set in smaller type. \newenvironment{smallquote}{% \small\begin{quotation} }{% \end{quotation} } This shows the use of arguments; it gives a quotation environment that cites the author. \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \begin{quotation} \noindent\textit{#1}: }{% \end{quotation} } The author's name is optional, and defaults to Shakespeare. In the document, use the environment as here: \begin{citequote}[Lincoln] .. \end{citequote} The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in ENDDEFN. \newsavebox{\quoteauthor} \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}% \begin{quotation} }{% \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor} \end{quotation} } 12.7 '\newtheorem' ================== Define a new "theorem-like environment". Synopses: \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN] \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE} Both create a theorem-like environment NAME. Using the first form, \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN] with the optional argument after the second required argument, creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter NUMBERED_WITHIN: it will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is reset). Using the second form, \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE} with the optional argument between the two required arguments, will create an environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter NUMBERED_LIKE. You can specify one of NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither, but not both. This command creates a counter named NAME. In addition, unless the optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, the current '\ref' value will be that of '\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::). This declaration is global. It is fragile (*note \protect::). Arguments: NAME The name of the environment. It must not begin with a backslash ('\'). It must not be the name of an existing environment; indeed, the command name '\NAME' must not already be defined as anything. TITLE The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, 'Theorem'. NUMBERED_WITHIN Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'. When the NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's counter will also be reset. If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME' is set to '\arabic{NAME}'. NUMBERED_LIKE Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The new environment will be numbered in sequence with NUMBERED_LIKE. Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. This example has a declaration in the preamble that results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} Because this example specifies the optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN to '\newtheorem' as 'section', the example, with the same document body, gives 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} In this example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same counter as 'defn'. It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1' and 'Definition 2.2'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{thm} First thm \end{thm} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} 12.8 '\newfont': Define a new font (obsolete) ============================================= '\newfont', now obsolete, defines a command that will switch fonts. Synopsis: \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION} This defines a control sequence '\CMD' that will change the current font. LaTeX will look on your system for a file named 'FONTNAME.tfm'. The control sequence must must not already be defined. It must begin with a backslash ('\'). This command is obsolete. It is a low-level command for setting up an individual font. Today fonts are almost always defined in families (which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman) through the so-called "New Font Selection Scheme", either by using '.fd' files or through the use of an engine that can access system fonts such as XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::). But since it is part of LaTeX, here is an explanation: the FONT DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at clause"; this can have the form either 'at DIMEN' or 'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of '1000' means no scaling. For LaTeX's purposes, all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font's design size, which is a value defined in the '.tfm' file. This example defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each: \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt} \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 11pt} \testfontat abc \testfontscaled abc 12.9 '\protect' =============== All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust". Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more, are fragile. A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain commands. To prevent such commands from breaking they must be preceded by the command '\protect'. For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument". A command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX code. Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the '\caption{..}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{..}' command (*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments (*note tabular::). If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try preceding it with '\protect'. Every fragile commands must be protected with their own '\protect'. Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command. Nor can a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or '\setcounter' command. In this example the 'caption' command gives a mysterious error about an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox' command with '\protect'. \begin{figure} .. \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}} \end{figure} In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the '.toc' file. You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to '\protect\(..\protect\)'. \begin{document} \tableofcontents .. \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)} .. 13 Counters *********** Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or command associated with the number, except with no backslash ('\'). Thus the '\chapter' command starts a chapter and the 'chapter' counter keeps track of the chapter number. Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering. part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of a minipage (*note minipage::). The 'enumi' through 'enumiv' counters are used in the 'enumerate' environment, for up to four nested levels (*note enumerate::). New counters are created with '\newcounter'. *Note \newcounter::. 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters ===================================================================== All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, '\alph{enumi}'. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. '\alph' prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ... '\Alph' uses uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ... '\arabic' uses Arabic numbers: '1', '2', ... '\roman' uses lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ... '\Roman' uses uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ... '\fnsymbol' prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of COUNTER must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output): asterisk(*) dagger(U+2021) ddagger(U+2021) section-sign(U+00A7) paragraph-sign(U+00B6) parallel(U+2225) double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(U+2020U+2020) double-ddagger(U+2021U+2021) 13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}' =========================== Synopsis: \usecounter{COUNTER} In the 'list' environment, when used in the second argument, this command sets up COUNTER to number the list items. It initializes COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called without its optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by '\refstepcounter', making its value be the current 'ref' value. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). Put in the preamble, this makes a new list environment enumerated with TESTCOUNTER: \newcounter{testcounter} \newenvironment{test}{% \begin{list}{}{% \usecounter{testcounter} } }{% \end{list} } 13.3 '\value{COUNTER}' ====================== Synopsis: \value{COUNTER} This command expands to the value of COUNTER. It is often used in '\setcounter' or '\addtocounter', but '\value' can be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number. It must not be preceded by '\protect' (*note \protect::). The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the counter. *Note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::. This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'. \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5} \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}} \addtocounter{test}{1} Test counter is \arabic{test}. Other counter is \arabic{other}. This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'. \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1} \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent} 13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' ================================== Synopsis: \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE} The '\setcounter' command globally sets the value of COUNTER to the VALUE argument. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. 13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' ==================================== The '\addtocounter' command globally increments COUNTER by the amount specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative. 13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' =============================== The '\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::): it globally increments the value of COUNTER by one and resets the value of any counter numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter'. While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set locally, i.e., inside the current group. 13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}' ============================ The '\stepcounter' command globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all counters numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) 13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters ============================================= LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month ('\day', 1-31), month of the year ('\month', 1-12), and year ('\year', Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. The related command '\today' produces a string representing the current day (*note \today::). 14 Lengths ********** A "length" is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument. Lengths come in two types. A "rigid length" (what Plain TeX calls a "dimen") such as '10pt' cannot contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component. A "rubber length" (what Plain TeX calls a "skip") can contain those, as with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm'. These give the ability to stretch or shrink; the length in the prior sentence could appear in the output as long as 1.05 cm or as short as 0.99 cm, depending on what TeX's typesetting algorithm finds optimum. The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a "fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'. This gives the length infinite stretchability or shrinkability, so that the length in the prior sentence can be set by TeX to any distance greater than or equal to 1 inch. TeX actually provides three infinite glue components 'fil', 'fill', and 'filll', such that the later ones overcome the earlier ones, but only the middle value is ordinarily used. *Note \hfill::, *Note \vfill::. Multiplying an entire rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and '\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'. 14.1 Units of length ==================== TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode. 'pt' Point 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two decimal places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm. 'pc' Pica, 12 pt 'in' Inch, 72.27 pt 'bp' Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript and many desktop publishing systems. 'cm' Centimeter 'mm' Millimeter 'dd' Didot point, 1.07 pt 'cc' Cicero, 12 dd 'sp' Scaled point, 1/65536 pt Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of the font. The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the height of the lower case letter x, is often used for vertical lengths. Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is '0.5em'). Use of these can help make a definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition of the vertical space between list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}' is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition given in points. In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. *Note Spacing in math mode::. 14.2 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' ============================== The '\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches ('in'), millimeters ('mm'), points ('pt'), big points ('bp', etc. 14.3 '\addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}' ================================= The '\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative. 14.4 '\settodepth' ================== '\settodepth{\gnat}{text}' The '\settodepth' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal to the depth of the 'text' argument. 14.5 '\settoheight' =================== '\settoheight{\gnat}{text}' The '\settoheight' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal to the height of the 'text' argument. 14.6 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' ============================== The '\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the width of the TEXT argument. 14.7 Predefined lengths ======================= '\width' '\height' '\depth' '\totalheight' These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width, etc., of the text in the box. '\totalheight' equals '\height' + '\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say '\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}' 15 Making paragraphs ******************** A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not containing even a '%'. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command. 15.1 '\indent' ============== '\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals to the '\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. The default value for '\parindent' is '1em' in two-column mode, otherwise '15pt' for '10pt' documents, '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em' for '12pt'. 15.2 '\noindent' ================ When used at the beginning of the paragraph, this command suppresses any paragraph indentation, as in this example. .. end of the prior paragraph. \noindent This paragraph is not indented. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph. To eliminate paragraph indentation in an entire document, put '\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble. 15.3 '\parskip' =============== '\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is '0pt plus1pt'. 15.4 Marginal notes =================== Synopsis: \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} The '\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the '\marginpar' occurs. When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be placed * in the right margin for one-sided layout (option 'oneside', see *note Document class options::); * in the outside margin for two-sided layout (option 'twoside', see *note Document class options::); * in the nearest margin for two-column layout (option 'twocolumn', see *note Document class options::). The command '\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. '\normalmarginpar' places them in the default position. When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin, and RIGHT is used for the right margin. The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with '\hspace{0pt}'. These parameters affect the formatting of the note: '\marginparpush' Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt' documents, '5pt' else. '\marginparsep' Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt' for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else. '\marginparwidth' Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is '48pt'. The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page. 16 Math formulas **************** There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: 'math' For formulas that appear right in the text. 'displaymath' For formulas that appear on their own line. 'equation' The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin. The 'math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the 'displaymath' and 'equation' environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The 'math' and 'displaymath' environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: \(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} In fact, the 'math' environment is so common that it has an even shorter form: $ ... $ instead of \(...\) The '\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used _outside_ of math mode. Conversely, the '\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used _outside_ of math mode. The '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of 'displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example: $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts ============================== In math mode, use the caret character '^' to make the EXP appear as a superscript, ie. type '^{EXP}'. Similarly, in math mode, underscore '_{EXP}' makes a subscript out of EXP. In this example the '0' and '1' appear as subscripts while the '2' is a superscript. \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \) To have more than one character in EXP use curly braces as in 'e^{-2x}'. LaTeX handles superscripts on superscripts, and all of that stuff, in the natural way, so expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{a_0}' will look right. It also does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. In this example the '0' appears at the bottom of the integral sign while the '10' appears at the top. \int_0^{10} x^2 \,dx You can put a superscript or subscript before a symbol with a construct such as '{}_t K^2' in math mode (the initial '{}' prevents the prefixed subscript from being attached to any prior symbols in the expression). Outside of math mode, a construct like 'A test$_\textnormal{subscript}$' will produce a subscript typeset in text mode, not math mode. Note that there are packages specialized for writing Chemical formulas such as 'mhchem'. 16.2 Math symbols ================= LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi symbol U+03C0. Below is a list of commonly-available symbols. It is by no means an exhaustive list. Each symbol here is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class (which determines the spacing around it) is given in parenthesis. The commands for these symbols can be used only in math mode. '\|' U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\parallel'. '\aleph' U+2135 Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary). '\alpha' U+03B1 Lower case Greek letter alpha (ordinary). '\amalg' U+2A3F Disjoint union (binary) '\angle' U+2220 Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign '<' and angle bracket '\langle'. '\approx' U+2248 Almost equal to (relation). '\ast' U+2217 Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary). Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes reserved for cross-correlation. '\asymp' U+224D Asymptomatically equivalent (relation). '\backslash' \ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus '\setminus', and '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode. '\beta' U+03B2 Lower case Greek letter beta (ordinary). '\bigcap' U+22C2 Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar: binary intersection '\cap'. '\bigcirc' U+26AA Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function composition '\circ'. '\bigcup' U+22C3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary union '\cup'. '\bigodot' U+2A00 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator). '\bigoplus' U+2A01 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator). '\bigotimes' U+2A02 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator). '\bigtriangledown' U+25BD Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator). '\bigtriangleup' U+25B3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator). '\bigsqcup' U+2A06 Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator). '\biguplus' U+2A04 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.) '\bigvee' U+22C1 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator). '\bigwedge' U+22C0 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator). '\bot' U+22A5 Up tack, bottom, least element of a poset, or a contradiction (ordinary). See also '\top'. '\bowtie' U+22C8 Natural join of two relations (relation). '\Box' U+25A1 Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\bullet' U+2022 Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'. '\cap' U+2229 Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcap'. '\cdot' U+22C5 Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'. '\chi' U+03C7 Lower case Greek chi (ordinary). '\circ' U+2218 Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'. '\clubsuit' U+2663 Club card suit (ordinary). '\complement' U+2201 Set complement, used as a superscript as in '$S^\complement$' (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. Also used: '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'. '\cong' U+2245 Congruent (relation). '\coprod' U+2210 Coproduct (operator). '\cup' U+222A Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcup'. '\dagger' U+2020 Dagger relation (binary). '\dashv' U+22A3 Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar: turnstile '\vdash'. '\ddagger' U+2021 Double dagger relation (binary). '\Delta' U+0394 Greek upper case delta, used for increment (ordinary). '\delta' U+03B4 Greek lower case delta (ordinary). '\Diamond' U+25C7 Large diamond operator (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you must load the 'amssymb' package. '\diamond' U+22C4 Diamond operator, or diamond bullet (binary). Similar: large diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'. '\diamondsuit' U+2662 Diamond card suit (ordinary). '\div' U+00F7 Division sign (binary). '\doteq' U+2250 Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal to '\Doteq'. '\downarrow' U+2193 Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: double line down arrow '\Downarrow'. '\Downarrow' U+21D3 Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: single line down arrow '\downarrow'. '\ell' U+2113 Lower-case cursive letter l (ordinary). '\emptyset' U+2205 Empty set symbol (ordinary). Similar: reversed empty set '\varnothing'. '\epsilon' U+03F5 Lower case Greek-text letter (ordinary). More widely used in mathematics is the curly epsilon '\varepsilon' U+03B5. Related: the set membership relation '\in' U+2208. '\equiv' U+2261 Equivalence (relation). '\eta' U+03B7 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\exists' U+2203 Existential quantifier (ordinary). '\flat' U+266D Musical flat (ordinary). '\forall' U+2200 Universal quantifier (ordinary). '\frown' U+2322 Downward curving arc (ordinary). '\Gamma' U+0393 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\gamma' U+03B3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\ge' U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\geq'. '\geq' U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\ge'. '\gets' U+2190 Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: '\leftarrow'. '\gg' U+226B Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less than '\ll'. '\hbar' U+210F Planck constant over two pi (ordinary). '\heartsuit' U+2661 Heart card suit (ordinary). '\hookleftarrow' U+21A9 Hooked left arrow (relation). '\hookrightarrow' U+21AA Hooked right arrow (relation). '\iff' U+27F7 If and only if (relation). It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with a '\thickmuskip' on either side. '\Im' U+2111 Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part '\Re'. '\in' U+2208 Set element (relation). See also: lower case Greek letter epsilon '\epsilon'U+03F5 and rounded small epsilon '\varepsilon'. '\infty' U+221E Infinity (ordinary). '\int' U+222B Integral (operator). '\iota' U+03B9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\Join' U+2A1D Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TeX. '\kappa' U+03BA Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\Lambda' U+039B Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\lambda' U+03BB Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\land' U+2227 Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for '\wedge'. See also logical or '\lor'. '\langle' U+27E8 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar: less-than '<'. Matches '\rangle'. '\lbrace' U+007B Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: '\{'. Matches '\rbrace'. '\lbrack' U+005B Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: '['. Matches '\rbrack'. '\lceil' U+2308 Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom shaved off (opening). Matches '\rceil'. '\le' U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\leq'. '\leadsto' U+21DD Squiggly right arrow (relation). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and then use '\Leadsto' instead. '\Leftarrow' U+21D0 Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar: single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'. '\leftarrow' U+2190 Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: '\gets'. Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'. '\leftharpoondown' U+21BD Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation). '\leftharpoonup' U+21BC Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation). '\Leftrightarrow' U+21D4 Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'. '\leftrightarrow' U+2194 Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'. '\leq' U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\le'. '\lfloor' U+230A Left floor bracket (opening). '\lhd' U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\ll' U+226A Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater than '\gg'. '\lnot' U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\neg'. '\longleftarrow' U+27F5 Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'. '\longleftrightarrow' U+27F7 Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'. '\longmapsto' U+27FC Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'. '\longrightarrow' U+27F6 Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'. '\lor' U+2228 Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge '\wedge'. '\mapsto' U+21A6 Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'. '\mho' U+2127 Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. '\mid' U+2223 Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'. Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'. '\models' U+22A8 Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash (relation). Similar: long double dash '\vDash'. '\mp' U+2213 Minus or plus (relation). '\mu' U+03BC Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\nabla' U+2207 Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary). '\natural' U+266E Musical natural notation (ordinary). '\ne' U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\neq'. '\nearrow' U+2197 North-east arrow (relation). '\neg' U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\lnot'. Sometimes instead used for negation: '\sim'. '\neq' U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\ne'. '\ni' U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\owns'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\not' U+0020U+00A0U+0338 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation). Many negated operators that don't require '\not' are available, particularly with the 'amssymb' package. For example, '\notin' is probably typographically preferable to '\not\in'. '\notin' U+2209 Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset of '\nsubseteq'. '\nu' U+03BD Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\nwarrow' U+2196 North-west arrow (relation). '\odot' U+2299 Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigodot'. '\oint' U+222E Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator). '\Omega' U+03A9 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\omega' U+03C9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\ominus' U+2296 Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary). '\oplus' U+2295 Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigoplus'. '\oslash' U+2298 Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary). '\otimes' U+2297 Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'. '\owns' U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\ni'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\parallel' U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\|'. '\partial' U+2202 Partial differential (ordinary). '\perp' U+27C2 Perpendicular (relation). Similar: '\bot' uses the same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class ordinary. '\phi' U+03D5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varphi' U+03C6. '\Pi' U+03A0 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\pi' U+03C0 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varpi' U+03D6. '\pm' U+00B1 Plus or minus (binary). '\prec' U+227A Preceeds (relation). Similar: less than '<'. '\preceq' U+2AAF Preceeds or equals (relation). Similar: less than or equals '\leq'. '\prime' U+2032 Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically used as a superscript '$A^\prime$'. Note that '$f^\prime$' and '$f'$' produce the same result. An advantage of the second is that '$f'''$' produces the the desired symbol, that is, the same result as '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses somewhat less typing. Note that you can only use '\prime' in math mode but you can type right single quote ''' in text mode also, although it resuts in a different look than in math mode. '\prod' U+220F Product (operator). '\propto' U+221D Is proportional to (relation) '\Psi' U+03A8 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\psi' U+03C8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\rangle' U+27B9 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater than '>'. Matches:'\langle'. '\rbrace' U+007D Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: '\}'. Matches '\lbrace'. '\rbrack' U+005D Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: ']'. Matches '\lbrack'. '\rceil' U+2309 Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches '\lceil'. '\Re' U+211C Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access this, load the 'amsfonts' package. '\restriction' U+21BE Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym: '\upharpoonright'. Not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. '\rfloor' U+230B Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut off (closing). Matches '\lfloor'. '\rhd' U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\rho' U+03C1 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varrho' U+03F1. '\Rightarrow' U+21D2 Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'. '\rightarrow' U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\to'. Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'. '\rightharpoondown' U+21C1 Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation). '\rightharpoonup' U+21C0 Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation). '\rightleftharpoons' U+21CC Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation). '\searrow' U+2198 Arrow pointing southeast (relation). '\setminus' U+29F5 Set difference, reverse solidus or slash, like \ (binary). Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also '\textbackslash' outside of math mode. '\sharp' U+266F Musical sharp (ordinary). '\Sigma' U+03A3 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\sigma' U+03C3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varsigma' U+03C2. '\sim' U+223C Similar, in a relation (relation). '\simeq' U+2243 Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation). '\smallint' U+222B Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator). '\smile' U+2323 Upward curving arc (ordinary). '\spadesuit' U+2660 Spade card suit (ordinary). '\sqcap' U+2293 Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar: intersection 'cap'. '\sqcup' U+2294 Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union 'cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'. '\sqsubset' U+228F Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset '\subset'. This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsubseteq' U+2291 Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or equal to '\subseteq'. '\sqsupset' U+2290 Square superset symbol (relation). Similar: superset '\supset'. This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsupseteq' U+2292 Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset or equal '\supseteq'. '\star' U+22C6 Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript, as with the Kleene star. '\subset' U+2282 Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation). '\subseteq' U+2286 Subset or equal to (relation). '\succ' U+227B Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less than '>'. '\succeq' U+2AB0 Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or equal to '\leq'. '\sum' U+2211 Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital sigma '\Sigma'. '\supset' U+2283 Superset (relation). '\supseteq' U+2287 Superset or equal to (relation). '\surd' U+221A Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command '\sqrt{..}' typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends to cover the argument. '\swarrow' U+2199 Southwest-pointing arrow (relation). '\tau' U+03C4 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\theta' U+03B8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\vartheta' U+03D1. '\times' U+00D7 Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See also '\cdot'. '\to' U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\rightarrow'. '\top' U+22A4 Top, greatest element of a poset (ordinary). See also '\bot'. '\triangle' U+25B3 Triangle (ordinary). '\triangleleft' U+25C1 Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary). Similar: '\lhd'. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\triangleright' U+25B7 Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unlhd' U+22B4 Left-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unrhd' U+22B5 Right-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\Uparrow' U+21D1 Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'. '\uparrow' U+2191 Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'. '\Updownarrow' U+21D5 Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\updownarrow'. '\updownarrow' U+2195 Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\Updownarrow'. '\upharpoonright' U+21BE Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation). Synonym: '\restriction'. Not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package. '\uplus' U+228E Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle (binary). Similar: union '\cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\biguplus'. '\Upsilon' U+03A5 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\upsilon' U+03C5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\varepsilon' U+03B5 Rounded small epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in mathematics than the non-variant lower case Greek-text letter form '\epsilon' U+03F5. Related: set membership '\in'. '\varphi' U+03C6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\phi' U+03D5. '\varpi' U+03D6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\pi' U+03C0. '\varrho' U+03F1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\rho' U+03C1. '\varsigma' U+03C2 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\sigma' U+03C3. '\vartheta' U+03D1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\theta' U+03B8. '\vdash' U+22A2 Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'. '\vee' U+2228 Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical and '\wedge'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'. '\Vert' U+2016 Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single bar '\vert'. For a norm you can use the 'mathtools' package and add '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}' to your preamble. This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version '$\norm*{M^\perp}$' then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with '\norm{M^\perp}' the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and '\norm[SIZE COMMAND]{M^\perp}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'. '\vert' U+007C Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line vertical bar '\Vert'. For such that, as in the definition of a set, use '\mid' because it is a relation. For absolute value you can use the 'mathtools' package and add '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}' to your preamble. This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version '$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$' then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}' the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and '\abs[SIZE COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'. '\wedge' U+2227 Logical and (binary). Synonym: '\land'. See also logical or '\vee'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'. '\wp' U+2118 Weierstrass p (ordinary). '\wr' U+2240 Wreath product (binary). '\Xi' U+039E Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\xi' U+03BE Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\zeta' U+03B6 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). 16.3 Math functions =================== These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing. '\arccos' \arccos '\arcsin' \arcsin '\arctan' \arctan '\arg' \arg '\bmod' Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) '\cos' \cos '\cosh' \cosh '\cot' \cot '\coth' \coth '\csc' \csc '\deg' \deg '\det' \det '\dim' \dim '\exp' \exp '\gcd' \gcd '\hom' \hom '\inf' \inf '\ker' \ker '\lg' \lg '\lim' \lim '\liminf' \liminf '\limsup' \limsup '\ln' \ln '\log' \log '\max' \max '\min' \min '\pmod' parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) '\Pr' \Pr '\sec' \sec '\sin' \sin '\sinh' \sinh '\sup' sup '\tan' \tan '\tanh' \tanh 16.4 Math accents ================= LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note Accents::). '\acute' Math acute accent: \acute{x}. '\bar' Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}. '\breve' Math breve accent: \breve{x}. '\check' Math ha'c' Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'. The longer name is '\medspace'. Math mode only. '\,' Normally '3mu'. The longer name is '\thinspace'. This can be used in both math mode and text mode. '\!' A negative thin space. Normally '-3mu'. Math mode only. '\quad' This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment. It is available in both text and math mode. '\qquad' A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both text and math mode. In this example a thinspace separates the function from the infinitesimal. \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx 16.6 Math miscellany ==================== '\*' A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed. '\cdots' A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. '\ddots' A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. '\frac{num}{den}' Produces the fraction 'num' divided by 'den'. '\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2' The two delimiters need not match; '.' acts as a null delimiter, producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: '\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'. '\overbrace{TEXT}' Generates a brace over TEXT. For example, \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}. '\overline{TEXT}' Generates a horizontal line over TEX. For example, \overline{x+y}. '\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}' Produces the representation of the square root of ARG. The optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of 'x+y' would be typed as '$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'. '\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}' Puts TEXT above RELATION. For example, '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'. '\underbrace{math}' Generates MATH with a brace underneath. '\underline{text}' Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders. '\vdots' Produces a vertical ellipsis. 17 Modes ******** When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes: * Paragraph mode * Math mode * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in "math mode" when it's generating a mathematical formula, either displayed math or within a line. In "LR mode", as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an '\mbox', LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line). LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an '\mbox' command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box--for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode. The box made by one of these commands or environments will be called a 'parbox'. When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner paragraph mode" (no page breaks). Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called "outer paragraph mode". 18 Page styles ************** The '\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. 18.1 '\maketitle' ================= The '\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title page--except in the 'article' class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations: '\author{NAME \and NAME2}' The '\author' command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. Use '\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example, to give the author's institution or address. '\date{TEXT}' The '\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With no '\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used. '\thanks{TEXT}' The '\thanks' command produces a '\footnote' to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements. '\title{TEXT}' The '\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document. Use '\\' to force a line break, as usual. 18.2 '\pagenumbering' ===================== Synopsis: \pagenumbering{STYLE} Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE; also resets the page number to 1. The STYLE argument is one of the following: 'arabic' arabic numerals 'roman' lowercase Roman numerals 'Roman' uppercase Roman numerals 'alph' lowercase letters 'Alph' uppercase letters 18.3 '\pagestyle' ================= Synopsis: \pagestyle{STYLE} The '\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for STYLE: 'plain' Just a plain page number. 'empty' Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. 'headings' Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers. 'myheadings' Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright' commands. Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright': '\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}' Sets both the left and the right heading. A "left-hand heading" (LEFT) is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT) is generated by the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. '\markright{RIGHT}' Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. 18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}' ============================ The '\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the '\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to STYLE for the current page only. 19 Spaces ********* LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. 19.1 '\hspace' ============== Synopsis: \hspace{LENGTH} \hspace*{LENGTH} Add the horizontal space given by LENGTH. The LENGTH is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, in any unit that LaTeX understands (*note Lengths::). This command can add both positive and negative space; adding negative space is like backspacing. Normally when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines it discards white space (glues and kerns) that would come at the start of a line, so you get an inter-word space or a line break between words but not both. This command's starred version '\hspace*{..}' puts a non-discardable invisible item in front of the space, so the space appears in the output. This example make a one-line paragraph that puts 'Name:' an inch from the right margin. \noindent\makebox[\linewidth]{\hspace{\fill}Name:\hspace{1in}} 19.2 '\hfill' ============= Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but can stretch horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::). The command '\hfill' is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}'. For space that does not disappear at line breaks use '\hspace*{\fill}' instead (*note \hspace::). 19.3 '\(SPACE)' and \@ ====================== Mark a punctuation character, typically a period, as either ending a sentence or as ending an abbreviation. By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words (*note \frenchspacing::). LaTeX assumes that the period ends a sentence unless it is preceded by a capital letter, in which case it takes that period for part of an abbreviation. Note that if a sentence-ending period is immediately followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote, then the intersentence space follows that parenthesis or quote. If you have a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the sentence, then follow that period with a backslash-space ('\ ') or a tie ('~'). Examples are 'Nat.\ Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and '(manure, etc.)\ for sale'. For other use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) after CS::. In the opposite situation, if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the sentence, then put '\@' on the left of that period. For example, 'book by the MAA\@.' will have intersentence spacing after the period. In contrast, putting '\@' on the right of a period tells TeX that the period does not end the sentence. In the example 'reserved words (if, then, etc.\@) are different', TeX will put interword space after the closing parenthesis (note that '\@' is before the parenthesis). 19.4 '\ ' after a control sequence ================================== The '\ ' command is often used after control sequences to keep them from gobbling the space that follows, as in '\TeX\ is a nice system.' And, under normal circumstances '\' and '\' are equivalent to '\ '. For other use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) and \@::. Some people prefer to use '{}' for the same purpose, as in '\TeX{} is a nice system.' This has the advantage that you can always write it the same way, like '\TeX{}', whether it is followed by a space or by a punctuation mark. Please compare: \TeX\ is a nice system. \TeX, a nice system. \TeX{} is a nice system. \TeX{}, a nice system. When you define user commands (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) you can prevent the space gobbling after the command by using the package 'xspace' and inserting '\xspace' at the end of the definition For instance: \documentclass{minimal} \usepackage{xspace} \newcommand*{\Loup}{Grand Cric\xspace} \begin{document} Que le \Loup me croque ! \end{document} A quick hack to use '\xspace' for existing command is as follows: \documentclass{minimal} \usepackage{xspace} \newcommand*{\SansXspaceTeX}{} \let\SansXspaceTeX\TeX \renewcommand{\TeX}{\SansXspaceTeX\xspace} \begin{document} \TeX is a nice system. \end{document} 19.5 '\frenchspacing' ===================== This declaration (from Plain TeX) causes LaTeX to treat intersentence spacing in the same way as interword spacing. In justifying the text in a line, some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or after other punctuation marks) more than the space between words. Following this declaration, all spaces are instead treated equally. Revert to the default behavior by declaring '\nonfrenchspacing'. 19.6 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em =============================== '\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in '". 19.7 '\/': Insert italic correction =================================== The '\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character typically has a large italic correction value. If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the 'f's are nicely separated) with f: f;. When changing fonts with commands such as '\textit{italic text}' or '{\itshape italic text}', LaTeX will automatically insert an italic correction if appropriate (*note Font styles::). Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the 'f') with pdfTeX. There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way. 19.8 '\hrulefill \dotfill' ========================== Produce an infinite rubber length (*note Lengths::) filled with a horizontal rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of just white space. When placed between blank lines this example creates a paragraph that is left and right justified, where the space in the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots. \noindent Jack Aubrey\dotfill Melbury Lodge To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the start or end. To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as with '\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with '\renewcommand{\dotfill}{\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@ 1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em. 19.9 '\addvspace' ================= '\addvspace{LENGTH}' Add a vertical space of height LENGTH, which is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous '\addvspace' command then this command will not add more space than what is needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to LENGTH. Use this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an environment that starts a new paragraph. (For instance, a Theorem environment is defined to begin and end in '\addvspace{..}' so that two consecutive Theorem's are separated by one vertical space, not two.) This command is fragile (*note \protect::). The error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' means that you were not in vertical mode when you invoked this command; one way to change that is to precede this command with a '\par' command. 19.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' ==================================== These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the document class. '\bigskip' The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt'). '\medskip' The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt'). '\smallskip' The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt'). 19.11 '\vfill' ============== End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length (*note Lengths::) that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed. It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that '\vfill' ends the current paragraph, whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the infinite vertical space below its line irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary; to circumvent this see *note \vspace::. In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the third 'Lost Dog!' is exactly halfway between them. \begin{document} Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! \end{document} 19.12 '\vspace{LENGTH}' ======================= Synopsis, one of these two: \vspace{LENGTH} \vspace*{LENGTH} Add the vertical space LENGTH. This can be negative or positive, and is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). LaTeX removes the vertical space from '\vfill' at a page break, that is, at the top or bottom of a page. The starred version '\vspace*{..}' causes the space to stay. In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with at least one inch of space below each. \begin{document} 1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} 2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} \end{document} 20 Boxes ******** All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands. 20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}' ================== The '\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation. 20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox' ============================ Synopses: \fbox{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} The '\fbox' and '\framebox' commands are like '\mbox', except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. In addition, the '\framebox' command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument. Both commands produce a rule of thickness '\fboxrule' (default '.4pt'), and leave a space of '\fboxsep' (default '3pt') between the rule and the contents of the box. *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the '\framebox' command in the 'picture' environment. 20.3 'lrbox' ============ '\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}' This is the environment form of '\sbox'. The text inside the environment is saved in the box 'cmd', which must have been declared with '\newsavebox'. 20.4 '\makebox' =============== Synopsis: \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} The '\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the TEXT specified. The width of the box can be overridden by the optional WIDTH argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values: 'c' Centered (default). 'l' Flush left. 'r' Flush right. 's' Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain stretchable space for this to work. '\makebox' is also used within the 'picture' environment *note \makebox (picture)::. 20.5 '\parbox' ============== Synopsis: \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT} The '\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in 'paragraph' mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a '\parbox' argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::). '\parbox' has two mandatory arguments: WIDTH the width of the parbox; TEXT the text that goes inside the parbox. The optional POSITION argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top). The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box. The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used. 't' text is placed at the top of the box. 'c' text is centered in the box. 'b' text is placed at the bottom of the box. 's' stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work. 20.6 '\raisebox' ================ Synopsis: \raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text} The '\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). TEXT itself is processed in LR mode. The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth. 20.7 '\savebox' =============== Synopsis: \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with '\makebox' (*note \makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). 20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' =========================== Synopsis: \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT} '\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD. \BOXCMD must have been previously declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). 20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}' ======================= Synopsis: \usebox{\BOXCMD} '\usebox' produces the box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by a '\savebox' command (*note \savebox::). 21 Special insertions ********************* LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. 21.1 Reserved characters ======================== The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called "reserved characters" or "special characters". # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX will do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as itself, include a '\' in front of the character. For example, '\$' will produce '$' in your output. One exception to this rule is '\' itself, because '\\' has its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing '$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter '\' is produced by using '\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::). Also, '\~' and '\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a standalone '~' or '^', you can again use a verbatim command. Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you know its number by using the '\symbol' command. For example, the visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'. You can also specify octal numbers with ''' or hexadecimal numbers with '"', so the previous example could also be written as '\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'. 21.2 Text symbols ================= LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1; you may need to load the 'textcomp' package. '\copyright' '\textcopyright' The copyright symbol, (C). '\dag' The dagger symbol (in text). '\ddag' The double dagger symbol (in text). '\LaTeX' The LaTeX logo. '\LaTeXe' The LaTeX2e logo. '\guillemotleft (<<)' '\guillemotright (>>)' '\guilsinglleft (<)' '\guilsinglright (>)' Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: <<, >>, <, >. '\ldots' '\dots' '\textellipsis' An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '...'. '\ldots' and '\dots' also work in math mode. '\lq' Left (opening) quote: '. '\P' '\textparagraph' Paragraph sign (pilcrow). '\pounds' '\textsterling' English pounds sterling: #. '\quotedblbase (,,)' '\quotesinglbase (,)' Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: ,, and ,. '\rq' Right (closing) quote: '. '\S' Section symbol. '\TeX' The TeX logo. '\textasciicircum' ASCII circumflex: ^. '\textasciitilde' ASCII tilde: ~. '\textasteriskcentered' Centered asterisk: *. '\textbackslash' Backslash: \. '\textbar' Vertical bar: |. '\textbardbl' Double vertical bar. '\textbigcircle' Big circle symbol. '\textbraceleft' Left brace: {. '\textbraceright' Right brace: }. '\textbullet' Bullet: *. '\textcircled{LETTER}' LETTER in a circle, as in (R). '\textcompwordmark' '\textcapitalwordmark' '\textascenderwordmark' Composite word mark (invisible). The '\textcapital...' form has the cap height of the font, while the '\textascender...' form has the ascender height. '\textdagger' Dagger: \dag. '\textdaggerdbl' Double dagger: \ddag. '\textdollar (or '$')' Dollar sign: $. '\textemdash (or '---')' Em-dash: -- (for punctuation). '\textendash (or '--')' En-dash: - (for ranges). '\texteuro' The Euro symbol: Euro. '\textexclamdown (or '!`')' Upside down exclamation point: !. '\textgreater' Greater than: >. '\textless' Less than: <. '\textleftarrow' Left arrow. '\textordfeminine' '\textordmasculine' Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: a, o. '\textperiodcentered' Centered period: \cdot. '\textquestiondown (or '?`')' Upside down question mark: ?. '\textquotedblleft (or '``')' Double left quote: ". '\textquotedblright (or ''')' Double right quote: ". '\textquoteleft (or '`')' Single left quote: '. '\textquoteright (or ''')' Single right quote: '. '\textquotestraightbase' '\textquotestraightdblbase' Single and double straight quotes on the baseline. '\textregistered' Registered symbol: (R). '\textrightarrow' Right arrow. '\textthreequartersemdash' "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\texttrademark' Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}. '\texttwelveudash' "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\textunderscore' Underscore: _. '\textvisiblespace' Visible space symbol. 21.3 Accents ============ LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, through the 'babel' package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters. The '\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1. '\"' '\capitaldieresis' Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in o". '\'' '\capitalacute' Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the 'tabbing' environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note tabbing::). '\.' Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. '\=' '\capitalmacron' Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=. '\^' '\capitalcircumflex' Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^. '\`' '\capitalgrave' Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`. In the 'tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin (*note tabbing::). '\~' '\capitaltilde' Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~. '\b' Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. See also '\underbar' hereinafter. '\c' '\capitalcedilla' Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in c,. '\d' '\capitaldotaccent' Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. '\H' '\capitalhungarumlaut' Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''. '\i' Produces a dotless i, as in 'i'. '\j' Produces a dotless j, as in 'j'. '\k' '\capitalogonek' Produces a letter with ogonek, as in 'o;'. Not available in the OT1 encoding. '\r' '\capitalring' Produces a ring accent, as in 'o*'. '\t' '\capitaltie' '\newtie' '\capitalnewtie' Produces a tie-after accent, as in 'oo['. The '\newtie' form is centered in its box. '\u' '\capitalbreve' Produces a breve accent, as in 'o('. '\underbar' Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text. The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::. See also '\b' above. '\v' '\capitalcaron' Produces a ha'c) or (the multi-lingual) 'xindy' (). This results in a '.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index. The index is usually generated with the '\printindex' command. This is defined in the 'makeidx' package, so '\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to be in the preamble. The rubber length '\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in the printed index; its default value is '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'. The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index. The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic, . 24 Letters ********** Synopsis: \documentclass{letter} \address{SENDER ADDRESS} \signature{SENDER NAME} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS} \opening{SALUTATION} LETTER BODY \closing{CLOSING TEXT} \end{letter} ... more letters ... \end{document} Produce one or more letters. Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double backslash ('\\'). For example, you might have: \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith \\ 2345 Princess St. \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} ... \end{letter} The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1, and the footnote number to 1 also. The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines separated by a double backslash ('\\'). LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature; it also can contain multiple lines. Each letter environment begins with a required '\opening' command such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'. The LETTER BODY text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each letter environment typically ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'. Additional material may come after the '\closing'. You can say who is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}'. There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'. LaTeX's default is to indent the signature and the '\closing' above it by a length of '\longindentation'. By default this is '0.5\textwidth'. To make them flush left, put '\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your preamble. To set a fixed date use something like '\renewcommand{\today}{2015-Oct-12}'. If put in your preamble then it will apply to all the letters. This example shows only one 'letter' environment. The three lines marked as optional are typically omitted. \documentclass{letter} \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town} \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title} % optional: \location{Mailbox 13} % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address} \opening{Sir:} % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage} I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you. \closing{Your most humble, etc.,} \end{letter} \end{document} These commands are used with the 'letter' class. 24.1 '\address' =============== Synopsis: \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} Specifies the return address as it appears on the letter and on the envelope. Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double backslash '\\'. Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an individual 'letter' environment. This command is optional: without the '\address' declaration the letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed letterhead paper. (*Note Overview::, for details on your local implementation.) With the '\address' declaration, it is formatted as a personal letter. Here is an example. \address{Stephen Maturin \\ The Grapes of the Savoy} 24.2 '\cc' ========== Synopsis: \cc{FIRST NAME \\ .. } Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after '\closing'. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'. \cc{President \\ Vice President} 24.3 '\closing' =============== Synopsis: \closing{text} Usually at the end of a letter, above the handwritten signature, there is a '\closing' (although this command is optional). For example, \closing{Regards,} 24.4 '\encl' ============ Synopsis: \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\ .. } Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'. \encl{License \\ Passport } 24.5 '\location' ================ Synopsis: \location{TEXT} The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the each page. It only appears if the page style is 'firstpage'. 24.6 '\makelabels' ================== Synopsis: \makelabels Create a sheet of address labels from the recipient addresses, one for each letter. This sheet will be output before the letters, with the idea that you can copy it to a sheet of peel-off labels. This command goes in the preamble. Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels', '\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' in the preamble. The command '\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed. The command '\mlabel{SENDER ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the SENDER ADDRESS). The SENDER ADDRESS is the value returned by the macro '\returnaddress' while RECIPIENT ADDRESS is the value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment. By default '\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the SENDER ADDRESS. 24.7 '\name' ============ Synopsis: \name{NAME} Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address. 24.8 '\opening' =============== Synopsis: \opening{TEXT} This command is required. It starts a letter, following the '\begin{letter}{..}'. The mandatory argument TEXT is the text that starts your letter. For instance: \opening{Dear John:} 24.9 '\ps' ========== Synopsis: \ps{TEXT} Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after '\closing'. \ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.} 24.10 '\signature' ================== Synopsis: \signature{FIRST LINE \\ .. } The sender's name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual. The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing and after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'. For example: \signature{J Fred Muggs \\ White House} LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times 0.7em. This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a 'letter' environment and before the '\closing'. You can include a graphic in the signature, for instance with '\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My name}' (this requires writing '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble). 24.11 '\telephone' ================== Synopsis: \telephone{NUMBER} The sender's telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where it applies to all letters. This only appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the page. 25 Terminal input/output ************************ 25.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}' ======================== Synopsis: \typein[\CMD]{MSG} '\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional \CMD argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command. If the \CMD argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input. 25.2 '\typeout{MSG}' ==================== Synopsis: \typeout{MSG} Prints 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file. Commands in 'msg' that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. A '\space' command in 'msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A '^^J' in 'msg' prints a newline. 26 Command line *************** The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses '.tex' as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You can also specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash. For example, this processes 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error: latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with '-' or '--'. For a list of those options, try 'latex --help'. If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a '*' prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type '\stop' (and return) and it will prematurely end the document. *Note TeX engines::, for other system commands invoking LaTeX. Appendix A Document templates ***************************** Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at . A.1 'beamer' template ===================== The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template: \documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2007} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document} One web resource for this: . A.2 'book' template =================== \documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document} A.3 'tugboat' template ====================== 'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group, . \documentclass{ltugboat} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{ifpdf} \ifpdf \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref} \else \usepackage{url} \fi \title{Example \TUB\ article} % repeat info for each author. \author{First Last} \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} \netaddress{user (at) example dot org} \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} \begin{document} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This is an example article for \TUB{}. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} This is an example article for \TUB, from \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the \texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output. Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively. The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more: % verbatim blocks are often better in \small \begin{verbatim}[\small] \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe \Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX \PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS \SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE \Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag \careof \thinskip \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use! \cs{fred} -> \fred \env{fred} -> \begin{fred} \meta{fred} -> \nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 \booktitle{Book of Fred} \end{verbatim} For more information, see the ltubguid document at: \url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} (we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references). Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. \bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style \nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty \bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX \makesignature \end{document} Concept Index ************* * Menu: * '*' prompt: Command line. (line 7136) * '*'-form of sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 1422) * '.glo' file: Glossaries. (line 6780) * '.idx' file: Indexes. (line 6796) * '.ind' file: Indexes. (line 6810) * 'see' and 'see also' index entries: Indexes. (line 6803) * abstracts: abstract. (line 1535) * accents: Accents. (line 6475) * accents, mathematical: Math accents. (line 5541) * accessing any character of a font: Reserved characters. (line 6286) * acute accent: Accents. (line 6489) * acute accent, math: Math accents. (line 5546) * additional packages, loading: Document class options. (line 633) * ae ligature: Non-English characters. (line 6580) * align environment, from 'amsmath': eqnarray. (line 1848) * aligning equations: eqnarray. (line 1848) * alignment via tabbing: tabbing. (line 2585) * amsmath package, replacing 'eqnarray': eqnarray. (line 1848) * appendix, creating: Sectioning. (line 1428) * aring: Non-English characters. (line 6576) * arrays, math: array. (line 1547) * arrow, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 6423) * arrow, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 6455) * ascender height: Text symbols. (line 6391) * ASCII circumflex, in text: Text symbols. (line 6356) * ASCII tilde, in text: Text symbols. (line 6359) * asterisk, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 6362) * at clause, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 4033) * author, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 5737) * auxiliary file: Output files. (line 374) * 'babel' package: Accents. (line 6475) * backslash, in text: Text symbols. (line 6365) * bar, double vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 6371) * bar, vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 6368) * bar-over accent: Accents. (line 6498) * bar-over accent, math: Math accents. (line 5549) * bar-under accent: Accents. (line 6515) * basics of LaTeX: Overview. (line 293) * 'beamer' template and class: beamer template. (line 7152) * beginning of document hook: \AtBeginDocument. (line 1757) * bibliography format, open: Document class options. (line 600) * bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX. (line 3105) * bibliography, creating (manually): thebibliography. (line 3040) * bibTeX, using: Using BibTeX. (line 3105) * big circle symbols, in text: Text symbols. (line 6374) * Big point: Units of length. (line 4304) * black boxes, omitting: Document class options. (line 586) * bold font: Font styles. (line 719) * bold math: Font styles. (line 778) * bold typewriter, avoiding: description. (line 1688) * box, allocating new: \newsavebox. (line 3785) * boxes: Boxes. (line 6101) * brace, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 6377) * brace, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 6380) * breaking lines: Line breaking. (line 3225) * breaking pages: Page breaking. (line 3361) * breve accent: Accents. (line 6555) * breve accent, math: Math accents. (line 5552) * bug reporting: About this document. (line 250) * bullet symbol: Math symbols. (line 4658) * bullet, in text: Text symbols. (line 6383) * bulleted lists: itemize. (line 2078) * calligraphic letters for math: Font styles. (line 722) * cap height: Text symbols. (line 6391) * caron accent: Accents. (line 6566) * cc list, in letters: \cc. (line 6940) * cedilla accent: Accents. (line 6520) * centered asterisk, in text: Text symbols. (line 6362) * centered equations: Document class options. (line 590) * centered period, in text: Text symbols. (line 6430) * centering text, declaration for: \centering. (line 1639) * centering text, environment for: center. (line 1605) * Centimeter: Units of length. (line 4308) * characters, accented: Accents. (line 6475) * characters, non-English: Non-English characters. (line 6571) * characters, reserved: Reserved characters. (line 6267) * check accent: Accents. (line 6566) * check accent, math: Math accents. (line 5555) * Cicero: Units of length. (line 4317) * circle symbol, big, in text: Text symbols. (line 6374) * circled letter, in text: Text symbols. (line 6386) * circumflex accent: Accents. (line 6502) * circumflex accent, math: Math accents. (line 5567) * circumflex, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 6356) * class options: Document class options. (line 544) * classes of documents: Document classes. (line 510) * closing letters: \closing. (line 6955) * closing quote: Text symbols. (line 6347) * code, typesetting: verbatim. (line 3172) * command line: Command line. (line 7124) * command syntax: LaTeX command syntax. (line 444) * commands, defining new ones: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 3649) * commands, defining new ones <1>: \providecommand. (line 3734) * commands, redefining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 3649) * composite word mark, in text: Text symbols. (line 6391) * computer programs, typesetting: verbatim. (line 3172) * contents file: Output files. (line 384) * copyright symbol: Text symbols. (line 6304) * counters, a list of: Counters. (line 4100) * counters, defining new: \newcounter. (line 3749) * counters, getting value of: \value. (line 4184) * counters, printing: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4124) * counters, setting: \setcounter. (line 4213) * creating pictures: picture. (line 2282) * creating tables: table. (line 2676) * credit footnote: \maketitle. (line 5747) * cross references: Cross references. (line 1449) * cross references, resolving: Output files. (line 374) * cross referencing with page number: \pageref. (line 1503) * cross referencing, symbolic: \ref. (line 1513) * currency, dollar: Text symbols. (line 6402) * currency, euro: Text symbols. (line 6411) * dagger, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 6399) * dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 6307) * dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 6396) * date, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 5743) * date, today's: \today. (line 6640) * 'datetime' package: \today. (line 6645) * defining a new command: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 3649) * defining a new command <1>: \providecommand. (line 3734) * defining new environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 3800) * defining new fonts: \newfont. (line 4016) * defining new theorems: \newtheorem. (line 3904) * definitions: Definitions. (line 3644) * description lists, creating: description. (line 1671) * design size, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 4033) * Didot point: Units of length. (line 4314) * dieresis accent: Accents. (line 6485) * discretionary multiplication: Math miscellany. (line 5637) * displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * document class options: Document class options. (line 544) * document class, defined: Starting and ending. (line 327) * document classes: Document classes. (line 510) * document templates: Document templates. (line 7145) * dollar sign: Text symbols. (line 6402) * dot accent: Accents. (line 6494) * dot over accent, math: Math accents. (line 5561) * dot-over accent: Accents. (line 6494) * dot-under accent: Accents. (line 6524) * dotless i: Accents. (line 6532) * dotless i, math: Math accents. (line 5570) * dotless j: Accents. (line 6535) * dotless j, math: Math accents. (line 5573) * double angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 6322) * double dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 6310) * double dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 6399) * double dot accent, math: Math accents. (line 5558) * double guillemets: Text symbols. (line 6322) * double left quote: Text symbols. (line 6436) * double low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 6344) * double quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 6449) * double right quote: Text symbols. (line 6439) * double spacing: Low-level font commands. (line 930) * double vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 6371) * e-dash: Text symbols. (line 6408) * e-TeX: TeX engines. (line 399) * ellipsis: Text symbols. (line 6328) * em: Units of length. (line 4322) * em-dash: Text symbols. (line 6405) * em-dash, three-quarters: Text symbols. (line 6458) * em-dash, two-thirds: Text symbols. (line 6464) * emphasis: Font styles. (line 707) * enclosure list: \encl. (line 6967) * end of document hook: \AtEndDocument. (line 1770) * ending and starting: Starting and ending. (line 319) * engines, TeX: TeX engines. (line 393) * enlarge current page: \enlargethispage. (line 3390) * environment: Starting and ending. (line 335) * environment, theorem-like: \newtheorem. (line 3904) * environments: Environments. (line 1525) * environments, defining: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 3800) * equation number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 1513) * equation numbers, left vs. right: Document class options. (line 596) * equation numbers, omitting: eqnarray. (line 1883) * equations, aligning: eqnarray. (line 1848) * equations, environment for: equation. (line 1904) * equations, flush left vs. centered: Document class options. (line 590) * es-zet German letter: Non-English characters. (line 6612) * eth, Icelandic letter: Non-English characters. (line 6584) * euro symbol: Text symbols. (line 6411) * ex: Units of length. (line 4322) * exclamation point, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 6414) * exponent: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 4521) * external files, writing: filecontents. (line 1975) * families, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 836) * feminine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 6427) * figure number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 1513) * figures, footnotes in: minipage. (line 2269) * figures, inserting: figure. (line 1922) * fixed-width font: Font styles. (line 740) * 'float' package: Floats. (line 1293) * float page: Floats. (line 1299) * flush left equations: Document class options. (line 590) * flushing floats and starting a page: \clearpage. (line 3377) * font catalogue: Low-level font commands. (line 836) * font commands, low-level: Low-level font commands. (line 822) * font size: Low-level font commands. (line 914) * font sizes: Font sizes. (line 796) * font styles: Font styles. (line 654) * fonts: Fonts. (line 648) * fonts, new commands for: \newfont. (line 4016) * footer style: \pagestyle. (line 5782) * footer, parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 1115) * footnote number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 1513) * footnote parameters: Footnote parameters. (line 3628) * footnotes in figures: minipage. (line 2269) * footnotes, creating: Footnotes. (line 3423) * Footnotes, in a minipage: \footnote. (line 3470) * Footnotes, in a table: Footnotes in a table. (line 3524) * footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: \footnote. (line 3458) * formulas, environment for: equation. (line 1904) * formulas, math: Math formulas. (line 4484) * forward references, resolving: Output files. (line 374) * fragile commands: \protect. (line 4051) * French quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 6322) * functions, math: Math functions. (line 5433) * 'geometry' package: Document class options. (line 575) * global options: Document class options. (line 544) * global options <1>: Document class options. (line 641) * glossaries: Glossaries. (line 6778) * glossary package: Glossaries. (line 6787) * glue register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 3770) * graphics packages: \line. (line 2440) * grave accent: Accents. (line 6506) * grave accent, math: Math accents. (line 5564) * greater than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 6417) * greek letters: Math symbols. (line 4554) * ha'c: \providecommand. (line 3734) * new line, output as input: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 3268) * new line, starting: \\. (line 3236) * new line, starting (paragraph mode): \newline. (line 3277) * new page, starting: \newpage. (line 3384) * non-English characters: Non-English characters. (line 6571) * notes in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 4434) * null delimiter: Math miscellany. (line 5651) * numbered items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 4158) * numerals, old-style: Font styles. (line 782) * oblique font: Font styles. (line 737) * oe ligature: Non-English characters. (line 6608) * ogonek: Accents. (line 6539) * old-style numerals: Font styles. (line 782) * one-column output: \onecolumn. (line 965) * opening quote: Text symbols. (line 6332) * OpenType fonts: TeX engines. (line 393) * options, document class: Document class options. (line 544) * options, global: Document class options. (line 641) * ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 6427) * oslash: Non-English characters. (line 6604) * overbar accent: Accents. (line 6498) * overdot accent, math: Math accents. (line 5561) * overview of LaTeX: Overview. (line 293) * packages, loading additional: Document class options. (line 633) * page break, forcing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 3405) * page break, preventing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 3405) * page breaking: Page breaking. (line 3361) * page layout parameters: Page layout parameters. (line 1115) * page number, cross referencing: \pageref. (line 1503) * page numbering style: \pagenumbering. (line 5757) * page styles: Page styles. (line 5725) * paragraph indentation, in minipage: minipage. (line 2265) * paragraph indentations in quoted text: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * paragraph mode: Modes. (line 5686) * paragraph symbol: Text symbols. (line 6336) * paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 4394) * parameters, for footnotes: Footnote parameters. (line 3628) * parameters, page layout: Page layout parameters. (line 1115) * pdfTeX: Output files. (line 361) * pdfTeX engine: TeX engines. (line 399) * period, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 6430) * pica: Units of length. (line 4298) * 'pict2e' package: \line. (line 2440) * pictures, creating: picture. (line 2282) * pilcrow: Text symbols. (line 6336) * placement of floats: Floats. (line 1272) * poetry, an environment for: verse. (line 3206) * Point: Units of length. (line 4294) * polish l: Non-English characters. (line 6596) * portrait orientation: Document class options. (line 593) * position, in picture: picture. (line 2299) * postscript, in letters: \ps. (line 7038) * pounds symbol: Text symbols. (line 6340) * preamble, defined: Starting and ending. (line 332) * predefined lengths: Predefined lengths. (line 4375) * prompt, '*': Command line. (line 7136) * pronunciation: Overview. (line 311) * quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 5619) * question mark, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 6433) * quotation marks, French: Text symbols. (line 6322) * quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 6449) * quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * ragged left text: \raggedleft. (line 2065) * ragged left text, environment for: flushright. (line 2052) * ragged right text: \raggedright. (line 2039) * ragged right text, environment for: flushleft. (line 2026) * redefining environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 3800) * references, resolving forward: Output files. (line 374) * registered symbol: Text symbols. (line 6452) * remarks in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 4434) * reporting bugs: About this document. (line 250) * reserved characters: Reserved characters. (line 6267) * right angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 6322) * right arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 6455) * right brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 6380) * right quote: Text symbols. (line 6347) * right quote, double: Text symbols. (line 6439) * right quote, single: Text symbols. (line 6445) * right-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 596) * right-justifying text: \raggedleft. (line 2065) * right-justifying text, environment for: flushright. (line 2052) * ring accent: Accents. (line 6544) * ring accent, math: Math accents. (line 5576) * robust commands: \protect. (line 4051) * roman font: Font styles. (line 728) * rubber lengths, defining new: \newlength. (line 3770) * running header and footer: Page layout parameters. (line 1115) * running header and footer style: \pagestyle. (line 5782) * sans serif font: Font styles. (line 734) * Scaled point: Units of length. (line 4320) * script letters for math: Font styles. (line 722) * section number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 1513) * section numbers, printing: Sectioning. (line 1438) * section symbol: Text symbols. (line 6350) * sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 1397) * series, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 861) * 'setspace' package: Low-level font commands. (line 930) * setting counters: \setcounter. (line 4213) * shapes, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 901) * sharp S letters: Non-English characters. (line 6612) * 'showidx' package: Indexes. (line 6822) * simulating typed text: verbatim. (line 3172) * single angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 6322) * single guillemets: Text symbols. (line 6322) * single left quote: Text symbols. (line 6442) * single low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 6344) * single right quote: Text symbols. (line 6445) * sizes of text: Font sizes. (line 796) * skip register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 3770) * slanted font: Font styles. (line 737) * small caps font: Font styles. (line 731) * space, inserting vertical: \addvspace. (line 6006) * space, vertical: \vspace. (line 6075) * spaces: Spaces. (line 5825) * spacing within math mode: Spacing in math mode. (line 5593) * spacing, intersentence: \frenchspacing. (line 5938) * Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 6427) * special characters: Non-English characters. (line 6571) * special insertions: Special insertions. (line 6261) * specifier, float placement: Floats. (line 1272) * splitting the input file: Splitting the input. (line 6651) * starting a new page: \newpage. (line 3384) * starting a new page and clearing floats: \clearpage. (line 3377) * starting and ending: Starting and ending. (line 319) * starting on a right-hand page: \cleardoublepage. (line 3368) * sterling symbol: Text symbols. (line 6340) * straight double quote, base: Text symbols. (line 6449) * straight quote, base: Text symbols. (line 6449) * stretch, infinite horizontal: \hfill. (line 5857) * stretch, infinite vertical: \vfill. (line 6049) * stretch, omitting vertical: \raggedbottom. (line 1103) * styles of text: Font styles. (line 654) * styles, page: Page styles. (line 5725) * subscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 4521) * superscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 4521) * symbols, math: Math symbols. (line 4554) * symbols, text: Text symbols. (line 6298) * tab stops, using: tabbing. (line 2585) * table of contents entry, manually adding: \addcontentsline. (line 6734) * table of contents file: Output files. (line 384) * table of contents, creating: Tables of contents. (line 6713) * tables, creating: table. (line 2676) * template, 'beamer': beamer template. (line 7152) * template, 'book': book template. (line 7183) * template, TUGboat: tugboat template. (line 7203) * templates, document: Document templates. (line 7145) * terminal input/output: Terminal input/output. (line 7091) * TeX logo: Text symbols. (line 6353) * text symbols: Text symbols. (line 6298) * 'textcomp' package: Font styles. (line 782) * thanks, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 5747) * theorem-like environment: \newtheorem. (line 3904) * theorems, defining: \newtheorem. (line 3904) * theorems, typesetting: theorem. (line 3142) * thorn, Icelandic letter: Non-English characters. (line 6616) * three-quarters em-dash: Text symbols. (line 6458) * tie-after accent: Accents. (line 6550) * tilde accent: Accents. (line 6512) * tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 5579) * tilde, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 6359) * title page, separate or run-in: Document class options. (line 604) * title pages, creating: titlepage. (line 3155) * title, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 5751) * titles, making: \maketitle. (line 5731) * trademark symbol: Text symbols. (line 6461) * transcript file: Output files. (line 369) * TrueType fonts: TeX engines. (line 393) * TUGboat template: tugboat template. (line 7203) * two-column output: \twocolumn. (line 975) * two-thirds em-dash: Text symbols. (line 6464) * type styles: Font styles. (line 654) * typed text, simulating: verbatim. (line 3172) * typeface sizes: Font sizes. (line 796) * typefaces: Fonts. (line 648) * typewriter font: Font styles. (line 740) * typewriter labels in lists: description. (line 1688) * umlaut accent: Accents. (line 6485) * underbar: Accents. (line 6558) * underscore, in text: Text symbols. (line 6467) * Unicode input, native: TeX engines. (line 393) * units, of length: Units of length. (line 4290) * unofficial nature of this manual: About this document. (line 261) * unordered lists: itemize. (line 2078) * using BibTeX: Using BibTeX. (line 3105) * UTF-8: TeX engines. (line 393) * variables, a list of: Counters. (line 4100) * vector symbol, math: Math accents. (line 5582) * verbatim text: verbatim. (line 3172) * verbatim text, inline: \verb. (line 3189) * vertical bar, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 6371) * vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 6368) * vertical space: \addvspace. (line 6006) * vertical space <1>: \vspace. (line 6075) * vertical space before paragraphs: \parskip. (line 4428) * visible space: \verb. (line 3200) * visible space symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 6470) * weights, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 871) * white space: Spaces. (line 5825) * wide hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 5585) * wide tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 5588) * widths, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 883) * writing external files: filecontents. (line 1975) * writing letters: Letters. (line 6833) * x-height: Units of length. (line 4322) * XeTeX: TeX engines. (line 425) * 'xindy' program: Indexes. (line 6810) Command Index ************* * Menu: * $: Math formulas. (line 4502) * &: tabular. (line 2744) * --help command-line option: Command line. (line 7132) * .aux file: Output files. (line 374) * .dvi file: Output files. (line 351) * .fd file: \newfont. (line 4026) * .lof file: Output files. (line 384) * .lof file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 6723) * .log file: Output files. (line 369) * .lot file: Output files. (line 384) * .lot file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 6723) * .pdf file: Output files. (line 361) * .tex, default extension: Command line. (line 7124) * .toc file: Output files. (line 384) * .toc file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 6713) * .xdv file: TeX engines. (line 425) * 10pt option: Document class options. (line 552) * 11pt option: Document class options. (line 552) * 12pt option: Document class options. (line 552) * [...] for optional arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 444) * \ character starting commands: LaTeX command syntax. (line 444) * \!: Spacing in math mode. (line 5616) * \" (umlaut accent): Accents. (line 6485) * \#: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \$: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \%: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \&: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \' (acute accent): Accents. (line 6489) * \' (tabbing): tabbing. (line 2624) * \(: Math formulas. (line 4494) * \(SPACE): \(SPACE) and \@. (line 5867) * \): Math formulas. (line 4494) * \*: Math miscellany. (line 5636) * \+: tabbing. (line 2616) * \,: Spacing in math mode. (line 5612) * \-: tabbing. (line 2620) * \- (hyphenation): \- (hyphenation). (line 3298) * \. (dot-over accent): Accents. (line 6494) * \/: \/. (line 5958) * \:: Spacing in math mode. (line 5608) * \;: Spacing in math mode. (line 5603) * \<: tabbing. (line 2612) * \= (macron accent): Accents. (line 6498) * \= (tabbing): tabbing. (line 2606) * \>: tabbing. (line 2610) * \> <1>: Spacing in math mode. (line 5608) * \> (tabbing): tabbing. (line 2609) * \@: \(SPACE) and \@. (line 5867) * \@fnsymbol: \footnote. (line 3458) * \a (tabbing): tabbing. (line 2639) * \a' (acute accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 2640) * \a= (macron accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 2640) * \aa (aa): Non-English characters. (line 6576) * \AA (AA): Non-English characters. (line 6576) * \acute: Math accents. (line 5545) * \addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT}: \addcontentsline. (line 6734) * \address: \address. (line 6913) * \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: \addtocontents. (line 6763) * \addtocounter: \addtocounter. (line 4224) * \addtolength: \addtolength. (line 4347) * \addvspace: \addvspace. (line 6006) * \ae (ae): Non-English characters. (line 6580) * \AE (AE): Non-English characters. (line 6580) * \aleph: Math symbols. (line 4567) * \alph: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4128) * \Alph: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4131) * \Alph example: enumerate. (line 1832) * \alpha: Math symbols. (line 4570) * \alsoname: Indexes. (line 6807) * \amalg: Math symbols. (line 4573) * \and for '\author': \maketitle. (line 5737) * \angle: Math symbols. (line 4576) * \appendix: Sectioning. (line 1428) * \approx: Math symbols. (line 4581) * \arabic: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4134) * \arccos: Math functions. (line 5436) * \arcsin: Math functions. (line 5439) * \arctan: Math functions. (line 5442) * \arg: Math functions. (line 5445) * \arraycolsep: array. (line 1579) * \arrayrulewidth: tabular. (line 2868) * \arraystretch: tabular. (line 2874) * \ast: Math symbols. (line 4584) * \asymp: Math symbols. (line 4593) * \AtBeginDocument: \AtBeginDocument. (line 1757) * \AtEndDocument: \AtEndDocument. (line 1770) * \author{NAME \and NAME2}: \maketitle. (line 5736) * \a` (grave accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 2640) * \b (bar-under accent): Accents. (line 6515) * \backslash: Math symbols. (line 4596) * \backslash <1>: Reserved characters. (line 6277) * \bar: Math accents. (line 5548) * \baselineskip: Low-level font commands. (line 914) * \baselinestretch: Low-level font commands. (line 924) * \begin: Environments. (line 1525) * \beta: Math symbols. (line 4600) * \bf: Font styles. (line 718) * \bfseries: Font styles. (line 687) * \bibitem: \bibitem. (line 3065) * \bibliography: Using BibTeX. (line 3105) * \bibliographystyle: Using BibTeX. (line 3105) * \bigcap: Math symbols. (line 4603) * \bigcirc: Math symbols. (line 4607) * \bigcup: Math symbols. (line 4611) * \bigodot: Math symbols. (line 4615) * \bigoplus: Math symbols. (line 4618) * \bigotimes: Math symbols. (line 4621) * \bigskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 6032) * \bigskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 6032) * \bigsqcup: Math symbols. (line 4632) * \bigtriangledown: Math symbols. (line 4624) * \bigtriangleup: Math symbols. (line 4628) * \biguplus: Math symbols. (line 4635) * \bigvee: Math symbols. (line 4639) * \bigwedge: Math symbols. (line 4642) * \bmod: Math functions. (line 5448) * \boldmath: Math formulas. (line 4507) * \bot: Math symbols. (line 4645) * \bottomfraction: Floats. (line 1335) * \bottomfraction <1>: Floats. (line 1336) * \bowtie: Math symbols. (line 4649) * \Box: Math symbols. (line 4652) * \breve: Math accents. (line 5551) * \bullet: Math symbols. (line 4657) * \c (cedilla accent): Accents. (line 6520) * \cal: Font styles. (line 721) * \cap: Math symbols. (line 4660) * \capitalacute: Accents. (line 6489) * \capitalbreve: Accents. (line 6555) * \capitalcaron: Accents. (line 6566) * \capitalcedilla: Accents. (line 6520) * \capitalcircumflex: Accents. (line 6502) * \capitaldieresis: Accents. (line 6485) * \capitaldotaccent: Accents. (line 6524) * \capitalgrave: Accents. (line 6506) * \capitalhungarumlaut: Accents. (line 6528) * \capitalmacron: Accents. (line 6498) * \capitalnewtie: Accents. (line 6550) * \capitalogonek: Accents. (line 6539) * \capitalring: Accents. (line 6544) * \capitaltie: Accents. (line 6550) * \capitaltilde: Accents. (line 6512) * \caption: figure. (line 1956) * \caption <1>: table. (line 2696) * \cc: \cc. (line 6940) * \cdot: Math symbols. (line 4665) * \cdots: Math miscellany. (line 5640) * \centering: \centering. (line 1639) * \chapter: Sectioning. (line 1400) * \check: Math accents. (line 5554) * \chi: Math symbols. (line 4668) * \circ: Math symbols. (line 4671) * \circle: \circle. (line 2352) * \cite: \cite. (line 3083) * \cleardoublepage: \cleardoublepage. (line 3368) * \clearpage: \clearpage. (line 3377) * \cline: \cline. (line 3001) * \closing: \closing. (line 6955) * \clubsuit: Math symbols. (line 4676) * \columnsep: \twocolumn. (line 990) * \columnsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1115) * \columnsep <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 1118) * \columnseprule: \twocolumn. (line 996) * \columnseprule <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1116) * \columnseprule <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 1118) * \columnwidth: \twocolumn. (line 1003) * \columnwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1117) * \columnwidth <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 1118) * \complement: Math symbols. (line 4679) * \cong: Math symbols. (line 4685) * \contentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 6757) * \coprod: Math symbols. (line 4688) * \copyright: Text symbols. (line 6302) * \cos: Math functions. (line 5451) * \cosh: Math functions. (line 5454) * \cot: Math functions. (line 5457) * \coth: Math functions. (line 5460) * \csc: Math functions. (line 5463) * \cup: Math symbols. (line 4691) * \d (dot-under accent): Accents. (line 6524) * \dag: Text symbols. (line 6306) * \dagger: Math symbols. (line 4696) * \dashbox: \dashbox. (line 2407) * \dashv: Math symbols. (line 4699) * \date{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 5742) * \day: \day \month \year. (line 4251) * \dblfloatpagefraction: \twocolumn. (line 1037) * \dblfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 1043) * \dbltextfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 1050) * \dbltopfraction: \twocolumn. (line 1015) * \dbltopnumber: \twocolumn. (line 1055) * \ddag: Text symbols. (line 6309) * \ddagger: Math symbols. (line 4703) * \ddot: Math accents. (line 5557) * \ddots: Math miscellany. (line 5644) * \deg: Math functions. (line 5466) * \Delta: Math symbols. (line 4706) * \delta: Math symbols. (line 4709) * \depth: Predefined lengths. (line 4379) * \det: Math functions. (line 5469) * \dh (d): Non-English characters. (line 6584) * \DH (D): Non-English characters. (line 6584) * \Diamond: Math symbols. (line 4712) * \diamond: Math symbols. (line 4716) * \diamondsuit: Math symbols. (line 4720) * \dim: Math functions. (line 5472) * \displaystyle: Math formulas. (line 4512) * \div: Math symbols. (line 4723) * \dj: Non-English characters. (line 6588) * \DJ: Non-English characters. (line 6588) * \documentclass: Document classes. (line 510) * \dot: Math accents. (line 5560) * \doteq: Math symbols. (line 4726) * \dotfill: \hrulefill \dotfill. (line 5983) * \dots: Text symbols. (line 6326) * \doublerulesep: tabular. (line 2879) * \downarrow: Math symbols. (line 4730) * \Downarrow: Math symbols. (line 4734) * \ell: Math symbols. (line 4738) * \emph: Font styles. (line 707) * \emptyset: Math symbols. (line 4741) * \encl: \encl. (line 6967) * \end: Environments. (line 1525) * \enlargethispage: \enlargethispage. (line 3390) * \enumi: enumerate. (line 1822) * \enumii: enumerate. (line 1822) * \enumiii: enumerate. (line 1822) * \enumiv: enumerate. (line 1822) * \epsilon: Math symbols. (line 4745) * \equiv: Math symbols. (line 4750) * \eta: Math symbols. (line 4753) * \evensidemargin: Document class options. (line 615) * \evensidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1176) * \evensidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 1177) * \exists: Math symbols. (line 4756) * \exp: Math functions. (line 5475) * \extracolsep: tabular. (line 2827) * \fbox: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6114) * \fboxrule: \framebox (picture). (line 2401) * \fboxrule <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6126) * \fboxsep: \framebox (picture). (line 2401) * \fboxsep <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6126) * \fill: \hfill. (line 5860) * \flat: Math symbols. (line 4759) * \floatpagefraction: Floats. (line 1339) * \floatpagefraction <1>: Floats. (line 1340) * \floatsep: Floats. (line 1355) * \floatsep <1>: Floats. (line 1356) * \flushbottom: \flushbottom. (line 1084) * \fnsymbol: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4143) * \fnsymbol, and footnotes: \footnote. (line 3458) * \fontencoding: Low-level font commands. (line 827) * \fontfamily: Low-level font commands. (line 836) * \fontseries: Low-level font commands. (line 861) * \fontshape: Low-level font commands. (line 901) * \fontsize: Low-level font commands. (line 914) * \footnote: \footnote. (line 3441) * \footnotemark: \footnotemark. (line 3479) * \footnoterule: Footnote parameters. (line 3628) * \footnotesep: Footnote parameters. (line 3634) * \footnotesize: Font sizes. (line 801) * \footnotetext: \footnotetext. (line 3511) * \footskip: Page layout parameters. (line 1135) * \footskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1136) * \forall: Math symbols. (line 4762) * \frac: Math miscellany. (line 5648) * \frac{num}{den}: Math miscellany. (line 5647) * \frame: \frame. (line 2422) * \framebox: \framebox (picture). (line 2393) * \framebox <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6114) * \frenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 5938) * \frown: Math symbols. (line 4765) * \fussy: \fussy. (line 3310) * \Gamma: Math symbols. (line 4768) * \gamma: Math symbols. (line 4771) * \gcd: Math functions. (line 5478) * \ge: Math symbols. (line 4774) * \geq: Math symbols. (line 4778) * \gets: Math symbols. (line 4782) * \gg: Math symbols. (line 4785) * \glossary: Glossaries. (line 6780) * \glossaryentry: Glossaries. (line 6783) * \grave: Math accents. (line 5563) * \guillemotleft (<<): Text symbols. (line 6318) * \guillemotright (>>): Text symbols. (line 6319) * \guilsinglleft (<): Text symbols. (line 6320) * \guilsinglright (>): Text symbols. (line 6321) * \H (Hungarian umlaut accent): Accents. (line 6528) * \hat: Math accents. (line 5566) * \hbar: Math symbols. (line 4789) * \headheight: Page layout parameters. (line 1123) * \headheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1124) * \headsep: Page layout parameters. (line 1128) * \headsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1129) * \heartsuit: Math symbols. (line 4792) * \height: Predefined lengths. (line 4377) * \hfill: \hfill. (line 5857) * \hline: \hline. (line 3023) * \hom: Math functions. (line 5481) * \hookleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 4795) * \hookrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 4798) * \hrulefill: \hrulefill \dotfill. (line 5983) * \hsize: Page layout parameters. (line 1228) * \hsize <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1228) * \hspace: \hspace. (line 5830) * \huge: Font sizes. (line 801) * \Huge: Font sizes. (line 801) * \hyphenation: \hyphenation. (line 3328) * \i (dotless i): Accents. (line 6532) * \iff: Math symbols. (line 4801) * \ij (ij): Non-English characters. (line 6592) * \IJ (IJ): Non-English characters. (line 6592) * \Im: Math symbols. (line 4805) * \imath: Math accents. (line 5569) * \in: Math symbols. (line 4808) * \include: \include. (line 6663) * \includeonly: \includeonly. (line 6681) * \indent: \indent. (line 4402) * \index: Indexes. (line 6796) * \indexentry: Indexes. (line 6799) * \inf: Math functions. (line 5484) * \infty: Math symbols. (line 4813) * \input: \input. (line 6695) * \int: Math symbols. (line 4816) * \intextsep: Floats. (line 1359) * \intextsep <1>: Floats. (line 1360) * \iota: Math symbols. (line 4819) * \it: Font styles. (line 724) * \item: description. (line 1679) * \item <1>: description. (line 1684) * \item <2>: enumerate. (line 1798) * \item <3>: itemize. (line 2078) * \itemindent: itemize. (line 2121) * \itemsep: itemize. (line 2143) * \itshape: Font styles. (line 681) * \j (dotless j): Accents. (line 6535) * \jmath: Math accents. (line 5572) * \Join: Math symbols. (line 4822) * \k (ogonek): Accents. (line 6539) * \kappa: Math symbols. (line 4826) * \ker: Math functions. (line 5487) * \kill: tabbing. (line 2644) * \l (/l): Non-English characters. (line 6596) * \L (/L): Non-English characters. (line 6596) * \label: \label. (line 1455) * \labelenumi: enumerate. (line 1827) * \labelenumii: enumerate. (line 1827) * \labelenumiii: enumerate. (line 1827) * \labelenumiv: enumerate. (line 1827) * \labelitemi: itemize. (line 2101) * \labelitemii: itemize. (line 2101) * \labelitemiii: itemize. (line 2101) * \labelitemiv: itemize. (line 2101) * \labelsep: itemize. (line 2124) * \labelwidth: itemize. (line 2127) * \Lambda: Math symbols. (line 4829) * \lambda: Math symbols. (line 4832) * \land: Math symbols. (line 4835) * \langle: Math symbols. (line 4840) * \large: Font sizes. (line 801) * \Large: Font sizes. (line 801) * \LARGE: Font sizes. (line 801) * \LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 6312) * \LaTeXe: Text symbols. (line 6315) * \lbrace: Math symbols. (line 4845) * \lbrack: Math symbols. (line 4849) * \lceil: Math symbols. (line 4853) * \ldots: Text symbols. (line 6325) * \le: Math symbols. (line 4857) * \leadsto: Math symbols. (line 4861) * \left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2: Math miscellany. (line 5650) * \Leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 4868) * \leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 4873) * \lefteqn: eqnarray. (line 1888) * \leftharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 4877) * \leftharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 4880) * \leftmargin: itemize. (line 2108) * \leftmargini: itemize. (line 2108) * \leftmarginii: itemize. (line 2108) * \leftmarginiii: itemize. (line 2108) * \leftmarginiv: itemize. (line 2108) * \leftmarginv: itemize. (line 2108) * \leftmarginvi: itemize. (line 2108) * \Leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 4883) * \leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 4888) * \leq: Math symbols. (line 4893) * \lfloor: Math symbols. (line 4897) * \lg: Math functions. (line 5490) * \lhd: Math symbols. (line 4900) * \lim: Math functions. (line 5493) * \liminf: Math functions. (line 5496) * \limsup: Math functions. (line 5499) * \line: \line. (line 2433) * \linebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 3344) * \linespread: Low-level font commands. (line 937) * \linethickness: \linethickness. (line 2447) * \linewidth: Page layout parameters. (line 1142) * \linewidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1143) * \listoffigures: Tables of contents. (line 6723) * \listoftables: Tables of contents. (line 6723) * \listparindent: itemize. (line 2130) * \ll: Math symbols. (line 4907) * \ln: Math functions. (line 5502) * \lnot: Math symbols. (line 4911) * \location: \location. (line 6983) * \log: Math functions. (line 5505) * \longleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 4914) * \longleftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 4919) * \longmapsto: Math symbols. (line 4923) * \longrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 4928) * \lor: Math symbols. (line 4933) * \lq: Text symbols. (line 6331) * \makebox: \makebox. (line 6146) * \makebox (for 'picture'): \makebox (picture). (line 2365) * \makeglossary: Glossaries. (line 6778) * \makeindex: Indexes. (line 6793) * \makelabels: \makelabels. (line 6993) * \maketitle: \maketitle. (line 5731) * \mapsto: Math symbols. (line 4936) * \marginpar: Marginal notes. (line 4434) * \marginparpush: Page layout parameters. (line 1149) * \marginparpush <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1152) * \marginparpush <2>: Marginal notes. (line 4464) * \marginparsep: Marginal notes. (line 4468) * \marginparwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 1151) * \marginparwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1152) * \marginparwidth <2>: Marginal notes. (line 4472) * \marginsep: Page layout parameters. (line 1150) * \marginsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1152) * \markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 5805) * \markright{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 5812) * \mathbf: Font styles. (line 760) * \mathcal: Font styles. (line 776) * \mathnormal: Font styles. (line 773) * \mathring: Math accents. (line 5575) * \mathrm: Font styles. (line 757) * \mathsf: Font styles. (line 763) * \mathtt: Font styles. (line 766) * \mathversion: Font styles. (line 778) * \max: Math functions. (line 5508) * \mbox: \mbox. (line 6107) * \mbox, and LR mode: Modes. (line 5704) * \mdseries: Font styles. (line 684) * \medskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 6037) * \medskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 6037) * \medspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 5608) * \mho: Math symbols. (line 4940) * \mid: Math symbols. (line 4945) * \min: Math functions. (line 5511) * \models: Math symbols. (line 4955) * \month: \day \month \year. (line 4251) * \mp: Math symbols. (line 4960) * \mu: Math symbols. (line 4963) * \multicolumn: \multicolumn. (line 2894) * \multiput: \multiput. (line 2471) * \nabla: Math symbols. (line 4966) * \name: \name. (line 7015) * \natural: Math symbols. (line 4969) * \ne: Math symbols. (line 4972) * \nearrow: Math symbols. (line 4975) * \neg: Math symbols. (line 4978) * \neq: Math symbols. (line 4982) * \newcommand: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 3649) * \newcounter: \newcounter. (line 3749) * \newenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 3800) * \newfont: \newfont. (line 4016) * \newlength: \newlength. (line 3770) * \newline: \newline. (line 3277) * \NEWLINE: \(SPACE) and \@. (line 5867) * \newpage: \newpage. (line 3384) * \newsavebox: \newsavebox. (line 3785) * \newtheorem: \newtheorem. (line 3904) * \newtie: Accents. (line 6550) * \ng: Non-English characters. (line 6600) * \NG: Non-English characters. (line 6600) * \ni: Math symbols. (line 4985) * \nocite: \nocite. (line 3097) * \nocorr: Font styles. (line 669) * \nocorrlist: Font styles. (line 669) * \nofiles: Tables of contents. (line 6728) * \noindent: \noindent. (line 4413) * \nolinebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 3344) * \nonfrenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 5938) * \nonumber: eqnarray. (line 1883) * \nopagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 3405) * \normalfont: Font styles. (line 705) * \normalmarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 4452) * \normalsize: Font sizes. (line 801) * \not: Math symbols. (line 4990) * \notin: Math symbols. (line 4998) * \nu: Math symbols. (line 5002) * \nwarrow: Math symbols. (line 5005) * \o (/o): Non-English characters. (line 6604) * \O (/O): Non-English characters. (line 6604) * \obeycr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 3268) * \oddsidemargin: Document class options. (line 615) * \oddsidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1175) * \oddsidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 1177) * \odot: Math symbols. (line 5008) * \oe (oe): Non-English characters. (line 6608) * \OE (OE): Non-English characters. (line 6608) * \oint: Math symbols. (line 5013) * \oldstylenums: Font styles. (line 782) * \Omega: Math symbols. (line 5017) * \omega: Math symbols. (line 5020) * \ominus: Math symbols. (line 5023) * \onecolumn: \onecolumn. (line 965) * \opening: \opening. (line 7025) * \oplus: Math symbols. (line 5026) * \oslash: Math symbols. (line 5030) * \otimes: Math symbols. (line 5033) * \oval: \oval. (line 2482) * \overbrace{TEXT}: Math miscellany. (line 5655) * \overline{TEXT}: Math miscellany. (line 5659) * \owns: Math symbols. (line 5038) * \P: Text symbols. (line 6334) * \pagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 3405) * \pagenumbering: \pagenumbering. (line 5757) * \pageref: \pageref. (line 1503) * \pagestyle: \pagestyle. (line 5782) * \paperheight: Page layout parameters. (line 1188) * \paperheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1189) * \paperwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 1194) * \paperwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1195) * \paragraph: Sectioning. (line 1405) * \parallel: Math symbols. (line 5043) * \parbox: \parbox. (line 6171) * \parindent: minipage. (line 2265) * \parindent <1>: \indent. (line 4402) * \parsep: itemize. (line 2148) * \parskip: \parskip. (line 4428) * \parskip example: itemize. (line 2164) * \part: Sectioning. (line 1399) * \partial: Math symbols. (line 5046) * \partopsep: itemize. (line 2158) * \pdfpageheight: Document class options. (line 575) * \pdfpagewidth: Document class options. (line 575) * \perp: Math symbols. (line 5049) * \phi: Math symbols. (line 5054) * \Pi: Math symbols. (line 5058) * \pi: Math symbols. (line 5061) * \pm: Math symbols. (line 5065) * \pmod: Math functions. (line 5514) * \poptabs: tabbing. (line 2650) * \poptabs <1>: tabbing. (line 2651) * \pounds: Text symbols. (line 6338) * \Pr: Math functions. (line 5517) * \prec: Math symbols. (line 5068) * \preceq: Math symbols. (line 5071) * \prime: Math symbols. (line 5076) * \prod: Math symbols. (line 5087) * \propto: Math symbols. (line 5090) * \protect: \protect. (line 4051) * \providecommand: \providecommand. (line 3734) * \ps: \ps. (line 7038) * \Psi: Math symbols. (line 5093) * \psi: Math symbols. (line 5096) * \pushtabs: tabbing. (line 2653) * \put: \put. (line 2509) * \qquad: Spacing in math mode. (line 5625) * \quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 5619) * \quotedblbase (,,): Text symbols. (line 6342) * \quotesinglbase (,): Text symbols. (line 6343) * \r (ring accent): Accents. (line 6544) * \raggedbottom: \raggedbottom. (line 1103) * \raggedleft: \raggedleft. (line 2065) * \raggedright: \raggedright. (line 2039) * \raisebox: \raisebox. (line 6211) * \rangle: Math symbols. (line 5099) * \rbrace: Math symbols. (line 5103) * \rbrack: Math symbols. (line 5107) * \rceil: Math symbols. (line 5111) * \Re: Math symbols. (line 5114) * \ref: \ref. (line 1513) * \refstepcounter: \refstepcounter. (line 4230) * \renewenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 3800) * \restorecr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 3268) * \restriction: Math symbols. (line 5119) * \reversemarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 4452) * \rfloor: Math symbols. (line 5124) * \rhd: Math symbols. (line 5128) * \rho: Math symbols. (line 5135) * \right: Math miscellany. (line 5651) * \Rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 5139) * \rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 5143) * \rightharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 5148) * \rightharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 5151) * \rightleftharpoons: Math symbols. (line 5154) * \rightmargin: itemize. (line 2134) * \rm: Font styles. (line 727) * \rmfamily: Font styles. (line 678) * \roman: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4137) * \Roman: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 4140) * \rq: Text symbols. (line 6346) * \rule: \rule. (line 6621) * \S: Text symbols. (line 6349) * \savebox: \savebox. (line 6227) * \sbox: \sbox. (line 6239) * \sc: Font styles. (line 730) * \scriptsize: Font sizes. (line 801) * \scshape: Font styles. (line 699) * \searrow: Math symbols. (line 5157) * \sec: Math functions. (line 5520) * \section: Sectioning. (line 1402) * \seename: Indexes. (line 6807) * \selectfont: Low-level font commands. (line 943) * \setcounter: \setcounter. (line 4213) * \setlength: \setlength. (line 4340) * \setminus: Math symbols. (line 5160) * \settodepth: \settodepth. (line 4353) * \settoheight: \settoheight. (line 4361) * \settowidth: \settowidth. (line 4369) * \sf: Font styles. (line 733) * \sffamily: Font styles. (line 696) * \sharp: Math symbols. (line 5166) * \shortstack: \shortstack. (line 2519) * \Sigma: Math symbols. (line 5169) * \sigma: Math symbols. (line 5172) * \signature: \signature. (line 7055) * \sim: Math symbols. (line 5176) * \simeq: Math symbols. (line 5179) * \sin: Math functions. (line 5523) * \sinh: Math functions. (line 5526) * \sl: Font styles. (line 736) * \sloppy: \sloppy. (line 3320) * \slshape: Font styles. (line 693) * \small: Font sizes. (line 801) * \smallint: Math symbols. (line 5182) * \smallskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 6042) * \smallskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 6042) * \smile: Math symbols. (line 5186) * \spadesuit: Math symbols. (line 5189) * \sqcap: Math symbols. (line 5192) * \sqcup: Math symbols. (line 5196) * \sqrt[ROOT]{arg}: Math miscellany. (line 5662) * \sqsubset: Math symbols. (line 5200) * \sqsubseteq: Math symbols. (line 5205) * \sqsupset: Math symbols. (line 5210) * \sqsupseteq: Math symbols. (line 5215) * \ss (ss): Non-English characters. (line 6612) * \SS (SS): Non-English characters. (line 6612) * \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}: Math miscellany. (line 5668) * \star: Math symbols. (line 5219) * \stepcounter: \stepcounter. (line 4244) * \stop: Command line. (line 7136) * \subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 1406) * \subsection: Sectioning. (line 1403) * \subset: Math symbols. (line 5226) * \subseteq: Math symbols. (line 5229) * \subsubsection: Sectioning. (line 1404) * \succ: Math symbols. (line 5232) * \succeq: Math symbols. (line 5236) * \sum: Math symbols. (line 5241) * \sup: Math functions. (line 5529) * \suppressfloats: Floats. (line 1328) * \supset: Math symbols. (line 5245) * \supseteq: Math symbols. (line 5248) * \surd: Math symbols. (line 5251) * \swarrow: Math symbols. (line 5256) * \symbol: Reserved characters. (line 6286) * \t (tie-after accent): Accents. (line 6550) * \TAB: \(SPACE) and \@. (line 5867) * \tabbingsep: tabbing. (line 2658) * \tabcolsep: tabular. (line 2883) * \tableofcontents: Tables of contents. (line 6713) * \tan: Math functions. (line 5532) * \tanh: Math functions. (line 5535) * \tau: Math symbols. (line 5259) * \telephone: \telephone. (line 7079) * \TeX: Text symbols. (line 6352) * \textascenderwordmark: Text symbols. (line 6390) * \textasciicircum: Text symbols. (line 6355) * \textasciitilde: Text symbols. (line 6358) * \textasteriskcentered: Text symbols. (line 6361) * \textbackslash: Text symbols. (line 6364) * \textbar: Text symbols. (line 6367) * \textbardbl: Text symbols. (line 6370) * \textbf: Font styles. (line 687) * \textbigcircle: Text symbols. (line 6373) * \textbraceleft: Text symbols. (line 6376) * \textbraceright: Text symbols. (line 6379) * \textbullet: Text symbols. (line 6382) * \textcapitalwordmark: Text symbols. (line 6389) * \textcircled{LETTER}: Text symbols. (line 6385) * \textcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 6388) * \textcopyright: Text symbols. (line 6303) * \textdagger: Text symbols. (line 6395) * \textdaggerdbl: Text symbols. (line 6398) * \textdollar (or '$'): Text symbols. (line 6401) * \textellipsis: Text symbols. (line 6327) * \textemdash (or '---'): Text symbols. (line 6404) * \textendash (or '--'): Text symbols. (line 6407) * \texteuro: Text symbols. (line 6410) * \textexclamdown (or '!`'): Text symbols. (line 6413) * \textfloatsep: Floats. (line 1364) * \textfloatsep <1>: Floats. (line 1365) * \textfraction: Floats. (line 1343) * \textfraction <1>: Floats. (line 1344) * \textgreater: Text symbols. (line 6416) * \textheight: Page layout parameters. (line 1200) * \textheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1201) * \textit: Font styles. (line 681) * \textleftarrow: Text symbols. (line 6422) * \textless: Text symbols. (line 6419) * \textmd: Font styles. (line 684) * \textnormal: Font styles. (line 705) * \textordfeminine: Text symbols. (line 6425) * \textordmasculine: Text symbols. (line 6426) * \textparagraph: Text symbols. (line 6335) * \textperiodcentered: Text symbols. (line 6429) * \textquestiondown (or '?`'): Text symbols. (line 6432) * \textquotedblleft (or '``'): Text symbols. (line 6435) * \textquotedblright (or '''): Text symbols. (line 6438) * \textquoteleft (or '`'): Text symbols. (line 6441) * \textquoteright (or '''): Text symbols. (line 6444) * \textquotestraightbase: Text symbols. (line 6447) * \textquotestraightdblbase: Text symbols. (line 6448) * \textregistered: Text symbols. (line 6451) * \textrightarrow: Text symbols. (line 6454) * \textrm: Font styles. (line 678) * \textsc: Font styles. (line 699) * \textsf: Font styles. (line 696) * \textsl: Font styles. (line 693) * \textsterling: Text symbols. (line 6339) * \textthreequartersemdash: Text symbols. (line 6457) * \texttrademark: Text symbols. (line 6460) * \texttt: Font styles. (line 702) * \texttwelveudash: Text symbols. (line 6463) * \textunderscore: Text symbols. (line 6466) * \textup: Font styles. (line 690) * \textvisiblespace: Text symbols. (line 6469) * \textwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 1208) * \textwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1209) * \th (th): Non-English characters. (line 6616) * \TH (TH): Non-English characters. (line 6616) * \thanks{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 5746) * \theta: Math symbols. (line 5262) * \thicklines: \thicklines. (line 2457) * \thickspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 5603) * \thinlines: \thinlines. (line 2464) * \thinspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 5612) * \thinspace <1>: \thinspace. (line 5951) * \thispagestyle: \thispagestyle. (line 5818) * \tilde: Math accents. (line 5578) * \times: Math symbols. (line 5266) * \tiny: Font sizes. (line 801) * \title{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 5750) * \to: Math symbols. (line 5270) * \today: \today. (line 6640) * \top: Math symbols. (line 5274) * \topfraction: Floats. (line 1348) * \topfraction <1>: Floats. (line 1349) * \topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 1232) * \topsep: itemize. (line 2152) * \topskip: Page layout parameters. (line 1239) * \topskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 1240) * \totalheight: Predefined lengths. (line 4381) * \triangle: Math symbols. (line 5278) * \triangleleft: Math symbols. (line 5281) * \triangleright: Math symbols. (line 5287) * \tt: Font styles. (line 739) * \ttfamily: Font styles. (line 702) * \twocolumn: \twocolumn. (line 975) * \typein: \typein. (line 7094) * \typeout: \typeout. (line 7108) * \u (breve accent): Accents. (line 6555) * \unboldmath: Math formulas. (line 4507) * \underbar: Accents. (line 6558) * \underbrace{math}: Math miscellany. (line 5672) * \underline{text}: Math miscellany. (line 5675) * \unitlength: picture. (line 2286) * \unlhd: Math symbols. (line 5293) * \unrhd: Math symbols. (line 5300) * \Uparrow: Math symbols. (line 5307) * \uparrow: Math symbols. (line 5312) * \Updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 5316) * \updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 5321) * \upharpoonright: Math symbols. (line 5326) * \uplus: Math symbols. (line 5331) * \upshape: Font styles. (line 690) * \Upsilon: Math symbols. (line 5337) * \upsilon: Math symbols. (line 5340) * \usebox: \usebox. (line 6251) * \usecounter: \usecounter. (line 4158) * \usefont: Low-level font commands. (line 951) * \usepackage: Document class options. (line 633) * \v (breve accent): Accents. (line 6566) * \value: \value. (line 4184) * \varepsilon: Math symbols. (line 5343) * \varphi: Math symbols. (line 5348) * \varpi: Math symbols. (line 5352) * \varrho: Math symbols. (line 5356) * \varsigma: Math symbols. (line 5360) * \vartheta: Math symbols. (line 5364) * \vdash: Math symbols. (line 5368) * \vdots: Math miscellany. (line 5680) * \vdots <1>: Math miscellany. (line 5681) * \vec: Math accents. (line 5581) * \vector: \vector. (line 2538) * \vee: Math symbols. (line 5372) * \verb: \verb. (line 3189) * \Vert: Math symbols. (line 5377) * \vert: Math symbols. (line 5393) * \vfill: \vfill. (line 6049) * \vline: \vline. (line 2974) * \vspace: \vspace. (line 6075) * \wedge: Math symbols. (line 5411) * \widehat: Math accents. (line 5584) * \widetilde: Math accents. (line 5587) * \width: Predefined lengths. (line 4375) * \wp: Math symbols. (line 5415) * \wr: Math symbols. (line 5418) * \Xi: Math symbols. (line 5421) * \xi: Math symbols. (line 5424) * \year: \day \month \year. (line 4251) * \zeta: Math symbols. (line 5427) * \[: Math formulas. (line 4494) * \\ (for 'center'): center. (line 1617) * \\ (for 'eqnarray'): eqnarray. (line 1871) * \\ (for 'flushright'): flushright. (line 2058) * \\ (for '\shortstack' objects): \shortstack. (line 2533) * \\ (tabbing): tabbing. (line 2603) * \\ for 'flushleft': flushleft. (line 2032) * \\ for letters: Letters. (line 6877) * \\ for 'tabular': tabular. (line 2746) * \\ for 'verse': verse. (line 3217) * \\ for '\author': \maketitle. (line 5737) * \\ for '\title': \maketitle. (line 5751) * \\ force line break: \\. (line 3236) * \\* (for 'eqnarray'): eqnarray. (line 1879) * \]: Math formulas. (line 4494) * \^: Reserved characters. (line 6282) * \^ (circumflex accent): Accents. (line 6502) * \_: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \` (grave accent): Accents. (line 6506) * \` (tabbing): tabbing. (line 2630) * \{: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \|: Math symbols. (line 4564) * \}: Reserved characters. (line 6272) * \~: Reserved characters. (line 6282) * \~ (tilde accent): Accents. (line 6512) * ^: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 4521) * _: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 4521) * {...} for required arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 444) * a4paper option: Document class options. (line 557) * a5paper option: Document class options. (line 557) * abstract environment: abstract. (line 1535) * array environment: array. (line 1547) * article class: Document classes. (line 515) * b5paper option: Document class options. (line 557) * book class: Document classes. (line 515) * bottomnumber: Floats. (line 1371) * bottomnumber <1>: Floats. (line 1372) * bp: Units of length. (line 4304) * cc: Units of length. (line 4317) * center environment: center. (line 1605) * clock option to 'slides' class: Document class options. (line 630) * cm: Units of length. (line 4308) * dbltopnumber: Floats. (line 1375) * dbltopnumber <1>: Floats. (line 1376) * dd: Units of length. (line 4314) * description environment: description. (line 1671) * displaymath environment: displaymath. (line 1711) * displaymath environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 4484) * document environment: document. (line 1754) * draft option: Document class options. (line 582) * dvipdfmx command: Output files. (line 351) * dvips command: Output files. (line 351) * dvitype command: Output files. (line 351) * em: Units of length. (line 4322) * enumerate environment: enumerate. (line 1786) * eqnarray environment: eqnarray. (line 1848) * equation environment: equation. (line 1904) * equation environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 4484) * etex command: TeX engines. (line 399) * ex: Units of length. (line 4322) * executivepaper option: Document class options. (line 557) * figure: figure. (line 1922) * filecontents: filecontents. (line 1975) * final option: Document class options. (line 582) * first-latex-doc document: About this document. (line 277) * fleqn option: Document class options. (line 582) * flushleft environment: flushleft. (line 2026) * flushright environment: flushright. (line 2052) * home page: About this document. (line 250) * in: Units of length. (line 4301) * inch: Units of length. (line 4301) * indexspace: Indexes. (line 6819) * itemize environment: itemize. (line 2078) * landscape option: Document class options. (line 582) * latex command: Output files. (line 351) * latex-doc-ptr document: About this document. (line 274) * email address: About this document. (line 261) * legalpaper option: Document class options. (line 557) * leqno option: Document class options. (line 582) * letter class: Document classes. (line 515) * letter environment: letter. (line 2180) * letterpaper option: Document class options. (line 557) * list: list. (line 2185) * lR box: picture. (line 2342) * lrbox: lrbox. (line 6136) * lshort document: About this document. (line 284) * lualatex command: TeX engines. (line 416) * math environment: math. (line 2242) * math environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 4484) * minipage environment: minipage. (line 2254) * mm: Units of length. (line 4311) * mu: Units of length. (line 4333) * notitlepage option: Document class options. (line 582) * onecolumn option: Document class options. (line 609) * oneside option: Document class options. (line 609) * openany option: Document class options. (line 609) * openbib option: Document class options. (line 582) * openright option: Document class options. (line 609) * pc: Units of length. (line 4298) * pdflatex command: Output files. (line 361) * picture: picture. (line 2282) * printindex: Indexes. (line 6815) * pt: Units of length. (line 4294) * quotation: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * quote: quotation and quote. (line 2549) * report class: Document classes. (line 515) * secnumdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 1438) * slides class: Document classes. (line 515) * sp: Units of length. (line 4320) * tabbing environment: tabbing. (line 2585) * table: table. (line 2676) * tabular environment: tabular. (line 2718) * textcomp package: Text symbols. (line 6298) * thebibliography environment: thebibliography. (line 3040) * theorem environment: theorem. (line 3142) * titlepage environment: titlepage. (line 3155) * titlepage option: Document class options. (line 582) * topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 1233) * topnumber: Floats. (line 1379) * topnumber <1>: Floats. (line 1380) * totalnumber: Floats. (line 1383) * totalnumber <1>: Floats. (line 1384) * twocolumn option: Document class options. (line 609) * twoside option: Document class options. (line 609) * usrguide official documentation: About this document. (line 280) * verbatim environment: verbatim. (line 3172) * verse environment: verse. (line 3206) * xdvi command: Output files. (line 351) * xdvipdfmx: TeX engines. (line 425) * xelatex command: TeX engines. (line 425)