\input texinfo @c $Id: latex2e.texi 333 2015-05-12 17:12:37Z karl $ @comment %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) @setfilename latex2e.info @set UPDATED May 2015 @settitle @LaTeX{}2e unofficial reference manual (@value{UPDATED}) @comment %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) @c latex 2.09 commands should all be present now, @c xx but latex2e stuff is missing. @c xx random list of a few of the missing items is at the end of this file @c @c xx ending a run with errors @c xx ctan, distributions, components of TeX @c xx classes and packages -- required, additional, useful; oberdiek; fonts @c @c xx merge http://mirror.ctan.org/info/latex-info/ (alt-latex-info) @c xx merge http://mirror.ctan.org/latex2e-reference.tar.gz @c xx merge permuted-index @c xx merge latex-manual from savannah @c @c xx The typeset source2e has an index with all kernel @c xx commands, though some are internal and shouldn't be included. @c xx classes.dtx et al. define additional commands. @c xx See also http://ctan.org/pkg/macros2e. @copying This document is an unofficial reference manual for @LaTeX{}, a document preparation system, version of @value{UPDATED}. This manual was originally translated from @file{LATEX.HLP} v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George@tie{}D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The @LaTeX{}@tie{}2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The @LaTeX{}2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using @cite{Hypertext Help with @LaTeX{}}, by Sheldon Green, and @cite{@LaTeX{} Command Summary} (for @LaTeX{}@tie{}2.09) by L.@tie{}Botway and C.@tie{}Biemesderfer (published by the @TeX{} Users Group as @cite{@TeX{}niques} number 10), as reference material (no text was directly copied). Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 Karl Berry.@* Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.@* Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. @ignore Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the results, provided the printed document carries copying permission notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). @end ignore Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. @end copying @dircategory TeX @direntry * LaTeX2e: (latex2e). Unofficial LaTeX reference manual. @end direntry @tex \global\hbadness=4444 % don't complain much @end tex @titlepage @title @LaTeX{}2e: An unofficial reference manual @subtitle @value{UPDATED} @author @url{http://home.gna.org/latexrefman} @page @vskip 0pt plus 1filll @insertcopying @end titlepage @shortcontents @contents @node Top @top @LaTeX{}2e: An unofficial reference manual This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of @value{UPDATED}) for @LaTeX{}2e, a document preparation system. @menu * About this document:: Bug reporting, etc. * Overview:: What is @LaTeX{}? * Document classes:: Some of the various classes available. * Fonts:: Italic, bold, typewriter, etc. * Layout:: Controlling the page layout. * Sectioning:: How to section properly. * Cross references:: Automatic referencing. * Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize. * Line breaking:: Influencing line breaks. * Page breaking:: Influencing page breaks. * Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes. * Definitions:: Define your own commands, etc. * Counters:: Internal counters used by @LaTeX{}. * Lengths:: The length commands. * Making paragraphs:: Paragraph commands. * Math formulas:: How to create mathematical formulas. * Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes. * Page styles:: Various styles of page layout. * Spaces:: Horizontal and vertical space. * Boxes:: Making boxes. * Special insertions:: Inserting reserved and special characters. * Splitting the input:: Dealing with big files by splitting. * Front/back matter:: Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. * Letters:: The @code{letter} class. * Terminal input/output:: User interaction. * Command line:: System-independent command-line behavior. * Document templates:: Starter templates for various document classes. * Concept Index:: General index. * Command Index:: Alphabetical list of @LaTeX{} commands. @end menu @node About this document @chapter About this document @cindex bug reporting @cindex reporting bugs @findex @url{http://home.gna.org/latexrefman} @r{home page} This is an unofficial reference manual for the @LaTeX{}2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the @TeX{} typesetting program (@pxref{Overview}). This document's home page is @url{http://home.gna.org/latexrefman}. That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and subscriptions, and other infrastructure. @cindex @LaTeX{} vs.@: @LaTeX{}2e In this document, we will mostly just use `@LaTeX{}' rather than `@LaTeX{}2e', since the previous version of @LaTeX{}@tie{}(2.09) was retired many years ago. @cindex unofficial nature of this manual @cindex @LaTeX{} Project team @findex @email{latexrefman-discuss@@gna.org} @r{email address} @LaTeX{} is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (@url{http://latex-project.org}). The official documentation written by the @LaTeX{} project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the @LaTeX{} maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to @email{latexrefman-discuss@@gna.org}. This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about @LaTeX{}, at all levels. Here are a few introductions. @table @url @item http://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr @findex latex-doc-ptr @r{document} Two pages of recommended references to @LaTeX{} documentation. @item http://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc @findex first-latex-doc @r{document} Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math. @item http://ctan.org/pkg/usrguide @findex usrguide @r{official documentation} The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of @LaTeX{}; there are plenty of others available elsewhere. @item http://ctan.org/pkg/lshort @findex lshort @r{document} A short introduction to @LaTeX{}, translated to many languages. @item http://tug.org/begin.html Introduction to the @TeX{} system, including @LaTeX{}, with further references. @end table @node Overview @chapter Overview of @LaTeX{} @cindex overview of @LaTeX{} @cindex basics of @LaTeX{} @cindex Knuth, Donald E. @cindex Lamport, Leslie @cindex @LaTeX{} overview @LaTeX{} is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (@url{http://latex-project.org}). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics. @cindex macro package, @LaTeX{} as A @LaTeX{} user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald@tie{}E. Knuth's @TeX{} typesetting program (the technical term is that @LaTeX{} is a @dfn{macro package} for the @TeX{} engine). The user produces the output document by giving that file to the @TeX{} engine. The term @LaTeX{} is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a @LaTeX{} user. @cindex Lamport @TeX{} @cindex pronunciation The name @LaTeX{} is short for ``Lamport @TeX{}''. It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with @code{\LaTeX}. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as @samp{LaTeX}. @menu * Starting and ending:: The standard beginning and end of a document. * Output files:: Files produced. * @TeX{} engines:: Programs that implementation @LaTeX{}. * @LaTeX{} command syntax:: General syntax of @LaTeX{} commands. @end menu @node Starting and ending @section Starting and ending @anchor{Starting & ending}@c old name @cindex starting & ending @cindex ending & starting @cindex hello, world @LaTeX{} files have a simple global structure, with a standard starting and ending. Here is a ``hello, world'' example: @example \documentclass@{article@} \begin@{document@} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end@{document@} @end example @cindex document class, defined @noindent Here, the @samp{article} is the so-called @dfn{document class}, implemented in a file @file{article.cls}. Any document class can be used. A few document classes are defined by @LaTeX{} itself, and vast array of others are widely available. @xref{Document classes}. @cindex preamble, defined You can include other @LaTeX{} commands between the @code{\documentclass} and the @code{\begin@{document@}} commands. This area is called the @dfn{preamble}. The @code{\begin@{document@} ... \end@{document@}} is a so-called @dfn{environment}; the @samp{document} environment (and no others) is required in all @LaTeX{} documents. @LaTeX{} provides many environments itself, and many more are defined separately. @xref{Environments}. The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a @LaTeX{} input file. @node Output files @section Output files @LaTeX{} produces a main output file and at least two accessory files. The main output file's name ends in either @file{.dvi} or @file{.pdf}. @table @code @item .dvi @findex .dvi @r{file} @findex latex @r{command} @findex xdvi @r{command} @findex dvips @r{command} @findex dvipdfmx @r{command} @findex dvitype @r{command} If @LaTeX{} is invoked with the system command @command{latex} then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension @file{.dvi}. You can view this file with a command such as @command{xdvi}, or convert it to a PostScript @code{.ps} file with @command{dvips} or to a Portable Document Format @code{.pdf} file with @command{dvipdfmx}. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with @command{dvitype}. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (@url{http://mirror.ctan.org/tex-archive/dviware}). @item .pdf @findex .pdf @r{file} @cindex pdf@TeX{} @findex pdflatex @r{command} If @LaTeX{} is invoked via the system command @command{pdflatex}, among other commands (@pxref{@TeX{} engines}), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included. @end table @LaTeX{} also produces at least two additional files. @table @code @item .log @cindex transcript file @cindex log file @findex .log @r{file} This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors. @item .aux @cindex auxiliary file @findex .aux @r{file} @cindex cross references, resolving @cindex forward references, resolving @cindex references, resolving forward Auxiliary information is used by @LaTeX{} for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that @LaTeX{} finds a forward reference---a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source---it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark @code{??}. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then @LaTeX{} writes its location information to this @code{.aux} file. On the next invocation, @LaTeX{} reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location. @end table @findex .lof @r{file} @cindex list of figures file @findex .lot @r{file} @cindex list of tables file @findex .toc @r{file} @cindex table of contents file @cindex contents file @LaTeX{} may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a @code{.lof} file that is used to make a list of figures, a @code{.lot} file used to make a list of tables, and a @code{.toc} file used to make a table of contents. A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended. @node @TeX{} engines @section @TeX{} engines @cindex engines, @TeX{} @cindex implementations of @TeX{} @cindex UTF-8 @cindex Unicode input, native @cindex TrueType fonts @cindex OpenType fonts @LaTeX{} is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a @TeX{} implementation (@pxref{Overview}). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs. @table @code @item latex @itemx pdflatex @cindex pdf@TeX{} engine @findex etex @r{command} @cindex e-@TeX{} In @TeX{} Live (@url{http://tug.org/texlive}, if @LaTeX{} is invoked via either the system command @command{latex} or @command{pdflatex}, then the pdf@TeX{} engine is run (@url{http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex}). When invoked as @command{latex}, the main output is a @file{.dvi} file; as @command{pdflatex}, the main output is a @file{.pdf} file. pdf@TeX{} incorporates the e-@TeX{} extensions to Knuth's original program (@url{http://ctan.org/pkg/etex}), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-@TeX{} is available on its own as the command @command{etex}, but this is plain @TeX{} (and produces @file{.dvi}). In other @TeX{} distributions, @command{latex} may invoke e-@TeX{} rather than pdf@TeX{}. In any case, the e-@TeX{} extensions can be assumed to be available in @LaTeX{}. @item lualatex @findex lualatex @r{command} @cindex Lua@TeX{} If @LaTeX{} is invoked via the system command @command{lualatex}, the Lua@TeX{} engine is run (@url{http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex}). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua (@url{http://luatex.org}) to interact with @TeX{}'s typesetting. Lua@TeX{} handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a @file{.pdf} file by default. There is also @command{dvilualatex} to produce a @file{.dvi} file, but this is rarely used. @item xelatex @findex xelatex @r{command} @cindex Xe@TeX{} If @LaTeX{} is invoked with the system command @command{xelatex}, the Xe@TeX{} engine is run (@url{http://tug.org/xetex}). Like Lua@TeX{}, Xe@TeX{} also natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. Xe@TeX{} produces a @file{.pdf} file as output; it does not support DVI output. @end table Other variants of @LaTeX{} and @TeX{} exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]p@TeX{}, @url{http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex}, @url{http://ctan.org/pkg/uptex}). @node @LaTeX{} command syntax @section @LaTeX{} command syntax @cindex command syntax @findex \ @r{character starting commands} @findex [...] @r{for optional arguments} @findex @{...@} @r{for required arguments} In the @LaTeX{} input file, a command name starts with a @code{\}; the name itself then consists of either (a)@tie{}a string of letters or (b)@tie{}a single non-letter. A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments, either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, @code{@{...@}}. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, @code{[...]}. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments. Some commands have a @code{*} form that is related to the form without a @code{*}, such as @code{\chapter} and @code{\chapter*}. @LaTeX{} commands are case sensitive; neither @code{\Begin@{document@}} nor @code{\begin@{Document@}} will work. Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined. This manual describes all accepted options and @code{*}-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a.@: bugs). @node Document classes @chapter Document classes @cindex document classes @cindex classes of documents @findex \documentclass The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a @LaTeX{} source file. @example \documentclass[@var{options}]@{@var{class}@} @end example @findex article @r{class} @findex report @r{class} @findex book @r{class} @findex letter @r{class} @findex slides @r{class} The following document @var{class} names are built into @LaTeX{}. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; @pxref{Overview}.) @table @code @item article For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use. @item book Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (@pxref{Front/back matter}). @item report For documents of length between an @code{article} and a @code{book}, such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters. @item slides For slide presentations---rarely used today. In its place the @code{beamer} package is perhaps the most prevalent (@pxref{beamer template}). @end table Standard @var{options} are described in the next section. @menu * Document class options:: Global options. @end menu @node Document class options @section Document class options @cindex document class options @cindex options, document class @cindex class options @cindex global options You can specify so-called @dfn{global options} or @dfn{class options} to the @code{\documentclass} command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one @var{option}, separate them with a comma, as in: @example \documentclass[@var{option1},@var{option2},...]@{@var{class}@} @end example Here is the list of the standard class options. @findex 10pt @r{option} @findex 11pt @r{option} @findex 12pt @r{option} All of the standard classes except @code{slides} accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is @code{10pt}): @example 10pt 11pt 12pt @end example @findex a4paper @r{option} @findex a5paper @r{option} @findex b5paper @r{option} @findex executivepaper @r{option} @findex legalpaper @r{option} @findex letterpaper @r{option} All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is @code{letterpaper}): @example a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper @end example @findex draft @r{option} @findex final @r{option} @findex fleqn @r{option} @findex landscape @r{option} @findex leqno @r{option} @findex openbib @r{option} @findex titlepage @r{option} @findex notitlepage @r{option} Miscellaneous other options: @table @code @item draft @itemx final @cindex black boxes, omitting Mark (@code{draft}) or do not mark (@code{final}) overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is @code{final}. @item fleqn @cindex flush left equations @cindex centered equations @cindex equations, flush left vs.@: centered Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. @item landscape @cindex landscape orientation @cindex portrait orientation Selects landscape format; default is portrait. @item leqno @cindex left-hand equation numbers @cindex right-hand equation numbers @cindex equation numbers, left vs.@: right Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. @item openbib @cindex bibliography format, open Use ``open'' bibliography format. @item titlepage @itemx notitlepage @cindex title page, separate or run-in Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. @end table The following options are not available with the @code{slides} class. @findex onecolumn @r{option} @findex twocolumn @r{option} @findex oneside @r{option} @findex twoside @r{option} @findex openright @r{option} @findex openany @r{option} @table @code @item onecolumn @itemx twocolumn Typeset in one or two columns; default is @code{onecolumn}. @item oneside @itemx twoside @findex \evensidemargin @findex \oddsidemargin Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is @code{oneside}, except that in the @code{book} class the default is @code{twoside}. For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the @code{\evensidemargin} (@code{\oddsidemargin}) parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with @code{\oddsidemargin} being 40% of the difference between @code{\paperwidth} and @code{\textwidth}, and @code{\evensidemargin} is the remainder. @item openright @itemx openany Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is @code{openright} for @code{book}, and @code{openany} for @code{report}. @end table @findex clock @r{option to @code{slides} class} The @code{slides} class offers the option @code{clock} for printing the time at the bottom of each note. @cindex loading additional packages @cindex packages, loading additional @cindex additional packages, loading @findex \usepackage Additional packages are loaded like this: @example \usepackage[@var{options}]@{@var{pkg}@} @end example To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma, as in @code{\usepackage@{@var{pkg1},@var{pkg2},...@}}, or use multiple @code{\usepackage} commands. @cindex global options @cindex options, global Any options given in the @code{\documentclass} command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with @code{\usepackage}. @node Fonts @chapter Fonts @anchor{Typefaces}@c old name @cindex typefaces @cindex fonts Two important aspects of selecting a @dfn{font} are specifying a size and a style. The @LaTeX{} commands for doing this are described here. @menu * Font styles:: Select roman, italics, etc. * Font sizes:: Select point size. * Low-level font commands:: Select encoding, family, series, shape. @end menu @node Font styles @section Font styles @cindex font styles @cindex typeface styles @cindex styles of text The following type style commands are supported by @LaTeX{}. This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in @code{\textit@{italic text@}}. In the table below, the corresponding command in parenthesis is the ``declaration form'', which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; e.g., you can say either @code{\sffamily\bfseries} or @code{\bfseries\sffamily} to get bold sans serif. You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for instance, @code{\begin@{ttfamily@}...\end@{ttfamily@}}. @findex \nocorrlist @findex \nocorr These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections if needed. (@xref{\/}, for the details of italic corrections.) Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list @code{\nocorrlist}, which by default consists of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use @code{\nocorr} at the start or end of the command argument, such as @code{\textit@{\nocorr text@}} or @code{\textsc@{text \nocorr@}}. @table @code @item \textrm (\rmfamily) @findex \textrm @findex \rmfamily Roman. @item \textit (\itshape) @findex \textit @findex \itshape Italics. @item \emph @findex \emph @cindex emphasis Emphasis (switches between @code{\textit} and @code{\textrm}). @item \textmd (\mdseries) @findex \textmd @findex \mdseries Medium weight (default). @item \textbf (\bfseries) @findex \textbf @findex \bfseries Boldface. @item \textup (\upshape) @findex \textup @findex \upshape Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. @item \textsl (\slshape) @findex \textsl @findex \slshape Slanted. @item \textsf (\sffamily) @findex \textsf @findex \sffamily Sans serif. @item \textsc (\scshape) @findex \textsc @findex \scshape Small caps. @item \texttt (\ttfamily) @findex \texttt @findex \ttfamily Typewriter. @item \textnormal (\normalfont) @findex \textnormal @findex \normalfont Main document font. @item \mathrm @findex \mathrm Roman, for use in math mode. @item \mathbf @findex \mathbf Boldface, for use in math mode. @item \mathsf @findex \mathsf Sans serif, for use in math mode. @item \mathtt @findex \mathtt Typewriter, for use in math mode. @item \mathit @itemx (\mit) Italics, for use in math mode. @item \mathnormal @findex \mathnormal For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. @item \mathcal @findex \mathcal `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. @end table @findex \mathversion @cindex math, bold @cindex bold math In addition, the command @code{\mathversion@{bold@}} can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. @code{\mathversion@{normal@}} restores the default. @findex \oldstylenums @cindex numerals, old-style @cindex old-style numerals @cindex lining numerals @cindex @code{textcomp} package Finally, the command @code{\oldstylenums@{@var{numerals}@}} will typeset so-called ``old-style'' numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard ``lining'' numerals. @LaTeX{}'s default fonts support this, and will respect @code{\textbf} (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the @code{textcomp} package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf}. @LaTeX{} also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are @emph{not} cumulative. Also, they are used differently than the above commands: @code{@{\@var{cmd} ...@}} instead of @code{\@var{cmd}@{...@}}. These are two unrelated constructs. @ftable @code @item \bf @cindex bold font Switch to @b{bold face}. @item \cal @cindex script letters for math @cindex calligraphic letters for math Switch to calligraphic letters for math. @item \em @cindex emphasis Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). @item \it @cindex italic font Italics. @item \rm @cindex roman font Roman. @item \sc @cindex small caps font Small caps. @item \sf @cindex sans serif font Sans serif. @item \sl @cindex slanted font @cindex oblique font Slanted (oblique). @item \tt @cindex typewriter font @cindex monospace font @cindex fixed-width font Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). @end ftable Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such as @code{\tt}, obsolete and @emph{only} the cumulative commands (@code{\texttt}) should be used. I (Karl) do not agree. There are perfectly reasonable situations when an unconditional font switch is precisely what you need to get the desired output; for one example, @pxref{description,,@code{description}}. Both sets of commands have their place. @node Font sizes @section Font sizes @cindex font sizes @cindex typeface sizes @cindex sizes of text The following standard type size commands are supported by @LaTeX{}. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the @samp{10pt}, @samp{11pt}, and @samp{12pt} document size options, respectively (@pxref{Document class options}). @findex \tiny @findex \scriptsize @findex \footnotesize @findex \small @findex \normalsize @findex \large @findex \Large @findex \LARGE @findex \huge @findex \Huge @multitable {@code{\normalsize} (default)} {24.88} {24.88} {24.88} @headitem Command @tab @code{10pt} @tab @code{11pt} @tab @code{12pt} @item @code{\tiny} @tab 5 @tab 6 @tab 6 @item @code{\scriptsize} @tab 7 @tab 8 @tab 8 @item @code{\footnotesize} @tab 8 @tab 9 @tab 10 @item @code{\small} @tab 9 @tab 10 @tab 10.95 @item @code{\normalsize} (default) @tab 10 @tab 10.95 @tab 12 @item @code{\large} @tab 12 @tab 12 @tab 14.4 @item @code{\Large} @tab 14.4 @tab 14.4 @tab 17.28 @item @code{\LARGE} @tab 17.28 @tab 17.28 @tab 20.74 @item @code{\huge} @tab 20.74 @tab 20.74 @tab 24.88 @item @code{\Huge} @tab 24.88 @tab 24.88 @tab 24.88 @end multitable The commands as listed here are ``declaration forms''. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, @code{\begin@{tiny@}...\end@{tiny@}}. @node Low-level font commands @section Low-level font commands @cindex low-level font commands @cindex font commands, low-level These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. @table @code @item \fontencoding@{enc@} @findex \fontencoding Select font encoding. Valid encodings include @code{OT1} and @code{T1}. @item \fontfamily@{family@} @findex \fontfamily Select font family. Valid families include: @itemize @bullet @item @code{cmr} for Computer Modern Roman @item @code{cmss} for Computer Modern Sans Serif @item @code{cmtt} for Computer Modern Typewriter @end itemize and numerous others. @item \fontseries@{series@} @findex \fontseries Select font series. Valid series include: @itemize @bullet @item @code{m} Medium (normal) @item @code{b} Bold @item @code{c} Condensed @item @code{bc} Bold condensed @item @code{bx} Bold extended @end itemize and various other combinations. @item \fontshape@{shape@} @findex \fontshape Select font shape. Valid shapes are: @itemize @bullet @item @code{n} Upright (normal) @item @code{it} Italic @item @code{sl} Slanted (oblique) @item @code{sc} Small caps @item @code{ui} Upright italics @item @code{ol} Outline @end itemize The two last shapes are not available for most font families. @item \fontsize@{size@}@{skip@} @findex \fontsize @findex \baselineskip Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter named @code{\baselineskip}. The unit of both parameters defaults to pt. The default @code{\baselineskip} for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the @code{\fontsize}. @findex \baselinestretch @cindex @code{setspace} package @cindex double spacing The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the @code{\baselinestretch} parameter when the type size changes; the default is 1. However, the best way to ``double space'' a document, if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the @code{setspace} package; see @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace}. @findex \linespread @item \linespread@{@var{factor}@} Equivalent to @code{\renewcommand@{\baselinestretch@}@{@var{factor}@}}, and therefore must be followed by @code{\selectfont} to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the @code{setspace} package, as described just above. @findex \selectfont The changes made by calling the font commands described above do not come into effect until @code{\selectfont} is called. @item \usefont@{enc@}@{family@}@{series@}@{shape@} @findex \usefont The same as invoking @code{\fontencoding}, @code{\fontfamily}, @code{\fontseries} and @code{\fontshape} with the given parameters, followed by @code{\selectfont}. @end table @node Layout @chapter Layout @cindex layout commands Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. @menu * \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout. * \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout. * \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height. * \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height. * Page layout parameters:: @code{\headheight} @code{\footskip}. @end menu @node \onecolumn @section @code{\onecolumn} @findex \onecolumn @cindex one-column output The @code{\onecolumn} declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. This is the default. @node \twocolumn @section @code{\twocolumn} @findex \twocolumn @cindex multicolumn text @cindex two-column output Synopsis: @example \twocolumn[@var{text1col}] @end example The @code{\twocolumn} declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the optional @var{text1col} argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: @ftable @code @item \columnsep The distance between columns (35pt by default). @item \columnseprule The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. @item \columnwidth The width of the current column; this is equal to @code{\textwidth} in single-column text. @end ftable These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: @ftable @code @item \dbltopfraction Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by floats. Default @samp{.7}, can be usefully redefined to (say) @samp{.9} to avoid going to float pages so soon. @item \dblfloatpagefraction The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, for a two-column float page. Default @samp{.5}. @item \dblfloatsep Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float page. Default @samp{12pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @samp{10pt} and @samp{11pt} documents, @samp{14pt plus2pt minus4pt} for @samp{12pt}. @item \dbltextfloatsep Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. Default @samp{20pt plus2pt minus4pt}. @end ftable @node \flushbottom @section @code{\flushbottom} @findex \flushbottom The @code{\flushbottom} declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is the default if @code{twocolumn} mode is selected (@pxref{Document class options}). @node \raggedbottom @section @code{\raggedbottom} @findex \raggedbottom @cindex stretch, omitting vertical The @code{\raggedbottom} declaration makes all pages the natural height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched. @node Page layout parameters @section Page layout parameters @cindex page layout parameters @cindex parameters, page layout @cindex layout, page parameters for @cindex header, parameters for @cindex footer, parameters for @cindex running header and footer @ftable @code @item \headheight Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is @samp{30pt}, except in the @code{book} class, where it varies with the type size. @item \headsep Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. Default is @samp{25pt}, except in the @code{book} class, where it varies with the type size. @item \footskip Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. Default is @samp{30pt}, except in the @code{book} class, where it varies with the type size. @item \linewidth Width of the current line, decreased for each nested @code{list} (@pxref{list}). Specifically, it is smaller than @code{\textwidth} by the sum of @code{\leftmargin} and @code{\rightmargin} (@pxref{itemize}). The default varies with the font size, paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an @code{article} document in @samp{10pt}, it's set to @samp{345pt}; in two-column mode, that becomes @samp{229.5pt}. @item \textheight The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with the font size, document class, etc. For an @code{article} or @code{report} document in @samp{10pt}, it's set to @samp{43\baselineskip}; for @code{book}, it's @samp{41\baselineskip}. For @samp{11pt}, it's @samp{38\baselineskip} and for @samp{12pt}, @samp{36\baselineskip}. @item \textwidth The full horizontal width of the entire page body; the default varies as usual. For an @code{article} or @code{report} document, it's @samp{345pt} at @samp{10pt}, @samp{360pt} at @samp{11pt}, and @samp{390pt} at @samp{12pt}. For a @code{book} document, it's @samp{4.5in} at @samp{10pt}, and @samp{5in} at @samp{11pt} or @samp{12pt}. In multi-column output, @code{\textwidth} remains the width of the entire page body, while @code{\columnwidth} is the width of one column (@pxref{\twocolumn}). In lists (@pxref{list}), @code{\textwidth} remains the width of the entire page body (and @code{\columnwidth} the width of the entire column), while @code{\linewidth} may decrease for nested lists. Inside a minipage (@pxref{minipage}) or @code{\parbox} (@pxref{\parbox}), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the @code{minipage} or @code{\parbox}. @findex \hsize For completeness: @code{\hsize} is the @TeX{} primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal @LaTeX{} documents. @item \topmargin Space between the top of the @TeX{} page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed based on many other parameters: @code{\paperheight @minus{} 2in @minus{} \headheight @minus{} \headsep @minus{} \textheight @minus{} \footskip}, and then divided by two. @item \topskip Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., @samp{10pt} at @samp{10pt}. @end ftable @node Sectioning @chapter Sectioning @cindex sectioning Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: @ftable @code @item \part @item \chapter (@code{report} and @code{book} class only) @item \section @item \subsection @item \subsubsection @item \paragraph @item \subparagraph @end ftable All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., @example \chapter[@var{toctitle}]@{@var{title}@} @end example In addition to providing the heading @var{title} in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places: @enumerate @item The table of contents. @item The running head at the top of the page. @end enumerate You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument @var{toctitle} that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. @cindex *-form of sectioning commands Also, all sectioning commands have @code{*}-forms that print @var{title} as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance: @example \section*@{Preamble@} @end example @findex \appendix @cindex appendix, creating The @code{\appendix} command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The @code{\appendix} command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like @example \chapter@{A Chapter@} @dots{} \appendix \chapter@{The First Appendix@} @end example @findex secnumdepth @r{counter} @cindex section numbers, printing The @code{secnumdepth} counter controls printing of section numbers. The setting @example \setcounter@{secnumdepth@}@{@var{level}@} @end example @noindent suppresses heading numbers at any depth @math{> @var{level}}, where @code{chapter} is level zero. (@xref{\setcounter}.) @node Cross references @chapter Cross references @cindex cross references One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in ``See Figure 3 for more details.'' @menu * \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. * \pageref:: Refer to a page number. * \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar. @end menu @node \label @section @code{\label} @findex \label Synopsis: @example \label@{@var{key}@} @end example A @code{\label} command appearing in ordinary text assigns to @var{key} the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to @var{key}. A @var{key} name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual. To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: @table @code @item ch for chapters @item sec for lower-level sectioning commands @item fig for figures @item tab for tables @item eq for equations @end table Thus, a label for a figure would look like @code{fig:snark} or @code{fig.snark}. @node \pageref @section @code{\pageref@{@var{key}@}} @findex \pageref @cindex cross referencing with page number @cindex page number, cross referencing Synopsis: @example \pageref@{@var{key}@} @end example The @code{\pageref}@{@var{key}@} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding @code{\label}@{@var{key}@} command appears. @node \ref @section @code{\ref@{@var{key}@}} @findex \ref @cindex cross referencing, symbolic @cindex section number, cross referencing @cindex equation number, cross referencing @cindex figure number, cross referencing @cindex footnote number, cross referencing Synopsis: @example \ref@{@var{key}@} @end example The @code{\ref} command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, @dots{}, of the corresponding @code{\label} command (@pxref{\label}). It does not produce any text, such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. @node Environments @chapter Environments @cindex environments @findex \begin @findex \end @LaTeX{} provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: @example \begin@{@var{envname}@} ... \end@{@var{envname}@} @end example @menu * abstract:: Produce an abstract. * array:: Math arrays. * center:: Centered lines. * description:: Labelled lists. * displaymath:: Formulas that appear on their own line. * document:: Enclose the whole document. * enumerate:: Numbered lists. * eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations. * equation:: Displayed equation. * figure:: Floating figures. * filecontents:: Writing multiple files from the source. * flushleft:: Flushed left lines. * flushright:: Flushed right lines. * itemize:: Bulleted lists. * letter:: Letters. * list:: Generic list environment. * math:: In-line math. * minipage:: Miniature page. * picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. * quotation:: Indented environment with paragraph indentation. * quote:: Indented environment with no paragraph indentation. * tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily. * table:: Floating tables. * tabular:: Align text in columns. * thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list. * theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc. * titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages. * verbatim:: Simulating typed input. * verse:: For poetry and other things. @end menu @node abstract @section @code{abstract} @findex abstract @r{environment} @cindex abstracts Synopsis: @example \begin@{abstract@} ... \end@{abstract@} @end example Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. @node array @section @code{array} @findex array @r{environment} @cindex arrays, math Synopsis: @example \begin@{array@}@{@var{template}@} @var{col1 text}&@var{col1 text}&@var{coln}@}\\ ... \end@{array@} @end example Math arrays are produced with the @code{array} environment, normally within an @code{equation} environment (@pxref{equation}). It has a single mandatory @var{template} argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them. Each column @var{col} is specified by a single letter that tells how items in each row of that column should be formatted, as follows: @table @code @item c centered @item l flush left @item r flush right @end table @findex \\ @r{(for @code{array})} Column entries are separated by @code{&}. Column entries may include other @LaTeX{} commands. Each row of the array is terminated with @code{\\}. @findex @@@{...@} In the template, the construct @code{@@@{@var{text}@}} puts @var{text} between columns in each row. Here's an example: @example \begin@{equation@} \begin@{array@}@{lrc@} left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ \end@{array@} \end@{equation@} @end example @findex \arraycolsep The @code{\arraycolsep} parameter defines half the width of the space separating columns; the default is @samp{5pt}. @xref{tabular}, for other parameters which affect formatting in @code{array} environments, namely @code{\arrayrulewidth} and @code{\arraystretch}. The @code{array} environment can only be used in math mode. @node center @section @code{center} @findex center @r{environment} @cindex centering text, environment for Synopsis: @example \begin@{center@} @var{line1} \\ @var{line2} \\ \end@{center@} @end example @findex \\ @r{(for @code{center})} The @code{center} environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the string @code{\\}. @menu * \centering:: Declaration form of the @code{center} environment. @end menu @node \centering @subsection @code{\centering} @findex \centering @cindex centering text, declaration for The @code{\centering} declaration corresponds to the @code{center} environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as @code{quote} or in a @code{parbox}. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the page by putting a @code{\centering} command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. Unlike the @code{center} environment, the @code{\centering} command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how @LaTeX{} formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or @code{\end} command (of an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. Here's an example: @example \begin@{quote@} \centering first line \\ second line \\ \end@{quote@} @end example @node description @section @code{description} @findex description @r{environment} @cindex labelled lists, creating @cindex description lists, creating Synopsis: @example \begin@{description@} \item [@var{label1}] @var{item1} \item [@var{label2}] @var{item2} ... \end@{description@} @end example @findex \item The @code{description} environment is used to make labelled lists. Each @var{label} is typeset in bold, flush right. The @var{item} text may contain multiple paragraphs. @cindex bold typewriter, avoiding @cindex typewriter labels in lists Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if you typeset a label in typewriter using @code{\texttt}, you'll get bold typewriter: @code{\item[\texttt@{bold and typewriter@}]}. This may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use @code{\tt}, which resets all other style variations: @code{\item[@{\tt plain typewriter@}]}. For details about list spacing, see @ref{itemize}. @node displaymath @section @code{displaymath} @findex displaymath @r{environment} Synopsis: @example \begin@{displaymath@} @var{math} \end@{displaymath@} @end example @noindent or @example \[@var{math}\] @end example The @code{displaymath} environment (@code{\[...\]} is a synonym) typesets the @var{math} text on its own line, centered by default. The global @code{fleqn} option makes equations flush left; see @ref{Document class options}. No equation number is added to @code{displaymath} text; to get an equation number, use the @code{equation} environment (@pxref{equation}). @node document @section @code{document} @findex document @r{environment} The @code{document} environment encloses the body of a document. It is required in every @LaTeX{} document. @xref{Starting and ending}. @node enumerate @section @code{enumerate} @findex enumerate @r{environment} @cindex lists of items, numbered Synopsis: @example \begin@{enumerate@} \item @var{item1} \item @var{item2} ... \end@{enumerate@} @end example The @code{enumerate} environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as @code{itemize} (@pxref{itemize}) and @code{description} (@pxref{description}). @findex \item Each item of an enumerated list begins with an @code{\item} command. There must be at least one @code{\item} command within the environment. By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: @enumerate @item 1., 2., @dots{} @item (a), (b), @dots{} @item i., ii., @dots{} @item A., B., @dots{} @end enumerate @findex \enumi @findex \enumii @findex \enumiii @findex \enumiv The @code{enumerate} environment uses the counters @code{\enumi} through @code{\enumiv} counters (@pxref{Counters}). If the optional argument to @code{\item} is given, the counter is not incremented for that item. @findex \labelenumi @findex \labelenumii @findex \labelenumiii @findex \labelenumiv The @code{enumerate} environment uses the commands @code{\labelenumi} through @code{\labelenumiv} to produce the default label. So, you can use @code{\renewcommand} to change the labels (@pxref{\newcommand & \renewcommand}). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase letters: @findex \Alph @r{example} @example \renewcommand@{\labelenumi@}@{\Alph@{enumi@}@} @end example @node eqnarray @section @code{eqnarray} @findex eqnarray @r{environment} @cindex equations, aligning @cindex aligning equations @cindex align @r{environment, from @code{amsmath}} @cindex amsmath @r{package, replacing @code{eqnarray}} @cindex Madsen, Lars First, a caveat: the @code{eqnarray} environment has some infelicities which cannot be overcome; the article ``Avoid eqnarray!''@: by Lars Madsen describes them in detail (@url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf}). The bottom line is that it is better to use the @code{align} environment (and others) from the @code{amsmath} package. Nevertheless, here is a description of @code{eqnarray}: @example \begin@{eqnarray@} @r{(or @code{eqnarray*})} @var{formula1} \\ @var{formula2} \\ ... \end@{eqnarray@} @end example @findex \\ @r{(for @code{eqnarray})} The @code{eqnarray} environment is used to display a sequence of equations or inequalities. It is similar to a three-column @code{array} environment, with consecutive rows separated by @code{\\} and consecutive items within a row separated by an @code{&}. @findex \\* @r{(for @code{eqnarray})} @code{\\*} can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. @findex \nonumber @cindex equation numbers, omitting An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a @code{\nonumber} command. Alternatively, The @code{*}-form of the environment (@code{\begin@{eqnarray*@} ... \end@{eqnarray*@}}) will omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as @code{eqnarray}. @findex \lefteqn The command @code{\lefteqn} is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. @node equation @section @code{equation} @findex equation @r{environment} @cindex equations, environment for @cindex formulas, environment for Synopsis: @example \begin@{equation@} @var{math} \end@{equation@} @end example The @code{equation} environment starts a @code{displaymath} environment (@pxref{displaymath}), e.g., centering the @var{math} text on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin. @node figure @section @code{figure} @findex figure @cindex inserting figures @cindex figures, inserting @example \begin@{figure[*]@}[@var{placement}] @var{figbody} \label@{@var{label@}} \caption[@var{loftitle}]@{@var{text}@} \end@{figure@} @end example Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are instead ``floated'' to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages. When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a full-width figure (across both columns). @cindex placement of floats @cindex specifier, float placement The optional argument @code{[placement]} determines where @LaTeX{} will try to place your figure. There are four places where @LaTeX{} can possibly put a float: @table @code @item t (Top)---at the top of a text page. @item b (Bottom)---at the bottom of a text page. However, @code{b} is not allowed for full-width floats (@code{figure*}) with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the @code{stfloats} or @code{dblfloatfix} package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat}. @item h (Here)---at the position in the text where the @code{figure} environment appears. However, @code{t} is not allowed by itself; @code{t} is automatically added. @cindex here, putting floats @cindex @code{float} package To absolutely force a figure to appear ``here'', you can @code{\usepackage@{float@}} and use the @code{H} specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere}. @item p (Page of floats)---on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. @item ! Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, @LaTeX{} ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The @code{!} specifier does @emph{not} mean ``put the float here''; see above. @end table The standard @code{report} and @code{article} classes use the default placement @code{tbp}. The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, @LaTeX{} commands, etc.@: you wish. @findex \caption The @code{\caption} command specifies caption @var{text} for the figure. The caption is numbered by default. If @var{loftitle} is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of @var{text} (@pxref{Tables of contents}). Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text: @ftable @code @findex \bottomfraction The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default @samp{.3}. @item \floatpagefraction The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default @samp{.5}. @item \textfraction Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is @samp{.2}. @item \topfraction Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default @samp{.7}. @end ftable Parameters relating to vertical space around floats: @ftable @code @item \floatsep Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default @samp{12pt plus2pt minus2pt}. @item \intextsep Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default @samp{12pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @samp{10pt} and @samp{11pt} styles, @samp{14pt plus4pt minus4pt} for @samp{12pt}. @item \textfloatsep Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default @samp{20pt plus2pt minus4pt}. @end ftable Counters relating to the number of floats on a page: @ftable @code @item bottomnumber Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1. @item dbltopnumber Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2. @item topnumber Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2. @item totalnumber Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3. @end ftable The principal @TeX{} FAQ entry relating to floats: @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats}. @node filecontents @section @code{filecontents}: Create external files @findex filecontents @cindex external files, creating @cindex writing external files Synopsis: @example \begin@{filecontents@}@{@var{filename}@} @var{contents-of-file} \end@{filecontents@} ... \documentclass@{@var{my-document-class}@} @end example @cindex initial command @findex \documentclass, commands before The @code{filecontents} environment is an @dfn{initial command}, meaning that it can be used only before the @code{\documentclass} command, as in the synopsis above. @LaTeX{} will create a file named @var{filename} with the content @var{contents-of-file} preceded by a header comment indicating how and when the file was generated. If the file already exists then nothing will happen. You can also use the @code{filecontents} package, which has the following advantages: @itemize @item If the file already exists, then it will be overwritten. @item You can use the @code{filecontents} environment at any point after the declaration @code{\usepackage@{filecontents@}}, not just before @code{\documentclass}. @item The @code{filecontents} package also provides a @code{filecontents*} environment which is used in the same way as the @code{filecontents} environment except that it won't insert any leading comment, so it is better suited to create files which aren't in @LaTeX{} format. @end itemize The @code{filecontents} environment only creates the file, and is unrelated to using the created file. So you need to use, for instance, @code{\input} or @code{\usepackage} or @code{\bibliography} or whatever is applicable, to use the created file. This environment is also useful to make a document in a self-contained file, for example, for a bug report, or to keep the content of a @file{.bib} file in the same file as the main document. @node flushleft @section @code{flushleft} @findex flushleft @r{environment} @cindex left-justifying text, environment for @cindex ragged right text, environment for @example \begin@{flushleft@} @var{line1} \\ @var{line2} \\ ... \end@{flushleft@} @end example @findex \\ @r{for @code{flushleft}} The @code{flushleft} environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right Each line must be terminated with the string @code{\\}. @menu * \raggedright:: Declaration form of the @code{flushleft} environment. @end menu @node \raggedright @subsection @code{\raggedright} @findex \raggedright @cindex ragged right text @cindex left-justifying text @cindex justification, ragged right The @code{\raggedright} declaration corresponds to the @code{flushleft} environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as @code{quote} or in a @code{parbox}. Unlike the @code{flushleft} environment, the @code{\raggedright} command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how @LaTeX{} formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or @code{\end} command that ends the paragraph unit. @node flushright @section @code{flushright} @findex flushright @r{environment} @cindex ragged left text, environment for @cindex right-justifying text, environment for @example \begin@{flushright@} @var{line1} \\ @var{line2} \\ ... \end@{flushright@} @end example @findex \\ (for @code{flushright}) The @code{flushright} environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the string @code{\\}. @menu * \raggedleft:: Declaration form of the @code{flushright} environment. @end menu @node \raggedleft @subsection @code{\raggedleft} @findex \raggedleft @cindex ragged left text @cindex justification, ragged left @cindex right-justifying text The @code{\raggedleft} declaration corresponds to the @code{flushright} environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as @code{quote} or in a @code{parbox}. Unlike the @code{flushright} environment, the @code{\raggedleft} command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how @LaTeX{} formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or @code{\end} command that ends the paragraph unit. @node itemize @section @code{itemize} @findex itemize @r{environment} @findex \item @cindex lists of items @cindex unordered lists @cindex bulleted lists Synopsis: @example \begin@{itemize@} \item @var{item1} \item @var{item2} ... \end@{itemize@} @end example The @code{itemize} environment produces an ``unordered'', ``bulleted'' list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as @code{enumerate} (@pxref{enumerate}). Each item of an @code{itemize} list begins with an @code{\item} command. There must be at least one @code{\item} command within the environment. By default, the marks at each level look like this: @enumerate @item @bullet{} (bullet) @item @b{-@w{-}} (bold en-dash) @item * (asterisk) @iftex @item @math{\cdot} (centered dot) @end iftex @ifnottex @item . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) @end ifnottex @end enumerate @findex \labelitemi @findex \labelitemii @findex \labelitemiii @findex \labelitemiv The @code{itemize} environment uses the commands @code{\labelitemi} through @code{\labelitemiv} to produce the default label. So, you can use @code{\renewcommand} to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds: @example \renewcommand@{\labelitemi@}@{$\diamond$@} @end example @findex \leftmargin @findex \leftmargini @findex \leftmarginii @findex \leftmarginiii @findex \leftmarginiv @findex \leftmarginv @findex \leftmarginvi The @code{\leftmargini} through @code{\leftmarginvi} parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, @code{\leftmargin} is set to the appropriate @code{\leftmargin@var{N}} when a new level of nesting is entered. The defaults vary from @samp{.5em} (highest levels of nesting) to @samp{2.5em} (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: @example \setlength@{\leftmargini@}@{1.25em@} % default 2.5em @end example @c xx should be in its own generic section Some parameters that affect list formatting: @ftable @code @item \itemindent Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. @item \labelsep Space between the label and text of an item; default @samp{.5em}. @item \labelwidth Width of the label; default @samp{2em}, or @samp{1.5em} in two-column mode. @item \listparindent Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default @samp{0pt}. @item \rightmargin Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default @samp{0pt}, except in the @code{quote}, @code{quotation}, and @code{verse} environments, where it is set equal to @code{\leftmargin}. @end ftable Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default). @ftable @code @item \itemsep Vertical space between items. The default is @code{2pt plus1pt minus1pt} for @code{10pt} documents, @code{3pt plus2pt minus1pt} for @code{11pt}, and @code{4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt} for @code{12pt}. @item \parsep Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as @code{\itemsep}. @item \topsep Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. For top-level lists, the default is @code{8pt plus2pt minus4pt} for @code{10pt} documents, @code{9pt plus3pt minus5pt} for @code{11pt}, and @code{10pt plus4pt minus6pt} for @code{12pt}. These are reduced for nested lists. @item \partopsep Extra space added to @code{\topsep} when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is @code{2pt plus1pt minus1pt} for @code{10pt} documents, @code{3pt plus1pt minus1pt} for @code{11pt}, and @code{3pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @code{12pt}. @end ftable @findex \parskip @r{example} Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an @code{itemize*} environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item (@code{\parskip} is not list-specific, @pxref{\parskip}): @example \newenvironment@{itemize*@}% @{\begin@{itemize@}% \setlength@{\itemsep@}@{0pt@}% \setlength@{\parsep@}@{0pt@}@}% \setlength@{\parskip@}@{0pt@}@}% @{\end@{itemize@}@} @end example @node letter @section @code{letter} environment: writing letters @findex letter This environment is used for creating letters. @xref{Letters}. @node list @section @code{list} @findex list @cindex lists of items, generic The @code{list} environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros. @example \begin@{list@}@{@var{labeling}@}@{@var{spacing}@} \item @var{item1} \item @var{item2} ... \end@{list@} @end example The mandatory @var{labeling} argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to @code{\item}). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other @LaTeX{} commands. The mandatory @var{spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., @code{@{@}}, which leaves the default spacing. The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by @code{\linewidth} (@pxref{Page layout parameters}). @node math @section @code{math} @findex math @r{environment} @cindex in-line formulas Synopsis: @example \begin@{math@} @var{math} \end@{math@} @end example The @code{math} environment inserts the given @var{math} within the running text. @code{\(...\))} and @code{$...$} are synonyms. @xref{Math formulas}. @node minipage @section @code{minipage} @findex minipage @r{environment} @cindex minipage, creating a @example \begin@{minipage@}[@var{position}][@var{height}][@var{inner-pos}]@{@var{width}@} @var{text} \end@{minipage@} @end example The @code{minipage} environment typesets its body @var{text} in a block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the @code{\parbox} command (@pxref{\parbox}), but unlike @code{\parbox}, other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage. @c (xxref positions) The arguments are the same as for @code{\parbox} (@pxref{\parbox}). @cindex indentation of paragraphs, in minipage @cindex paragraph indentation, in minipage @findex \parindent By default, paragraphs are not indented in the @code{minipage} environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as @code{\setlength@{\parindent@}@{1pc@}} command. @cindex footnotes in figures @cindex figures, footnotes in Footnotes in a @code{minipage} environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A @code{\footnote} or @code{\footnotetext} command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the @code{\mpfootnote} counter instead of the ordinary @code{footnote} counter (@pxref{Counters}). However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. @node picture @section @code{picture} @findex picture @cindex creating pictures @cindex pictures, creating @example \begin@{picture@}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) @dots{} @var{picture commands} @dots{} \end@{picture@} @end example @findex \unitlength The @code{picture} environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell @LaTeX{} where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign---a number like @code{5}, @code{0.3} or @code{-3.1416}. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length @code{\unitlength}, so if @code{\unitlength} has been set to @code{1cm}, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of @code{\unitlength}, using the @code{\setlength} command, outside of a @code{picture} environment. The default value is @code{1pt}. A position is a pair of coordinates, such as @code{(2.4,-5)}, specifying the point with x-coordinate @code{2.4} and y-coordinate @code{-5}. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. The @code{picture} environment has one mandatory argument, which is a @code{position}. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates. The @code{picture} environment also has an optional @code{position} argument, following the @code{size} argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if @code{\unitlength} has been set to @code{1mm}, the command @example \begin@{picture@}(100,200)(10,20) @end example @noindent produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; @LaTeX{} will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by @LaTeX{} in determining how much room to leave for it. Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the @code{\put} command. The command @example \put (11.3,-.3)@{...@} @end example @noindent puts the object specified by @code{...} in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates @math{(11.3,-.3)}. The reference points for various objects will be described below. @findex lR box The @code{\put} command creates an @dfn{LR box}. You can put anything that can go in an @code{\mbox} (@pxref{\mbox}) in the text argument of the @code{\put} command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. The @code{picture} commands are described in the following sections. @menu * \circle:: Draw a circle. * \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size. * \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it. * \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box. * \frame:: Draw a frame around an object. * \line:: Draw a straight line. * \linethickness:: Set the line thickness. * \thicklines:: A heavier line thickness. * \thinlines:: The default line thickness. * \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object. * \oval:: Draw an ellipse. * \put:: Place an object at a specified place. * \shortstack:: Make a pile of objects. * \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow. @end menu @node \circle @subsection @code{\circle} @findex \circle Synopsis: @example \circle[*]@{@var{diameter}@} @end example The @code{\circle} command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The @code{*}-form of the command draws a solid circle. Circles up to 40@dmn{pt} can be drawn. @node \makebox (picture) @subsection @code{\makebox} @findex \makebox @r{(for @code{picture})} Synopsis: @example \makebox(@var{width},@var{height})[@var{position}]@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\makebox} command for the picture environment is similar to the normal @code{\makebox} command except that you must specify a @var{width} and @var{height} in multiples of @code{\unitlength}. The optional argument, @code{[@var{position}]}, specifies the quadrant that your @var{text} appears in. You may select up to two of the following: @table @code @item t Moves the item to the top of the rectangle. @item b Moves the item to the bottom. @item l Moves the item to the left. @item r Moves the item to the right. @end table @xref{\makebox}. @node \framebox (picture) @subsection @code{\framebox} @findex \framebox Synopsis: @example \framebox(@var{width},@var{height})[@var{pos}]@{...@} @end example The @code{\framebox} command is like @code{\makebox} (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. @findex \fboxrule @findex \fboxsep The @code{\framebox} command produces a rule of thickness @code{\fboxrule}, and leaves a space @code{\fboxsep} between the rule and the contents of the box. @node \dashbox @subsection @code{\dashbox} @findex \dashbox Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: @example \dashbox@{@var{dlen}@}(@var{rwidth},@var{rheight})[@var{pos}]@{@var{text}@} @end example @code{\dashbox} creates a dashed rectangle around @var{text} in a @code{picture} environment. Dashes are @var{dlen} units long, and the rectangle has overall width @var{rwidth} and height @var{rheight}. The @var{text} is positioned at optional @var{pos}. @c xxref positions. A dashed box looks best when the @var{rwidth} and @var{rheight} are multiples of the @var{dlen}. @node \frame @subsection @code{\frame} @findex \frame Synopsis: @example \frame@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\frame} command puts a rectangular frame around @var{text}. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object. @node \line @subsection @code{\line} @findex \line Synopsis: @example \line(@var{xslope},@var{yslope})@{@var{length}@} @end example The @code{\line} command draws a line with the given @var{length} and slope @var{xslope}/@var{yslope}. @cindex @code{pict2e} package @cindex graphics packages Standard @LaTeX{} can only draw lines with @math{@var{slope} = x/y}, where @math{x} and @math{y} have integer values from @minus{}6 through@tie{}6. For lines of any slope, and plenty of other shapes, see @code{pict2e} and many other packages on CTAN. @node \linethickness @subsection @code{\linethickness} @findex \linethickness The @code{\linethickness@{@var{dim}@}} command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be @var{dim}, which must be a positive length. @code{\linethickness} does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by @code{\oval}. @node \thicklines @subsection @code{\thicklines} @findex \thicklines The @code{\thicklines} command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf.@tie{}@ref{\linethickness} and @ref{\thinlines}. @node \thinlines @subsection @code{\thinlines} @findex \thinlines The @code{\thinlines} command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf.@tie{}@ref{\linethickness} and @ref{\thicklines}. @node \multiput @subsection @code{\multiput} @findex \multiput Synopsis: @example \multiput(@var{x},@var{y})(@var{delta_x},@var{delta_y})@{@var{n}@}@{@var{obj}@} @end example The @code{\multiput} command copies the object @var{obj} in a regular pattern across a picture. @var{obj} is first placed at position @math{(x,y)}, then at @math{(x+\delta x,y+\delta y)}, and so on, @var{n} times. @node \oval @subsection @code{\oval} @findex \oval Synopsis: @example \oval(@var{width},@var{height})[@var{portion}] @end example The @code{\oval} command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument @var{portion} allows you to select part of the oval via the following: @table @code @item t selects the top portion; @item b selects the bottom portion; @item r selects the right portion; @item l selects the left portion. @end table The ``corners'' of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20@dmn{pt}, so large ``ovals'' will look more like boxes with rounded corners. @node \put @subsection @code{\put} @findex \put Synopsis: @example \put(@var{xcoord},@var{ycoord})@{ ... @} @end example The @code{\put} command places the material specified by the (mandatory) argument in braces at the given coordinate, (@var{xcoord},@var{ycoord}). @node \shortstack @subsection @code{\shortstack} @findex \shortstack Synopsis: @example \shortstack[@var{position}]@{...\\...\\...@} @end example The @code{\shortstack} command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: @table @code @item r Move the objects to the right of the stack. @item l Move the objects to the left of the stack @item c Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) @end table @findex \\ @r{(for @code{\shortstack} objects)} Objects are separated with @code{\\}. @node \vector @subsection @code{\vector} @findex \vector Synopsis: @example \vector(@var{xslope},@var{yslope})@{@var{length}@} @end example The @code{\vector} command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The @math{@var{xslope}} and @math{@var{yslope}} values must lie between @minus{}4 and +4, inclusive. @node quotation @section @code{quotation} @findex quotation @cindex quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying @cindex displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation @cindex paragraph indentations in quoted text Synopsis: @example \begin@{quotation@} @var{text} \end@{quotation@} @end example The margins of the @code{quotation} environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. Unlike the @code{quote} environment, each paragraph is indented normally. @node quote @section @code{quote} @findex quote @cindex quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying @cindex displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation @cindex paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting Synopsis: @example \begin@{quote@} @var{text} \end@{quote@} @end example The margins of the @code{quote} environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. Unlike the @code{quotation} environment, paragraphs are not indented. @node tabbing @section @code{tabbing} @findex tabbing @r{environment} @cindex tab stops, using @cindex lining text up using tab stops @cindex alignment via tabbing Synopsis: @example \begin@{tabbing@} @var{row1col1} \= @var{row1col2} \= @var{row1col3} \= @var{row1col4} \\ @var{row2col1} \> \> @var{row2col3} \\ ... \end@{tabbing@} @end example The @code{tabbing} environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the @code{tabular} environment. The following commands can be used inside a @code{tabbing} environment: @ftable @code @item \\ @r{(tabbing)} End a line. @item \= @r{(tabbing)} Sets a tab stop at the current position. @item \> @r{(tabbing)} @findex \> Advances to the next tab stop. @item \< Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. @item \+ Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. @item \- Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. @item \' @r{(tabbing)} Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e. everything from the most recent @code{\>}, @code{\<}, @code{\'}, @code{\\}, or @code{\kill} command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. @item \` @r{(tabbing)} Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop@tie{}0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The @code{\`} command moves all the text that follows it, up to the @code{\\} or @code{\end@{tabbing@}} command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no @code{\>} or @code{\'} command between the @code{\`} and the command that ends the line. @item \a @r{(tabbing)} @findex \a' @r{(acute accent in tabbing)} @findex \a` @r{(grave accent in tabbing)} @findex \a= @r{(macron accent in tabbing)} In a @code{tabbing} environment, the commands @code{\=}, @code{\'} and @code{\`} do not produce accents as usual (@pxref{Accents}). Instead, the commands @code{\a=}, @code{\a'} and @code{\a`} are used. @item \kill Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like @code{\\} except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any @code{\=}, @code{\+} or @code{\-} commands in that line remain in effect. @item \poptabs @findex \poptabs Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last @code{\pushtabs}. @item \pushtabs Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a @code{tabbing} environment. @item \tabbingsep Distance to left of tab stop moved by @code{\'}. @end ftable This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: @example \begin@{tabbing@} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end@{tabbing@} @end example @node table @section @code{table} @findex table @cindex tables, creating @cindex creating tables Synopsis: @example \begin@{table@}[placement] body of the table \caption@{table title@} \end@{table@} @end example Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually ``floated'' to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages. The optional argument @code{[placement]} determines where @LaTeX{} will try to place your table. There are four places where @LaTeX{} can possibly put a float; these are the same as that used with the @code{figure} environment, and described there (@pxref{figure}). The standard @code{report} and @code{article} classes use the default placement @code{[tbp]}. The body of the table is made up of whatever text, @LaTeX{} commands, etc., you wish. The @code{\caption} command allows you to title your table. @node tabular @section @code{tabular} @findex tabular @r{environment} @cindex lines in tables @cindex lining text up in tables Synopsis: @example \begin@{tabular@}[pos]@{cols@} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ ... \end@{tabular@} @end example @noindent or @example \begin@{tabular*@}@{width@}[pos]@{cols@} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ ... \end@{tabular*@} @end example These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. @findex \\ @r{for @code{tabular}} @code{\\} must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except for the last, where it is optional---unless an @code{\hline} command (to put a rule below the table) follows. The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: @table @code @item width Specifies the width of the @code{tabular*} environment. There must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified width. @item pos Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of the environment. @table @code @item t align on top row @item b align on bottom row @end table @item cols Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and intercolumn material. @table @code @item l A column of left-aligned items. @item r A column of right-aligned items. @item c A column of centered items. @item | A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. @item @@@{@var{text}@} This inserts @var{text} in every row. An @@-expression suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space before the adjacent item must be included in @var{text}. To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, you have to load the @code{array} package and use the @code{>@{...@}} specifier. @c xx should fully explain array, tabularx, and all other base packages... @findex \extracolsep An @code{\extracolsep@{wd@}} command in an @@-expression causes an extra space of width @code{wd} to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another @code{\extracolsep} command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @@-expression. An @code{\extracolsep} command can be used only in an @@-expression in the @code{cols} argument. @item p@{@var{wd}@} Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width @var{wd}, as if it were the argument of a @code{\parbox[t]@{@var{wd}@}} command. However, a @code{\\} may not appear in the item, except in the following situations: @enumerate @item inside an environment like @code{minipage}, @code{array}, or @code{tabular}. @item inside an explicit @code{\parbox}. @item in the scope of a @code{\centering}, @code{\raggedright}, or @code{\raggedleft} declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an environment when used in a @code{p}-column element. @end enumerate @item *@{@var{num}@}@{@var{cols}@} Equivalent to @var{num} copies of @var{cols}, where @var{num} is a positive integer and @var{cols} is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another @code{*-expression}. @end table @end table Parameters that control formatting: @c xx defaults, own node (xref from array)? @ftable @code @item \arrayrulewidth Thickness of the rule created by @code{|}, @code{\hline}, and @code{\vline} in the @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments; the default is @samp{.4pt}. @item \arraystretch Scaling of spacing between rows in the @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments; default is @samp{1}, for no scaling. @item \doublerulesep Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by @code{||} in the @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments; default is @samp{2pt}. @item \tabcolsep Half the width of the space between columns; default is @samp{6pt}. @end ftable The following commands can be used inside a @code{tabular} environment: @menu * \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns. * \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. * \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns. * \vline:: Draw a vertical line. @end menu @node \multicolumn @subsection @code{\multicolumn} @findex \multicolumn Synopsis: @example \multicolumn@{@var{cols}@}@{@var{pos}@}@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\multicolumn} command makes an entry that spans several columns. The first mandatory argument, @var{cols}, specifies the number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, @var{pos}, specifies the formatting of the entry; @code{c} for centered, @code{l} for flushleft, @code{r} for flushright. The third mandatory argument, @var{text}, specifies what text to put in the entry. Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; @code{\multicolumn} is used for the heading: @example \begin@{tabular@}@{r@@@{--@}l@} \multicolumn@{2@}@{c@}@{\bf Unicode@}\cr 0x80&0x7FF \cr 0x800&0xFFFF \cr 0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr \end@{tabular@} @end example @node \cline @subsection @code{\cline} @findex \cline Synopsis: @example \cline@{@var{i}-@var{j}@} @end example The @code{\cline} command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified, beginning in column @var{i} and ending in column @var{j}, which are specified in the mandatory argument. @node \hline @subsection @code{\hline} @findex \hline The @code{\hline} command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing @code{tabular} or @code{array} environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. @node \vline @subsection @code{\vline} @findex \vline The @code{\vline} command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and depth of its row. An @code{\hfill} command can be used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @@-expression. @node thebibliography @section @code{thebibliography} @findex thebibliography @cindex bibliography, creating (manually) Synopsis: @example \begin@{thebibliography@}@{@var{widest-label}@} \bibitem[@var{label}]@{@var{cite_key@}} ... \end@{thebibliography@} @end example The @code{thebibliography} environment produces a bibliography or reference list. In the @code{article} class, this reference list is labelled ``References''; in the @code{report} class, it is labelled ``Bibliography''. You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command @code{\refname}. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: @example \renewcommand@{\refname@}@{@} @end example The mandatory @var{widest-label} argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the @code{\bibitem} commands. It is typically given as @code{9} for bibliographies with less than 10 references, @code{99} for ones with less than 100, etc. @menu * \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item. * \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item. * \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography. * Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies. @end menu @node \bibitem @subsection @code{\bibitem} @findex \bibitem Synopsis: @example \bibitem[@var{label}]@{@var{cite_key}@} @end example The @code{\bibitem} command generates an entry labelled by @var{label}. If the @var{label} argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the @code{enumi} counter. The @var{cite_key} is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry to the @file{.aux} file containing the item's @var{cite_key} and label. When the @file{.aux} file is read by the @code{\begin@{document@}} command, the item's @code{label} is associated with @code{cite_key}, causing references to @var{cite_key} with a @code{\cite} command (see next section) to produce the associated label. @node \cite @subsection @code{\cite} @findex \cite Synopsis: @example \cite[@var{subcite}]@{@var{keys} @end example The @var{keys} argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with @var{keys} by entries in the @file{.aux} file. The text of the optional @var{subcite} argument appears after the citation. For example, @code{\cite[p.~314]@{knuth@}} might produce `[Knuth, p.@tie{}314]'. @node \nocite @subsection @code{\nocite} @findex \nocite @code{\nocite@{key_list@}} The @code{\nocite} command produces no text, but writes @code{key_list}, which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the @file{.aux} file. @node Using BibTeX @subsection Using Bib@TeX{} @cindex using Bib@TeX{} @cindex bib@TeX{}, using @cindex bibliography, creating (automatically) @findex \bibliographystyle @findex \bibliography If you use the Bib@TeX{} program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the @code{thebibliography} environment (@pxref{thebibliography}). Instead, you include the lines @example \bibliographystyle@{@var{bibstyle}@} \bibliography@{@var{bibfile1},@var{bibfile2}@} @end example The @code{\bibliographystyle} command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: @var{bibstyle} refers to a file @var{bibstyle}@file{.bst}, which defines how your citations will look. The standard @var{style} names distributed with Bib@TeX{} are: @table @code @item alpha Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. @item plain Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. @item unsrt Like @code{plain}, but entries are in order of citation. @item abbrv Like @code{plain}, but more compact labels. @end table In addition, numerous other Bib@TeX{} style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See @url{http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib}. The @code{\bibliography} command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to @code{\bibliography} refers to files named @file{@var{bibfile}.bib}, which should contain your database in Bib@TeX{} format. Only the entries referred to via @code{\cite} and @code{\nocite} will be listed in the bibliography. @node theorem @section @code{theorem} @findex theorem @r{environment} @cindex theorems, typesetting Synopsis: @example \begin@{theorem@} @var{theorem-text} \end@{theorem@} @end example The @code{theorem} environment produces ``Theorem @var{n}'' in boldface followed by @var{theorem-text}, where the numbering possibilities for @var{n} are described under @code{\newtheorem} (@pxref{\newtheorem}). @node titlepage @section @code{titlepage} @findex titlepage @r{environment} @cindex making a title page @cindex title pages, creating Synopsis: @example \begin@{titlepage@} @var{text} \end@{titlepage@} @end example The @code{titlepage} environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The @code{\today} command may be useful on title pages (@pxref{\today}). You can use the @code{\maketitle} command (@pxref{\maketitle}) to produce a standard title page without a @code{titlepage} environment. @node verbatim @section @code{verbatim} @findex verbatim @r{environment} @cindex verbatim text @cindex simulating typed text @cindex typed text, simulating @cindex code, typesetting @cindex computer programs, typesetting Synopsis: @example \begin@{verbatim@} @var{literal-text} \end@{verbatim@} @end example The @code{verbatim} environment is a paragraph-making environment in which @LaTeX{} produces exactly what you type in; for instance the @code{\} character produces a printed @samp{\}. It turns @LaTeX{} into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter. The @code{verbatim} uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (@code{\tt}). @menu * \verb:: The macro form of the @code{verbatim} environment. @end menu @node \verb @subsection @code{\verb} @findex \verb @cindex verbatim text, inline Synopsis: @example \verb@var{char}@var{literal-text}@var{char} \verb*@var{char}@var{literal-text}@var{char} @end example The @code{\verb} command typesets @var{literal-text} as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (@code{\tt}) font. No spaces are allowed between @code{\verb} or @code{\verb*} and the delimiter @var{char}, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in @var{literal-text}. @cindex visible space The @code{*}-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a ``visible space'' character. @tex (Namely, {\tt\char`\ }.) @end tex @node verse @section @code{verse} @findex verse @r{environment} @cindex poetry, an environment for Synopsis: @example \begin@{verse@} @var{line1} \\ @var{line2} \\ ... \end@{verse@} @end example The @code{verse} environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it. @findex \\ @r{for @code{verse}} The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with @code{\\}, and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas. @node Line breaking @chapter Line breaking @cindex line breaking @cindex breaking lines The first thing @LaTeX{} does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). @LaTeX{} usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the @code{\\} command, and you can always manually force breaks. @menu * \\:: Start a new line. * \obeycr & \restorecr:: Make each input line start a new output line. * \newline:: Break the line * \- (hyphenation):: Insert explicit hyphenation. * \fussy:: Be fussy about line breaking. * \sloppy:: Be sloppy about line breaking. * \hyphenation:: Tell @LaTeX{} how to hyphenate a word. * \linebreak & \nolinebreak:: Forcing & avoiding line breaks. @end menu @node \\ @section @code{\\}[*][@var{morespace}] @findex \\ @r{force line break} @cindex new line, starting @cindex line break, forcing The @code{\\} command tells @LaTeX{} to start a new line. It has an optional argument, @var{morespace}, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount. The @code{\\*} command is the same as the ordinary @code{\\} command except that it tells @LaTeX{} not to start a new page after the line. @node \obeycr & \restorecr @section @code{\obeycr} & @code{\restorecr} @findex \obeycr @findex \restorecr @cindex new line, output as input The @code{\obeycr} command makes a return in the input file (@samp{^^M}, internally) the same as @code{\\} (followed by @code{\relax}). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. @code{\restorecr} restores normal line-breaking behavior. @node \newline @section @code{\newline} @findex \newline @cindex new line, starting (paragraph mode) The @code{\newline} command breaks the line at the present point, with no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph mode. @node \- (hyphenation) @section @code{\-} (discretionary hyphen) @findex \- @r{(hyphenation)} @cindex hyphenation, forcing The @code{\-} command tells @LaTeX{} that it may hyphenate the word at that point. @LaTeX{} is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The @code{\-} command is used for the exceptional cases. When you insert @code{\-} commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that @LaTeX{} might otherwise have chosen. @node \fussy @section @code{\fussy} @findex \fussy The declaration @code{\fussy} (which is the default) makes @TeX{} picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. This command cancels the effect of a previous @code{\sloppy} command (@pxref{\sloppy}. @node \sloppy @section @code{\sloppy} The declaration @code{\sloppy} makes @TeX{} less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. Lasts until a @code{\fussy} command is issued (@pxref{\fussy}). @node \hyphenation @section @code{\hyphenation} @findex \hyphenation @cindex hyphenation, defining Synopsis: @example \hyphenation@{@var{word-one} @var{word-two}@} @end example The @code{\hyphenation} command declares allowed hyphenation points with a @code{-} character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. @TeX{} will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple @code{\hyphenation} commands accumulate. Some examples (the default @TeX{} hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words): @example \hyphenation@{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases@} @end example @node \linebreak & \nolinebreak @section @code{\linebreak} & @code{\nolinebreak} @findex \linebreak @findex \nolinebreak @cindex line breaks, forcing @cindex line breaks, preventing Synopses: @example \linebreak[@var{priority}] \nolinebreak[@var{priority}] @end example By default, the @code{\linebreak} (@code{\nolinebreak}) command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For @code{\linebreak}, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual. With the optional argument @var{priority}, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The @var{priority} must be a number from 0 to@tie{}4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. @node Page breaking @chapter Page breaking @cindex page breaking @cindex breaking pages @LaTeX{} starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. @menu * \cleardoublepage:: Start a new right-hand page. * \clearpage:: Start a new page. * \newpage:: Start a new page. * \enlargethispage:: Enlarge the current page a bit. * \pagebreak & \nopagebreak:: Forcing & avoiding page breaks. @end menu @node \cleardoublepage @section @code{\cleardoublepage} @findex \cleardoublepage @cindex starting on a right-hand page The @code{\cleardoublepage} command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. @node \clearpage @section @code{\clearpage} @findex \clearpage @cindex flushing floats and starting a page @cindex starting a new page and clearing floats The @code{\clearpage} command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. @node \newpage @section @code{\newpage} @findex \newpage @cindex new page, starting @cindex starting a new page The @code{\newpage} command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (see @code{\clearpage} above). @node \enlargethispage @section @code{\enlargethispage} @findex \enlargethispage @cindex enlarge current page @code{\enlargethispage@{size@}} @code{\enlargethispage*@{size@}} Enlarge the @code{\textheight} for the current page by the specified amount; e.g. @code{\enlargethispage@{\baselineskip@}} will allow one additional line. The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit @code{\pagebreak}. @node \pagebreak & \nopagebreak @section @code{\pagebreak} & @code{\nopagebreak} @findex \pagebreak @findex \nopagebreak @cindex page break, forcing @cindex page break, preventing Synopses: @example \pagebreak[@var{priority}] \nopagebreak[@var{priority}] @end example By default, the @code{\pagebreak} (@code{\nopagebreak}) command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. With @code{\pagebreak}, the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. With the optional argument @var{priority}, you can convert the @code{\pagebreak} command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to@tie{}4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is. @node Footnotes @chapter Footnotes @cindex footnotes, creating Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced with one command, the @code{\footnote} command. They can also be produced with two commands, the @code{\footnotemark} and the @code{\footnotetext} commands. @menu * \footnote:: Insert a footnote. * \footnotemark:: Insert footnote mark only. * \footnotetext:: Insert footnote text only. * Symbolic footnotes:: Using symbols instead of numbers for footnotes. * Footnote parameters:: Parameters for footnote formatting. @end menu @node \footnote @section @code{\footnote} @findex \footnote Synopsis: @example \footnote[@var{number}]@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\footnote} command places the numbered footnote @var{text} at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument @var{number} changes the default footnote number. This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning commands like @code{\chapter}, in figures, tables or in a @code{tabular} environment. (See following sections.) @c xx mention packages that fix this @node \footnotemark @section @code{\footnotemark} @findex \footnotemark With no optional argument, the @code{\footnotemark} command puts the current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the @code{\footnotetext} command. This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote with @example \footnotemark[\value@{footnote@}] @end example @noindent after the first @code{\footnote} command. @node \footnotetext @section @code{\footnotetext} @findex \footnotetext Synopsis: @example \footnotetext[@var{number}]@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\footnotetext} command places @var{text} at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the @code{\footnotemark} command. The @code{\footnotetext} command must appear in outer paragraph mode. The optional argument @var{number} changes the default footnote number. @node Symbolic footnotes @section Symbolic footnotes @cindex footnotes, symbolic instead of numbered If you want to use symbols for footnotes, rather than increasing numbers, redefine @code{\thefootnote} like this: @example \renewcommand@{\thefootnote@}@{\fnsymbol@{footnote@}@} @end example @findex \fnsymbol@r{, and footnotes} @findex \@@fnsymbol The @code{\fnsymbol} command produces a predefined series of symbols (@pxref{\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol}). If you want to use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you'll need to also redefine @code{\@@fnsymbol}. @node Footnote parameters @section Footnote parameters @cindex footnote parameters @cindex parameters, for footnotes @ftable @code @item \footnoterule Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions: @code{0.4pt} thick (or wide), and @code{0.4\columnwidth} long in the standard document classes (except @code{slides}, where it does not appear). @item \footnotesep The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for @code{\footnotesize} fonts (@pxref{Font sizes}), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is @samp{6.65pt} for @samp{10pt}, @samp{7.7pt} for @samp{11pt}, and @samp{8.4pt} for @samp{12pt}. @end ftable @node Definitions @chapter Definitions @cindex definitions @LaTeX{} has support for making new commands of many different kinds. @c xx everything in this chapter needs examples. @menu * \newcommand & \renewcommand:: (Re)define a new command. * \newcounter:: Define a new counter. * \newlength:: Define a new length. * \newsavebox:: Define a new box. * \newenvironment & \renewenvironment:: Define a new environment. * \newtheorem:: Define a new @code{theorem}-like environment. * \newfont:: Define a new font name. * \protect:: Using tricky commands. @end menu @node \newcommand & \renewcommand @section @code{\newcommand} & @code{\renewcommand} @findex \newcommand @cindex commands, defining new ones @cindex defining a new command @cindex new commands, defining @code{\newcommand} and @code{\renewcommand} define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses: @example \newcommand[*]@{@var{cmd}@}[@var{nargs}][@var{optargval}]@{@var{defn}@} \renewcommand[*]@{@var{cmd}@}[@var{nargs}][@var{optargval}]@{@var{defn}@} @end example @table @var @item @code{*} @cindex *-form of defining new commands The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not @code{\long}, in plain @TeX{} terms). @item cmd The command name, beginning with @code{\}. For @code{\newcommand}, it must not be already defined and must not begin with @code{\end}; for @code{\renewcommand}, it must already be defined. @item nargs An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no arguments. @item optargval If this optional parameter is present, it means that the first argument of command @var{cmd} is optional and its default value (i.e., if it is not specified in the call) is @var{optarg}. In otherwise, when calling the macro, if no @code{[@var{value}]} is given after @code{@var{cmd}}---which is different from having @code{[]} for an empty @var{value}---then string @samp{@var{optargval}} becomes the value of @code{#1} within @var{defn} when the macro is expanded. @item defn The text to be substituted for every occurrence of @code{cmd}; a construct of the form @code{#@var{n}} in @var{defn} is replaced by the text of the @var{n}th argument. @end table @c xx \providecommand, * form (non-\long) @node \newcounter @section @code{\newcounter} @findex \newcounter @cindex counters, defining new Synopsis: @example \newcounter@{@var{countername}@}[@var{supercounter}] @end example The @code{\newcounter} command defines a new counter named @var{countername}. The new counter is initialized to zero. Given the optional argument @code{[@var{super}]}, @var{countername} will be reset whenever the counter named @var{supercounter} is incremented. @xref{Counters}, for more information about counters. @node \newlength @section @code{\newlength} @findex \newlength @cindex lengths, defining new Synopsis: @example \newlength@{\@var{arg}@} @end example The @code{\newlength} command defines the mandatory argument as a @dfn{length} command with a value of zero. The argument must be a control sequence, as in @code{\newlength@{\foo@}}. An error occurs if @code{\foo} is already defined. @xref{Lengths}, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and for more information about lengths in general. @node \newsavebox @section @code{\newsavebox} @findex \newsavebox Synopsis: @example \newsavebox@{@var{cmd}@} @end example Defines @code{\@var{cmd}}, which must be a command name not already defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. @node \newenvironment & \renewenvironment @section @code{\newenvironment} & @code{\renewenvironment} @findex \newenvironment @findex \renewenvironment @cindex environments, defining @cindex defining new environments @cindex redefining environments Synopses: @example \newenvironment[*]@{@var{env}@}[@var{nargs}][@var{default}]@{@var{begdef}@}@{@var{enddef}@} \renewenvironment[*]@{@var{env}@}[@var{nargs}]@{@var{begdef}@}@{@var{enddef}@} @end example These commands define or redefine an environment @var{env}, that is, @code{\begin@{@var{env}@} @dots{} \end@{@var{env}@}}. @table @var @item @code{*} @cindex *-form of environment commands The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments (not the contents of the environment) not contain multiple paragraphs of text. @item env The name of the environment. For @code{\newenvironment}, @var{env} must not be an existing environment, and the command @code{\@var{env}} must be undefined. For @code{\renewenvironment}, @var{env} must be the name of an existing environment. @item nargs An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. @item default If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and @var{default} gives the default value for that argument. @item begdef The text expanded at every occurrence of @code{\begin@{@var{env}@}}; a construct of the form @code{#@var{n}} in @var{begdef} is replaced by the text of the @var{n}th argument. @item enddef The text expanded at every occurrence of @code{\end@{@var{env}@}}. It may not contain any argument parameters. @end table @node \newtheorem @section @code{\newtheorem} @findex \newtheorem @cindex theorems, defining @cindex defining new theorems @example \newtheorem@{@var{newenv}@}@{@var{label}@}[@var{within}] \newtheorem@{@var{newenv}@}[@var{numbered_like}]@{@var{label}@} @end example This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: @table @var @item newenv The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an existing environment or otherwise defined. @item label The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, @samp{Theorem}. @item numbered_like (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; the new environment will be numbered just like @var{numbered_like}. @item within (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the @var{within} counter. @end table At most one of @var{numbered_like} and @var{within} can be specified, not both. @node \newfont @section @code{\newfont} @findex \newfont @cindex fonts, new commands for @cindex defining new fonts Synopsis: @example \newfont@{@var{cmd}@}@{@var{fontname}@} @end example Defines a control sequence @code{\@var{cmd}}, which must not already be defined, to make @var{fontname} be the current font. The file looked for on the system is named @file{@var{fontname}.tfm}. This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. More commonly, fonts are defined in families through @file{.fd} files. @node \protect @section @code{\protect} @findex \protect @cindex fragile commands @cindex moving arguments Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more are so-called @dfn{fragile} commands. When a fragile command is used in certain contexts, called @dfn{moving arguments}, it must be preceded by @code{\protect}. In addition, any fragile commands within the arguments must have their own @code{\protect}. Some examples of moving arguments are @code{\caption} (@pxref{figure}), @code{\thanks} (@pxref{\maketitle}), and @-expressions in @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments (@pxref{tabular}). @cindex robust commands Commands which are not fragile are called @dfn{robust}. They must not be preceded by @code{\protect}. See also: @smallexample @exdent @url{http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html} @exdent @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect} @end smallexample @c xx really need examples. @node Counters @chapter Counters @cindex counters, a list of @cindex variables, a list of Everything @LaTeX{} numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that produces the number, except with no @code{\}. (@code{enumi}--@code{enumiv} are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in @LaTeX{}'s standard document classes to control numbering. @example part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection @end example @menu * \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter. * \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment. * \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression. * \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter. * \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter. * \refstepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \stepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \day \month \year:: Numeric date values. @end menu @node \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol @section @code{\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol}: Printing counters All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, @code{\alph@{enumi@}}. @ftable @code @item \alph prints @var{counter} using lowercase letters: `a', `b', @enddots{} @item \Alph uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', @enddots{} @item \arabic uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', @enddots{} @item \roman uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', @enddots{} @item \Roman uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', @enddots{} @item \fnsymbol prints the value of @var{counter} in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of @var{counter} must be between@tie{}1 and@tie{}9, inclusive. Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output): @display asterisk(*) dagger(@U{2021}) ddagger(@U{2021}) section-sign(@U{00A7}) paragraph-sign(@U{00B6}) parallel(@U{2225}) double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(@U{2021}@U{2021}) double-ddagger(@U{2021}@U{2021}) @end display @end ftable @node \usecounter @section @code{\usecounter@{@var{counter}@}} @findex \usecounter @cindex list items, specifying counter @cindex numbered items, specifying counter Synopsis: @example \usecounter@{@var{counter}@} @end example The @code{\usecounter} command is used in the second argument of the @code{list} environment to specify @var{counter} to be used to number the list items. @node \value @section @code{\value@{@var{counter}@}} @findex \value @cindex counters, getting value of Synopsis: @example \value@{@var{counter}@} @end example The @code{\value} command produces the value of @var{counter}. It can be used anywhere @LaTeX{} expects a number, for example: @example \setcounter@{myctr@}@{3@} \addtocounter@{myctr@}@{1@} \hspace@{\value@{myctr@}\parindent@} @end example @node \setcounter @section @code{\setcounter@{@var{counter}@}@{@var{value}@}} @findex \setcounter @cindex counters, setting @cindex setting counters Synopsis: @example \setcounter@{@var{counter}@}@{@var{value}@} @end example The @code{\setcounter} command sets the value of @var{counter} to the @var{value} argument. @node \addtocounter @section @code{\addtocounter@{@var{counter}@}@{@var{value}@}} @findex \addtocounter The @code{\addtocounter} command increments @var{counter} by the amount specified by the @var{value} argument, which may be negative. @node \refstepcounter @section @code{\refstepcounter@{@var{counter}@}} @findex \refstepcounter The @code{\refstepcounter} command works in the same way as @code{\stepcounter} @xref{\stepcounter}, except it also defines the current @code{\ref} value to be the result of @code{\thecounter}. @node \stepcounter @section @code{\stepcounter@{@var{counter}@}} @findex \stepcounter The @code{\stepcounter} command adds one to @var{counter} and resets all subsidiary counters. @node \day \month \year @section @code{\day \month \year}: Predefined counters @findex \day @findex \month @findex \year @LaTeX{} defines counters for the day of the month (@code{\day}, 1--31), month of the year (@code{\month}, 1--12), and year (@code{\year}, Common Era). When @TeX{} starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where @TeX{} is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. The related command @code{\today} produces a string representing the current day (@pxref{\today}). @node Lengths @chapter Lengths @cindex lengths, defining and using A @code{length} is a measure of distance. Many @LaTeX{} commands take a length as an argument. @menu * \setlength:: Set the value of a length. * \addtolength:: Add a quantity to a length. * \settodepth:: Set a length to the depth of something. * \settoheight:: Set a length to the height of something. * \settowidth:: Set a length to the width of something. * Predefined lengths:: Lengths that are, like, predefined. @end menu @node \setlength @section @code{\setlength@{\@var{len}@}@{@var{value}@}} @findex \setlength @cindex lengths, setting The @code{\setlength} sets the value of @var{\len} to the @var{value} argument, which can be expressed in any units that @LaTeX{} understands, i.e., inches (@code{in}), millimeters (@code{mm}), points (@code{pt}), big points (@code{bp}, etc. @node \addtolength @section \addtolength@{@var{\len}@}@{@var{amount}@} @findex \addtolength @cindex lengths, adding to The @code{\addtolength} command increments a ``length command'' @var{\len} by the amount specified in the @var{amount} argument, which may be negative. @node \settodepth @section @code{\settodepth} @findex \settodepth @code{\settodepth@{\gnat@}@{text@}} The @code{\settodepth} command sets the value of a @code{length} command equal to the depth of the @code{text} argument. @node \settoheight @section @code{\settoheight} @findex \settoheight @code{\settoheight@{\gnat@}@{text@}} The @code{\settoheight} command sets the value of a @code{length} command equal to the height of the @code{text} argument. @node \settowidth @section @code{\settowidth@{\@var{len}@}@{@var{text}@}} @findex \settowidth The @code{\settowidth} command sets the value of the command @var{\len} to the width of the @var{text} argument. @node Predefined lengths @section Predefined lengths @cindex lengths, predefined @cindex predefined lengths @code{\width} @findex \width @code{\height} @findex \height @code{\depth} @findex \depth @code{\totalheight} @findex \totalheight These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (@pxref{Boxes}). They specify the natural width, etc., of the text in the box. @code{\totalheight} equals @code{\height} + @code{\depth}. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say @code{\makebox[2\width]@{Get a stretcher@}} @node Making paragraphs @chapter Making paragraphs @cindex making paragraphs @cindex paragraphs A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines---lines not containing even a @code{%}. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command. @menu * \indent:: Indent this paragraph. * \noindent:: Do not indent this paragraph. * \parskip:: Space added before paragraphs. * Marginal notes:: Putting remarks in the margin. @end menu @node \indent @section @code{\indent} @findex \indent @findex \parindent @cindex indent, forcing @code{\indent} produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the @code{\parindent} length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. The default value for @code{\parindent} is @code{1em} in two-column mode, otherwise @code{15pt} for @code{10pt} documents, @code{17pt} for @code{11pt}, and @code{1.5em} for @code{12pt}. @node \noindent @section @code{\noindent} @findex \noindent @cindex indent, suppressing When used at the beginning of the paragraph, @code{\noindent} suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph. @node \parskip @section @code{\parskip} @findex \parskip @cindex vertical space before paragraphs @code{\parskip} is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is @code{0pt plus1pt}. @node Marginal notes @section Marginal notes @cindex marginal notes @cindex notes in the margin @cindex remarks in the margin @findex \marginpar Synopsis: @example \marginpar[@var{left}]@{@var{right}@} @end example The @code{\marginpar} command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the @code{\marginpar} occurs. When you only specify the mandatory argument @var{right}, the text will be placed @itemize @bullet @item in the right margin for one-sided layout; @item in the outside margin for two-sided layout; @item in the nearest margin for two-column layout. @end itemize @findex \reversemarginpar @findex \normalmarginpar The command @code{\reversemarginpar} places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. @code{\normalmarginpar} places them in the default position. When you specify both arguments, @var{left} is used for the left margin, and @var{right} is used for the right margin. The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with @code{\hspace@{0pt@}}. These parameters affect the formatting of the note: @ftable @code @item \marginparpush Minimum vertical space between notes; default @samp{7pt} for @samp{12pt} documents, @samp{5pt} else. @item \marginparsep Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default @samp{11pt} for @samp{10pt} documents, @samp{10pt} else. @item \marginparwidth Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided @samp{10pt} document is @samp{90pt}, @samp{83pt} for @samp{11pt}, and @samp{68pt} for @samp{12pt}; @samp{17pt} more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is @samp{48pt}. @end ftable The standard @LaTeX{} routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page. @c @TeX{} FAQ entry on this topic (xx when there): @c @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=marginparside}. @c (+marginfix) @node Math formulas @chapter Math formulas @cindex math formulas @cindex formulas, math @cindex math mode, entering @findex math @r{environment} @findex displaymath @r{environment} @findex equation @r{environment} There are three environments that put @LaTeX{} in math mode: @table @code @item math For formulas that appear right in the text. @item displaymath For formulas that appear on their own line. @item equation The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin. @end table @findex \( @findex \) @findex \[ @findex \] The @code{math} environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the @code{displaymath} and @code{equation} environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The @code{math} and @code{displaymath} environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: @example \(...\) @r{instead of} \begin@{math@}...\end@{math@} \[...\] @r{instead of} \begin@{displaymath@}...\end@{displaymath@} @end example @findex $ In fact, the @code{math} environment is so common that it has an even shorter form: @example $ ... $ @r{instead of} \(...\) @end example @findex \boldmath @findex \unboldmath The @code{\boldmath} command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used @emph{outside} of math mode. Conversely, the @code{\unboldmath} command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used @emph{outside} of math mode. @c xx own section? Math fonts? @findex \displaystyle The @code{\displaystyle} declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of @code{displaymath}, e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example @example $\displaystyle \sum_@{n=0@}^\infty x_n $ @end example @c xx see also \cal, \mathcal @menu * Subscripts & superscripts:: Also known as exponent or index. * Math symbols:: Various mathematical squiggles. * Math functions:: Math function names like sin and exp. * Math accents:: Accents in math. * Spacing in math mode:: Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces. * Math miscellany:: Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else. @end menu @node Subscripts & superscripts @section Subscripts & superscripts @cindex superscript @cindex subscript @cindex exponent @findex _ @findex ^ To get an expression @i{exp} to appear as a subscript, you just type @code{_@{}@i{exp}@code{@}}. To get @i{exp} to appear as a superscript, you type @code{^@{}@i{exp}@code{@}}. @LaTeX{} handles superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. @node Math symbols @section Math symbols @cindex math symbols @cindex symbols, math @cindex greek letters @LaTeX{} provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For example, if you include @code{$\pi$} in your source, you will get the pi symbol (@math{\pi}) in your output. @ftable @code @item \| @math{\|} @item \aleph @math{\aleph} @item \alpha @math{\alpha} @item \amalg @math{\amalg} (binary operation) @item \angle @math{\angle} @item \approx @math{\approx} (relation) @item \ast @math{\ast} (binary operation) @item \asymp @math{\asymp} (relation) @item \backslash \ (delimiter) @item \beta @math{\beta} @item \bigcap @math{\bigcap} @item \bigcirc @math{\bigcirc} (binary operation) @item \bigcup @math{\bigcup} @item \bigodot @math{\bigodot} @item \bigoplus @math{\bigoplus} @item \bigotimes @math{\bigotimes} @item \bigtriangledown @math{\bigtriangledown} (binary operation) @item \bigtriangleup @math{\bigtriangleup} (binary operation) @item \bigsqcup @math{\bigsqcup} @item \biguplus @math{\biguplus} @item \bigcap @math{\bigvee} @item \bigwedge @math{\bigwedge} @item \bot @math{\bot} @item \bowtie @math{\bowtie} (relation) @item \Box (square open box symbol) @c xx not in plain @item \bullet @cindex bullet symbol @math{\bullet} (binary operation) @item \cap @math{\cap} (binary operation) @item \cdot @math{\cdot} (binary operation) @item \chi @math{\chi} @item \circ @math{\circ} (binary operation) @item \clubsuit @math{\clubsuit} @item \cong @math{\cong} (relation) @item \coprod @math{\coprod} @item \cup @math{\cup} (binary operation) @item \dagger @math{\dagger} (binary operation) @item \dashv @math{\dashv} (relation) @item \ddagger @math{\dagger} (binary operation) @item \Delta @math{\Delta} @item \delta @math{\delta} @item \Diamond bigger @math{\diamond} @c xx not in plain @item \diamond @math{\diamond} (binary operation) @item \diamondsuit @math{\diamondsuit} @item \div @math{\div} (binary operation) @item \doteq @math{\doteq} (relation) @item \downarrow @math{\downarrow} (delimiter) @item \Downarrow @math{\Downarrow} (delimiter) @item \ell @math{\ell} @item \emptyset @math{\emptyset} @item \epsilon @math{\epsilon} @item \equiv @math{\equiv} (relation) @item \eta @math{\eta} @item \exists @math{\exists} @item \flat @math{\flat} @item \forall @math{\forall} @item \frown @math{\frown} (relation) @item \Gamma @math{\Gamma} @item \gamma @math{\gamma} @item \ge @math{\ge} @item \geq @math{\geq} (relation) @item \gets @math{\gets} @item \gg @math{\gg} (relation) @item \hbar @math{\hbar} @item \heartsuit @math{\heartsuit} @item \hookleftarrow @math{\hookleftarrow} @item \hookrightarrow @math{\hookrightarrow} @item \iff @math{\iff} @item \Im @math{\Im} @item \in @math{\in} (relation) @item \infty @math{\infty} @item \int @math{\int} @item \iota @math{\iota} @item \Join condensed bowtie symbol (relation) @c xx not in plain @item \kappa @math{\kappa} @item \Lambda @math{\Lambda} @item \lambda @math{\lambda} @item \land @math{\land} @item \langle @math{\langle} (delimiter) @item \lbrace @math{\lbrace} (delimiter) @item \lbrack @math{\lbrack} (delimiter) @item \lceil @math{\lceil} (delimiter) @item \le @math{\le} @item \leadsto @c xx missing from plain @item \Leftarrow @math{\Leftarrow} @item \leftarrow @math{\leftarrow} @item \leftharpoondown @math{\leftharpoondown} @item \leftharpoonup @math{\leftharpoonup} @item \Leftrightarrow @math{\Leftrightarrow} @item \leftrightarrow @math{\leftrightarrow} @item \leq @math{\leq} (relation) @item \lfloor @math{\lfloor} (delimiter) @item \lhd (left-pointing arrow head) @c xx not in plain @item \ll @math{\ll} (relation) @item \lnot @math{\lnot} @item \longleftarrow @math{\longleftarrow} @item \longleftrightarrow @math{\longleftrightarrow} @item \longmapsto @math{\longmapsto} @item \longrightarrow @math{\longrightarrow} @item \lor @math{\lor} @item \mapsto @math{\mapsto} @item \mho @c xx not in plain @item \mid @math{\mid} (relation) @item \models @math{\models} (relation) @item \mp @math{\mp} (binary operation) @item \mu @math{\mu} @item \nabla @math{\nabla} @item \natural @math{\natural} @item \ne @math{\ne} @item \nearrow @math{\nearrow} @item \neg @math{\neg} @item \neq @math{\neq} (relation) @item \ni @math{\ni} (relation) @item \not Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in @math{\not=}. @item \notin @math{\ni} @item \nu @math{\nu} @item \nwarrow @math{\nwarrow} @item \odot @math{\odot} (binary operation) @item \oint @math{\oint} @item \Omega @math{\Omega} @item \omega @math{\omega} @item \ominus @math{\ominus} (binary operation) @item \oplus @math{\oplus} (binary operation) @item \oslash @math{\oslash} (binary operation) @item \otimes @math{\otimes} (binary operation) @item \owns @math{\owns} @item \parallel @math{\parallel} (relation) @item \partial @math{\partial} @item \perp @math{\perp} (relation) @item \phi @math{\phi} @item \Pi @math{\Pi} @item \pi @math{\pi} @item \pm @math{\pm} (binary operation) @item \prec @math{\prec} (relation) @item \preceq @math{\preceq} (relation) @item \prime @math{\prime} @item \prod @math{\prod} @item \propto @math{\propto} (relation) @item \Psi @math{\Psi} @item \psi @math{\psi} @item \rangle @math{\rangle} (delimiter) @item \rbrace @math{\rbrace} (delimiter) @item \rbrack @math{\rbrack} (delimiter) @item \rceil @math{\rceil} (delimiter) @item \Re @math{\Re} @item \rfloor @math{\rfloor} @item \rhd (binary operation) @c xx not in plain @math{\rhd} @item \rho @math{\rho} @item \Rightarrow @math{\Rightarrow} @item \rightarrow @math{\rightarrow} @item \rightharpoondown @math{\rightharpoondown} @item \rightharpoonup @math{\rightharpoonup} @item \rightleftharpoons @math{\rightleftharpoons} @item \searrow @math{\searrow} @item \setminus @math{\setminus} (binary operation) @item \sharp @math{\sharp} @item \Sigma @math{\Sigma} @item \sigma @math{\sigma} @item \sim @math{\sim} (relation) @item \simeq @math{\simeq} (relation) @item \smallint @math{\smallint} @item \smile @math{\smile} (relation) @item \spadesuit @math{\spadesuit} @item \sqcap @math{\sqcap} (binary operation) @item \sqcup @math{\sqcup} (binary operation) @item \sqsubset (relation) @c not in plain (@math{\sqsubset}) @item \sqsubseteq @math{\sqsubseteq} (relation) @item \sqsupset (relation) @c not in plain (@math{\sqsupset}) @item \sqsupseteq @math{\sqsupseteq} (relation) @item \star @math{\star} (binary operation) @item \subset @math{\subset} (relation) @item \subseteq @math{\subseteq} (relation) @item \succ @math{\succ} (relation) @item \succeq @math{\succeq} (relation) @item \sum @math{\sum} @item \supset @math{\supset} (relation) @item \supseteq @math{\supseteq} (relation) @item \surd @math{\surd} @item \swarrow @math{\swarrow} @item \tau @math{\tau} @item \theta @math{\theta} @item \times @math{\times} (binary operation) @item \to @math{\to} @item \top @math{\top} @item \triangle @math{\triangle} @item \triangleleft @math{\triangleleft} (binary operation) @item \triangleright @math{\triangleright} (binary operation) @item \unlhd left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) @c not in plain @item \unrhd right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) @c not in plain @item \Uparrow @math{\Uparrow} (delimiter) @item \uparrow @math{\uparrow} (delimiter) @item \Updownarrow @math{\Updownarrow} (delimiter) @item \updownarrow @math{\updownarrow} (delimiter) @item \uplus @math{\uplus} (binary operation) @item \Upsilon @math{\Upsilon} @item \upsilon @math{\upsilon} @item \varepsilon @math{\varepsilon} @item \varphi @math{\varphi} @item \varpi @math{\varpi} @item \varrho @math{\varrho} @item \varsigma @math{\varsigma} @item \vartheta @math{\vartheta} @item \vdash @math{\vdash} (relation) @item \vee @math{\vee} (binary operation) @item \Vert @math{\Vert} (delimiter) @item \vert @math{\vert} (delimiter) @item \wedge @math{\wedge} (binary operation) @item \wp @math{\wp} @item \wr @math{\wr} (binary operation) @item \Xi @math{\Xi} @item \xi @math{\xi} @item \zeta @math{\zeta} @end ftable @node Math functions @section Math functions @cindex math functions @cindex functions, math These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing. @ftable @code @item \arccos @math{\arccos} @item \arcsin @math{\arcsin} @item \arctan @math{\arctan} @item \arg @math{\arg} @item \bmod Binary modulo operator (@math{x \bmod y}) @item \cos @math{\cos} @item \cosh @math{\cosh} @item \cot @math{\cos} @item \coth @math{\cosh} @item \csc @math{\csc} @item \deg @math{\deg} @item \det @math{\deg} @item \dim @math{\dim} @item \exp @math{\exp} @item \gcd @math{\gcd} @item \hom @math{\hom} @item \inf @math{\inf} @item \ker @math{\ker} @item \lg @math{\lg} @item \lim @math{\lim} @item \liminf @math{\liminf} @item \limsup @math{\limsup} @item \ln @math{\ln} @item \log @math{\log} @item \max @math{\max} @item \min @math{\min} @item \pmod parenthesized modulus, as in (@math{\pmod 2^n - 1}) @item \Pr @math{\Pr} @item \sec @math{\sec} @item \sin @math{\sin} @item \sinh @math{\sinh} @item \sup sup @c don't try to use \sup since that turned into a Texinfo command @c and it's not worth hassling with different versions when it's @c just three roman letters anyway. @item \tan @math{\tan} @item \tanh @math{\tanh} @end ftable @node Math accents @section Math accents @cindex math accents @cindex accents, mathematical @LaTeX{} provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (@pxref{Accents}). @ftable @code @item \acute @cindex acute accent, math Math acute accent: @math{\acute{x}}. @item \bar @cindex bar-over accent, math @cindex macron accent, math Math bar-over accent: @math{\bar{x}}. @item \breve @cindex breve accent, math Math breve accent: @math{\breve{x}}. @item \check @cindex check accent, math @cindex h@'a@v{c}ek accent, math Math h@'a@v{c}ek (check) accent: @math{\check{x}}. @item \ddot @cindex double dot accent, math Math dieresis accent: @math{\ddot{x}}. @item \dot @cindex overdot accent, math @cindex dot over accent, math Math dot accent: @math{\dot{x}}. @item \grave @cindex grave accent, math Math grave accent: @math{\grave{x}}. @item \hat @cindex hat accent, math @cindex circumflex accent, math Math hat (circumflex) accent: @math{\hat{x}}. @item \imath @cindex dotless i, math Math dotless i. @item \jmath @cindex dotless j, math Math dotless j. @item \mathring @cindex ring accent, math Math ring accent: @ringaccent{x}. @c don't bother implementing in texinfo @item \tilde @cindex tilde accent, math Math tilde accent: @math{\tilde{x}}. @item \vec @cindex vector symbol, math Math vector symbol: @math{\vec{x}}. @item \widehat @cindex wide hat accent, math Math wide hat accent: @math{\widehat{x+y}}. @item \widehat @cindex wide tile accent, math Math wide tilde accent: @math{\widetilde{x+y}}. @end ftable @node Spacing in math mode @section Spacing in math mode @cindex spacing within math mode @cindex math mode, spacing In a @code{math} environment, @LaTeX{} ignores the spaces you type and puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If you want different spacing, @LaTeX{} provides the following commands for use in math mode: @table @code @item \; @findex \; A thick space (@math{5\over18\,}quad). @item \: @itemx \> @findex \: @findex \> Both of these produce a medium space (@math{2\over9\,}quad). @item \, @findex \, A thin space (@math{1\over6\,}quad); not restricted to math mode. @item \! A negative thin space (@math{-{1\over6}\,}quad). @end table @node Math miscellany @section Math miscellany @cindex math miscellany @ftable @code @item \* @cindex discretionary multiplication @cindex multiplication symbol, discretionary line break A ``discretionary'' multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed. @item \cdots A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. @tex As in: `$\cdots$'. @end tex @item \ddots A diagonal ellipsis: @math{\ddots}. @item \frac@{num@}@{den@} @findex \frac Produces the fraction @code{num} divided by @code{den}. @iftex eg. @tex ${1}\over{4}$ @end tex @end iftex @item \left @var{delim1} ... \right @var{delim2} @findex \right @cindex null delimiter The two delimiters need not match; @samp{.} acts as a null delimiter, producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: @code{\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]}. @item \overbrace@{@var{text}@} Generates a brace over @var{text}. For example, @math{\overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}}. @item \overline@{@var{text}@} Generates a horizontal line over @var{tex}. For example, @math{\overline{x+y}}. @item \sqrt[@var{root}]@{arg@} Produces the representation of the square root of @var{arg}. The optional argument @var{root} determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of @code{x+y} would be typed as @code{$\sqrt[3]@{x+y@}$}. @tex In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: $\root 3 \of x+y$. @end tex @item \stackrel@{@var{text}@}@{@var{relation}@} Puts @var{text} above @var{relation}. For example, @code{\stackrel@{f@}@{\longrightarrow@}}. @tex In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: $\buildrel f \over \longrightarrow$. @end tex @item \underbrace@{math@} Generates @var{math} with a brace underneath. @tex In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: $\underbrace{x+y+z}_{>\,0}$. @end tex @item \underline@{text@} Causes @var{text}, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders. @tex In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: $\underline{xyz}$ @end tex @item \vdots @findex \vdots Produces a vertical ellipsis. @tex In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: $\vdots$. @end tex @end ftable @node Modes @chapter Modes @cindex modes @cindex paragraph mode @cindex math mode @cindex left-to-right mode @cindex LR mode When @LaTeX{} is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes: @itemize @bullet @item Paragraph mode @item Math mode @item Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short @end itemize Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when @LaTeX{} is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. @dfn{Paragraph mode} is the most common; it's the one @LaTeX{} is in when processing ordinary text. In this mode, @LaTeX{} breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. @LaTeX{} is in @dfn{math mode} when it's generating a mathematical formula, either displayed math or within a line. @findex \mbox@r{, and LR mode} In @dfn{LR mode}, as in paragraph mode, @LaTeX{} considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, @LaTeX{} keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an @code{\mbox}, @LaTeX{} would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line). @LaTeX{} is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an @code{\mbox} command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box---for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put @LaTeX{} into paragraph mode. The box made by one of these commands or environments will be called a @code{parbox}. When @LaTeX{} is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in ``inner paragraph mode'' (no page breaks). Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called ``outer paragraph mode''. @node Page styles @chapter Page styles @cindex styles, page @cindex page styles The @code{\documentclass} command determines the size and position of the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. @menu * \maketitle:: Generate a title page. * \pagenumbering:: Set the style used for page numbers. * \pagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style. * \thispagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style for this page. @end menu @node \maketitle @section @code{\maketitle} @cindex titles, making @findex \maketitle The @code{\maketitle} command generates a title on a separate title page---except in the @code{article} class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations: @ftable @code @item \author@{@var{name} \and @var{name2}@} @cindex author, for titlepage @findex \\ @r{for @code{\author}} @findex \and @r{for @code{\author}} The @code{\author} command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by @code{\and} commands. Use @code{\\} to separate lines within a single author's entry---for example, to give the author's institution or address. @item \date@{@var{text}@} @cindex date, for titlepage The @code{\date} command declares @var{text} to be the document's date. With no @code{\date} command, the current date (@pxref{\today}) is used. @item \thanks@{@var{text}@} @cindex thanks, for titlepage @cindex credit footnote The @code{\thanks} command produces a @code{\footnote} to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements. @item \title@{@var{text}@} @cindex title, for titlepage @findex \\ @r{for @code{\title}} The @code{\title} command declares @var{text} to be the title of the document. Use @code{\\} to force a line break, as usual. @end ftable @node \pagenumbering @section @code{\pagenumbering} @findex \pagenumbering @cindex page numbering style Synopsis: @example \pagenumbering@{@var{style}@} @end example Specifies the style of page numbers, according to @var{style}; also resets the page number to 1. The @var{style} argument is one of the following: @table @code @item arabic arabic numerals @item roman lowercase Roman numerals @item Roman uppercase Roman numerals @item alph lowercase letters @item Alph uppercase letters @end table @node \pagestyle @section @code{\pagestyle} @findex \pagestyle @cindex header style @cindex footer style @cindex running header and footer style Synopsis: @example \pagestyle@{@var{style}@} @end example The @code{\pagestyle} command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for @var{style}: @table @code @item plain Just a plain page number. @item empty Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. @item headings Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers. @item myheadings Custom headers, specified via the @code{\markboth} or the @code{\markright} commands. @end table Here are the descriptions of @code{\markboth} and @code{\markright}: @ftable @code @item \markboth@{@var{left}@}@{@var{right}@} Sets both the left and the right heading. A ``left-hand heading'' (@var{left}) is generated by the last @code{\markboth} command before the end of the page, while a ``right-hand heading'' (@var{right}) is generated by the first @code{\markboth} or @code{\markright} that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. @item \markright@{@var{right}@} Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. @end ftable @node \thispagestyle @section @code{\thispagestyle@{@var{style}@}} @findex \thispagestyle The @code{\thispagestyle} command works in the same manner as the @code{\pagestyle} command (see previous section) except that it changes to @var{style} for the current page only. @node Spaces @chapter Spaces @cindex spaces @LaTeX{} has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Another space-producing command is @code{\,} to produce a ``thin'' space (usually 1/6@dmn{quad}). It can be used in text mode, but is more often useful in math mode (@pxref{Spacing in math mode}). @menu Horizontal space * \hspace:: Fixed horizontal space. * \hfill:: Stretchable horizontal space. * \SPACE:: Normal interword space. * \@@:: Ending a sentence. * \thinspace:: One-sixth of an em. * \/:: Insert italic correction. * \hrulefill:: Stretchable horizontal rule. * \dotfill:: Stretchable horizontal dots. Vertical space * \addvspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space if needed. * \bigskip \medskip \smallskip:: Fixed vertical spaces. * \vfill:: Infinitely stretchable vertical space. * \vspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space. @end menu @node \hspace @section @code{\hspace} @findex \hspace Synopsis: @example \hspace[*]@{@var{length}@} @end example The @code{\hspace} command adds horizontal space. The @var{length} argument can be expressed in any terms that @LaTeX{} understands: points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive space with an @code{\hspace} command; adding negative space is like backspacing. @LaTeX{} normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional @code{*} form. @node \hfill @section @code{\hfill} @findex \hfill @cindex stretch, infinite horizontal @cindex infinite horizontal stretch The @code{\hfill} fill command produces a ``rubber length'' which has no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed. @findex \fill The @code{\fill} parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the glue value @samp{0pt plus1fill}); thus, @code{\hspace\fill} is equivalent to @code{\hfill}. @node \SPACE @section @code{\SPACE}: Normal interword space @findex \SPACE @findex \TAB @findex \NEWLINE The @code{\ } (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example, @code{the article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental}. It is also often used after control sequences, as in @code{\TeX\ is a nice system.} In normal circumstances, @code{\}@key{tab} and @code{\}@key{newline} are equivalent to @code{\ }. @node \@@ @section @code{\@@}: Force sentence-ending punctuation @findex \@@ @anchor{\AT}@c old name The @code{\@@} command makes the following punctuation character end a sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without @code{\@@}: @example @dots{} in C\@@. Pascal, though @dots{} @dots{} in C. Pascal, though @dots{} @end example @noindent produces @c Texinfo has different commands, but the result is the same. @quotation @dots{} in C@. Pascal, though @dots{}@* @dots{} in C. Pascal, though @dots{} @end quotation @node \thinspace @section @code{\thinspace}: Insert 1/6@dmn{em} @findex \thinspace @code{\thinspace} produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in '@dmn{}''.@c Abuse @dmn, which is a thin space in Texinfo. @node \/ @section @code{\/}: Insert italic correction @findex \/ @cindex italic correction The @code{\/} command produces an @dfn{italic correction}. This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic @i{f} character typically has a large italic correction value. If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare @tex {\it f\/: f\/;} @end tex @ifnottex @i{f: f;} (in the @TeX{} output, the `f's are nicely separated) @end ifnottex with @i{f: f;}. When changing fonts with commands such as @code{\textit@{italic text@}} or @code{@{\itshape italic text@}}, @LaTeX{} will automatically insert an italic correction if appropriate (@pxref{Font styles}). Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare @tex pdf\/\TeX{} @end tex @ifnottex pdf@TeX{} (in the @TeX{} output, there is a small space after the `f') @end ifnottex with pdf@TeX{}. There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way. @node \hrulefill @section @code{\hrulefill} @findex \hrulefill The @code{\hrulefill} fill command produces a ``rubber length'' which can stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal rule. @node \dotfill @section @code{\dotfill} @findex \dotfill The @code{\dotfill} command produces a ``rubber length'' that fills with dots instead of just white space. @c xx undone @node \addvspace @section @code{\addvspace} @findex \addvspace @cindex vertical space @cindex space, inserting vertical @code{\addvspace@{length@}} The @code{\addvspace} command normally adds a vertical space of height length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous @code{\addvspace} command, then this command will not add more space than is needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to @code{length}. @node \bigskip \medskip \smallskip @section @code{\bigskip \medskip \smallskip} These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the document class. @table @code @item \bigskip @findex \bigskip @findex \bigskipamount The same as @code{\vspace@{\bigskipamount@}}, ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the @code{book} and @code{article} classes is @code{12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt}). @item \medskip @findex \medskip @findex \medskipamount The same as @code{\vspace@{\medskipamount@}}, ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the @code{book} and @code{article} classes is @code{6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt}). @item \smallskip @findex \smallskip @findex \smallskipamount The same as @code{\vspace@{\smallskipamount@}}, ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the @code{book} and @code{article} classes is @code{3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt}). @end table @node \vfill @section @code{\vfill} @findex \vfill @cindex stretch, infinite vertical @cindex infinite vertical stretch The @code{\vfill} fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to @code{\vspace@{\fill@}} (@pxref{\hfill}). @node \vspace @section @code{\vspace[*]@{@var{length}@}} @findex \vspace Synopsis: @example \vspace[*]@{@var{length}@} @end example The @code{\vspace} command adds the vertical space @var{length}, i.e., a rubber length. @var{length} can be negative or positive. Ordinarily, @LaTeX{} removes vertical space added by @code{\vspace} at the top or bottom of a page. With the optional @code{*} argument, the space is not removed. @node Boxes @chapter Boxes @cindex boxes All the predefined length parameters (@pxref{Predefined lengths}) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands. @menu * \mbox:: Horizontal boxes. * \fbox and \framebox:: Put a frame around a box. * lrbox:: An environment like @code{\sbox}. * \makebox:: Box, adjustable position. * \parbox:: Box with text in paragraph mode. * \raisebox:: Raise or lower text. * \savebox:: Like @code{\makebox}, but save the text for later use. * \sbox:: Like @code{\mbox}, but save the text for later use. * \usebox:: Print saved text. @end menu @node \mbox @section @code{\mbox@{@var{text@}}} @findex \mbox @cindex hyphenation, preventing The @code{\mbox} command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The @var{text} is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation. @node \fbox and \framebox @section @code{\fbox} and @code{\framebox} @findex \fbox @findex \framebox Synopses: @example \fbox@{@var{text}@} \framebox[@var{width}][@var{position}]@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\fbox} and @code{\framebox} commands are like @code{\mbox}, except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. In addition, the @code{\framebox} command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional @var{width} argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional @var{position} argument. @c xxref @findex \fboxrule @findex \fboxsep Both commands produce a rule of thickness @code{\fboxrule} (default @samp{.4pt}), and leave a space of @code{\fboxsep} (default @samp{3pt}) between the rule and the contents of the box. @xref{\framebox (picture)}, for the @code{\framebox} command in the @code{picture} environment. @node lrbox @section @code{lrbox} @findex lrbox @code{\begin@{lrbox@}@{cmd@} text \end@{lrbox@}} This is the environment form of @code{\sbox}. The text inside the environment is saved in the box @code{cmd}, which must have been declared with @code{\newsavebox}. @node \makebox @section @code{\makebox} @findex \makebox Synopsis: @example \makebox[@var{width}][@var{position}]@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\makebox} command creates a box just wide enough to contain the @var{text} specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional @var{width} argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional @var{position} argument, which may take the following values: @table @code @item c Centered (default). @item l Flush left. @item r Flush right. @item s Stretch (justify) across entire @var{width}; @var{text} must contain stretchable space for this to work. @end table @code{\makebox} is also used within the picture environment @pxref{\makebox (picture)}. @node \parbox @section @code{\parbox} @findex \parbox Synopsis: @example \parbox[@var{position}][@var{height}][@var{inner-pos}]@{@var{width}@}@{@var{text}@} @end example The @code{\parbox} command produces a box whose contents are created in @code{paragraph} mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a @code{\parbox} argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a @code{minipage} environment (@pxref{minipage}). @code{\parbox} has two mandatory arguments: @table @var @item width the width of the parbox; @item text the text that goes inside the parbox. @end table The optional @var{position} argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top). The optional @var{height} argument overrides the natural height of the box. The @var{inner-pos} argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, @var{position} is used. @table @code @item t text is placed at the top of the box. @item c text is centered in the box. @item b text is placed at the bottom of the box. @item s stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work. @end table @node \raisebox @section @code{\raisebox} @findex \raisebox Synopsis: @example \raisebox@{distance@}[@var{height}][@var{depth}]@{text@} @end example The @code{\raisebox} command raises or lowers @var{text}. The first mandatory argument specifies how high @var{text} is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). @var{text} itself is processed in LR mode. The optional arguments @var{height} and @var{depth} are dimensions. If they are specified, @LaTeX{} treats @var{text} as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth. @node \savebox @section @code{\savebox} @findex \savebox Synopsis: @example \savebox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}[@var{width}][@var{pos}]@{@var{text}@} @end example This command typeset @var{text} in a box just as with @code{\makebox} (@pxref{\makebox}), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled @var{\boxcmd}, which must have been declared with @code{\newsavebox} (@pxref{\newsavebox}). @node \sbox @section @code{\sbox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}@{@var{text}@}} @findex \sbox Synopsis: @example \sbox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}@{@var{text}@} @end example @code{\sbox} types @var{text} in a box just as with @code{\mbox} (@pxref{\mbox}) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled @var{\boxcmd}. @var{\boxcmd} must have been previously declared with @code{\newsavebox} (@pxref{\newsavebox}). @node \usebox @section @code{\usebox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}} @findex \usebox Synopsis: @example \usebox@{@var{\boxcmd}@} @end example @code{\usebox} produces the box most recently saved in the bin @var{\boxcmd} by a @code{\savebox} command (@pxref{\savebox}). @node Special insertions @chapter Special insertions @LaTeX{} provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. @menu * Reserved characters:: Inserting @samp{# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ @{ @}} * Text symbols:: Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. * Accents:: Inserting accents. * Non-English characters:: Inserting other non-English characters. * \rule:: Inserting lines and rectangles. * \today:: Inserting today's date. @end menu @node Reserved characters @section Reserved characters @cindex reserved characters @cindex characters, reserved The following characters play a special role in @LaTeX{} and are called ``reserved characters'' or ``special characters''. @example # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ @{ @} @end example @findex \# @findex \$ @findex \% @findex \& @findex \_ @findex \@{ @findex \@} Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, @LaTeX{} will do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as itself, include a @code{\} in front of the character. For example, @code{\$} will produce @code{$} in your output. @findex \backslash One exception to this rule is @code{\} itself, because @code{\\} has its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing @code{$\backslash$} in your file, and a typewriter @code{\} is produced by using @samp{\} in a verbatim command (@pxref{verbatim}). @findex \~ @findex \^ Also, @code{\~} and @code{\^} place tilde and circumflex accents over the following letter, as in @~{o} and @^{o} (@pxref{Accents}); to get a standalone @code{~} or @code{^}, you can again use a verbatim command. @findex \symbol @cindex accessing any character of a font Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you know its number by using the @code{\symbol} command. For example, the visible space character used in the @code{\verb*} command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as @code{\symbol@{32@}}. You can also specify octal numbers with @code{'} or hexadecimal numbers with @code{"}, so the previous example could also be written as @code{\symbol@{'40@}} or @code{\symbol@{"20@}}. @node Text symbols @section Text symbols @cindex text symbols @findex textcomp @r{package} @LaTeX{} provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1; you may need to load the @code{textcomp} package. @ftable @code @item \copyright @itemx \textcopyright @cindex copyright symbol The copyright symbol, @copyright{}. @item \dag @cindex dagger, in text The dagger symbol (in text). @item \ddag @cindex double dagger, in text The double dagger symbol (in text). @item \LaTeX @cindex @LaTeX{} logo @cindex logo, @LaTeX{} The @LaTeX{} logo. @item \LaTeXe @cindex @LaTeX{}2e logo @cindex logo, @LaTeX{}2e The @LaTeX{}2e logo. @item \guillemotleft @r{(@guillemotleft{})} @itemx \guillemotright @r{(@guillemotright{})} @itemx \guilsinglleft @r{(@guilsinglleft{})} @itemx \guilsinglright @r{(@guilsinglright{})} @cindex double guillemets @cindex single guillemets @cindex left angle quotation marks @cindex right angle quotation marks @cindex double angle quotation marks @cindex single angle quotation marks @cindex French quotation marks @cindex quotation marks, French Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: @guillemotleft{}, @guillemotright{}, @guilsinglleft{}, @guilsinglright{}. @item \ldots @itemx \dots @itemx \textellipsis @cindex ellipsis An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `@dots{}'. @code{\ldots} and @code{\dots} also work in math mode. @item \lq @cindex left quote @cindex opening quote Left (opening) quote: `. @item \P @itemx \textparagraph @cindex paragraph symbol @cindex pilcrow Paragraph sign (pilcrow). @item \pounds @itemx \textsterling @cindex pounds symbol @cindex sterling symbol English pounds sterling: @pounds{}. @item \quotedblbase @r{(@quotedblbase{})} @itemx \quotesinglbase @r{(@quotesinglbase{})} @cindex double low-9 quotation mark @cindex single low-9 quotation mark @cindex low-9 quotation marks, single and double Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: @quotedblbase{} and @quotesinglbase{}. @item \rq @cindex right quote @cindex closing quote Right (closing) quote: '. @item \S @cindex section symbol Section symbol. @item \TeX @cindex @TeX{} logo @cindex logo, @TeX{} The @TeX{} logo. @item \textasciicircum @cindex circumflex, ASCII, in text @cindex ASCII circumflex, in text ASCII circumflex: ^. @item \textasciitilde @cindex tilde, ASCII, in text @cindex ASCII tilde, in text ASCII tilde: ~. @item \textasteriskcentered @cindex asterisk, centered, in text @cindex centered asterisk, in text Centered asterisk: *. @item \textbackslash @cindex backslash, in text Backslash: \. @item \textbar @cindex vertical bar, in text @cindex bar, vertical, in text Vertical bar: |. @item \textbardbl @cindex vertical bar, double, in text @cindex bar, double vertical, in text @cindex double vertical bar, in text Double vertical bar. @item \textbigcircle @cindex big circle symbols, in text @cindex circle symbol, big, in text Big circle symbol. @item \textbraceleft @cindex left brace, in text @cindex brace, left, in text Left brace: @{. @item \textbraceright @cindex right brace, in text @cindex brace, right, in text Right brace: @}. @item \textbullet @cindex bullet, in text Bullet: @bullet{}. @item \textcircled@{@var{letter}@} @cindex circled letter, in text @var{letter} in a circle, as in @registeredsymbol{}. @item \textcompwordmark @itemx \textcapitalwordmark @itemx \textascenderwordmark @cindex composite word mark, in text @cindex cap height @cindex ascender height Composite word mark (invisible). The @code{\textcapital...} form has the cap height of the font, while the @code{\textascender...} form has the ascender height. @item \textdagger @cindex dagger, in text Dagger: @math{\dag}. @item \textdaggerdbl @cindex dagger, double, in text @cindex double dagger, in text Double dagger: @math{\ddag}. @item \textdollar @r{(or @code{$})} @cindex dollar sign @cindex currency, dollar Dollar sign: $. @item \textemdash @r{(or @code{---})} @cindex em-dash Em-dash: --- (for punctuation). @item \textendash @r{(or @code{--})} @cindex e-dash En-dash: --- (for ranges). @item \texteuro @cindex euro symbol @cindex currency, euro The Euro symbol: @euro{}. @item \textexclamdown @r{(or @code{!`})} @cindex exclamation point, upside-down Upside down exclamation point: @exclamdown{}. @item \textgreater @cindex greater than symbol, in text Greater than: >. @item \textless @cindex less than symbol, in text Less than: <. @item \textleftarrow @cindex arrow, left, in text @cindex left arrow, in text Left arrow. @item \textordfeminine @itemx \textordmasculine @cindex feminine ordinal symbol @cindex masculine ordinal symbol @cindex ordinals, feminine and masculine @cindex Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: @ordf{}, @ordm{}. @item \textperiodcentered @cindex period, centered, in text @cindex centered period, in text Centered period: @math{\cdot}. @item \textquestiondown @r{(or @code{?`})} @cindex question mark, upside-down Upside down question mark: @questiondown{}. @item \textquotedblleft @r{(or @code{``})} @cindex left quote, double @cindex double left quote Double left quote: ``. @item \textquotedblright @r{(or @code{'})} @cindex right quote, double @cindex double right quote Double right quote: ''. @item \textquoteleft @r{(or @code{`})} @cindex left quote, single @cindex single left quote Single left quote: `. @item \textquoteright @r{(or @code{'})} @cindex right quote, single @cindex single right quote Single right quote: '. @item \textquotestraightbase @itemx \textquotestraightdblbase @cindex quote, straight base @cindex straight quote, base @cindex double quote, straight base @cindex straight double quote, base Single and double straight quotes on the baseline. @item \textregistered @cindex registered symbol Registered symbol: @registeredsymbol{}. @item \textrightarrow @cindex arrow, right, in text @cindex right arrow, in text Right arrow. @item \textthreequartersemdash @cindex three-quarters em-dash @cindex em-dash, three-quarters ``Three-quarters'' em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. @item \texttrademark @cindex trademark symbol Trademark symbol: @math{^{\hbox{TM}}}. @item \texttwelveudash @cindex two-thirds em-dash @cindex em-dash, two-thirds ``Two-thirds'' em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. @item \textunderscore @cindex underscore, in text Underscore: _. @item \textvisiblespace @cindex visible space symbol, in text Visible space symbol. @end ftable @node Accents @section Accents @cindex accents @cindex characters, accented @cindex letters, accented @cindex @code{babel} package @cindex multilingual support @LaTeX{} has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, through the @code{babel} package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core @LaTeX{} commands for creating accented characters. The @code{\capital...} commands produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1. @table @code @item \" @itemx \capitaldieresis @findex \" @r{(umlaut accent)} @findex \capitaldieresis @cindex umlaut accent @cindex dieresis accent Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in @"{o}. @item \' @itemx \capitalacute @findex \' @r{(acute accent)} @findex \capitalacute @cindex acute accent Produces an acute accent, as in @'{o}. In the @code{tabbing} environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (@pxref{tabbing}). @item \. @findex \. @r{(dot-over accent)} @cindex dot accent @cindex dot-over accent Produces a dot accent over the following, as in @dotaccent{o}. @item \= @itemx \capitalmacron @findex \= @r{(macron accent)} @findex \capitalmacron @cindex macron accent @cindex overbar accent @cindex bar-over accent Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in @={o}. @item \^ @itemx \capitalcircumflex @findex \^ @r{(circumflex accent)} @findex \capitalcircumflex @cindex circumflex accent @cindex hat accent Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in @^{o}. @item \` @itemx \capitalgrave @findex \` @r{(grave accent)} @findex \capitalgrave @cindex grave accent Produces a grave accent over the following, as in @`{o}. In the @code{tabbing} environment, move following text to the right margin (@pxref{tabbing}). @item \~ @itemx \capitaltilde @findex \~ @r{(tilde accent)} @findex \capitaltilde @cindex tilde accent Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in @~{n}. @item \b @findex \b @r{(bar-under accent)} @cindex bar-under accent Produces a bar accent under the following, as in @ubaraccent{o}. @item \c @itemx \capitalcedilla @findex \c @r{(cedilla accent)} @findex \capitalcedilla @cindex cedilla accent Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in @,{c}. @item \d @itemx \capitaldotaccent @findex \d @r{(dot-under accent)} @findex \capitaldotaccent @cindex dot-under accent Produces a dot accent under the following, as in @udotaccent{o}. @item \H @itemx \capitalhungarumlaut @findex \H @r{(Hungarian umlaut accent)} @findex \capitalhungarumlaut @cindex hungarian umlaut accent Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in @H{o}. @item \i @findex \i @r{(dotless i)} @cindex dotless i Produces a dotless i, as in `@dotless{i}'. @item \j @findex \j @r{(dotless j)} @cindex dotless j Produces a dotless j, as in `@dotless{j}'. @item \k @itemx \capitalogonek @findex \k @r{(ogonek)} @findex \capitalogonek @cindex ogonek Produces a letter with ogonek, as in `@ogonek{o}'. Not available in the OT1 encoding. @item \r @itemx \capitalring @findex \r @r{(ring accent)} @findex \capitalring @cindex ring accent Produces a ring accent, as in `@ringaccent{o}'. @item \t @itemx \capitaltie @itemx \newtie @itemx \capitalnewtie @findex \t @r{(tie-after accent)} @findex \capitaltie @findex \newtie @findex \capitalnewtie @cindex tie-after accent Produces a tie-after accent, as in `@tieaccent{oo}'. The @code{\newtie} form is centered in its box. @item \u @itemx \capitalbreve @findex \u @r{(breve accent)} @findex \capitalbreve @cindex breve accent Produces a breve accent, as in `@u{o}'. @item \underbar @findex \underbar @cindex underbar Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text. The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also @code{\underline} in @ref{Math miscellany}. @item \v @itemx \capitalcaron @findex \v @r{(breve accent)} @findex \capitalcaron @cindex hacek accent @cindex check accent @cindex caron accent Produces a h@'a@v{c}ek (check, caron) accent, as in `@v{o}'. @end table @node Non-English characters @section Non-English characters @cindex special characters @cindex non-English characters @cindex characters, non-English @cindex letters, non-English Here are the basic @LaTeX{} commands for inserting characters commonly used in languages other than English. @table @code @item \aa @itemx \AA @findex \aa (@aa{}) @findex \AA (@AA{}) @cindex aring @aa{} and @AA{}. @item \ae @itemx \AE @findex \ae (@ae{}) @findex \AE (@AE{}) @cindex ae ligature @ae{} and @AE{}. @item \dh @itemx \DH @findex \dh (@dh{}) @findex \DH (@DH{}) @cindex Icelandic eth @cindex eth, Icelandic letter Icelandic letter eth: @dh{} and @DH{}. @item \dj @itemx \DJ @findex \dj @findex \DJ Crossed d and D, a.k.a.@: capital and small letter d with stroke. @item \ij @itemx \IJ @findex \ij (ij) @findex \IJ (IJ) @cindex ij letter, Dutch ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here). @item \l @itemx \L @findex \l (@l{}) @findex \L (@L{}) @cindex polish l @l{} and @L{}. @item \ng @itemx \NG @findex \ng @findex \NG Latin letter eng, also used in phonetics. @item \o @itemx \O @findex \o (@o{}) @findex \O (@O{}) @cindex oslash @o{} and @O{}. @item \oe @itemx \OE @findex \oe (@oe{}) @findex \OE (@OE{}) @cindex oe ligature @oe{} and @OE{}. @item \ss @itemx \SS @findex \ss (@ss{}) @findex \SS (SS) @cindex es-zet German letter @cindex sharp S letters @ss{} and SS. @item \th @itemx \TH @findex \th (@th{}) @findex \TH (@TH{}) @cindex Icelandic thorn @cindex thorn, Icelandic letter Icelandic letter thorn: @th{} and @TH{}. @end table @node \rule @section @code{\rule} @findex \rule Synopsis: @example \rule[@var{raise}]@{@var{width}@}@{@var{thickness}@} @end example The @code{\rule} command produces @dfn{rules}, that is, lines or rectangles. The arguments are: @table @var @item raise How high to raise the rule (optional). @item width The length of the rule (mandatory). @item thickness The thickness of the rule (mandatory). @end table @node \today @section @code{\today} @findex \today The @code{\today} command produces today's date, in the format @samp{@var{month} @var{dd}, @var{yyyy}}; for example, `July 4, 1976'. It uses the predefined counters @code{\day}, @code{\month}, and @code{\year} (@pxref{\day \month \year}) to do this. It is not updated as the program runs. @cindex @code{datetime} package The @code{datetime} package, among others, can produce a wide variety of other date formats. @node Splitting the input @chapter Splitting the input @cindex splitting the input file @cindex input file A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run @LaTeX{}. @xref{filecontents}, for an environment that allows bundling an external file to be created with the main document. @menu * \include:: Conditionally include a file. * \includeonly:: Determine which files are included. * \input:: Unconditionally include a file. @end menu @node \include @section @code{\include} @findex \include Synopsis: @example \include@{@var{file}@} @end example If no @code{\includeonly} command is present, the @code{\include} command executes @code{\clearpage} to start a new page (@pxref{\clearpage}), then reads @var{file}, then does another @code{\clearpage}. Given an @code{\includeonly} command, the @code{\include} actions are only run if @var{file} is listed as an argument to @code{\includeonly}. See the next section. @cindex nested @code{\include}, not allowed The @code{\include} command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by another @code{\include} command. @node \includeonly @section \@code{includeonly} @findex \includeonly Synopsis: @example \includeonly@{@var{file1},@var{file2},...@} @end example The @code{\includeonly} command controls which files will be read by subsequent @code{\include} commands. The list of filenames is comma-separated. Each @var{file} must exactly match a filename specified in a @code{\include} command for the selection to be effective. This command can only appear in the preamble. @node \input @section \input @findex \input Synopsis: @example \input@{@var{file}@} @end example The @code{\input} command causes the specified @var{file} to be read and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point. If @var{file} does not end in @samp{.tex} (e.g., @samp{foo} or @samp{foo.bar}), it is first tried with that extension (@samp{foo.tex} or @samp{foo.bar.tex}). If that is not found, the original @var{file} is tried (@samp{foo} or @samp{foo.bar}). @node Front/back matter @chapter Front/back matter @menu * Tables of contents:: * Glossaries:: * Indexes:: @end menu @node Tables of contents @section Tables of contents @cindex table of contents, creating @findex \tableofcontents @findex .toc @r{file} A table of contents is produced with the @code{\tableofcontents} command. You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go; @LaTeX{} does the rest for you. A previous run must have generated a @file{.toc} file. The @code{\tableofcontents} command produces a heading, but it does not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the table of contents, write a @code{\newpage} command after the @code{\tableofcontents} command. @findex \listoffigures @findex \listoftables @findex .lof @r{file} @findex .lot @r{file} The analogous commands @code{\listoffigures} and @code{\listoftables} produce a list of figures and a list of tables (from @file{.lof} and @file{.lot} files), respectively. Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. @findex \nofiles The command @code{\nofiles} overrides these commands, and @emph{prevents} any of these lists from being generated. @menu * \addcontentsline:: Add an entry to table of contents, etc. * \addtocontents:: Add text directly to table of contents file, etc. @end menu @node \addcontentsline @subsection \addcontentsline @findex \addcontentsline@{@var{ext}@}@{@var{unit}@}@{@var{text}@} @cindex table of contents entry, manually adding The @code{\addcontentsline}@{@var{ext}@}@{@var{unit}@}@{@var{text}@} command adds an entry to the specified list or table where: @table @var @item ext The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: @code{toc} (table of contents), @code{lof} (list of figures), or @code{lot} (list of tables). @item unit The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the following, matching the value of the @var{ext} argument: @table @code @item toc The name of the sectional unit: @code{part}, @code{chapter}, @code{section}, @code{subsection}, @code{subsubsection}. @item lof For the list of figures. @item lot For the list of tables. @end table @item entry The text of the entry. @end table @findex \contentsline What is written to the @file{.@var{ext}} file is the command @code{\contentsline@{@var{unit}@}@{@var{name}@}}. @c xx how hardwired are these values? other unit names? @node \addtocontents @subsection \addtocontents @findex \addtocontents@{@var{ext}@}@{@var{text}@} The @code{\addtocontents}@{@var{ext}@}@{@var{text}@} command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the @file{.@var{ext}} file that generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables. @table @var @item ext The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: @file{toc} (table of contents), @file{lof} (list of figures), or @file{lot} (list of tables). @item text The text to be written. @end table @node Glossaries @section Glossaries @cindex glossaries @findex \makeglossary The command @code{\makeglossary} enables creating glossaries. @findex \glossary @cindex @file{.glo} file The command @code{\glossary@{@var{text}@}} writes a glossary entry for @var{text} to an auxiliary file with the @file{.glo} extension. @findex \glossaryentry Specifically, what gets written is the command @code{\glossaryentry@{@var{text}@}@{@var{pageno}@}}, where @var{pageno} is the current @code{\thepage} value. @cindex glossary @r{package} The @code{glossary} package on CTAN provides support for fancier glossaries. @node Indexes @section Indexes @cindex indexes @findex \makeindex The command @code{\makeindex} enables creating indexes. Put this in the preamble. @findex \index @cindex @file{.idx} file The command @code{\index@{@var{text}@}} writes an index entry for @var{text} to an auxiliary file with the @file{.idx} extension. @findex \indexentry Specifically, what gets written is the command @code{\indexentry@{@var{text}@}@{@var{pageno}@}}, where @var{pageno} is the current @code{\thepage} value. @cindex `see' and `see also' index entries @cindex index entries, `see' and `see also' To generate a index entry for `bar' that says `See foo', use a vertical bar: @code{\index@{bar|see@{foo@}@}}. Use @code{seealso} instead of @code{see} to make a `See also' entry. @findex \seename @findex \alsoname The text `See' is defined by the macro @code{\seename}, and `See also' by the macro @code{\alsoname}. These can be redefined for other languages. @cindex @command{makeindex} program @cindex @command{xindy} program @cindex @file{.ind} file The generated @file{.idx} file is then sorted with an external command, usually either @command{makeindex} (@url{http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex}) or (the multi-lingual) @command{xindy} (@url{http://xindy.sourceforge.net}). This results in a @file{.ind} file, which can then be read to typeset the index. @findex printindex @cindex @code{makeidx} package The index is usually generated with the @code{\printindex} command. This is defined in the @code{makeidx} package, so @code{\usepackage@{makeidx@}} needs to be in the preamble. @findex indexspace The rubber length @code{\indexspace} is inserted before each new letter in the printed index; its default value is @samp{10pt plus5pt minus3pt}. @cindex @code{showidx} package The @code{showidx} package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index. @cindex @code{multind} package The @code{multind} package supports multiple indexes. See also the @TeX{} FAQ entry on this topic, @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind}. @node Letters @chapter Letters @cindex letters @cindex creating letters You can use @LaTeX{} to typeset letters, both personal and business. The @code{letter} document class is designed to make a number of letters at once, although you can make just one if you so desire. Your @file{.tex} source file has the same minimum commands as the other document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum: @example \documentclass@{letter@} \begin@{document@} ... letters ... \end@{document@} @end example Each letter is a @code{letter} environment, whose argument is the name and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: @example \begin@{letter@}@{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St. \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA@} ... \end@{letter@} @end example The letter itself begins with the @code{\opening} command. The text of the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary @LaTeX{} input. Commands that make no sense in a letter, like @code{\chapter}, do not work. The letter closes with a @code{\closing} command. @findex \\ @r{for letters} After the @code{closing}, you can have additional material. The @code{\cc} command produces the usual ``cc: @dots{}''. There's also a similar @code{\encl} command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use @code{\\} to separate the items. These commands are used with the @code{letter} class. @menu * \address:: Your return address. * \cc:: Cc list. * \closing:: Saying goodbye. * \encl:: List of enclosed material. * \location:: Your organization's address. * \makelabels:: Making address labels. * \name:: Your name, for the return address. * \opening:: Saying hello. * \ps:: Adding a postscript. * \signature:: Your signature. * \startbreaks:: Allow page breaks. * \stopbreaks:: Disallow page breaks. * \telephone:: Your phone number. @end menu @node \address @section \address@{@var{return-address@}} @findex \address The @code{\address} specifies the return address of a letter, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the address should be separated by @code{\\} commands. If you do not make an @code{\address} declaration, then the letter will be formatted for copying onto your organization's standard letterhead. (@xref{Overview}, for details on your local implementation). If you give an @code{\address} declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a personal letter. @node \cc @section @code{\cc} @findex \cc @cindex cc list, in letters Synopsis: @example \cc@{@var{name1}\\@var{name2}@} @end example Produce a list of @var{name}s the letter was copied to. Each name is printed on a separate line. @node \closing @section @code{\closing} @findex \closing @cindex letters, ending @cindex closing letters Synopsis: @example \closing@{text@} @end example A letter closes with a @code{\closing} command, for example, @example \closing@{Best Regards,@} @end example @node \encl @section @code{\encl} @findex \encl @cindex enclosure list Synopsis: @example \encl@{@var{line1}\\@var{line2}@} @end example Declare a list of one more enclosures. @node \location @section @code{\location} @findex \location @code{\location@{address@}} This modifies your organization's standard address. This only appears if the @code{firstpage} pagestyle is selected. @node \makelabels @section @code{\makelabels} @findex \makelabels @code{\makelabels@{number@}} If you issue this command in the preamble, @LaTeX{} will create a sheet of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. @node \name @section @code{\name} @findex \name @code{\name@{June Davenport@}} Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address. @node \opening @section @code{\opening@{@var{text}@}} @findex \opening @cindex letters, starting Synopsis: @example \opening@{@var{text}@} @end example A letter begins with the @code{\opening} command. The mandatory argument, @var{text}, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. For instance: @example \opening@{Dear Joe,@} @end example @node \ps @section @code{\ps} @findex \ps @cindex postscript, in letters Use the @code{\ps} command to start a postscript in a letter, after @code{\closing}. @node \signature @section @code{\signature@{@var{text}@}} @findex \signature Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space for your signature. @code{\\} starts a new line within @var{text} as usual. @node \startbreaks @section @code{\startbreaks} @findex \startbreaks @code{\startbreaks} Used after a @code{\stopbreaks} command to allow page breaks again. @node \stopbreaks @section @code{\stopbreaks} @findex \stopbreaks @code{\stopbreaks} Inhibit page breaks until a @code{\startbreaks} command occurs. @node \telephone @section @code{\telephone} @findex \telephone @code{\telephone@{number@}} This is your telephone number. This only appears if the @code{firstpage} pagestyle is selected. @node Terminal input/output @chapter Terminal input/output @cindex input/output @cindex terminal input/output @menu * \typein:: Read text from the terminal. * \typeout:: Write text to the terminal. @end menu @node \typein @section @code{\typein[@var{cmd}]@{@var{msg}@}} @findex \typein Synopsis: @example \typein[@var{\cmd}]@{@var{msg}@} @end example @code{\typein} prints @var{msg} on the terminal and causes @LaTeX{} to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional @var{\cmd} argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the @code{\typein} command. If the @var{\cmd} argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input. @node \typeout @section @code{\typeout@{@var{msg}@}} @findex \typeout Synopsis: @example \typeout@{@var{msg}@} @end example Prints @code{msg} on the terminal and in the @code{log} file. Commands in @code{msg} that are defined with @code{\newcommand} or @code{\renewcommand} (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. @LaTeX{}'s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to @code{msg}. A @code{\space} command in @code{msg} causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A @code{^^J} in @code{msg} prints a newline. @node Command line @chapter Command line @cindex command line @findex .tex, @r{default extension} The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; @TeX{} uses @file{.tex} as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, @TeX{} accepts input from the terminal. You can also specify arbitrary @LaTeX{} input by starting with a backslash. For example, this processes @file{foo.tex} without pausing after every error: @example latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' @end example @findex --help @r{command-line option} With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with @samp{-} or @samp{--}. For a list of those options, try @samp{latex --help}. @cindex @samp{*} prompt @cindex prompt, @samp{*} @findex \stop If @LaTeX{} stops in the middle of the document and gives you a @samp{*} prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type @code{\stop} (and return) and it will prematurely end the document. @xref{@TeX{} engines}, for other system commands invoking @LaTeX{}. @node Document templates @appendix Document templates @cindex document templates Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at @url{http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates}. @menu * beamer template:: * book template:: * tugboat template:: @end menu @node beamer template @section @code{beamer} template @cindex @code{beamer} template and class The @code{beamer} class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template: @verbatim \documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2007} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document} @end verbatim One web resource for this: @url{http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/}. @node book template @section @code{book} template @verbatim \documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document} @end verbatim @node tugboat template @section @code{tugboat} template @cindex TUGboat template @cindex @code{ltugboat} class @cite{TUGboat} is the journal of the @TeX{} Users Group, @url{http://tug.org/TUGboat}. @verbatim \documentclass{ltugboat} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{ifpdf} \ifpdf \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref} \else \usepackage{url} \fi \title{Example \TUB\ article} % repeat info for each author. \author{First Last} \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} \netaddress{user (at) example dot org} \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} \begin{document} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This is an example article for \TUB{}. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} This is an example article for \TUB, from \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the \texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output. Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively. The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more: % verbatim blocks are often better in \small \begin{verbatim}[\small] \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe \Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX \PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS \SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE \Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag \careof \thinskip \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use! \cs{fred} -> \fred \env{fred} -> \begin{fred} \meta{fred} -> \nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 \booktitle{Book of Fred} \end{verbatim} For more information, see the ltubguid document at: \url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} (we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references). Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. \bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style \nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty \bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX \makesignature \end{document} @end verbatim @node Concept Index @unnumbered Concept Index @printindex cp @c The name of the `Command Index' node must NOT be altered for ltx-help.el. @node Command Index @unnumbered Command Index @printindex fn @bye \def\DeclareTextCommand{\foo}{T1} % then |\foo| is defined to be |\T1-cmd \foo \T1\foo|, % % where |\T1\foo| is \emph{one} control sequence, not two! \newcommand \def\ProvideTextCommand -- same with \providecommand \@onlypreamble\DeclareTextCommand \@onlypreamble\DeclareTextSymbol \gdef\TextSymbolUnavailable#1{% \@onlypreamble\def\DeclareTextCommandDefault#1{% \def\ProvideTextCommandDefault#1{% \def\DeclareTextAccent#1#2#3{% \def\DeclareTextCompositeCommand#1#2#3#4{% \@onlypreamble\def\DeclareTextComposite#1#2#3#4{% \def\UseTextAccent#1#2#3{% \def\UseTextSymbol#1#2{% \@onlypreamble\DeclareTextSymbolDefault@item \@onlypreamble\DeclareTextAccentDefault@item \def\UndeclareTextCommand#1#2{% @c Local Variables: @c ispell-dictionary: "english" @c End: