abstract
array
center
description
displaymath
document
enumerate
eqnarray
equation
figure
filecontents
: Write an external fileflushleft
flushright
itemize
letter
environment: writing letterslist
math
minipage
picture
quotation
and quote
tabbing
table
tabular
thebibliography
theorem
titlepage
verbatim
verse
Next: About this document, Up: (dir) [Contents][Index]
This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October 2015) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system.
• About this document: | Bug reporting, etc. | |
• Overview: | What is LaTeX? | |
• Document classes: | Some of the various classes available. | |
• Fonts: | Italic, bold, typewriter, etc. | |
• Layout: | Controlling the page layout. | |
• Sectioning: | How to section properly. | |
• Cross references: | Automatic referencing. | |
• Environments: | Such as enumerate & itemize. | |
• Line breaking: | Influencing line breaks. | |
• Page breaking: | Influencing page breaks. | |
• Footnotes: | How to produce footnotes. | |
• Definitions: | Define your own commands, etc. | |
• Counters: | Internal counters used by LaTeX. | |
• Lengths: | The length commands. | |
• Making paragraphs: | Paragraph commands. | |
• Math formulas: | How to create mathematical formulas. | |
• Modes: | Paragraph, Math or LR modes. | |
• Page styles: | Various styles of page layout. | |
• Spaces: | Horizontal and vertical space. | |
• Boxes: | Making boxes. | |
• Special insertions: | Inserting reserved and special characters. | |
• Splitting the input: | Dealing with big files by splitting. | |
• Front/back matter: | Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. | |
• Letters: | The letter class.
| |
• Terminal input/output: | User interaction. | |
• Command line: | System-independent command-line behavior. | |
• Document templates: | Starter templates for various document classes. | |
• Concept Index: | General index. | |
• Command Index: | Alphabetical list of LaTeX commands. |
This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (see Overview). This document’s home page is http://home.gna.org/latexrefman. That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and subscriptions, and other infrastructure.
In this document, we will mostly just use ‘LaTeX’ rather than ‘LaTeX2e’, since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was retired many years ago.
LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to latexrefman-discuss@gna.org.
This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions.
Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.
Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.
The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX; there are plenty of others available elsewhere.
A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages.
Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references.
Next: Document classes, Previous: About this document, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics.
A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth’s TeX typesetting program (the technical term is that LaTeX is a macro package for the TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the TeX engine.
The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user.
The name LaTeX is short for “Lamport TeX”. It is pronounced
LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document,
produce the logo with \LaTeX
. Where use of the logo is not
sensible, such as in plain text, write it as ‘LaTeX’.
• Starting and ending: | The standard beginning and end of a document. | |
• Output files: | Files produced. | |
• TeX engines: | Programs that can compile TeX and LaTeX. | |
• LaTeX command syntax: | General syntax of LaTeX commands. |
Next: Output files, Up: Overview [Contents][Index]
LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. Here is a “hello, world” example:
\documentclass{article} \begin{document} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end{document}
Here, the ‘article’ is the so-called document class, implemented in a file article.cls. Any document class can be used. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. See Document classes.
You can include other LaTeX commands between the
\documentclass
and the \begin{document}
commands.
This area is called the preamble.
The \begin{document} ... \end{document}
is a so-called
environment; the ‘document’ environment (and no others) is
required in all LaTeX documents (see document). LaTeX
provides many environments itself, and many more are defined separately.
See Environments.
The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file.
Next: TeX engines, Previous: Starting and ending, Up: Overview [Contents][Index]
LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files. The main output file’s name ends in either .dvi or .pdf.
.dvi
If LaTeX is invoked with the system command latex
then it
produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension .dvi. You
can view this file with a command such as xdvi
, or convert
it to a PostScript .ps
file with dvips
or to a
Portable Document Format .pdf
file with dvipdfmx
.
The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with
dvitype
. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are
available (http://mirror.ctan.org/tex-archive/dviware).
.pdf
If LaTeX is invoked via the system command pdflatex
,
among other commands (see TeX engines), then the main output is
a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a
self-contained file, with all fonts and images included.
LaTeX also produces at least two additional files.
.log
This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors.
.aux
Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as
cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a
forward reference—a cross reference to something that has not yet
appeared in the source—it will appear in the output as a doubled
question mark ??
. When the referred-to spot does eventually
appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to
this .aux
file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the
location information from this file and uses it to resolve the
reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered
location.
LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename
ending. These include a .lof
file that is used to make a list
of figures, a .lot
file used to make a list of tables, and a
.toc
file used to make a table of contents. A particular class
may create others; the list is open-ended.
Next: LaTeX command syntax, Previous: Output files, Up: Overview [Contents][Index]
LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX implementation (see Overview). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs.
latex
pdflatex
In TeX Live (http://tug.org/texlive), if LaTeX is invoked
via either the system command latex
or pdflatex
,
then the pdfTeX engine is run (http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex).
When invoked as latex
, the main output is a .dvi
file; as pdflatex
, the main output is a .pdf file.
pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth’s original
program (http://ctan.org/pkg/etex), including additional
programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of
extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the system
command etex
, but this is plain TeX (and produces
.dvi).
In other TeX distributions, latex
may invoke e-TeX
rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be
assumed to be available in LaTeX.
lualatex
If LaTeX is invoked via the system command lualatex
, the
LuaTeX engine is run (http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex). This
program allows code written in the scripting language Lua
(http://luatex.org) to interact with TeX’s typesetting.
LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType
and TrueType fonts, and produces a .pdf file by default.
There is also dvilualatex
to produce a .dvi file,
but this is rarely used.
xelatex
If LaTeX is invoked with the system command xelatex
, the
XeTeX engine is run (http://tug.org/xetex). Like LuaTeX,
XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType
fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using
external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a
.pdf file as output; it does not support DVI output.
Internally, XeTeX creates an .xdv
file, a variant of DVI,
and translates that to PDF using the (x
)dvipdfmx
program, but this process is automatic. The .xdv
file is only
useful for debugging.
Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX, http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex, http://ctan.org/pkg/uptex).
Previous: TeX engines, Up: Overview [Contents][Index]
In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash
character, \
. The name itself then consists of either
(a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter.
LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that \pagebreak
differs from \Pagebreak
(the latter is not a standard command).
Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all
commands in the same case as they are defined.
A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These
arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are
contained in curly braces, {...}
. Optional arguments are
contained in square brackets, [...]
. Generally, but not
universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes
first, before any required arguments.
Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square
bracket (]
) hide it inside curly braces, as
in \item[closing bracket {]}]
. Similarly, if an optional
argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make
the first character of the following text be an open square bracket,
hide it inside curly braces.
LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a *
form that
is related to the form without a *
, such as \chapter
and
\chapter*
. The exact difference in behavior varies from command
to command.
This manual describes all accepted options and *
-forms for the
commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).
• Environment: | Area of the source with distinct behavior. | |
• Declaration: | Change the value or meaning of a command. |
Next: Declaration, Up: LaTeX command syntax [Contents][Index]
Synopsis:
\begin{environment name} .. \end{environment name}
An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct
behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between
\begin{verse}
and \end{verse}
.
\begin{verse} There once was a man from Nantucket \\ .. \end{verse}
The environment name at the beginning must exactly match that at
the end. This includes the case where environment name ends in a
star (*
); both the \begin
and \end
texts must
include the star.
Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns).
\begin{tabular}[t]{r|l} .. rows of table .. \end{tabular}
Previous: Environment, Up: LaTeX command syntax [Contents][Index]
A command that changes the value, or changes the meaning, of some other
command or parameter. For instance, the \mainmatter
command
changes the setting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic.
The document’s overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file.
\documentclass[options]{class}
The following document class names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; see Overview.)
article
For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use.
book
Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (see Front/back matter).
letter
Mail, optionally including mailing labels (see Letters).
report
For documents of length between an article
and a book
,
such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters.
slides
For slide presentations—rarely used today. In its place the
beamer
package is perhaps the most prevalent (see beamer template).
Standard options are described in the next section.
• Document class options: | Global options. |
Up: Document classes [Contents][Index]
You can specify so-called global options or class options to
the \documentclass
command by enclosing them in square brackets.
To specify more than one option, separate them with a comma, as in:
\documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}
Here is the list of the standard class options.
All of the standard classes except slides
accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt
):
10pt 11pt 12pt
All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these show height by width):
a4paper
210 by 297 mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches)
b5paper
176 by 250 mm (about 7 by 9.875 inches)
executivepaper
7.25 by 10.5 inches
legalpaper
8.5 by 14 inches
letterpaper
8.5 by 11 inches (the default)
When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX
(see TeX engines), options other than letterpaper
set
the print area but you must also set the physical paper size. One way
to do that is to put \pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth
and
\pdfpageheight=\paperheight
in your document’s preamble. The
geometry
package provides flexible ways of setting the print
area and physical page size.
Miscellaneous other options:
draft
final
Mark (draft
) or do not mark (final
) overfull boxes with a
black box in the margin; default is final
.
fleqn
Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
landscape
Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
leqno
Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.
openbib
Use “open” bibliography format.
titlepage
notitlepage
Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class.
The following options are not available with the slides
class.
onecolumn
twocolumn
Typeset in one or two columns; default is onecolumn
.
oneside
twoside
Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is oneside
, except
that in the book
class the default is twoside
.
For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided
printing, the \evensidemargin
(\oddsidemargin
) parameter
determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left
side of the page and the text’s left margin, with \oddsidemargin
being 40% of the difference between \paperwidth
and
\textwidth
, and \evensidemargin
is the remainder.
openright
openany
Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is
openright
for book
, and openany
for report
.
The slides
class offers the option clock
for printing
the time at the bottom of each note.
Additional packages are loaded like this:
\usepackage[options]{pkg}
To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma,
as in \usepackage{pkg1,pkg2,...}
, or use multiple
\usepackage
commands.
Any options given in the \documentclass
command that are unknown
by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
\usepackage
.
Next: Layout, Previous: Document classes, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.
• Font styles: | Select roman, italics, etc. | |
• Font sizes: | Select point size. | |
• Low-level font commands: | Select encoding, family, series, shape. |
Next: Font sizes, Up: Fonts [Contents][Index]
The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.
This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in
\textit{text}
. In the table below, the corresponding
command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which takes no
arguments, as in {\itshape text}
. The scope of the
declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of
the current group.
These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form,
are cumulative; e.g., you can say either \sffamily\bfseries
or
\bfseries\sffamily
to get bold sans serif.
You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for
instance, \begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}
.
These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections
if needed. (See \/, for the details of italic corrections.)
Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following
character is in the list \nocorrlist
, which by default consists
of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of
italic correction, use \nocorr
at the start or end of the
command argument, such as \textit{\nocorr text}
or
\textsc{text \nocorr}
.
\textrm (\rmfamily)
Roman.
\textit (\itshape)
Italics.
\textmd (\mdseries)
Medium weight (default).
\textbf (\bfseries)
Boldface.
\textup (\upshape)
Upright (default).
\textsl (\slshape)
Slanted.
\textsf (\sffamily)
Sans serif.
\textsc (\scshape)
Small caps.
\texttt (\ttfamily)
Typewriter.
\textnormal (\normalfont)
Main document font.
Although it also changes fonts, the \emph{text}
command
is semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a
substitute for \textit
. For example, \emph{start
text \emph{middle text} end text}
will result in the
start text and end text in italics, but middle text
will be in roman.
LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally
switch to the given style, that is, are not cumulative. Also,
they are used differently than the above commands:
{\cmd...}
instead of \cmd{...}
. These
are two unrelated constructs.
\bf
Switch to bold face.
\cal
Switch to calligraphic letters for math.
\it
Italics.
\rm
Roman.
\sc
Small caps.
\sf
Sans serif.
\sl
Slanted (oblique).
\tt
Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
The \em
command is the unconditional version of \emph
.
(Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such
as \tt
, obsolete and that only the cumulative commands
(\texttt
) should be used. Others think that both sets of
commands have their place and sometimes an unconditional font switch
is precisely what you want; for one example,
see description
.)
The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not
cumulative, so \mathbf{\mathit{symbol}}
does not
create a boldface and italic symbol; instead, it will just be in
italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent
typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment.
\mathrm
Roman, for use in math mode.
\mathbf
Boldface, for use in math mode.
\mathsf
Sans serif, for use in math mode.
\mathtt
Typewriter, for use in math mode.
\mathit
(\mit)
Italics, for use in math mode.
\mathnormal
For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.
\mathcal
Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.
In addition, the command \mathversion{bold}
can be used for
switching to bold letters and symbols in
formulas. \mathversion{normal}
restores the default.
Finally, the command \oldstylenums{numerals}
will typeset
so-called “old-style” numerals, which have differing heights and
depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard “lining” numerals,
which all have the same height as upper-case letters. LaTeX’s
default fonts support this, and will respect \textbf
(but not
other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer
Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the
textcomp
package must be loaded, and sometimes package options
are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry:
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf.
Next: Low-level font commands, Previous: Font styles, Up: Fonts [Contents][Index]
The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the ‘10pt’, ‘11pt’, and ‘12pt’ document size options, respectively (see Document class options).
Command | 10pt | 11pt | 12pt |
---|---|---|---|
\tiny | 5 | 6 | 6 |
\scriptsize | 7 | 8 | 8 |
\footnotesize | 8 | 9 | 10 |
\small | 9 | 10 | 10.95 |
\normalsize (default) | 10 | 10.95 | 12 |
\large | 12 | 12 | 14.4 |
\Large | 14.4 | 14.4 | 17.28 |
\LARGE | 17.28 | 17.28 | 20.74 |
\huge | 20.74 | 20.74 | 24.88 |
\Huge | 24.88 | 24.88 | 24.88 |
The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of
the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the
end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of
these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}
.
Previous: Font sizes, Up: Fonts [Contents][Index]
These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones.
\fontencoding{encoding}
Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a
large number of valid encodings. The most common are OT1
,
Knuth’s original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and
T1
, also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the
accented characters used by the most widespread European languages
(German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to
hyphenate words containing accented letters.
\fontfamily{family}
Select the font family. The web page http://www.tug.dk/FontCatalogue/ provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are examples of some common families:
pag
Avant Garde
fvs
Bitstream Vera Sans
pbk
Bookman
bch
Charter
ccr
Computer Concrete
cmr
Computer Modern
pcr
Courier
phv
Helvetica
fi4
Inconsolata
lmr
Latin Modern
lmss
Latin Modern Sans
lmtt
Latin Modern Typewriter
pnc
New Century Schoolbook
ppl
Palatino
ptm
Times
uncl
Uncial
put
Utopia
pzc
Zapf Chancery
\fontseries{series}
Select the font series. A series combines a weight and a width. Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combined series values include:
m
Medium (normal)
b
Bold
c
Condensed
bc
Bold condensed
bx
Bold extended
The possible values for weight, individually, are:
ul
Ultra light
el
Extra light
l
Light
sl
Semi light
m
Medium (normal)
sb
Semi bold
b
Bold
eb
Extra bold
ub
Ultra bold
The possible values for width, individually, are (the percentages are just guides and are not followed precisely by all fonts):
uc
Ultra condensed, 50%
ec
Extra condensed, 62.5%
c
Condensed, 75%
sc
Semi condensed, 87.5%
m
Medium, 100%
sx
Semi expanded, 112.5%
x
Expanded, 125%
ex
Extra expanded, 150%
ux
Ultra expanded, 200%
When forming the series string from the weight and width, drop the
m
that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both
weight and width are m
, in which case use just one
(‘m
’).
\fontshape{shape}
Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
n
Upright (normal)
it
Italic
sl
Slanted (oblique)
sc
Small caps
ui
Upright italics
ol
Outline
The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps are often missing as well.
\fontsize{size}{skip}
Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters
defaults to points (pt
). The line spacing is the nominal
vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is stored in the
parameter \baselineskip
. The default \baselineskip
for
the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the \fontsize
.
Changing \baselineskip
directly is inadvisable since its value is
reset every time a size change happens; see \baselinestretch
, next.
\baselinestretch
LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the
\baselinestretch
parameter; the default factor is 1. A change
takes effect when \selectfont
(see below) is called. You can
make line skip changes happen for the entire document by doing
\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}
in the preamble.
However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the setspace package. In addition to offering a number of spacing options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and figure captions. See the package documentation.
\linespread{factor}
Equivalent to
\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{factor}
, and
therefore must be followed by \selectfont
to have any effect.
Best specified in the preamble, or use the setspace
package, as
just described.
\selectfont
The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until
\selectfont
is called, as in
\fontfamily{familyname}\selectfont
. It is often useful
to put this in a macro:
\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{familyname}\selectfont}
(see \newcommand & \renewcommand).
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
The same as invoking \fontencoding
, \fontfamily
,
\fontseries
and \fontshape
with the given parameters,
followed by \selectfont
. For example:
\usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}
Next: Sectioning, Previous: Fonts, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Commands for controlling the general page layout.
• \onecolumn: | Use one-column layout. | |
• \twocolumn: | Use two-column layout. | |
• \flushbottom: | Make all text pages the same height. | |
• \raggedbottom: | Allow text pages of differing height. | |
• Page layout parameters: | \headheight \footskip .
| |
• Floats: | Figures, tables, etc. |
Next: \twocolumn, Up: Layout [Contents][Index]
\onecolumn
The \onecolumn
declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output. If the document is given the class option
onecolumn
then this is the default behavior (see Document class options).
This command is fragile (see \protect).
Next: \flushbottom, Previous: \onecolumn, Up: Layout [Contents][Index]
\twocolumn
Synopsis:
\twocolumn[prelim one column text]
The \twocolumn
declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the document is given the class option
twocolumn
then this is the default (see Document class options).
If the optional prelim one column text argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.
This command is fragile (see \protect).
These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
\columnsep
The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a
command such as \setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}
You must change
it before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good
place.
\columnseprule
The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway between
the two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule.
Change it with a command such as
\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}
, before the two-column
environment starts.
\columnwidth
The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to
\textwidth
. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the
width of each of the two columns to be half of \textwidth
minus
\columnsep
.
In a two-column document, the starred environments table*
and
figure*
are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments
table
and figure
take up only one column (see figure
and see table). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page.
The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output.
\dbltopfraction
The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be
occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that
the height of a table*
or figure*
environment must not
exceed 0.7\textheight
. If the height of your starred float
environment exceeeds this then you can take one of the following actions
to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document:
[tp]
location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put
the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page.
[t!]
location specifier to override the effect of
\dbltopfraction
for this particular float.
\dbltopfraction
to a suitably large number,
to avoid going to float pages so soon.
You can redefine it, for instance with
\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}
.
\dblfloatpagefraction
For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction
that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space.
LaTeX’s default is 0.5
. Change it with \renewcommand
.
\dblfloatsep
On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance
between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is
12pt plus2pt minus2pt
for a document set at 10pt
or
11pt
, and 14pt plus2pt minus4pt
for a document set at
12pt
.
\dbltextfloatsep
This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or
bottom of a page and the main text. The default is 20pt plus2pt
minus4pt
.
\dbltopnumber
On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the
maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX
default is 2
.
This example shows the use of the optional argument of \twocolumn
to create a title that spans the two-column article:
\documentclass[twocolumn]{article} \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}} \begin{document} \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text \centering \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em] \large Author One\authormark{1}, Author Two\authormark{2}, Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em] \normalsize \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}} \authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\ School one &School two \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part }] Two column text here.
Next: \raggedbottom, Previous: \twocolumn, Up: Layout [Contents][Index]
\flushbottom
The \flushbottom
command can go at any point in the document
body. It makes all later pages the same height, stretching the vertical
space where necessary to fill out the page.
If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page
then you get a message like ‘Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has
occurred while \output is active’. You can change to
\raggedbottom
(see below). Alternatively, you can try to adjust
the textheight
to be compatible, or you can add some vertical
stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in
\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}
. In a final editing
stage you can adjust the height of individual pages
(see \enlargethispage).
This is the default only if you select the twoside
document class
option (see Document class options).
Next: Page layout parameters, Previous: \flushbottom, Up: Layout [Contents][Index]
\raggedbottom
The \raggedbottom
command can go at any point in the document
body. It makes all later pages the natural height of the material on
that page; no rubber lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided
document the facing pages may be different heights. See also
\flushbottom
above.
This is the default unless you select the twoside
document class
option (see Document class options).
Next: Floats, Previous: \raggedbottom, Up: Layout [Contents][Index]
\columnsep
\columnseprule
\columnwidth
The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the
columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option
twocolumn
is in effect (see Document class options).
See \twocolumn.
\headheight
Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the
article
, report
, and book
classes is ‘12pt’,
at all type sizes.
\headsep
Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of
the main text. The default in the article
and report
classes is ‘25pt’. In the book
class the default is: if the
document is set at 10pt then it is ‘0.25in’, and at 11pt and 12pt
it is ‘0.275in’.
\footskip
Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of
the page footer. The default in the article
and report
classes is ‘30pt’. In the book
class the default is: when
the type size is 10pt the default is ‘0.35in’, while at 11pt it is
‘0.38in’, and at 12pt it is ‘30pt’.
\linewidth
Width of the current line, decreased for each nested list
(see list). That is, the nominal value for \linewidth
is to
equal \textwidth
but for each nested list the \linewidth
is decreased by the sum of that list’s \leftmargin
and
\rightmargin
(see itemize).
\marginparpush
\marginsep
\marginparwidth
The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of the notes.
Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the
declaration \reversemarginpar
changes that (and
\normalmarginpar
changes it back).
The defaults for \marginparpush
in both book
and
article
classes are: ‘7pt’ if the document is set at 12pt,
and ‘5pt’ if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt.
For \marginsep
, in article
class the default is
‘10pt’ except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode
where the default is ‘11pt’.
For \marginsep
in book
class the default is ‘10pt’ in
two-column mode and ‘7pt’ in one-column mode.
For \marginparwidth
in both book
and article
classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of \paperwidth
- \textwidth
, while in one-column mode it is 50% of that
distance.
\oddsidemargin
\evensidemargin
The \oddsidemargin
is the extra distance between the left side of
the page and the text’s left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the
document class option twoside
is chosen and on all pages when
oneside
is in effect. When twoside
is in effect, on
even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is
evensidemargin
.
LaTeX’s default is that \oddsidemargin
is 40% of the
difference between \paperwidth
and \textwidth
, and
\evensidemargin
is the remainder.
\paperheight
The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area.
It is normally set with a document class option, as in
\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
(see Document class options).
\paperwidth
The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area.
It is normally set with a document class option, as in
\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
(see Document class options).
\textheight
The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at
a nominal type size of 10pt then for an article
or report
the default is ‘43\baselineskip’, while for a book
it is
‘41\baselineskip’. At a type size of 11pt the default is
‘38\baselineskip’ for all document classes. At 12pt it is
‘36\baselineskip’ for all classes.
\textwidth
The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an
article
or report
document, the default is ‘345pt’
when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is ‘360pt’ at 11pt,
and it is ‘390pt’ at 12pt. For a book
document, the default
is ‘4.5in’ at a type size of 10pt, and ‘5in’ at 11pt or 12pt.
In multi-column output, \textwidth
remains the width of the
entire page body, while \columnwidth
is the width of one column
(see \twocolumn).
In lists (see list), \textwidth
remains the width of the
entire page body (and \columnwidth
the width of the entire
column), while \linewidth
may decrease for nested lists.
Inside a minipage (see minipage) or \parbox
(see \parbox), all the width-related parameters are set to the
specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the
minipage
or \parbox
.
This entry is included for completeness: \hsize
is the TeX
primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not
be used in normal LaTeX documents.
\topmargin
Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the
paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed
based on many other parameters: \paperheight - 2in -
\headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip
,
and then divided by two.
\topskip
Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., ‘10pt’ at a type size of 10pt.
Previous: Page layout parameters, Up: Layout [Contents][Index]
Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a later page.
LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material.
The default is the two classes, figure
(see figure) and
table
(see table), but you can create a new class with the
package float.
Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it appears in the output after it.
The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued up that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may be typset far from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big can migrate to the end of the document. But then because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order, every subsequent float in that class also appears at the end.
In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak
where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its
placement argument. The possible values are a sequence of the
letters below. The default for both figure
and table
, in
both article
and book
classes, is tbp
.
t
(Top)—at the top of a text page.
b
(Bottom)—at the bottom of a text page. (However, b
is not
allowed for full-width floats (figure*
) with double-column
output. To ameliorate this, use the stfloats or
dblfloatfix package, but see the discussion at caveats in the
FAQ: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat.
h
(Here)—at the position in the text where the figure
environment
appears. However, h
is not allowed by itself; t
is
automatically added.
To absolutely force a float to appear “here”, you can
\usepackage{float}
and use the H
specifier which it
defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere.
p
(Page of floats)—on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats.
!
Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX
ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear
and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page.
The !
specifier does not mean “put the float here”;
see above.
Note: the order in which letters appear in the placement argument
does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float;
for instance, btp
has the same effect as tbp
. All that
placement does is that if a letter is not present then the
algorithm does not try that location. Thus, LaTeX’s default of
tbp
is to try every location except placing the float where it
occurs in the source.
To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a
chapter you can use a \clearpage
command to start a new page and
insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can
use the afterpage package and issue
\afterpage{\clearpage}
. This will wait until the current page
is finished and then flush all outstanding floats.
LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source
(although on the same output page) if there is a t
specifier in the
placement paramater. If this is not desired, and deleting the
t
is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at
the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using the
flafter package or using the command
\suppressfloats[t]
, which causes floats for the top position on
this page to moved to the next page.
Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
non-float text (change them with
\renewcommand{parameter}{decimal between 0 and 1}
):
\bottomfraction
The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default ‘.3’.
\floatpagefraction
The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default ‘.5’.
\textfraction
Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is ‘.2’.
\topfraction
Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default ‘.7’.
Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with
\setlength{parameter}{length expression}
):
\floatsep
Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’.
\intextsep
Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for 10 point and 11 point documents, and ‘14pt plus4pt minus4pt’ for 12 point documents.
\textfloatsep
Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’.
Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with
\setcounter{ctrname}{natural number}
):
bottomnumber
Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1.
dbltopnumber
Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2.
topnumber
Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2.
totalnumber
Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.
The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats contains suggestions for relaxing LaTeX’s default parameters to reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explaination of the float placement algorithm is Frank Mittelbach’s article “How to infuence the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?” http://latex-project.org/papers/tb111mitt-float.pdf.
Next: Cross references, Previous: Layout, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:
\part
\chapter
(report
and book
class only)
\section
\subsection
\subsubsection
\paragraph
\subparagraph
All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,
\chapter[toctitle]{title}
In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places:
You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.
Also, all sectioning commands have *
-forms that print
title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an
entry in the table of contents. For instance:
\section*{Preamble}
The \appendix
command changes the way following sectional units
are numbered. The \appendix
command itself generates no text
and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this
command is something like
\chapter{A Chapter} … \appendix \chapter{The First Appendix}
The secnumdepth
counter controls printing of section numbers.
The setting
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{level}
suppresses heading numbers at any depth > level, where
chapter
is level zero. (See \setcounter.)
Next: Environments, Previous: Sectioning, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.”
• \label: | Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. | |
• \pageref: | Refer to a page number. | |
• \ref: | Refer to a section, figure or similar. |
Next: \pageref, Up: Cross references [Contents][Index]
\label
Synopsis:
\label{key}
A \label
command appearing in ordinary text assigns to
key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing
inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key. The
assigned number can be retrieved with the \ref{key}
command (see \ref).
Thus, in the example below the key sec:test
holds the number of
the current section and the key fig:test
that of the figure.
(Incidentally, labels must appear after captions in figures and
tables.)
\section{section name} \label{sec:test} This is Section~\ref{sec:test}. \begin{figure} ... \caption{caption text} \label{fig:test} \end{figure} See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.
A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual.
Although the name can be more or less anything, a common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name. Some commonly-used prefixes:
ch
for chapters
sec
for lower-level sectioning commands
fig
for figures
tab
for tables
eq
for equations
Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:test
or
fig.test
.
Next: \ref, Previous: \label, Up: Cross references [Contents][Index]
\pageref{key}
Synopsis:
\pageref{key}
The \pageref
{key} command produces the page number of
the place in the text where the corresponding
\label
{key} command appears.
Previous: \pageref, Up: Cross references [Contents][Index]
\ref{key}
Synopsis:
\ref{key}
The \ref
command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, …, of the corresponding
\label
command (see \label). It does not produce any text,
such as the word ‘Section’ or ‘Figure’, just the bare number itself.
Next: Line breaking, Previous: Cross references, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner:
\begin{envname} ... \end{envname}
• abstract: | Produce an abstract. | |
• array: | Math arrays. | |
• center: | Centered lines. | |
• description: | Labelled lists. | |
• displaymath: | Formulas that appear on their own line. | |
• document: | Enclose the whole document. | |
• enumerate: | Numbered lists. | |
• eqnarray: | Sequences of aligned equations. | |
• equation: | Displayed equation. | |
• figure: | Floating figures. | |
• filecontents: | Writing multiple files from the source. | |
• flushleft: | Flushed left lines. | |
• flushright: | Flushed right lines. | |
• itemize: | Bulleted lists. | |
• letter: | Letters. | |
• list: | Generic list environment. | |
• math: | In-line math. | |
• minipage: | Miniature page. | |
• picture: | Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. | |
• quotation and quote: | Include a quotation. | |
• tabbing: | Align text arbitrarily. | |
• table: | Floating tables. | |
• tabular: | Align text in columns. | |
• thebibliography: | Bibliography or reference list. | |
• theorem: | Theorems, lemmas, etc. | |
• titlepage: | For hand crafted title pages. | |
• verbatim: | Simulating typed input. | |
• verse: | For poetry and other things. |
Next: array, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
abstract
Synopsis:
\begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract}
Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.
Next: center, Previous: abstract, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
array
Synopsis:
\begin{array}{cols} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{array}
or
\begin{array}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{array}
Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math
mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment
such as equation
(see equation). Column entries are
separated by an ampersand (&
). Rows are terminated with
double-backslashes (\\
) (see \\).
The required argument cols describes the number of columns, their alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. See tabular for the complete description of cols, and of the other common features of the two environments, including the optional pos argument.
There are two ways that array
diverges from tabular
. The
first is that array
entries are typeset in mathematics mode, in
textstyle (except if the cols definition specifies the column with
@p{..}
, which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode).
The second is that, instead of tabular
’s parameter
\tabcolsep
, LaTeX’s intercolumn space in an array is governed
by
\arraycolsep
which gives half the width between columns. The
default for this is ‘5pt’.
To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the amsmath
package. It comes with environments pmatrix
for an array
surrounded by parentheses (..)
, bmatrix
for an array
surrounded by square brackets [..]
, Bmatrix
for an
array surrounded by curly braces {..}
, vmatrix
for
an array surrounded by vertical bars |..|
, and
Vmatrix
for an array surrounded by double vertical
bars ||..||
, along with a number of other array constructs.
Here is an example of an array:
\begin{equation} \begin{array}{cr} \sqrt{y} &12.3 \\ x^2 &3.4 \end{array} \end{equation}
Next: description, Previous: array, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
center
Synopsis:
\begin{center} .. text .. \end{center}
Environment to create a sequence of lines that are centered within the
left and right margins on the current page. If the text in the
environment body is too long to fit on a line, LaTeX will insert line
breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any
interword space. To force a line break at a particular spot use
double-backslash \\
(see \\).
This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See
\centering to avoid such space, for example inside a figure
environment.
In this example, depending on the line width, LaTeX may choose a break for the part before the double backslash, will center the line or two, then will break at the double backslash, and will center the ending.
\begin{center} My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton \end{center}
A double backslash after the final line is optional.
• \centering: | Declaration form of the center environment.
|
\centering
Declaration that causes material in its scope to be centered. It is
most often used inside an environment such as figure
, or in a
parbox
.
Unlike the center
environment, the \centering
command does
not add vertical space above and below the text.
It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. If ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz
is
surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose
first line ‘ww xx’ is centered and whose second line, not centered,
contains ‘yy zz’. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the
declaration to contain a blank line or the \end
command of an
environment such as figure
or table
that ends the
paragraph unit. Thus, if {\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz
is
surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two
centered lines ‘xx’ and ‘yy’, followed by a new paragraph with
‘zz’ that is formatted as usual. See also the following example.
This example’s \centering
causes the graphic to be horizontally
centered.
\begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png} \caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion} \end{figure}
The scope of the \centering
ends with the \end{figure}
.
Next: displaymath, Previous: center, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
description
Synopsis:
\begin{description} \item [first label] text of first item \item [second label] text of second item ... \end{description}
Environment to make a labelled list of items. Each item’s label is typeset in bold, flush-left. Each item’s text may contain multiple paragraphs. Although the labels on the items are optional there is no sensible default, so all items should have labels.
The list consists of at least one item; see \item (having no
items causes the LaTeX error ‘Something's wrong--perhaps a
missing \item’). Each item is produced with an \item
command.
Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font
change given in argument style (see Font styles) then it will come
out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with
\item[\texttt{label text}]
then it will appear in bold
typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way to get non-bolded
typewriter is to use declaritive style \item[{\tt label text}]
.
Similarly, get normal text use \item[{\rm label text}]
.
For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see itemize and enumerate. For information about customizing list layout, see list; also, the package enumitem is useful for this.
This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions.
\begin{definition} \item[lama] A priest. \item[llama] A beast. \end{definition}
Next: document, Previous: description, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
displaymath
Synopsis:
\begin{displaymath} .. math text .. \end{displaymath}
Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style
and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global option
fleqn
; see Document class options.
LaTeX will not break the math text across lines.
In the displaymath
environment no equation number is added to the
math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the
equation
environment (see equation).
Note that the amsmath package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents. For example, there are a number of options in that package for having math text broken across lines.
The construct \[..math text..\]
is essentially a synonym for
\begin{displaymath}..math text..\end{displaymath}
but the
latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance,
searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word
displaymath
will likely be unique. (The construct $$..math
text..$$
from Plain TeX is sometimes mistakenly used as a
synonym for displaymath
. It is not a synonym, because the
displaymath
environment checks that it isn’t started in math mode
and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching environment start,
because the displaymath
environment has different vertical
spacing, and because the displaymath
environment honors the
fleqn
option.)
The output from this example is centered and alone on its line.
\begin{displaymath} \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \end{displaymath}
Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version
\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)
produces.
Next: enumerate, Previous: displaymath, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
document
The document
environment encloses the entire body of a document.
It is required in every LaTeX document. See Starting and ending.
• \AtBeginDocument: | Hook for commands at the start of the document. | |
• \AtEndDocument: | Hook for commands at the end of the document. |
Next: \AtEndDocument, Up: document [Contents][Index]
Synopsis:
\AtBeginDocument{code}
Save code and execute it when \begin{document}
is
executed, at the very end of the preamble. The code is executed after
the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the
document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part of
the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it.
You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.
Previous: \AtBeginDocument, Up: document [Contents][Index]
Synopsis:
\AtEndDocument{code}
Save code and execute it near the end of the document.
Specifically, it is executed when \end{document}
is executed,
before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating
environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed
after these two processes then include a \clearpage
at the
appropriate point in code.
You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.
Next: eqnarray, Previous: document, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
enumerate
Synopsis:
\begin{enumerate} \item [first label] text of first item \item [second label] text of second item ... \end{enumerate}
Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numbering depends on whether this environment is nested within another; see below.
The list consists of at least one item. Having no items causes the
LaTeX error ‘Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item’. Each
item is produced with an \item
command.
This example lists the top two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon.
\begin{enumerate} \item Johnny Hayes (USA) \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) \end{enumerate}
Enumerations may be nested within a paragraph-making environment,
including itemize
(see itemize), description
(see description) and enumeration
, up to four levels deep.
The format of the label produced depends on the place in the nesting.
This gives LaTeX’s default for the format at each nesting level
(where 1 is the outermost level):
The enumerate
environment uses the counters \enumi
through
\enumiv
counters (see Counters). If you use the optional
argument to \item
then the counter is not incremented for that
item (see \item).
To change the format of the label use \renewcommand
(see \newcommand & \renewcommand) on the commands \labelenumi
through \labelenumiv
. For instance, this first level list will be
labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing
period:
\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}} \begin{enumerate} \item eI \item bi: \item si: \end{enumerate}
For a list of counter-labelling commands like \Alph
see
\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
For more on customizing the layout see list. Also, the package enumitem is useful for this.
Next: equation, Previous: enumerate, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
eqnarray
First, a caveat: the eqnarray
environment is depreciated. It has
infelicities that cannot be overcome, including spacing that is
inconsistent with other mathematics elements (see the article “Avoid
eqnarray!” by Lars Madsen
http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf). New documents
should include the amsmath package and use the displayed
mathematics environments provided there, such as the align
environment.
Nevertheless, for completeness and for a reference when working with old documents, a synopsis:
\begin{eqnarray} first formula left &first formula middle &first formula right \\ ... \end{eqnarray}
or
\begin{eqnarray*} first formula left &first formula middle &first formula right \\ ... \end{eqnarray*}
Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode.
It is similar to a three-column array
environment, with items
within a row separated by an ampersand (&
), and with rows
separated by double backslash \\
).
The starred form of line break (\\*
) can also be used to separate
equations, and will disallow a page break there (see \\).
The unstarred form eqnarray
places an equation number on every
line (using the equation
counter), unless that line contains a
\nonumber
command. The starred form eqnarray*
omits
equation numbering, while otherwise being the same.
The command \lefteqn
is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side.
\begin{eqnarray*} \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\ &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\ &= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n \end{eqnarray*}
Next: figure, Previous: eqnarray, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
equation
Synopsis:
\begin{equation} math text \end{equation}
Make a displaymath
environment (see displaymath) with an
equation number in the right margin.
The equation number is generated using the equation
counter.
Note that the amsmath package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents.
Next: filecontents, Previous: equation, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
figure
Synopsis:
\begin{figure}[placement] figure body \caption[loftitle]{title} \label{label} \end{figure}
or
\begin{figure*}[placement] figure body \caption[loftitle]{title} \label{label} \end{figure*}
A class of floats (see Floats). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page.
For the possible values of placement and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see Floats.
The starred form figure*
is used when a document is in
double-column mode (see \twocolumn). It produces a figure that
spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of
placing at a page bottom see the discussion of placement b
in Floats.
The figure body is typeset in a parbox
of width \textwidth
and so it can contain text, commands, etc.
The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (see Cross references).
The optional \caption
command specifies caption text for the
figure. By default it is numbered. If loftitle is present, it is
used in the list of figures instead of title (see Tables of contents).
This example makes a figure out of a graphic. It requires one of the packages graphics or graphicx. The graphic, with its caption, will be placed at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page of floats.
\begin{figure}[t] \centering \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png} \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby} \end{figure}
Next: flushleft, Previous: figure, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
filecontents
: Write an external fileSynopsis:
\begin{filecontents}{filename} text \end{filecontents}
or
\begin{filecontents*}{filename} text \end{filecontents*}
Create a file named filename and fill it with text. The
unstarred version of the environment filecontents
prefixes the
content of the created file with a header; see the example below. The
starred version filecontents*
does not include the header.
This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often
appears before the \documentclass
command. It is typically used
when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file. The
environment will write that file to the directory containing the source
and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to include
bib
references in the file, again to make it self-contained.
The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if
so, does not do anything. There is a filecontents package that
redefines the filecontents
environment so that instead of doing
nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.
For example, this document
\documentclass{article} \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty} \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} \end{filecontents} \usepackage{JH} \begin{document} Article by \myname. \end{document}
produces this file JH.sty.
%% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty' %% generated by the `filecontents' environment %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12. %% \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
Next: flushright, Previous: filecontents, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
flushleft
\begin{flushleft} line1 \\ line2 \\ ... \end{flushleft}
The flushleft
environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
right. Each line must be terminated with the string \\
.
• \raggedright: | Declaration form of the flushleft environment.
|
\raggedright
The \raggedright
declaration corresponds to the
flushleft
environment. This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as quote
or in a parbox
.
Unlike the flushleft
environment, the \raggedright
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command that ends the paragraph unit.
Next: itemize, Previous: flushleft, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
flushright
\begin{flushright} line1 \\ line2 \\ ... \end{flushright}
The flushright
environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
left. Each line must be terminated with the control sequence \\
.
• \raggedleft: | Declaration form of the flushright environment.
|
Up: flushright [Contents][Index]
\raggedleft
The \raggedleft
declaration corresponds to the
flushright
environment. This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as quote
or in a parbox
.
Unlike the flushright
environment, the \raggedleft
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command that ends the paragraph unit.
Next: letter, Previous: flushright, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
itemize
Synopsis:
\begin{itemize} \item item1 \item item2 ... \end{itemize}
The itemize
environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted”
list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four
levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making
environments, such as enumerate
(see enumerate).
Each item of an itemize
list begins with an \item
command.
There must be at least one \item
command within the environment.
By default, the marks at each level look like this:
The itemize
environment uses the commands \labelitemi
through \labelitemiv
to produce the default label. So, you can
use \renewcommand
to change the labels. For instance, to have
the first level use diamonds:
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
The \leftmargini
through \leftmarginvi
parameters define
the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin
is set
to the appropriate \leftmarginN
when a new level of
nesting is entered.
The defaults vary from ‘.5em’ (highest levels of nesting) to ‘2.5em’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:
\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
Some parameters that affect list formatting:
\itemindent
Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.
\labelsep
Space between the label and text of an item; default ‘.5em’.
\labelwidth
Width of the label; default ‘2em’, or ‘1.5em’ in two-column mode.
\listparindent
Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default ‘0pt’.
\rightmargin
Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the
enclosing environment; default ‘0pt’, except in the quote
,
quotation
, and verse
environments, where it is set equal
to \leftmargin
.
Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default).
\itemsep
Vertical space between items. The default is 2pt plus1pt
minus1pt
for 10pt
documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt
for
11pt
, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt
for 12pt
.
\parsep
Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults
are the same as \itemsep
.
\topsep
Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph.
For top-level lists, the default is 8pt plus2pt minus4pt
for
10pt
documents, 9pt plus3pt minus5pt
for 11pt
,
and 10pt plus4pt minus6pt
for 12pt
. These are reduced
for nested lists.
\partopsep
Extra space added to \topsep
when the list environment starts a
paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt
for 10pt
documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt
for 11pt
, and 3pt
plus2pt minus2pt
for 12pt
.
Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize*
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item (\parskip
is not list-specific,
see \parskip):
\newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}}
Next: list, Previous: itemize, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
letter
environment: writing lettersThis environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.
Next: math, Previous: letter, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
list
The list
environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{labeling}{spacing} \item item1 \item item2 ... \end{list}
The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be
labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item
).
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be
empty, i.e., {}
, which leaves the default spacing.
The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by
\linewidth
(see Page layout parameters).
• \item: | An entry in a list. |
Synopsis:
\item text of item
or
\item[optional label] text of item
An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the list type.
Because the optional argument optional label is surrounded by
square brackets ([
and ]
), to use square brackets
inside the optional argument you must hide them inside curly braces, as
in \item[Close square bracket, {]}]
. Similarly, to use an open
square bracket as first character in the text of the item, also hide it
inside curly braces. See LaTeX command syntax.
In this example the enumerate
list has two items that use the
default label and one that uses the optional label.
\begin{enumerate} \item Moe \item[sometimes] Shemp \item Larry \end{enumerate}
The first item is labelled ‘1.’, the second item is labelled ‘sometimes’, and the third item is labelled ‘2.’ (note that, because of the optional label in the second item, the third item does not get a ‘3.’).
Next: minipage, Previous: list, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
math
Synopsis:
\begin{math} math \end{math}
The math
environment inserts the given math within the
running text. \(...\)
and $...$
are synonyms.
See Math formulas.
Next: picture, Previous: math, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
minipage
\begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width} text \end{minipage}
The minipage
environment typesets its body text in a
block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the
\parbox
command (see \parbox), but unlike \parbox
,
other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage.
The arguments are the same as for \parbox
(see \parbox).
By default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage
environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as
\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}
command.
Footnotes in a minipage
environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote
or \footnotetext
command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the \mpfootnote
counter instead of the ordinary
footnote
counter (see Counters).
However, don’t put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
Next: quotation and quote, Previous: minipage, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
picture
\begin{picture}(width,height)(xoffset,yoffset) … picture commands … \end{picture}
The picture
environment allows you to create just about any
kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.
You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying
their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal
point and a minus sign—a number like 5
, 0.3
or
-3.1416
. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the
unit length \unitlength
, so if \unitlength
has been set
to 1cm
, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54
centimeters.
You should only change the value of \unitlength
, using the
\setlength
command, outside of a picture
environment.
The default value is 1pt
.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5)
, specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4
and y-coordinate -5
.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture
environment has one mandatory argument which is a
position (width,height), which specifies the size of the
picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with these
width and height.
The picture
environment also has an optional position argument
(xoffset,yoffset), following the size argument, that can
change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument
is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm
, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.
The environment’s mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture’s nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it.
Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put
command. The command
\put (11.3,-.3){...}
puts the object specified by ...
in the
picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3).
The reference points for various objects will be described below.
The \put
command creates an LR box. You can put anything
that can go in an \mbox
(see \mbox) in the text argument of
the \put
command. When you do this, the reference point will
be the lower left corner of the box.
The picture
commands are described in the following sections.
• \circle: | Draw a circle. | |
• \makebox (picture): | Draw a box of the specified size. | |
• \framebox (picture): | Draw a box with a frame around it. | |
• \dashbox: | Draw a dashed box. | |
• \frame: | Draw a frame around an object. | |
• \line: | Draw a straight line. | |
• \linethickness: | Set the line thickness. | |
• \thicklines: | A heavier line thickness. | |
• \thinlines: | The default line thickness. | |
• \multiput: | Draw multiple instances of an object. | |
• \oval: | Draw an ellipse. | |
• \put: | Place an object at a specified place. | |
• \shortstack: | Make a pile of objects. | |
• \vector: | Draw a line with an arrow. |
Next: \makebox (picture), Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\circle
Synopsis:
\circle[*]{diameter}
The \circle
command produces a circle with a diameter as close
to the specified one as possible. The *
-form of the command
draws a solid circle.
Circles up to 40pt can be drawn.
Next: \framebox (picture), Previous: \circle, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\makebox
Synopsis:
\makebox(width,height)[position]{text}
The \makebox
command for the picture environment is similar to
the normal \makebox
command except that you must specify a
width and height in multiples of \unitlength
.
The optional argument, [position]
, specifies the quadrant that
your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following:
t
Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.
b
Moves the item to the bottom.
l
Moves the item to the left.
r
Moves the item to the right.
See \makebox.
Next: \dashbox, Previous: \makebox (picture), Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\framebox
Synopsis:
\framebox(width,height)[pos]{...}
The \framebox
command is like \makebox
(see previous
section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box
that it creates.
The \framebox
command produces a rule of thickness
\fboxrule
, and leaves a space \fboxsep
between the rule
and the contents of the box.
Next: \frame, Previous: \framebox (picture), Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\dashbox
Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis:
\dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text}
\dashbox
creates a dashed rectangle around text in a
picture
environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the
rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight.
The text is positioned at optional pos.
A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are multiples of the dlen.
\frame
Synopsis:
\frame{text}
The \frame
command puts a rectangular frame around text.
The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra
space is put between the frame and the object.
Next: \linethickness, Previous: \frame, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\line
Synopsis:
\line(xslope,yslope){length}
The \line
command draws a line with the given length and
slope xslope/yslope.
Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y,
where x and y have integer values from -6
through 6. For lines of any slope, and plenty of other shapes,
see pict2e
and many other packages on CTAN.
Next: \thicklines, Previous: \line, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\linethickness
The \linethickness{dim}
command declares the thickness
of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be
dim, which must be a positive length.
\linethickness
does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval
.
Next: \thinlines, Previous: \linethickness, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\thicklines
The \thicklines
command is an alternate line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf. \linethickness and \thinlines.
Next: \multiput, Previous: \thicklines, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\thinlines
The \thinlines
command is the default line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf. \linethickness and \thicklines.
Next: \oval, Previous: \thinlines, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\multiput
Synopsis:
\multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj}
The \multiput
command copies the object obj in a regular
pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position
(x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on,
n times.
\oval
Synopsis:
\oval(width,height)[portion]
The \oval
command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The
optional argument portion allows you to produce only half of the
oval via the following:
t
selects the top half;
b
selects the bottom half;
r
selects the right half;
l
selects the left half.
It is also possible to produce only one quarter of the oval by setting
portion to tr
, br
, bl
, or tl
.
The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes with rounded corners.
Next: \shortstack, Previous: \oval, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\put
Synopsis:
\put(xcoord,ycoord){ ... }
The \put
command places the material specified by the
(mandatory) argument in braces at the given coordinate,
(xcoord,ycoord).
\shortstack
Synopsis:
\shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...}
The \shortstack
command produces a stack of objects. The valid
positions are:
r
Move the objects to the right of the stack.
l
Move the objects to the left of the stack
c
Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)
Objects are separated with \\
.
Previous: \shortstack, Up: picture [Contents][Index]
\vector
Synopsis:
\vector(xslope,yslope){length}
The \vector
command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope. The xslope and yslope
values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.
Next: tabbing, Previous: picture, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
quotation
and quote
Synopsis:
\begin{quotation} text \end{quotation}
or
\begin{quote} text \end{quote}
Include a quotation.
In both environments, margins are indented on both sides by
\leftmargin
and the text is justified at both. As with the main
text, leaving a blank line produces a new paragraph.
To compare the two: in the quotation
environment, paragraphs are
indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small,
0pt plus 1pt
. In the quote
environment, paragraphs are
not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the
rubber length \parsep
). Thus, the quotation
environment
may be more suitable for documents where new paragraphs are marked by an
indent rather than by a vertical separation. In addition, quote
may be more suitable for a short quotation or a sequence of short
quotations.
\begin{quotation} \it Four score and seven years ago .. shall not perish from the earth. \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln \end{quotation}
Next: table, Previous: quotation and quote, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
tabbing
Synopsis:
\begin{tabbing} row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\ row2col1 \> \> row2col3 \\ ... \end{tabbing}
The tabbing
environment provides a way to align text in
columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as
was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where
the width of each column is constant and known in advance.
This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular
environment.
The following commands can be used inside a tabbing
environment:
\\ (tabbing)
End a line.
\= (tabbing)
Sets a tab stop at the current position.
\> (tabbing)
Advances to the next tab stop.
\<
Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line.
\+
Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
\-
Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
\' (tabbing)
Moves everything that you have typed so far in the
current column, i.e., everything from the most recent \>
,
\<
, \'
, \\
, or \kill
command, to the right
of the previous column, flush against the current column’s tab stop.
\` (tabbing)
Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab
stop 0. However, it can’t move text to the right of the last column
because there’s no tab stop there. The \`
command moves all the
text that follows it, up to the \\
or \end{tabbing}
command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
environment. There must be no \>
or \'
command between
the \`
and the command that ends the line.
\a (tabbing)
In a tabbing
environment, the commands \=
, \'
and
\`
do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead,
the commands \a=
, \a'
and \a`
are used.
\kill
Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\
except that it throws away the current line instead of producing
output for it. The effect of any \=
, \+
or \-
commands in that line remain in effect.
\poptabs
Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs
.
\pushtabs
Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing
tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing
environment.
\tabbingsep
Distance to left of tab stop moved by \'
.
This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:
\begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing}
Next: tabular, Previous: tabbing, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
table
Synopsis:
\begin{table}[placement] table body \caption[loftitle]{title} \label{label} \end{table}
A class of floats (see Floats). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page.
For the possible values of placement and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see Floats.
The table body is typeset in a parbox
of width \textwidth
and so it can contain text, commands, etc.
The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (see Cross references).
The optional \caption
command specifies caption text for the
table. By default it is numbered. If lottitle is present, it is
used in the list of tables instead of title (see Tables of contents).
In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.
\begin{table}[b] \centering \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline One &The loneliest number \\ Two &Can be as sad as one. It's the loneliest number since the number one. \end{tabular} \caption{Cardinal virtues} \label{tab:CardinalVirtues} \end{table}
Next: thebibliography, Previous: table, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
tabular
Synopsis:
\begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular}
or
\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular*}
These environments produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features.
\begin{tabular}{l|l} \textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\ \hline Hank Aaron &755 \\ Babe Ruth &714 \end{tabular}
The vertical format of two left-aligned columns, with a vertical bar
between them, is specified in tabular
’s argument {l|l}
.
Columns are separated with an ampersand &
. A horizontal rule
between two rows is created with \hline
.
The end of each row is marked with a double backslash \\
.
This \\
is optional after the last row unless an \hline
command follows, to put a rule below the table.
The required and optional arguments to tabular
consist of:
Required for tabular*
, not allowed for tabular
. Specifies
the width of the tabular*
environment. The space between columns
should be rubber, as with @{\extracolsep{\fill}}
, to allow
the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you
are likely to get the Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment
..
warning.
Optional. Specifies the table’s vertical position. The default is to
align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the
surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: t
aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding
text, and b
aligns on the bottom row.
This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a
tabular
alone in a center
environment this option makes
no difference.
Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumn material.
l
A column of left-aligned items.
r
A column of right-aligned items.
c
A column of centered items.
|
A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
@{text or space}
This inserts text or space at this location in every row. The text or space material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (see \protect).
This specifier is optional: unless you put in your own @-expression
then LaTeX’s book, article, and report classes will put on either
side of each column a space of length \tabcolsep
, which by
default is ‘6pt’. That is, by default adjacent columns are
separated by 12pt (so \tabcolsep
is misleadingly-named since it
is not the separation between tabular columns). Also by default a space
of 6pt comes before the first column as well as after the final column,
unless you put a @{..}
or |
there.
If you override the default and use an @-expression then you must
insert any desired space yourself, as in @{\hspace{1em}}
.
An empty expression @{}
will eliminate the space, including
the space at the start or end, as in the example below where the tabular
lines need to lie on the left margin.
\begin{flushleft} \begin{tabular}{@{}l} .. \end{tabular} \end{flushleft}
This example shows text, a decimal point, between the columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on that decimal point.
\begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l} $3$ &$14$ \\ $9$ &$80665$ \end{tabular}
An \extracolsep{wd}
command in an @-expression causes an
extra space of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent
columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep
command.
Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by
an @-expression. An \extracolsep
command can be used only in an
@-expression in the cols
argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the
right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches
wide.
\begin{center} \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\ \ldots\extracolsep{\fill}}l} Seven times down, eight times up &such is life! \end{tabular*} \end{center}
To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given
column, load the array
package and use the >{...}
specifier.
p{wd}
Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width wd.
Note that a line break double backslash \\
may not appear in the
item, except inside an environment like minipage
, array
,
or tabular
, or inside an explicit \parbox
, or in the scope
of a \centering
, \raggedright
, or \raggedleft
declaration (when used in a p
-column element these declarations
must appear inside braces, as with {\centering .. \\
..}
). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as
ending the row.
*{num}{cols}
Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is a
positive integer and cols is a list of specifiers. Thus
\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}
is equivalent to
\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}
. Note that cols may
contain another *-expression
.
Parameters that control formatting:
\arrayrulewidth
A length that is the thickness of the rule created by |
,
\hline
, and \vline
in the tabular
and array
environments. The default is ‘.4pt’. Change it as in
\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}
.
\arraystretch
A factor by which the spacing between rows in the tabular
and
array
environments is multiplied. The default is ‘1’, for
no scaling. Change it as \renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}
.
\doublerulesep
A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the
||
specifier. The default is ‘2pt’.
\tabcolsep
A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is
‘6pt’. Change it with \setlength
.
The following commands can be used inside the body of a tabular
environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between
lines:
• \multicolumn: | Make an item spanning several columns. | |
• \vline: | Draw a vertical line. | |
• \cline: | Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. | |
• \hline: | Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns. |
\multicolumn
Synopsis:
\multicolumn{numcols}{cols}{text}
Make an array
or tabular
entry that spans several columns.
The first argument numcols gives the number of columns to span.
The second argument cols specifies the formatting of the entry,
with c
for centered, l
for flush left, or r
for
flush right. The third argument text gives the contents of that
entry.
In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the single heading ‘Name’.
\begin{tabular}{lccl} \textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline % row one 978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick &55 \\ % row two .. \end{tabular}
What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the
array
or tabular
environment is broken into parts, where
each part (except the first) begins with l
, c
, r
,
or p
. So from \begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}
the parts are |r|
, c
, c
,
and p{1.5in}|
.
The cols argument overrides the array
or tabular
environment’s intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn
entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars
|
indicating the placement of vertical rules, and @{..}
expressions. Thus if cols is ‘|c|’ then this multicolumn
entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn
area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior.
\begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|} \multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three &z % entry four \end{tabular}
Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because
the \multicolumn
has the cols specifier ‘r’ with no
initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a
vertical rule; although the first cols does not have an ending
vertical bar, the second cols does have a starting one. Between
entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that
the cols in both of the surrounding multicolumn
’s call for
a vertical rule, you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry
four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the
cols in the entry three \multicolumn
leaves it out, and
that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a
vertical rule because of the default.
The number of spanned columns numcols can be 1. Besides giving
the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to
override for one row the tabular
definition’s default intercolumn
area specification, including the placement of vertical rules.
In the example below, in the tabular
definition the first column
is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry
is centered with \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}
.
Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a
single entry with \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}
,
overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page
range en-dash.
\begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}} &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline Baroque &1600 &1760 \\ Classical &1730 &1820 \\ Romantic &1780 &1910 \\ Impressionistic &1875 &1925 \end{tabular}
Note that although the tabular
specification by default puts a
vertical rule between the first and second columns, because there is no
vertical bar in the cols of either of the first row’s
\multicolumn
commands, no rule appears in the first row.
Next: \cline, Previous: \multicolumn, Up: tabular [Contents][Index]
\vline
Draw a vertical line in a tabular
or array
environment
extending the full height and depth of an entry’s row. Can also be used
in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical bar |
is
more common. This command is rarely used; typically a table’s vertical
lines are specified in tabular
’s cols argument and
overriden as needed with \multicolumn
.
This example illustrates some pitfalls. In the first line’s second
entry the \hfill
moves the \vline
to the left edge of the
cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two
columns, so in that row between the first and second columns there are
two vertical rules, with the one from the {c|cc}
specifier
coming before the one produced by the \vline\hfill
. In contrast,
the first line’s third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar
between two columns. In the second line, the ghi
is the widest
entry in its column so in the \vline\hfill
the \hfill
has
no effect and the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next
to the g
, with no whitespace.
\begin{tabular}{c|cc} x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi \end{tabular}
\cline
Synopsis:
\cline{i-j}
Draw a horizontal rule in an array
or tabular
environment
beginning in column i and ending in column j. The
dash -
must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a
single column use the number twice.
This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same height.
\begin{tabular}{llrr} a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} e &f &g &h \end{tabular}
\hline
Draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing tabular
or
array
environment. It’s most commonly used to draw a line at the
top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.
In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above
the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single
rule spanning both columns. Because of the \hline
, the
tabular
second row’s line ending double backslash \\
is required.
\begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline Baseball &Red Sox \\ Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline \end{tabular}
Next: theorem, Previous: tabular, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
thebibliography
Synopsis:
\begin{thebibliography}{widest-label} \bibitem[label]{cite_key} ... \end{thebibliography}
The thebibliography
environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.
In the article
class, this reference list is labelled
“References”; in the report
class, it is labelled
“Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes)
by redefining the command \refname
. For instance, this
eliminates it entirely:
\renewcommand{\refname}{}
The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset,
is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem
commands. It is typically given as 9
for bibliographies with
less than 10 references, 99
for ones with less than 100, etc.
• \bibitem: | Specify a bibliography item. | |
• \cite: | Refer to a bibliography item. | |
• \nocite: | Include an item in the bibliography. | |
• Using BibTeX: | Automatic generation of bibliographies. |
Next: \cite, Up: thebibliography [Contents][Index]
\bibitem
Synopsis:
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
The \bibitem
command generates an entry labelled by
label. If the label argument is missing, a number is
automatically generated using the enumi
counter. The
cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
symbols not containing a comma.
This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the
item’s cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by
the \begin{document}
command, the item’s label
is
associated with cite_key
, causing references to cite_key
with a \cite
command (see next section) to produce the
associated label.
Next: \nocite, Previous: \bibitem, Up: thebibliography [Contents][Index]
\cite
Synopsis:
\cite[subcite]{keys}
The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with keys by entries in the .aux file.
The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the
citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth}
might produce
‘[Knuth, p. 314]’.
Next: Using BibTeX, Previous: \cite, Up: thebibliography [Contents][Index]
\nocite
\nocite{keys}
The \nocite
command produces no text, but writes keys,
which is a list of one or more citation keys, to the .aux file.
Previous: \nocite, Up: thebibliography [Contents][Index]
If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly
recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of
titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don’t use the
thebibliography
environment (see thebibliography). Instead,
you include the lines
\bibliographystyle{bibstyle} \bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2}
The \bibliographystyle
command does not produce any output of
its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will
be produced: bibstyle refers to a file
bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look.
The standard style names distributed with BibTeX are:
alpha
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication.
plain
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
unsrt
Like plain
, but entries are in order of citation.
abbrv
Like plain
, but more compact labels.
In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib.
The \bibliography
command is what actually produces the
bibliography. The argument to \bibliography
refers to files
named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in
BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via \cite
and
\nocite
will be listed in the bibliography.
Next: titlepage, Previous: thebibliography, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
theorem
Synopsis:
\begin{theorem} theorem-text \end{theorem}
The theorem
environment produces “Theorem n” in
boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering
possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem
(see \newtheorem).
Next: verbatim, Previous: theorem, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
titlepage
Synopsis:
\begin{titlepage} text \end{titlepage}
The titlepage
environment creates a title page, i.e., a page
with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following
page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to
you. The \today
command may be useful on title pages
(see \today).
You can use the \maketitle
command (see \maketitle) to
produce a standard title page without a titlepage
environment.
Next: verse, Previous: titlepage, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
verbatim
Synopsis:
\begin{verbatim} literal-text \end{verbatim}
The verbatim
environment is a paragraph-making environment in
which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the
\
character produces a printed ‘\’. It turns LaTeX
into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same
effect that they would on a typewriter.
The verbatim
uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt
).
• \verb: | The macro form of the verbatim environment.
|
\verb
Synopsis:
\verbcharliteral-textchar \verb*charliteral-textchar
The \verb
command typesets literal-text as it is input,
including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter
(\tt
) font. No spaces are allowed between \verb
or
\verb*
and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the
verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text.
The *
-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a
“visible space” character.
Previous: verbatim, Up: Environments [Contents][Index]
verse
Synopsis:
\begin{verse} line1 \\ line2 \\ ... \end{verse}
The verse
environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.
The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not
indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each
stanza with \\
, and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.
Next: Page breaking, Previous: Environments, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages).
LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.
• \\: | Start a new line. | |
• \obeycr & \restorecr: | Make each input line start a new output line. | |
• \newline: | Break the line | |
• \- (hyphenation): | Insert explicit hyphenation. | |
• \fussy: | Be fussy about line breaking. | |
• \sloppy: | Be sloppy about line breaking. | |
• \hyphenation: | Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word. | |
• \linebreak & \nolinebreak: | Forcing & avoiding line breaks. |
Next: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\\
Synopsis:
\\[morespace]
or
\\*[morespace]
Start a new line. The optional argument morespace specifies extra vertical space to be insert before the next line. This can be a negative length. The text before the break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width.
Explicit line breaks in the text body are unusual in LaTeX. In
particular, to start a new paragraph instead leave a blank line. This
command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in
a tabular
or array
environment.
Under ordinary circumstances (e.g., outside of a p{..}
column
in a tabular
environment) the \newline
command is a synonym for
\\
(see \newline).
In addition to starting a new line, the starred form \\*
tells
LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a
\nobreak
.
\title{My story: \\[0.25in] a tale of woe}
Next: \newline, Previous: \\, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\obeycr
& \restorecr
The \obeycr
command makes a return in the input file
(‘^^M’, internally) the same as \\
(followed by
\relax
). So each new line in the input will also be a new line
in the output.
\restorecr
restores normal line-breaking behavior.
Next: \- (hyphenation), Previous: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\newline
In ordinary text this is equivalent to double-backslash (see \\); it breaks a line, with no stretching of the text before it.
Inside a tabular
or array
environment, in a column with a
specifier producing a paragraph box, like typically p{..}
,
\newline
will insert a line break inside of the column, that is,
it does not break the entire row. To break the entire row use \\
or its equivalent \tabularnewline
.
This will print ‘Name:’ and ‘Address:’ as two lines in a single cell of the table.
\begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}} Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline \end{tabular}
The ‘Date:’ will be baseline-aligned with ‘Name:’.
Next: \fussy, Previous: \newline, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\-
(discretionary hyphen)The \-
command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at
that point. LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds
most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an
incorrect one. The \-
command is used for the exceptional
cases.
When you insert \-
commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points
that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.
Next: \sloppy, Previous: \- (hyphenation), Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\fussy
The declaration \fussy
(which is the default) makes TeX
picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between
words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.
This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy
command
(see \sloppy.
Next: \hyphenation, Previous: \fussy, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\sloppy
The declaration \sloppy
makes TeX less fussy about line
breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose
interword spacing.
Lasts until a \fussy
command is issued (see \fussy).
Next: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Previous: \sloppy, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\hyphenation
Synopsis:
\hyphenation{word-one word-two}
The \hyphenation
command declares allowed hyphenation points
with a -
character in the given words. The words are separated
by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no
inflections are tried. Multiple \hyphenation
commands
accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns
misses the hyphenations in these words):
\hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}
Previous: \hyphenation, Up: Line breaking [Contents][Index]
\linebreak
& \nolinebreak
Synopses:
\linebreak[priority] \nolinebreak[priority]
By default, the \linebreak
(\nolinebreak
) command forces
(prevents) a line break at the current position. For
\linebreak
, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it
extends to the right margin as usual.
With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.
Next: Footnotes, Previous: Line breaking, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.
• \cleardoublepage: | Start a new right-hand page. | |
• \clearpage: | Start a new page. | |
• \newpage: | Start a new page. | |
• \enlargethispage: | Enlarge the current page a bit. | |
• \pagebreak & \nopagebreak: | Forcing & avoiding page breaks. |
Next: \clearpage, Up: Page breaking [Contents][Index]
\cleardoublepage
The \cleardoublepage
command ends the current page and causes all
the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the
input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the
next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if
necessary.
Next: \newpage, Previous: \cleardoublepage, Up: Page breaking [Contents][Index]
\clearpage
The \clearpage
command ends the current page and causes all the
pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the
input to be printed.
Next: \enlargethispage, Previous: \clearpage, Up: Page breaking [Contents][Index]
\newpage
The \newpage
command ends the current page, but does not clear
floats (see \clearpage).
Next: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Previous: \newpage, Up: Page breaking [Contents][Index]
\enlargethispage
\enlargethispage{size}
\enlargethispage*{size}
Enlarge the \textheight
for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g., \enlargethispage{\baselineskip}
will allow one
additional line.
The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as
much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
\pagebreak
.
Previous: \enlargethispage, Up: Page breaking [Contents][Index]
\pagebreak
& \nopagebreak
Synopses:
\pagebreak[priority] \nopagebreak[priority]
By default, the \pagebreak
(\nopagebreak
) command forces
(prevents) a page break at the current position. With
\pagebreak
, the vertical space on the page is stretched out
where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin.
With the optional argument priority, you can convert the
\pagebreak
command from a demand to a request. The number must
be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.
Next: Definitions, Previous: Page breaking, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Place a numbered footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.
Noël Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making love.\footnote{I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.}
You can place multiple footnotes on a page. If the text becomes too long it will flow to the next page.
You can also produce footnotes by combining the \footnotemark
and
the \footnotetext
commands, which is useful in special
circumstances.
To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a bibliographic style with that behavior.
• \footnote: | Insert a footnote. | |
• \footnotemark: | Insert footnote mark only. | |
• \footnotetext: | Insert footnote text only. | |
• Footnotes in a table: | Table footnotes. | |
• Footnotes in section headings: | Chapter or section titles. | |
• Footnotes of footnotes: | Multiple classes of footnotes. | |
• Multiple reference to footnotes: | Referring to a footnote more than once. | |
• Footnote parameters: | Parameters for footnote formatting. |
Next: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
\footnote
Synopsis:
\footnote[number]{text}
Place a numbered footnote text at the bottom of the current page.
There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained, ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''}
The optional argument number allows you to specify the footnote number. If you use this option then the footnote number counter is not incremented, and if you do not use it then the counter is incremented.
Change how LaTeX shows the footnote counter with something like
\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
, which
uses a sequence of symbols (see \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If
you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with
\setcounter{footnote}{0}
. By default LaTeX uses arabic
numbers.
LaTeX’s default puts many restrictions on where you can use a
\footnote
; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a
sectioning command such as \chapter
(it can only be used in outer
paragraph mode). There are some workarounds; see following sections.
In a minipage
environment the \footnote
command uses the mpfootnote
counter instead of the
footnote
counter, so they are numbered independently. They are
shown at the bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page.
And by default they are shown alphabetically. See minipage.
Next: \footnotetext, Previous: \footnote, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
\footnotemark
Synopsis, one of:
\footnotemark \footnotemark[number]
Put the current footnote number in the text. (See \footnotetext for giving the text of the footnote separately.) The version with the optional argument number uses that number to determine the mark printed. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode.
This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first
and third authors (\thanks
is a version of footnote
).
\title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem} \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds} \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University} \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]} \begin{document} \maketitle
If you use \footnotemark
without the optional argument then it
increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional number
then it does not. This produces several consecutive footnote markers
referring to the same footnote.
The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.} and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
Next: Footnotes in a table, Previous: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
\footnotetext
Synopsis, one of:
\footnotetext{text} \footnotetext[number]{text}
Place text at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command
can come anywhere after the \footnotemark
command. The optional
argument number changes the displayed footnote number. The
\footnotetext
command must appear in outer paragraph mode.
Next: Footnotes in section headings, Previous: \footnotetext, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
Inside a table
environment the \footnote
command does not
work. For instance, if the code below appears on its own then the
footnote simply disappears; there is a footnote mark in the table cell
but nothing is set at the bottom of the page.
\begin{center} \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline \textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\ \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{Starting with HMS Surprise.} \end{tabular} \end{center}
The solution is to surround the tabular
environment with a
minipage
environment, as here (see minipage).
\begin{center} \begin{minipage}{.5\textwidth} .. tabular material .. \end{minipage} \end{center}
The same technique will work inside a floating table
environment
(see table). To get the footnote at the bottom of the page use the
tablefootnote package, as illustrated in this example. If you
put \usepackage{tablefootnote}
in the preamble and use the code
shown then the footnote appears at the bottom and is numbered in
sequence with other footnotes.
\begin{table} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline 1862 &Fort Donelson \\ 1863 &Vicksburg \\ 1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\footnote{Ending the war.} \end{tabular} \caption{Forces captured by US Grant} \end{table}
Next: Footnotes of footnotes, Previous: Footnotes in a table, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
Putting a footnote in a section heading
\section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}
causes the footnote to appear both at the bottom of the page where the
section starts and at the bottom of the table of contents page. To have
it not appear on the table of contents use the package footmisc
with the stable
option.
\usepackage[stable]{footmisc} .. \begin{document} .. \section{Full sets\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}
Note that the \protect
is gone; putting it in causes the
footnote to reappear on the table of contents.
Next: Multiple reference to footnotes, Previous: Footnotes in section headings, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package bigfoot extends LaTeX’s default footnote mechanism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example.
\usepackage{bigfoot} \DeclareNewFootnote{Default} \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{} .. \begin{document} .. The third theorem is a partial converse of the second.\footnotefrom{First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}} ..
Next: Footnote parameters, Previous: Footnotes of footnotes, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
You can refer to a single footnote more than once. This example uses the package cleverref.
\usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % this version of package or later \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3} .. \begin{document} .. The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker and Evers, 1994.} The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers and Chance, 1990.} But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE} ..
This solution will work with the package hyperref. See \footnotemark for a simpler solution in the common case of multiple authors with the same affiliation.
Previous: Multiple reference to footnotes, Up: Footnotes [Contents][Index]
\footnoterule
Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page’s
footnotes. Default dimensions: 0.4pt
thick (or wide), and
0.4\columnwidth
long in the standard document classes (except
slides
, where it does not appear).
\footnotesep
The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By
default, this is set to the normal strut for \footnotesize
fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between
footnotes. This is ‘6.65pt’ for ‘10pt’, ‘7.7pt’ for
‘11pt’, and ‘8.4pt’ for ‘12pt’.
LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
• \newcommand & \renewcommand: | (Re)define a new command. | |
• \providecommand: | Define a new command, if name not used. | |
• \newcounter: | Define a new counter. | |
• \newlength: | Define a new length. | |
• \newsavebox: | Define a new box. | |
• \newenvironment & \renewenvironment: | Define a new environment. | |
• \newtheorem: | Define a new theorem-like environment. | |
• \newfont: | Define a new font name. | |
• \protect: | Using tricky commands. |
Next: \providecommand, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newcommand
& \renewcommand
\newcommand
and \renewcommand
define and redefine a
command, respectively. Synopses:
\newcommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn} \newcommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn} \renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn} \renewcommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
The *
-form of these two commands requires that the arguments
not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not \long
, in plain
TeX terms).
Required; the command name. It must begin with \
. For
\newcommand
, it must not be already defined and must not begin
with \end
. For \renewcommand
, it must already be
defined.
Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. If this argument is not present, the default is for the command to have no arguments. When redefining a command, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version.
Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of defined command \cmd is optional, with default value optargdefault (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then \cmd does not take an optional argument.
That is, if \cmd is used with square brackets following, as in
\cmd[myval]
, then within defn #1
expands
myval. While if \cmd is called without square brackets
following, then within defn the #1
expands to the default
optargdefault. In either case, any required arguments will be
referred to starting with #2
.
Omitting [myval]
in the call is different from having the
square brackets with no contents, as in []
. The former results
in #1
expanding to optargdefault; the latter results in
#1
expanding to the empty string.
The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd
; a
construct of the form #n
in defn is replaced by the
text of the nth argument.
A command with no arguments that is followed in the source by a space
will swallow that space. The solution is to type {}
after the
command and before the space.
A simple example of defining a new command:
\newcommand{\JH}{Jim Hef{}feron}
causes the abbreviation
\JH
to be replaced by the longer text.
Redefining a command is basically the same:
\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}
.
Here’s a command definition that uses arguments:
\newcommand{\defreference}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}
Then, \defreference{def:basis}
will expand to
something like ‘Definition~3.14’.
An example with two arguments:
\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{#1\!\times\!#2}
is invoked as
\nbym{2}{k}
.
An example with optional arguments:
\newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}
Then, \salutation
gives ‘Dear Sir or Madam:’ while
\salutation[John]
gives ‘Dear John:’. And
\salutation[]
gives ‘Dear :’.
The braces around defn do not delimit the scope of the result of
expanding defn. So \newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}
is wrong since in the sentence
The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Virginia}.
the words ‘met the’ will incorrectly be in italics. An
extra pair of braces \newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}
fixes it.
Next: \newcounter, Previous: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\providecommand
Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. Synopses:
\providecommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn} \providecommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect
as \newcommand
(see \newcommand & \renewcommand). If a
command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing.
This is particularly useful in a style file, or other file that may be
loaded more than once.
Next: \newlength, Previous: \providecommand, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newcounter
: Allocating a counterSynopsis:
\newcounter{countername}[supercounter]
The \newcounter
command globally defines a new counter named
countername. The name consists of letters only and does not begin
with a backslash (‘\’). The name must not already be used by
another counter. The new counter is initialized to zero.
If the optional argument [supercounter]
appears, then
countername will be numbered within, or subsidiary to, the
existing counter supercounter. For example, ordinarily
subsection
is numbered within section
. Any time
supercounter is incremented with \stepcounter
(see \stepcounter) or \refstepcounter
(see \refstepcounter) then countername is reset to zero.
See Counters, for more information about counters.
Next: \newsavebox, Previous: \newcounter, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newlength
: Allocating a lengthAllocate a new length register. Synopsis:
\newlength{\arg}
This command takes one required argument, which must begin with a
backslash (‘\’). It creates a new length register named
\arg
, which is a place to hold (rubber) lengths such as
1in plus.2in minus.1in
(what plain TeX calls a skip
register). The register gets an initial value of zero. The control
sequence \arg
must not already be defined.
See Lengths, for more about lengths.
Next: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Previous: \newlength, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newsavebox
: Allocating a boxAllocate a “bin” for holding a box. Synopsis:
\newsavebox{\cmd}
Defines \cmd
to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.
Such a box is for holding typeset material, to use multiple times
(see Boxes) or to measure or manipulate. The name
\cmd
must start with a backslash (‘\’), and must not
be already defined.
The allocation of a box is global. This command is fragile (see \protect).
Next: \newtheorem, Previous: \newsavebox, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newenvironment
& \renewenvironment
These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is,
\begin{env} … \end{env}
. Synopses:
\newenvironment{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn} \newenvironment*{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn} \renewenvironment{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn} \renewenvironment*{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn}
Unlike \newcommand
and \renewcommand
, the *
-forms
\newenvironment*
and \renewcommand*
have the same effect
as the forms with no *
.
Required; the environment name. It does not begin with backslash
(\
). It must not begin with the string end
. For
\newenvironment
, the name env must not be the name of an
already existing environment, and also the command \env
must be undefined. For \renewenvironment
, env must be the
name of an existing environment.
Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
that the environment will take. These arguments appear after the
\begin
, as in
\begin{env}{arg1}…{argn}
. If this
argument is not present then the default is for the environment to have
no arguments. When redefining an environment, the new version can have
a different number of arguments than the old version.
Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of the defined environment is optional, with default value optargdefault (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then the environment does not take an optional argument.
That is, when [optargdefault]
is present in the environment
definition, if \begin{env}
is used with square brackets
following, as in \begin{env}[myval]
, then within
the environment #1
expands myval. If
\begin{env}
is called without square brackets following,
then within the environment the #1
expands to the default
optargdefault. In either case, any required arguments will be
referred to starting with #2
.
Omitting [myval]
in the call is different from having the
square brackets with no contents, as in []
. The former results
in #1
expanding to optargdefault; the latter results in
#1
expanding to the empty string.
Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of
\begin{env}
; a construct of the form #n
in
begdef is replaced by the text of the nth argument.
Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of
\end{env}
. Note that it may not contain any argument
parameters, so #n
cannot be used here.
The environment env delimits the scope of the result of expanding
begdefn and enddefn. Thus, in the first example below, the
effect of the \small
is limited to the quote and does not extend
to material following the environment.
This example gives an environment like LaTeX’s quotation
except that
it will be set in smaller type.
\newenvironment{smallquote}{% \small\begin{quotation} }{% \end{quotation} }
This shows the use of arguments; it gives a quotation environment that cites the author.
\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \begin{quotation} \noindent\textit{#1}: }{% \end{quotation} }
The author’s name is optional, and defaults to Shakespeare. In the document, use the environment as here:
\begin{citequote}[Lincoln] .. \end{citequote}
The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in enddefn.
\newsavebox{\quoteauthor} \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}% \begin{quotation} }{% \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor} \end{quotation} }
Next: \newfont, Previous: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newtheorem
Define a new theorem-like environment. Synopses:
\newtheorem{name}{title}[numbered_within] \newtheorem{name}[numbered_like]{title}
Both create a theorem-like environment name. Using the first form,
\newtheorem{name}{title}[numbered_within]
with the optional argument after the second required argument, creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter numbered_within: it will be reset when numbered_within is reset).
Using the second form,
\newtheorem{name}[numbered_like]{title}
with the optional argument between the two required arguments, will create an environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter numbered_like.
You can specify one of numbered_within and numbered_like, or neither, but not both.
This command creates a counter named name. In addition, unless
the optional argument numbered_like is used, the current
\ref
value will be that of \thenumbered_within
(see \ref).
This declaration is global. It is fragile (see \protect).
Arguments:
The name of the environment. It must not begin with a backslash
(‘\’). It must not be the name of an existing environment; indeed,
the command name \name
must not already be defined as anything.
The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, ‘Theorem’.
Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional
unit such as chapter
or section
. When the
numbered_within counter is reset then the name environment’s
counter will also be reset.
If this optional argument is not used then the command
\thename
is set to \arabic{name}
.
Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The new environment will be numbered in sequence with numbered_like.
Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. This example has a declaration in the preamble that results in ‘Definition 1’ and ‘Definition 2’ in the output.
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn}
Because this example specifies the optional argument
numbered_within to \newtheorem
as section
, the
example, with the same document body, gives ‘Definition 1.1’
and ‘Definition 2.1’.
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn}
In this example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second
of which calls for the new thm
environment to use the same
counter as defn
. It gives ‘Definition 1.1’, followed
by ‘Theorem 2.1’ and ‘Definition 2.2’.
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{thm} First thm \end{thm} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn}
Next: \protect, Previous: \newtheorem, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\newfont
: Define a new font (obsolete)\newfont
, now obsolete, defines a command that will switch fonts.
Synopsis:
\newfont{\cmd}{font description}
This defines a control sequence \cmd
that will change the
current font. LaTeX will look on your system for a file named
fontname.tfm. The control sequence must must not already
be defined. It must begin with a backslash (‘\’).
This command is obsolete. It is a low-level command for setting up an individual font. Today fonts are almost always defined in families (which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman) through the so-called “New Font Selection Scheme”, either by using .fd files or through the use of an engine that can access system fonts such as XeLaTeX (see TeX engines).
But since it is part of LaTeX, here is an explanation: the
font description consists of a fontname and an optional
at clause; this can have the form either at dimen
or scaled factor
, where a factor of ‘1000’
means no scaling. For LaTeX’s purposes, all this does is scale all
the character and other font dimensions relative to the font’s design
size, which is a value defined in the .tfm file.
This example defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each:
\newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt} \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 11pt} \testfontat abc \testfontscaled abc
Previous: \newfont, Up: Definitions [Contents][Index]
\protect
All LaTeX commands are either fragile or robust.
Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and
many more, are fragile. A fragile command can break when it is used in
the argument to certain commands. To prevent such commands from
breaking they must be preceded by the command \protect
.
For example, when LaTeX runs the \section{section
name}
command it writes the section name text to the
.aux auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the
document such as in the table of contents. Any argument that is
internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is
referred to as a moving argument. A command is fragile if it can
expand during this process into invalid TeX code. Some examples of
moving arguments are those that appear in the \caption{..}
command (see figure), in the \thanks{..}
command
(see \maketitle), and in @-expressions in the tabular
and
array
environments (see tabular).
If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try
preceding it with \protect
. Every fragile commands must be
protected with their own \protect
.
Although usually a \protect
command doesn’t hurt, length
commands are robust and should not be preceded by a \protect
command. Nor can a \protect
command be used in the argument to
\addtocounter
or \setcounter
command.
In this example the caption
command gives a mysterious error
about an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each
\raisebox
command with \protect
.
\begin{figure} .. \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}} \end{figure}
In the next example the \tableofcontents
command gives an error
because the \(..\)
in the section title expands to illegal TeX
in the .toc file. You can solve this by changing \(..\)
to \protect\(..\protect\)
.
\begin{document} \tableofcontents .. \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)} ..
Next: Lengths, Previous: Definitions, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with
it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the
environment or command associated with the number, except with no
backslash (\
). Thus the \chapter
command starts a
chapter and the chapter
counter keeps track of the chapter
number. Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX’s standard
document classes to control numbering.
part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection
The mpfootnote
counter is used by the \footnote
command
inside of a minipage (see minipage).
The enumi
through enumiv
counters are used in the
enumerate
environment, for up to four nested levels
(see enumerate).
New counters are created with \newcounter
. See \newcounter.
• \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol: | Print value of a counter. | |
• \usecounter: | Use a specified counter in a list environment. | |
• \value: | Use the value of a counter in an expression. | |
• \setcounter: | Set the value of a counter. | |
• \addtocounter: | Add a quantity to a counter. | |
• \refstepcounter: | Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. | |
• \stepcounter: | Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. | |
• \day \month \year: | Numeric date values. |
Next: \usecounter, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
: Printing countersAll of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, \alph{enumi}
. Note that the counter name does not
start with a backslash.
\alph
prints counter using lowercase letters: ‘a’, ‘b’, ...
\Alph
uses uppercase letters: ‘A’, ‘B’, ...
\arabic
uses Arabic numbers: ‘1’, ‘2’, ...
\roman
uses lowercase roman numerals: ‘i’, ‘ii’, ...
\Roman
uses uppercase roman numerals: ‘I’, ‘II’, ...
\fnsymbol
prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.
Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output):
asterisk(*) dagger(‡) ddagger(‡) section-sign(§) paragraph-sign(¶) parallel(∥) double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(††) double-ddagger(‡‡)
Next: \value, Previous: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\usecounter{counter}
Synopsis:
\usecounter{counter}
In the list
environment, when used in the second argument, this
command sets up counter to number the list items. It initializes
counter to zero, and arranges that when \item
is called
without its optional argument then counter is incremented by
\refstepcounter
, making its value be the current ref
value. This command is fragile (see \protect).
Put in the preamble, this makes a new list environment enumerated with testcounter:
\newcounter{testcounter} \newenvironment{test}{% \begin{list}{}{% \usecounter{testcounter} } }{% \end{list} }
Next: \setcounter, Previous: \usecounter, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\value{counter}
Synopsis:
\value{counter}
This command expands to the value of counter. It is often used
in \setcounter
or \addtocounter
, but \value
can
be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number. It must not be
preceded by \protect
(see \protect).
The \value
command is not used for typesetting the value of the
counter. See \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
This example outputs ‘Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.’.
\newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5} \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}} \addtocounter{test}{1} Test counter is \arabic{test}. Other counter is \arabic{other}.
This example inserts \hspace{4\parindent}
.
\setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1} \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
Next: \addtocounter, Previous: \value, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\setcounter{counter}{value}
Synopsis:
\setcounter{counter}{value}
The \setcounter
command globally sets the value of counter
to the value argument. Note that the counter name does not start
with a backslash.
Next: \refstepcounter, Previous: \setcounter, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\addtocounter{counter}{value}
The \addtocounter
command globally increments counter by
the amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative.
Next: \stepcounter, Previous: \addtocounter, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\refstepcounter{counter}
The \refstepcounter
command works in the same way as
\stepcounter
(see \stepcounter): it globally increments the
value of counter by one and resets the value of any counter
numbered within it. (For the definition of “counters numbered
within”, see \newcounter.)
In addition, this command also defines the current \ref
value
to be the result of \thecounter
.
While the counter value is set globally, the \ref
value is set
locally, i.e., inside the current group.
Next: \day \month \year, Previous: \refstepcounter, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\stepcounter{counter}
The \stepcounter
command globally adds one to counter and
resets all counters numbered within it. (For the definition of
“counters numbered within”, see \newcounter.)
Previous: \stepcounter, Up: Counters [Contents][Index]
\day \month \year
: Predefined countersLaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (\day
,
1–31), month of the year (\month
, 1–12), and year
(\year
, Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are
set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They
are not updated as the job progresses.
The related command \today
produces a string representing the
current day (see \today).
Next: Making paragraphs, Previous: Counters, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument.
Lengths come in two types. A rigid length (what Plain TeX
calls a dimen) such as 10pt
cannot contain a plus
or
minus
component. A rubber length (what Plain TeX calls
a skip) can contain those, as with 1cm plus0.05cm
minus0.01cm
. These give the ability to stretch or shrink; the length
in the prior sentence could appear in the output as long as 1.05 cm
or as short as 0.99 cm, depending on what TeX’s typesetting
algorithm finds optimum.
The plus
or minus
component of a rubber length can contain
a fill component, as in 1in plus2fill
. This gives the
length infinite stretchability or shrinkability, so that the length in
the prior sentence can be set by TeX to any distance greater than or
equal to 1 inch. TeX actually provides three infinite glue
components fil
, fill
, and filll
, such that the
later ones overcome the earlier ones, but only the middle value is
ordinarily used. See \hfill, See \vfill.
Multiplying an entire rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid
length, so that after \setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}
and \setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}
then the value of
\zlength
is 3in
.
• Units of length: | The units that LaTeX knows. | |
• \setlength: | Set the value of a length. | |
• \addtolength: | Add a quantity to a length. | |
• \settodepth: | Set a length to the depth of something. | |
• \settoheight: | Set a length to the height of something. | |
• \settowidth: | Set a length to the width of something. | |
• Predefined lengths: | Lengths that are, like, predefined. |
Next: \setlength, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode.
pt
Point 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two decimal places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm.
pc
Pica, 12 pt
in
Inch, 72.27 pt
bp
Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript and many desktop publishing systems.
cm
Centimeter
mm
Millimeter
dd
Didot point, 1.07 pt
cc
Cicero, 12 dd
sp
Scaled point, 1/65536 pt
Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of
the font. The x-height of the current font ex, traditionally the
height of the lower case letter x, is often used for vertical
lengths. Similarly em, traditionally the width of the capital
letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also
\enspace
, which is 0.5em
). Use of these can help make a
definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition
of the vertical space between list items given as
\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}
is more
likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition
given in points.
In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit mu given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. See Spacing in math mode.
Next: \addtolength, Previous: Units of length, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
\setlength{\len}{value}
The \setlength
sets the value of \len to the value
argument, which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX
understands, i.e., inches (in
), millimeters (mm
), points
(pt
), big points (bp
, etc.
Next: \settodepth, Previous: \setlength, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
\addtolength{\len}{amount}
The \addtolength
command increments a “length command”
\len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which
may be negative.
Next: \settoheight, Previous: \addtolength, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
\settodepth
\settodepth{\gnat}{text}
The \settodepth
command sets the value of a length
command
equal to the depth of the text
argument.
Next: \settowidth, Previous: \settodepth, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
\settoheight
\settoheight{\gnat}{text}
The \settoheight
command sets the value of a length
command
equal to the height of the text
argument.
Next: Predefined lengths, Previous: \settoheight, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
\settowidth{\len}{text}
The \settowidth
command sets the value of the command \len
to the width of the text argument.
Previous: \settowidth, Up: Lengths [Contents][Index]
These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making
commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width, etc., of
the text in the box. \totalheight
equals \height
+
\depth
. To make a box with the text stretched to double the
natural size, e.g., say
\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}
Next: Math formulas, Previous: Lengths, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not
containing even a %
. A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.
• \indent: | Indent this paragraph. | |
• \noindent: | Do not indent this paragraph. | |
• \parskip: | Space added before paragraphs. | |
• Marginal notes: | Putting remarks in the margin. |
Next: \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs [Contents][Index]
\indent
\indent
produces a horizontal space whose width equals to the
\parindent
length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used
to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.
The default value for \parindent
is 1em
in two-column
mode, otherwise 15pt
for 10pt
documents, 17pt
for
11pt
, and 1.5em
for 12pt
.
Next: \parskip, Previous: \indent, Up: Making paragraphs [Contents][Index]
\noindent
When used at the beginning of the paragraph, this command suppresses any paragraph indentation, as in this example.
.. end of the prior paragraph. \noindent This paragraph is not indented.
It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.
To eliminate paragraph indentation in an entire document, put
\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
in the preamble.
Next: Marginal notes, Previous: \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs [Contents][Index]
\parskip
\parskip
is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added
before each paragraph. The default is 0pt plus1pt
.
Previous: \parskip, Up: Making paragraphs [Contents][Index]
Synopsis:
\marginpar[left]{right}
The \marginpar
command creates a note in the margin. The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
where the \marginpar
occurs.
When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will be placed
oneside
, see Document class options);
twoside
, see Document class options);
twocolumn
, see Document class options).
The command \reversemarginpar
places subsequent marginal notes
in the opposite (inside) margin. \normalmarginpar
places them
in the default position.
When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left margin, and right is used for the right margin.
The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation there by beginning the node with \hspace{0pt}
.
These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
\marginparpush
Minimum vertical space between notes; default ‘7pt’ for ‘12pt’ documents, ‘5pt’ else.
\marginparsep
Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default ‘11pt’ for ‘10pt’ documents, ‘10pt’ else.
\marginparwidth
Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided ‘10pt’ document is ‘90pt’, ‘83pt’ for ‘11pt’, and ‘68pt’ for ‘12pt’; ‘17pt’ more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is ‘48pt’.
The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page.
Next: Modes, Previous: Making paragraphs, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:
math
For formulas that appear right in the text.
displaymath
For formulas that appear on their own line.
equation
The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin.
The math
environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode,
but the displaymath
and equation
environments can be used
only in paragraph mode. The math
and displaymath
environments are used so often that they have the following short forms:
\(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
In fact, the math
environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:
$ ... $ instead of \(...\)
The \boldmath
command changes math letters and symbols to be in
a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the
\unboldmath
command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font;
it too is used outside of math mode.
The \displaystyle
declaration forces the size and style of the
formula to be that of displaymath
, e.g., with limits above and
below summations. For example:
$\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $
• Subscripts & superscripts: | Also known as exponent or index. | |
• Math symbols: | Various mathematical squiggles. | |
• Math functions: | Math function names like sin and exp. | |
• Math accents: | Accents in math. | |
• Spacing in math mode: | Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces. | |
• Math miscellany: | Stuff that doesn’t fit anywhere else. |
Next: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas [Contents][Index]
In math mode, use the caret character ^
to make the
exp appear as a superscript, ie. type ^{exp}
.
Similarly, in math mode, underscore _{exp}
makes a
subscript out of exp.
In this example the 0
and 1
appear as subscripts while the
2
is a superscript.
\( (x_0+x_1)^2 \)
To have more than one character in exp use curly braces as in
e^{-2x}
.
LaTeX handles superscripts on superscripts, and all of that stuff, in
the natural way, so expressions such as e^{x^2}
and
x_{a_0}
will look right. It also does the right thing when
something has both a subscript and a superscript. In this example the
0
appears at the bottom of the integral sign while the 10
appears at the top.
\int_0^{10} x^2 \,dx
You can put a superscript or subscript before a symbol with a construct
such as {}_t K^2
in math mode (the initial {}
prevents
the prefixed subscript from being attached to any prior symbols in the
expression).
Outside of math mode, a construct like A
test$_\textnormal{subscript}$
will produce a subscript typeset in
text mode, not math mode. Note that there are packages specialized for
writing Chemical formulas such as mhchem.
Next: Math functions, Previous: Subscripts & superscripts, Up: Math formulas [Contents][Index]
LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you’re likely to need.
For example, if you include $\pi$
in your source, you will get
the pi symbol π.
Below is a list of commonly-available symbols. It is by no means an exhaustive list. Each symbol here is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class (which determines the spacing around it) is given in parenthesis. The commands for these symbols can be used only in math mode.
\|
∥ Parallel (relation). Synonym: \parallel
.
\aleph
ℵ Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).
\alpha
α Lower case Greek letter alpha (ordinary).
\amalg
⨿ Disjoint union (binary)
\angle
∠ Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than
sign <
and angle bracket \langle
.
\approx
≈ Almost equal to (relation).
\ast
∗ Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed
(binary). Synonym: *
, which is often a superscript or
subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: \star
, which is
five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and
sometimes reserved for cross-correlation.
\asymp
≍ Asymptomatically equivalent (relation).
\backslash
\ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus \setminus
, and
\textbackslash
for backslash outside of math mode.
\beta
β Lower case Greek letter beta (ordinary).
\bigcap
⋂ Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar:
binary intersection \cap
.
\bigcirc
⚪ Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function
composition \circ
.
\bigcup
⋃ Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary
union \cup
.
\bigodot
⨀ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).
\bigoplus
⨁ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).
\bigotimes
⨂ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).
\bigtriangledown
▽ Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator).
\bigtriangleup
△ Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator).
\bigsqcup
⨆ Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).
\biguplus
⨄ Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.)
\bigvee
⋁ Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).
\bigwedge
⋀ Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).
\bot
⊥ Up tack, bottom, least element of a poset, or a contradiction
(ordinary). See also \top
.
\bowtie
⋈ Natural join of two relations (relation).
\Box
□ Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the amssymb package.
\bullet
• Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication
dot \cdot
.
\cap
∩ Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized
operator \bigcap
.
\cdot
⋅ Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet
dot \bullet
.
\chi
χ Lower case Greek chi (ordinary).
\circ
∘ Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar:
variable-sized operator \bigcirc
.
\clubsuit
♣ Club card suit (ordinary).
\complement
∁ Set complement, used as a superscript as in
$S^\complement$
(ordinary). This is not available in Plain
TeX. In LaTeX you should load the amssymb package. Also
used: $S^{\mathsf{c}}$
or $\bar{S}$
.
\cong
≅ Congruent (relation).
\coprod
∐ Coproduct (operator).
\cup
∪ Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized
operator \bigcup
.
\dagger
† Dagger relation (binary).
\dashv
⊣ Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar:
turnstile \vdash
.
\ddagger
‡ Double dagger relation (binary).
\Delta
Δ Greek upper case delta, used for increment (ordinary).
\delta
δ Greek lower case delta (ordinary).
\Diamond
◇ Large diamond operator (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you must load the amssymb package.
\diamond
⋄ Diamond operator, or diamond bullet (binary). Similar: large
diamond \Diamond
, circle bullet \bullet
.
\diamondsuit
♢ Diamond card suit (ordinary).
\div
÷ Division sign (binary).
\doteq
≐ Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal
to \Doteq
.
\downarrow
↓ Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: double line down
arrow \Downarrow
.
\Downarrow
⇓ Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: single line down
arrow \downarrow
.
\ell
ℓ Lower-case cursive letter l (ordinary).
\emptyset
∅ Empty set symbol (ordinary). Similar: reversed empty
set \varnothing
.
\epsilon
ϵ Lower case Greek-text letter (ordinary). More widely used in
mathematics is the curly epsilon
\varepsilon
ε. Related: the set membership relation
\in
∈.
\equiv
≡ Equivalence (relation).
\eta
η Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\exists
∃ Existential quantifier (ordinary).
\flat
♭ Musical flat (ordinary).
\forall
∀ Universal quantifier (ordinary).
\frown
⌢ Downward curving arc (ordinary).
\Gamma
Γ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\gamma
γ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\ge
≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
for \geq
.
\geq
≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
for \ge
.
\gets
← Is assigned the value (relation).
Synonym: \leftarrow
.
\gg
≫ Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less
than \ll
.
\hbar
ℏ Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).
\heartsuit
♡ Heart card suit (ordinary).
\hookleftarrow
↩ Hooked left arrow (relation).
\hookrightarrow
↪ Hooked right arrow (relation).
\iff
⟷ If and only if (relation). It is \Longleftrightarrow
with a \thickmuskip
on either side.
\Im
ℑ Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part \Re
.
\in
∈ Set element (relation). See also: lower case Greek letter
epsilon \epsilon
ϵ and rounded small
epsilon \varepsilon
.
\infty
∞ Infinity (ordinary).
\int
∫ Integral (operator).
\iota
ι Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\Join
⨝ Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TeX.
\kappa
κ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\Lambda
Λ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\lambda
λ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\land
∧ Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for \wedge
.
See also logical or \lor
.
\langle
⟨ Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar:
less-than <
. Matches \rangle
.
\lbrace
{ Left curly brace
(opening). Synonym: \{
. Matches \rbrace
.
\lbrack
[ Left square bracket (opening).
Synonym: [
. Matches \rbrack
.
\lceil
⌈ Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom
shaved off (opening). Matches \rceil
.
\le
≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
for \leq
.
\leadsto
⇝ Squiggly right arrow (relation). This is not available in
Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the amssymb package.
To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put
\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}
in the
preamble and then use \Leadsto
instead.
\Leftarrow
⇐ Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar:
single-line left arrow \leftarrow
.
\leftarrow
← Single-line left arrow (relation).
Synonym: \gets
. Similar: double-line left
arrow \Leftarrow
.
\leftharpoondown
↽ Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).
\leftharpoonup
↼ Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).
\Leftrightarrow
⇔ Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation).
Similar: single-line double headed arrow \leftrightarrow
.
\leftrightarrow
↔ Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar:
double-line double headed arrow \Leftrightarrow
.
\leq
≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
for \le
.
\lfloor
⌊ Left floor bracket (opening).
\lhd
◁ Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). This is
not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the
amssymb package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
amssymb and use \vartriangleleft
(which is a relation
and so gives better spacing).
\ll
≪ Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater
than \gg
.
\lnot
¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: \neg
.
\longleftarrow
⟵ Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long
double-line left arrow \Longleftarrow
.
\longleftrightarrow
⟷ Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long
double-line double-headed arrow \Longleftrightarrow
.
\longmapsto
⟼ Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
(relation). Similar: shorter version \mapsto
.
\longrightarrow
⟶ Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long
double-line right arrow \Longrightarrow
.
\lor
∨ Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge \wedge
.
\mapsto
↦ Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation).
Similar: longer version \longmapsto
.
\mho
℧ Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the amssymb package.
\mid
∣ Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of
\mid
is for a set \{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}
.
Similar: \vert
and |
produce the same single-line
vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class
ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as
ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry
for \vert
and for norm see the entry for \Vert
.
\models
⊨ Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash
(relation). Similar: long double dash \vDash
.
\mp
∓ Minus or plus (relation).
\mu
μ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\nabla
∇ Hamilton’s del, or differential, operator (ordinary).
\natural
♮ Musical natural notation (ordinary).
\ne
≠ Not equal (relation). Synonym: \neq
.
\nearrow
↗ North-east arrow (relation).
\neg
¬ Logical negation (ordinary).
Synonym: \lnot
. Sometimes instead used for
negation: \sim
.
\neq
≠ Not equal (relation). Synonym: \ne
.
\ni
∋ Reflected membership epsilon; has the member
(relation). Synonym: \owns
. Similar: is a member
of \in
.
\not
̸ Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation).
Many negated operators that don’t require \not
are available,
particularly with the amssymb package. For example, \notin
is probably typographically preferable to \not\in
.
\notin
∉ Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset
of \nsubseteq
.
\nu
ν Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\nwarrow
↖ North-west arrow (relation).
\odot
⊙ Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized
operator \bigodot
.
\oint
∮ Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator).
\Omega
Ω Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\omega
ω Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\ominus
⊖ Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).
\oplus
⊕ Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized
operator \bigoplus
.
\oslash
⊘ Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).
\otimes
⊗ Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar:
variable-sized operator \bigotimes
.
\owns
∋ Reflected membership epsilon; has the member
(relation). Synonym: \ni
. Similar: is a member
of \in
.
\parallel
∥ Parallel (relation). Synonym: \|
.
\partial
∂ Partial differential (ordinary).
\perp
⟂ Perpendicular (relation). Similar: \bot
uses the
same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class
ordinary.
\phi
ϕ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
\varphi
φ.
\Pi
Π Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\pi
π Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
\varpi
ϖ.
\pm
± Plus or minus (binary).
\prec
≺ Preceeds (relation). Similar: less than <
.
\preceq
⪯ Preceeds or equals (relation). Similar: less than or
equals \leq
.
\prime
′ Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically
used as a superscript $A^\prime$
. Note that $f^\prime$
and $f'$
produce the same result. An advantage of the second is
that $f'''$
produces the the desired symbol, that is, the same
result as $f^{\prime\prime\prime}$
, but uses somewhat less
typing. Note that you can only use \prime
in math mode but you
can type right single quote '
in text mode also, although it
resuts in a different look than in math mode.
\prod
∏ Product (operator).
\propto
∝ Is proportional to (relation)
\Psi
Ψ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\psi
ψ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\rangle
➹ Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater
than >
. Matches:\langle
.
\rbrace
} Right curly brace
(closing). Synonym: \}
. Matches \lbrace
.
\rbrack
] Right square bracket
(closing). Synonym: ]
. Matches \lbrack
.
\rceil
⌉ Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches \lceil
.
\Re
ℜ Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related:
double-line, or blackboard bold, R \mathbb{R}
; to access
this, load the amsfonts package.
\restriction
↾ Restriction of a function
(relation). Synonym: \upharpoonright
. Not available in
Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the amssymb package.
\rfloor
⌋ Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut
off (closing). Matches \lfloor
.
\rhd
◁ Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). This is
not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the
amssymb package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should
instead load amssymb and use \vartriangleright
(which
is a relation and so gives better spacing).
\rho
ρ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
\varrho
ϱ.
\Rightarrow
⇒ Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar:
right single-line arrow \rightarrow
.
\rightarrow
→ Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: \to
. Similar: right double line arrow \Rightarrow
.
\rightharpoondown
⇁ Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation).
\rightharpoonup
⇀ Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation).
\rightleftharpoons
⇌ Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation).
\searrow
↘ Arrow pointing southeast (relation).
\setminus
⧵ Set difference, reverse solidus or slash, like \
(binary). Similar: backslash \backslash
and also
\textbackslash
outside of math mode.
\sharp
♯ Musical sharp (ordinary).
\Sigma
Σ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\sigma
σ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
\varsigma
ς.
\sim
∼ Similar, in a relation (relation).
\simeq
≃ Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).
\smallint
∫ Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator).
\smile
⌣ Upward curving arc (ordinary).
\spadesuit
♠ Spade card suit (ordinary).
\sqcap
⊓ Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar:
intersection cap
.
\sqcup
⊔ Square union symbol (binary). Similar:
union cup
. Related: variable-sized
operator \bigsqcup
.
\sqsubset
⊏ Square subset symbol (relation). Similar:
subset \subset
. This is not available in Plain TeX. In
LaTeX you should load the amssymb package.
\sqsubseteq
⊑ Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or
equal to \subseteq
.
\sqsupset
⊐ Square superset symbol (relation). Similar:
superset \supset
. This is not available in Plain TeX. In
LaTeX you should load the amssymb package.
\sqsupseteq
⊒ Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset or
equal \supseteq
.
\star
⋆ Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation
but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the
synonyms asterisk *
and \ast
, which are six-pointed,
and more often appear as a superscript or subscript, as with the Kleene
star.
\subset
⊂ Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).
\subseteq
⊆ Subset or equal to (relation).
\succ
≻ Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less
than >
.
\succeq
⪰ Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less
than or equal to \leq
.
\sum
∑ Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital
sigma \Sigma
.
\supset
⊃ Superset (relation).
\supseteq
⊇ Superset or equal to (relation).
\surd
√ Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command
\sqrt{..}
typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar
that extends to cover the argument.
\swarrow
↙ Southwest-pointing arrow (relation).
\tau
τ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\theta
θ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
\vartheta
ϑ.
\times
× Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See
also \cdot
.
\to
→ Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
Synonym: \rightarrow
.
\top
⊤ Top, greatest element of a poset (ordinary). See
also \bot
.
\triangle
△ Triangle (ordinary).
\triangleleft
◁ Not-filled triangle pointing left
(binary). Similar: \lhd
. For the normal subgroup symbol you
should load amssymb and use \vartriangleleft
(which
is a relation and so gives better spacing).
\triangleright
▷ Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal
subgroup symbol you should instead load amssymb and
use \vartriangleright
(which is a relation and so gives
better spacing).
\unlhd
⊴ Left-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a
line under (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX
you should load the amssymb package. For the normal subgroup
symbol load amssymb and use \vartrianglelefteq
(which
is a relation and so gives better spacing).
\unrhd
⊵ Right-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a
line under (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX
you should load the amssymb package. For the normal subgroup
symbol load amssymb and use \vartrianglerighteq
(which is a relation and so gives better spacing).
\Uparrow
⇑ Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar:
single-line up-pointing arrow \uparrow
.
\uparrow
↑ Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar:
double-line up-pointing arrow \Uparrow
.
\Updownarrow
⇕ Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar:
single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow \updownarrow
.
\updownarrow
↕ Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar:
double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow \Updownarrow
.
\upharpoonright
↾ Up harpoon, with barb on right side
(relation). Synonym: \restriction
. Not available in Plain
TeX. In LaTeX you should load the amssymb package.
\uplus
⊎ Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle
(binary). Similar: union \cup
. Related: variable-sized
operator \biguplus
.
\Upsilon
Υ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\upsilon
υ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\varepsilon
ε Rounded small epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in
mathematics than the non-variant lower case Greek-text letter form
\epsilon
ϵ. Related: set membership \in
.
\varphi
φ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The
non-variant form is \phi
ϕ.
\varpi
ϖ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The
non-variant form is \pi
π.
\varrho
ϱ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The
non-variant form is \rho
ρ.
\varsigma
ς Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The
non-variant form is \sigma
σ.
\vartheta
ϑ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The
non-variant form is \theta
θ.
\vdash
⊢ Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar:
turnstile rotated a half-circle \dashv
.
\vee
∨ Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical
and \wedge
. Similar: variable-sized
operator \bigvee
.
\Vert
‖ Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single
bar \vert
.
For a norm you can use the mathtools package and add
\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}
to your
preamble. This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical
bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
write the starred version $\norm*{M^\perp}$
then the height of
the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with
\norm{M^\perp}
the bars do not grow with the height of the
argument but instead are the default height, and \norm[size
command]{M^\perp}
also gives bars that do not grow but are set to
the size given in the size command, e.g., \Bigg
.
\vert
| Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line
vertical bar \Vert
. For such that, as in the definition of a
set, use \mid
because it is a relation.
For absolute value you can use the mathtools package and add
\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}
to your
preamble. This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical
bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
write the starred version $\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$
then the
height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument,
whereas with \abs{\frac{22}{7}}
the bars do not grow with
the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and
\abs[size command]{\frac{22}{7}}
also gives bars
that do not grow but are set to the size given in the size
command, e.g., \Bigg
.
\wedge
∧ Logical and (binary). Synonym: \land
. See also
logical or \vee
. Similar: variable-sized
operator \bigwedge
.
\wp
℘ Weierstrass p (ordinary).
\wr
≀ Wreath product (binary).
\Xi
Ξ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).
\xi
ξ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
\zeta
ζ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).
Next: Math accents, Previous: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas [Contents][Index]
These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing.
\arccos
\arccos
\arcsin
\arcsin
\arctan
\arctan
\arg
\arg
\bmod
Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y)
\cos
\cos
\cosh
\cosh
\cot
\cot
\coth
\coth
\csc
\csc
\deg
\deg
\det
\det
\dim
\dim
\exp
\exp
\gcd
\gcd
\hom
\hom
\inf
\inf
\ker
\ker
\lg
\lg
\lim
\lim
\liminf
\liminf
\limsup
\limsup
\ln
\ln
\log
\log
\max
\max
\min
\min
\pmod
parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1)
\Pr
\Pr
\sec
\sec
\sin
\sin
\sinh
\sinh
\sup
sup
\tan
\tan
\tanh
\tanh
Next: Spacing in math mode, Previous: Math functions, Up: Math formulas [Contents][Index]
LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (see Accents).
\acute
Math acute accent: \acute{x}.
\bar
Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}.
\breve
Math breve accent: \breve{x}.
\check
Math háček (check) accent: \check{x}.
\ddot
Math dieresis accent: \ddot{x}.
\dot
Math dot accent: \dot{x}.
\grave
Math grave accent: \grave{x}.
\hat
Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hat{x}.
\imath
Math dotless i.
\jmath
Math dotless j.
\mathring
Math ring accent: x*.
\tilde
Math tilde accent: \tilde{x}.
\vec
Math vector symbol: \vec{x}.
\widehat
Math wide hat accent: \widehat{x+y}.
\widetilde
Math wide tilde accent: \widetilde{x+y}.
Next: Math miscellany, Previous: Math accents, Up: Math formulas [Contents][Index]
In a math
environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces that you use
in the source, and instead puts in the spacing according to the normal
rules for mathematics texts.
Many math mode spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit mu given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family (see Units of length). LaTeX provides the following commands for use in math mode:
\;
Normally 5.0mu plus 5.0mu
. The longer name is
\thickspace
. Math mode only.
\:
\>
Normally 4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu
. The longer name is
\medspace
. Math mode only.
\,
Normally 3mu
. The longer name is \thinspace
. This can
be used in both math mode and text mode.
\!
A negative thin space. Normally -3mu
. Math mode only.
\quad
This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space
surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between
two equations inside a displaymath
environment. It is available
in both text and math mode.
\qquad
A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both text and math mode.
In this example a thinspace separates the function from the infinitesimal.
\int_0^1 f(x)\,dx
Previous: Spacing in math mode, Up: Math formulas [Contents][Index]
\*
A “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed.
\cdots
A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line.
\ddots
A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots.
\frac{num}{den}
Produces the fraction num
divided by den
.
\left delim1 ... \right delim2
The two delimiters need not match; ‘.’ acts as a null delimiter,
producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math
in between. Example: \left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]
.
\overbrace{text}
Generates a brace over text. For example, \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}.
\overline{text}
Generates a horizontal line over tex. For example, \overline{x+y}.
\sqrt[root]{arg}
Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The
optional argument root determines what root to produce. For
example, the cube root of x+y
would be typed as
$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$
.
\stackrel{text}{relation}
Puts text above relation. For example,
\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}
.
\underbrace{math}
Generates math with a brace underneath.
\underline{text}
Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders.
\vdots
Produces a vertical ellipsis.
Next: Page styles, Previous: Math formulas, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes:
Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.
Paragraph mode is the most common; it’s the one LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages.
LaTeX is in math mode when it’s generating a mathematical formula, either displayed math or within a line.
In LR mode, as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output
that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.
However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to
right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a
hundred words into an \mbox
, LaTeX would keep typesetting
them from left to right inside a single box (and then most likely
complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line).
LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an
\mbox
command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside
the box—for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a
formula in the box.
There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode. The box made by
one of these commands or environments will be called a parbox
.
When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to
be in “inner paragraph mode” (no page breaks). Its normal paragraph
mode, which it starts out in, is called “outer paragraph mode”.
The \documentclass
command determines the size and position of
the page’s head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.
• \maketitle: | Generate a title page. | |
• \pagenumbering: | Set the style used for page numbers. | |
• \pagestyle: | Change the headings/footings style. | |
• \thispagestyle: | Change the headings/footings style for this page. |
Next: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles [Contents][Index]
\maketitle
The \maketitle
command generates a title on a separate title
page—except in the article
class, where the title is placed
at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title
is obtained from the following declarations:
\author{name \and name2}
The \author
command declares the document author(s), where the
argument is a list of authors separated by \and
commands. Use
\\
to separate lines within a single author’s entry—for
example, to give the author’s institution or address.
\date{text}
The \date
command declares text to be the document’s
date. With no \date
command, the current date (see \today)
is used.
\thanks{text}
The \thanks
command produces a \footnote
to the title,
usually used for credit acknowledgements.
\title{text}
The \title
command declares text to be the title of the
document. Use \\
to force a line break, as usual.
Next: \pagestyle, Previous: \maketitle, Up: Page styles [Contents][Index]
\pagenumbering
Synopsis:
\pagenumbering{style}
Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style; also resets the page number to 1. The style argument is one of the following:
arabic
arabic numerals
roman
lowercase Roman numerals
Roman
uppercase Roman numerals
alph
lowercase letters
Alph
uppercase letters
Next: \thispagestyle, Previous: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles [Contents][Index]
\pagestyle
Synopsis:
\pagestyle{style}
The \pagestyle
command specifies how the headers and footers
are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style:
plain
Just a plain page number.
empty
Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.
headings
Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers.
myheadings
Custom headers, specified via the \markboth
or the
\markright
commands.
Here are the descriptions of \markboth
and \markright
:
\markboth{left}{right}
Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading”
(left) is generated by the last \markboth
command before
the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right) is
generated by the first \markboth
or \markright
that
comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before
the page.
\markright{right}
Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.
Previous: \pagestyle, Up: Page styles [Contents][Index]
\thispagestyle{style}
The \thispagestyle
command works in the same manner as the
\pagestyle
command (see previous section) except that it
changes to style for the current page only.
Next: Boxes, Previous: Page styles, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.
Horizontal space | ||
---|---|---|
• \hspace: | Fixed horizontal space. | |
• \hfill: | Stretchable horizontal space. | |
• \(SPACE) and \@: | Space after a period. | |
• \(SPACE) after CS: | Controlling space gobbling after a control sequence. | |
• \frenchspacing: | Make interword and intersentence space equal. | |
• \thinspace: | One-sixth of an em. | |
• \/: | Insert italic correction. | |
• \hrulefill \dotfill: | Stretchable horizontal rule or dots. | |
Vertical space | ||
• \addvspace: | Add arbitrary vertical space if needed. | |
• \bigskip \medskip \smallskip: | Fixed vertical spaces. | |
• \vfill: | Infinitely stretchable vertical space. | |
• \vspace: | Add arbitrary vertical space. |
\hspace
Synopsis:
\hspace{length} \hspace*{length}
Add the horizontal space given by length. The length is a
rubber length, that is, it may contain a plus
or minus
component, in any unit that LaTeX understands (see Lengths).
This command can add both positive and negative space; adding negative space is like backspacing.
Normally when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines it discards white
space (glues and kerns) that would come at the start of a line, so you
get an inter-word space or a line break between words but not both. This
command’s starred version \hspace*{..}
puts a non-discardable
invisible item in front of the space, so the space appears in the
output.
This example make a one-line paragraph that puts ‘Name:’ an inch from the right margin.
\noindent\makebox[\linewidth]{\hspace{\fill}Name:\hspace{1in}}
Next: \(SPACE) and \@, Previous: \hspace, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\hfill
Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but can stretch horizontally as far as needed (see Lengths).
The command \hfill
is equivalent to \hspace{\fill}
. For
space that does not disappear at line breaks use
\hspace*{\fill}
instead (see \hspace).
Next: \(SPACE) after CS, Previous: \hfill, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\(SPACE)
and \@Mark a punctuation character, typically a period, as either ending a sentence or as ending an abbreviation.
By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words (see \frenchspacing). LaTeX assumes that the period ends a sentence unless it is preceded by a capital letter, in which case it takes that period for part of an abbreviation. Note that if a sentence-ending period is immediately followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote, then the intersentence space follows that parenthesis or quote.
If you have a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not a
capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the
sentence, then follow that period with a backslash-space (\
) or
a tie (~
). Examples are Nat.\ Acad.\ Science
, and
Mr.~Bean
, and (manure, etc.)\ for sale
.
For other use of \
, see also \(SPACE) after CS.
In the opposite situation, if you have a capital letter followed by a
period that ends the sentence, then put \@
on the left of that
period. For example, book by the MAA\@.
will have intersentence
spacing after the period.
In contrast, putting \@
on the right of a period tells TeX
that the period does not end the sentence. In the example
reserved words (if, then, etc.\@) are different
, TeX will put
interword space after the closing parenthesis (note that \@
is
before the parenthesis).
Next: \frenchspacing, Previous: \(SPACE) and \@, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\
after a control sequenceThe \
command is often used after control sequences to keep them
from gobbling the space that follows, as in \TeX\ is a nice
system.
And, under normal circumstances \
tab and
\
newline are equivalent to \
. For other use of
\
, see also \(SPACE) and \@.
Some people prefer to use {}
for the same purpose, as in
\TeX{} is a nice system.
This has the advantage that you can
always write it the same way, like \TeX{}
, whether it is
followed by a space or by a punctuation mark. Please compare:
\TeX\ is a nice system. \TeX, a nice system. \TeX{} is a nice system. \TeX{}, a nice system.
When you define user commands (see \newcommand & \renewcommand) you
can prevent the space gobbling after the command by using the package
xspace
and inserting \xspace
at the end of the definition
For instance:
\documentclass{minimal} \usepackage{xspace} \newcommand*{\Loup}{Grand Cric\xspace} \begin{document} Que le \Loup me croque ! \end{document}
A quick hack to use \xspace
for existing command is as follows:
\documentclass{minimal} \usepackage{xspace} \newcommand*{\SansXspaceTeX}{} \let\SansXspaceTeX\TeX \renewcommand{\TeX}{\SansXspaceTeX\xspace} \begin{document} \TeX is a nice system. \end{document}
Next: \thinspace, Previous: \(SPACE) after CS, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\frenchspacing
This declaration (from Plain TeX) causes LaTeX to treat intersentence spacing in the same way as interword spacing.
In justifying the text in a line, some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or after other punctuation marks) more than the space between words. Following this declaration, all spaces are instead treated equally.
Revert to the default behavior by declaring \nonfrenchspacing
.
Next: \/, Previous: \frenchspacing, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\thinspace
: Insert 1/6em\thinspace
produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that
is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use between nested
quotes, as in ’”.
Next: \hrulefill \dotfill, Previous: \thinspace, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\/
: Insert italic correctionThe \/
command produces an italic correction. This is a
small space defined by the font designer for a given character,
to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic
f character typically has a large italic correction value.
If the following character is a period or comma, it’s not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the ‘f’s are nicely separated) with f: f;.
When changing fonts with commands such as \textit{italic
text}
or {\itshape italic text}
, LaTeX will
automatically insert an italic correction if appropriate (see Font styles).
Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the ‘f’) with pdfTeX.
There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way.
Next: \addvspace, Previous: \/, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\hrulefill \dotfill
Produce an infinite rubber length (see Lengths) filled with a horizontal rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of just white space.
When placed between blank lines this example creates a paragraph that is left and right justified, where the space in the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots.
\noindent Jack Aubrey\dotfill Melbury Lodge
To make the rule or dots go to the line’s end use \null
at the
start or end.
To change the rule’s thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as
with \renewcommand{\hrulefill}{\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height
1pt\hfill\kern\z@}
, which changes the default thickness of
0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with
\renewcommand{\dotfill}{\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@
1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@}
, which changes the default
length of 0.33em to 1.00em.
Next: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Previous: \hrulefill \dotfill, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\addvspace
\addvspace{length}
Add a vertical space of height length, which is a rubber length
(see Lengths). However, if vertical space has already been added to
the same point in the output by a previous \addvspace
command
then this command will not add more space than what is needed to make
the natural length of the total vertical space equal to length.
Use this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an
environment that starts a new paragraph. (For instance, a Theorem
environment is defined to begin and end in \addvspace{..}
so
that two consecutive Theorem’s are separated by one vertical space, not
two.)
This command is fragile (see \protect).
The error ‘Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item’ means that
you were not in vertical mode when you invoked this command; one way to
change that is to precede this command with a \par
command.
Next: \vfill, Previous: \addvspace, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\bigskip \medskip \smallskip
These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the document class.
\bigskip
The same as \vspace{\bigskipamount}
, ordinarily about one line
space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the book
and
article
classes is 12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt
).
\medskip
The same as \vspace{\medskipamount}
, ordinarily about half of
a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the book
and article
classes is 6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt
).
\smallskip
The same as \vspace{\smallskipamount}
, ordinarily about a
quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the
book
and article
classes is 3pt plus 1pt minus
1pt
).
Next: \vspace, Previous: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Up: Spaces [Contents][Index]
\vfill
End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length (see Lengths) that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed.
It is often used in the same way as \vspace{\fill}
, except that
\vfill
ends the current paragraph, whereas
\vspace{\fill}
adds the infinite vertical space below its line
irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will
disappear at a page boundary; to circumvent this see \vspace.
In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text ‘Lost Dog!’ and the third ‘Lost Dog!’ is exactly halfway between them.
\begin{document} Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! \end{document}
\vspace{length}
Synopsis, one of these two:
\vspace{length} \vspace*{length}
Add the vertical space length. This can be negative or positive, and is a rubber length (see Lengths).
LaTeX removes the vertical space from \vfill
at a page break,
that is, at the top or bottom of a page. The starred version
\vspace*{..}
causes the space to stay.
In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with at least one inch of space below each.
\begin{document} 1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} 2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} \end{document}
Next: Special insertions, Previous: Spaces, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands.
• \mbox: | Horizontal boxes. | |
• \fbox and \framebox: | Put a frame around a box. | |
• lrbox: | An environment like \sbox .
| |
• \makebox: | Box, adjustable position. | |
• \parbox: | Box with text in paragraph mode. | |
• \raisebox: | Raise or lower text. | |
• \savebox: | Like \makebox , but save the text for later use.
| |
• \sbox: | Like \mbox , but save the text for later use.
| |
• \usebox: | Print saved text. |
Next: \fbox and \framebox, Up: Boxes [Contents][Index]
\mbox{text}
The \mbox
command creates a box just wide enough to hold the
text created by its argument. The text is not broken into
lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.
\fbox
and \framebox
Synopses:
\fbox{text} \framebox[width][position]{text}
The \fbox
and \framebox
commands are like \mbox
,
except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.
In addition, the \framebox
command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional width argument
(a dimension), and positioning with the optional position
argument.
Both commands produce a rule of thickness \fboxrule
(default
‘.4pt’), and leave a space of \fboxsep
(default
‘3pt’) between the rule and the contents of the box.
See \framebox (picture), for the \framebox
command in the
picture
environment.
Next: \makebox, Previous: \fbox and \framebox, Up: Boxes [Contents][Index]
lrbox
\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}
This is the environment form of \sbox
.
The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd
, which
must have been declared with \newsavebox
.
\makebox
Synopsis:
\makebox[width][position]{text}
The \makebox
command creates a box just wide enough to contain
the text specified. The width of the box can be overridden by the
optional width argument. The position of the text within the box
is determined by the optional position argument, which may take
the following values:
c
Centered (default).
l
Flush left.
r
Flush right.
s
Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain stretchable space for this to work.
\makebox
is also used within the picture
environment
see \makebox (picture).
\parbox
Synopsis:
\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}
The \parbox
command produces a box whose contents are created
in paragraph
mode. It should be used to make a box small
pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you
shouldn’t use any paragraph-making environments inside a
\parbox
argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones
containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a
minipage
environment (see minipage).
\parbox
has two mandatory arguments:
the width of the parbox;
the text that goes inside the parbox.
The optional position argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top).
The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box.
The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used.
t
text is placed at the top of the box.
c
text is centered in the box.
b
text is placed at the bottom of the box.
s
stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work.
\raisebox
Synopsis:
\raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}
The \raisebox
command raises or lowers text. The first
mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or
lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed
in LR mode.
The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. If they are specified, LaTeX treats text as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth.
\savebox
Synopsis:
\savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text}
This command typeset text in a box just as with \makebox
(see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box,
it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been
declared with \newsavebox
(see \newsavebox).
\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}
Synopsis:
\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}
\sbox
types text in a box just as with \mbox
(see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being
included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled
\boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with
\newsavebox
(see \newsavebox).
\usebox{\boxcmd}
Synopsis:
\usebox{\boxcmd}
\usebox
produces the box most recently saved in the bin
\boxcmd by a \savebox
command (see \savebox).
Next: Splitting the input, Previous: Boxes, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.
• Reserved characters: | Inserting ‘# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }’ | |
• Text symbols: | Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. | |
• Accents: | Inserting accents. | |
• Non-English characters: | Inserting other non-English characters. | |
• \rule: | Inserting lines and rectangles. | |
• \today: | Inserting today’s date. |
Next: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions [Contents][Index]
The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called “reserved characters” or “special characters”.
# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX
will do something special. If you simply want the character to be
printed as itself, include a \
in front of the character. For
example, \$
will produce $
in your output.
One exception to this rule is \
itself, because \\
has
its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by
typing $\backslash$
in your file, and a typewriter \
is
produced by using ‘\’ in a verbatim command (see verbatim).
Also, \~
and \^
place tilde and circumflex accents over
the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get
a standalone ~
or ^
, you can again use a verbatim
command.
Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
know its number by using the \symbol
command. For example, the
visible space character used in the \verb*
command has the code
decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}
.
You can also specify octal numbers with '
or hexadecimal numbers
with "
, so the previous example could also be written as
\symbol{'40}
or \symbol{"20}
.
Next: Accents, Previous: Reserved characters, Up: Special insertions [Contents][Index]
LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols
in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are
not available in OT1; you may need to load the textcomp
package.
\copyright
\textcopyright
The copyright symbol, ©.
\dag
The dagger symbol (in text).
\ddag
The double dagger symbol (in text).
\LaTeX
The LaTeX logo.
\LaTeXe
The LaTeX2e logo.
\guillemotleft («)
\guillemotright (»)
\guilsinglleft (‹)
\guilsinglright (›)
Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: «, », ‹, ›.
\ldots
\dots
\textellipsis
An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): ‘…’. \ldots
and \dots
also work in math mode.
\lq
Left (opening) quote: ‘.
\P
\textparagraph
Paragraph sign (pilcrow).
\pounds
\textsterling
English pounds sterling: £.
\quotedblbase („)
\quotesinglbase (‚)
Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: „ and ‚.
\rq
Right (closing) quote: ’.
\S
Section symbol.
\TeX
The TeX logo.
\textasciicircum
ASCII circumflex: ^.
\textasciitilde
ASCII tilde: ~.
\textasteriskcentered
Centered asterisk: *.
\textbackslash
Backslash: \.
\textbar
Vertical bar: |.
\textbardbl
Double vertical bar.
\textbigcircle
Big circle symbol.
\textbraceleft
Left brace: {.
\textbraceright
Right brace: }.
\textbullet
Bullet: •.
\textcircled{letter}
letter in a circle, as in ®.
\textcompwordmark
\textcapitalwordmark
\textascenderwordmark
Composite word mark (invisible). The \textcapital...
form
has the cap height of the font, while the \textascender...
form
has the ascender height.
\textdagger
Dagger: \dag.
\textdaggerdbl
Double dagger: \ddag.
\textdollar (or $
)
Dollar sign: $.
\textemdash (or ---
)
Em-dash: — (for punctuation).
\textendash (or --
)
En-dash: – (for ranges).
\texteuro
The Euro symbol: €.
\textexclamdown (or !`
)
Upside down exclamation point: ¡.
\textgreater
Greater than: >.
\textless
Less than: <.
\textleftarrow
Left arrow.
\textordfeminine
\textordmasculine
Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: ª, º.
\textperiodcentered
Centered period: \cdot.
\textquestiondown (or ?`
)
Upside down question mark: ¿.
\textquotedblleft (or ``
)
Double left quote: “.
\textquotedblright (or '
)
Double right quote: ”.
\textquoteleft (or `
)
Single left quote: ‘.
\textquoteright (or '
)
Single right quote: ’.
\textquotestraightbase
\textquotestraightdblbase
Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.
\textregistered
Registered symbol: ®.
\textrightarrow
Right arrow.
\textthreequartersemdash
“Three-quarters” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
\texttrademark
Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}.
\texttwelveudash
“Two-thirds” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
\textunderscore
Underscore: _.
\textvisiblespace
Visible space symbol.
Next: Non-English characters, Previous: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions [Contents][Index]
LaTeX has wide support for many of the world’s scripts and
languages, through the babel
package and related support. This
section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists
the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters.
The \capital...
commands produce alternative forms for use with
capital letters. These are not available with OT1.
\"
\capitaldieresis
Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in ö.
\'
\capitalacute
Produces an acute accent, as in ó. In the tabbing
environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column
(see tabbing).
\.
Produces a dot accent over the following, as in ȯ.
\=
\capitalmacron
Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in ō.
\^
\capitalcircumflex
Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô.
\`
\capitalgrave
Produces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the
tabbing
environment, move following text to the right margin
(see tabbing).
\~
\capitaltilde
Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ.
\b
Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. See
also \underbar
hereinafter.
\c
\capitalcedilla
Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in ç.
\d
\capitaldotaccent
Produces a dot accent under the following, as in ọ.
\H
\capitalhungarumlaut
Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in ő.
\i
Produces a dotless i, as in ‘i’.
\j
Produces a dotless j, as in ‘j’.
\k
\capitalogonek
Produces a letter with ogonek, as in ‘ǫ’. Not available in the OT1 encoding.
\r
\capitalring
Produces a ring accent, as in ‘o*’.
\t
\capitaltie
\newtie
\capitalnewtie
Produces a tie-after accent, as in ‘oo[’. The
\newtie
form is centered in its box.
\u
\capitalbreve
Produces a breve accent, as in ‘ŏ’.
\underbar
Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text.
The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is
always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through
descenders. See also \underline
in Math miscellany.
See also \b
above.
\v
\capitalcaron
Produces a háček (check, caron) accent, as in ‘ǒ’.
Next: \rule, Previous: Accents, Up: Special insertions [Contents][Index]
Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly used in languages other than English.
\aa
\AA
å and Å.
\ae
\AE
æ and Æ.
\dh
\DH
Icelandic letter eth: ð and Ð.
\dj
\DJ
Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke.
\ij
\IJ
ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
\l
\L
ł and Ł.
\ng
\NG
Latin letter eng, also used in phonetics.
\o
\O
ø and Ø.
\oe
\OE
œ and Œ.
\ss
\SS
ß and SS.
\th
\TH
Icelandic letter thorn: þ and Þ.
Next: \today, Previous: Non-English characters, Up: Special insertions [Contents][Index]
\rule
Synopsis:
\rule[raise]{width}{thickness}
The \rule
command produces rules, that is, lines or
rectangles. The arguments are:
How high to raise the rule (optional).
The length of the rule (mandatory).
The thickness of the rule (mandatory).
Previous: \rule, Up: Special insertions [Contents][Index]
\today
The \today
command produces today’s date, in the format
‘month dd, yyyy’; for example, ‘July 4, 1976’.
It uses the predefined counters \day
, \month
, and
\year
(see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not
updated as the program runs.
The datetime
package, among others, can produce a wide variety
of other date formats.
Next: Front/back matter, Previous: Special insertions, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole input in a single large file, it’s more efficient to split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run LaTeX.
See filecontents, for an environment that allows bundling an external file to be created with the main document.
• \include: | Conditionally include a file. | |
• \includeonly: | Determine which files are included. | |
• \input: | Unconditionally include a file. |
Next: \includeonly, Up: Splitting the input [Contents][Index]
\include
Synopsis:
\include{file}
If no \includeonly
command is present, the \include
command executes \clearpage
to start a new page
(see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another
\clearpage
.
Given an \includeonly
command, the \include
actions are
only run if file is listed as an argument to
\includeonly
. See the next section.
The \include
command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another \include
command.
Next: \input, Previous: \include, Up: Splitting the input [Contents][Index]
includeonly
Synopsis:
\includeonly{file1,file2,...}
The \includeonly
command controls which files will be read by
subsequent \include
commands. The list of filenames is
comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename
specified in a \include
command for the selection to be
effective.
This command can only appear in the preamble.
Previous: \includeonly, Up: Splitting the input [Contents][Index]
\input
Synopsis:
\input{file}
The \input
command causes the specified file to be read
and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current
file at that point.
If file does not end in ‘.tex’ (e.g., ‘foo’ or ‘foo.bar’), it is first tried with that extension (‘foo.tex’ or ‘foo.bar.tex’). If that is not found, the original file is tried (‘foo’ or ‘foo.bar’).
Next: Letters, Previous: Splitting the input, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
• Tables of contents: | ||
• Glossaries: | ||
• Indexes: |
Next: Glossaries, Up: Front/back matter [Contents][Index]
A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents
command. You put the command right where you want the table of
contents to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must
have generated a .toc file.
The \tableofcontents
command produces a heading, but it does
not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the
table of contents, write a \newpage
command after the
\tableofcontents
command.
The analogous commands \listoffigures
and \listoftables
produce a list of figures and a list of tables (from .lof and
.lot files), respectively. Everything works exactly the same
as for the table of contents.
The command \nofiles
overrides these commands, and
prevents any of these lists from being generated.
• \addcontentsline: | Add an entry to table of contents, etc. | |
• \addtocontents: | Add text directly to table of contents file, etc. |
Next: \addtocontents, Up: Tables of contents [Contents][Index]
\addcontentsline
The \addcontentsline
{ext}{unit}{text}
command adds an entry to the specified list or table where:
The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
typically one of: toc
(table of contents), lof
(list of
figures), or lot
(list of tables).
The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the following, matching the value of the ext argument:
toc
The name of the sectional unit: part
, chapter
,
section
, subsection
, subsubsection
.
lof
For the list of figures.
lot
For the list of tables.
The text of the entry.
What is written to the .ext file is the
command \contentsline{unit}{name}
.
Previous: \addcontentsline, Up: Tables of contents [Contents][Index]
\addtocontents
The \addtocontents
{ext}{text} command adds text
(or formatting commands) directly to the .ext file that
generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables.
The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables).
The text to be written.
Next: Indexes, Previous: Tables of contents, Up: Front/back matter [Contents][Index]
The command \makeglossary
enables creating glossaries.
The command \glossary{text}
writes a glossary entry for
text to an auxiliary file with the .glo extension.
Specifically, what gets written is the command
\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}
, where
pageno is the current \thepage
value.
The glossary
package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.
Previous: Glossaries, Up: Front/back matter [Contents][Index]
The command \makeindex
enables creating indexes. Put this in
the preamble.
The command \index{text}
writes an index entry for
text to an auxiliary file with the .idx extension.
Specifically, what gets written is the command
\indexentry{text}{pageno}
, where pageno
is the current \thepage
value.
To generate a index entry for ‘bar’ that says ‘See foo’, use a
vertical bar: \index{bar|see{foo}}
. Use seealso
instead of see
to make a ‘See also’ entry.
The text ‘See’ is defined by the macro \seename
, and ‘See also’
by the macro \alsoname
. These can be redefined for other
languages.
The generated .idx file is then sorted with an external
command, usually either makeindex
(http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex) or (the
multi-lingual) xindy
(http://xindy.sourceforge.net).
This results in a .ind file, which can then be read to typeset
the index.
The index is usually generated with the \printindex
command.
This is defined in the makeidx
package, so
\usepackage{makeidx}
needs to be in the preamble.
The rubber length \indexspace
is inserted before each new
letter in the printed index; its default value is ‘10pt plus5pt
minus3pt’.
The showidx
package causes each index entries to be shown in
the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in
preparing the index.
The multind
package supports multiple indexes. See also the
TeX FAQ entry on this topic,
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind.
Next: Terminal input/output, Previous: Front/back matter, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Synopsis:
\documentclass{letter} \address{sender address} \signature{sender name} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{recipient address} \opening{salutation} letter body \closing{closing text} \end{letter} ... more letters ... \end{document}
Produce one or more letters.
Each letter is in a separate letter
environment, whose argument
recipient address often contains multiple lines separated with a
double backslash (\\
). For example, you might have:
\begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith \\ 2345 Princess St. \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} ... \end{letter}
The start of the letter
environment resets the page number to 1,
and the footnote number to 1 also.
The sender address and sender name are common to all of the
letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the
preamble. As with the recipient address, often sender address
contains multiple lines separated by a double
backslash (\\
). LaTeX will put the sender name
under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional
hand-written signature; it also can contain multiple lines.
Each letter environment begins with a required \opening
command
such as \opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}
. The letter body
text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from from
enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as
\chapter
that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each
letter environment typically ends with a \closing
command such as
\closing{Yours,}
.
Additional material may come after the \closing
. You can say who
is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like \cc{the
Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}
. There’s a similar \encl
command for
a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with \ps
.
LaTeX’s default is to indent the signature and the \closing
above it by a length of \longindentation
. By default this is
0.5\textwidth
. To make them flush left, put
\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}
in your preamble.
To set a fixed date use something like
\renewcommand{\today}{2015-Oct-12}
. If put in your preamble
then it will apply to all the letters.
This example shows only one letter
environment. The three lines
marked as optional are typically omitted.
\documentclass{letter} \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town} \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title} % optional: \location{Mailbox 13} % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address} \opening{Sir:} % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage} I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you. \closing{Your most humble, etc.,} \end{letter} \end{document}
These commands are used with the letter
class.
• \address: | Sender’s return address. | |
• \cc: | Carbon copy list. | |
• \closing: | Saying goodbye. | |
• \encl: | List of enclosed material. | |
• \location: | Sender’s organizational location. | |
• \makelabels: | Make address labels. | |
• \name: | Sender’s name, for the return address. | |
• \opening: | Saying hello. | |
• \ps: | Adding a postscript. | |
• \signature: | Sender’s signature. | |
• \telephone: | Sender’s phone number. |
\address
Synopsis:
\address{senders address}
Specifies the return address as it appears on the letter and on the
envelope. Separate multiple lines in senders address with a
double backslash \\
.
Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put
in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an
individual letter
environment.
This command is optional: without the \address
declaration the
letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto
pre-printed letterhead paper. (See Overview, for details on your
local implementation.) With the \address
declaration, it is
formatted as a personal letter.
Here is an example.
\address{Stephen Maturin \\ The Grapes of the Savoy}
\cc
Synopsis:
\cc{first name \\ .. }
Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This
command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after
\closing
. Separate multiple lines with a double
backslash \\
.
\cc{President \\ Vice President}
\closing
Synopsis:
\closing{text}
Usually at the end of a letter, above the handwritten signature, there
is a \closing
(although this command is optional). For example,
\closing{Regards,}
\encl
Synopsis:
\encl{first enclosed object \\ .. }
Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is
optional; when it is used, it typically is put after \closing
.
Separate multiple lines with a double backslash \\
.
\encl{License \\ Passport }
Next: \makelabels, Previous: \encl, Up: Letters [Contents][Index]
\location
Synopsis:
\location{text}
The text appears centered at the bottom of the each page. It only
appears if the page style is firstpage
.
\makelabels
Synopsis:
\makelabels
Create a sheet of address labels from the recipient addresses, one for each letter. This sheet will be output before the letters, with the idea that you can copy it to a sheet of peel-off labels. This command goes in the preamble.
Customize the labels by redefining the commands \startlabels
,
\mlabel
, and \returnaddress
in the preamble. The command
\startlabels
sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of
the page onto which the labels are printed. The command
\mlabel{sender address}{recipient address}
produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the sender
address). The sender address is the value returned by the macro
\returnaddress
while recipient address is the value passed
in the argument to the letter
environment. By default
\mlabel
ignores the first argument, the sender address.
Next: \opening, Previous: \makelabels, Up: Letters [Contents][Index]
\name
Synopsis:
\name{name}
Sender’s name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.
\opening
Synopsis:
\opening{text}
This command is required. It starts a letter, following the
\begin{letter}{..}
. The mandatory argument text is the
text that starts your letter. For instance:
\opening{Dear John:}
Next: \signature, Previous: \opening, Up: Letters [Contents][Index]
\ps
Synopsis:
\ps{text}
Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after
\closing
.
\ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}
Next: \telephone, Previous: \ps, Up: Letters [Contents][Index]
\signature
Synopsis:
\signature{first line \\ .. }
The sender’s name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual.
The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing
and after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written
signature. Separate multiple lines with a double
backslash \\
. For example:
\signature{J Fred Muggs \\ White House}
LaTeX’s default for the vertical space from the \closing
text
down to the \signature
text is 6\medskipamount
, which is
six times 0.7em.
This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in
the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a
letter
environment and before the \closing
.
You can include a graphic in the signature, for instance with
\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\
My name}
(this requires writing \usepackage{graphicx}
in the
preamble).
Previous: \signature, Up: Letters [Contents][Index]
\telephone
Synopsis:
\telephone{number}
The sender’s telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where
it applies to all letters. This only appears if the firstpage
pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the
page.
Next: Command line, Previous: Letters, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
• \typein: | Read text from the terminal. | |
• \typeout: | Write text to the terminal. |
Next: \typeout, Up: Terminal input/output [Contents][Index]
\typein[cmd]{msg}
Synopsis:
\typein[\cmd]{msg}
\typein
prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to
stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If
the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is
processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the
\typein
command. If the \cmd argument is present, it
must be a command name. This command name is then defined or
redefined to be the typed input.
Previous: \typein, Up: Terminal input/output [Contents][Index]
\typeout{msg}
Synopsis:
\typeout{msg}
Prints msg
on the terminal and in the log
file.
Commands in msg
that are defined with \newcommand
or
\renewcommand
(among others) are replaced by their definitions
before being printed.
LaTeX’s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg
. A
\space
command in msg
causes a single space to be
printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A ^^J
in
msg
prints a newline.
Next: Document templates, Previous: Terminal input/output, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You can also specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash. For example, this processes foo.tex without pausing after every error:
latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'
With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with ‘-’ or ‘--’. For a list of those options, try ‘latex --help’.
If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a
‘*’ prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type \stop
(and return) and it will prematurely end the document.
See TeX engines, for other system commands invoking LaTeX.
Next: Concept Index, Previous: Command line, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates.
• beamer template: | ||
• book template: | ||
• tugboat template: |
Next: book template, Up: Document templates [Contents][Index]
beamer
templateThe beamer
class creates presentation slides. It has a vast
array of features, but here is a basic template:
\documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2007} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document}
One web resource for this: http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/.
Next: tugboat template, Previous: beamer template, Up: Document templates [Contents][Index]
book
template\documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document}
Previous: book template, Up: Document templates [Contents][Index]
tugboat
templateTUGboat is the journal of the TeX Users Group, http://tug.org/TUGboat.
\documentclass{ltugboat} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{ifpdf} \ifpdf \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref} \else \usepackage{url} \fi \title{Example \TUB\ article} % repeat info for each author. \author{First Last} \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} \netaddress{user (at) example dot org} \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} \begin{document} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This is an example article for \TUB{}. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} This is an example article for \TUB, from \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the \texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output. Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively. The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more: % verbatim blocks are often better in \small \begin{verbatim}[\small] \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe \Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX \PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS \SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE \Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag \careof \thinskip \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use! \cs{fred} -> \fred \env{fred} -> \begin{fred} \meta{fred} -> <fred> \nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 \booktitle{Book of Fred} \end{verbatim} For more information, see the ltubguid document at: \url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} (we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references). Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. \bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style \nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty \bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX \makesignature \end{document}
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