This is latex2e.info, produced by makeinfo version 6.5 from latex2e.texi. This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document preparation system, version of March 2018. This manual was originally translated from 'LATEX.HLP' v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The LaTeX 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using 'Hypertext Help with LaTeX', by Sheldon Green, and 'LaTeX Command Summary' (for LaTeX 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the TeX Users Group as 'TeXniques' number 10), as reference material (no text was directly copied). Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 Karl Berry. Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore. Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. INFO-DIR-SECTION TeX START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * LaTeX2e: (latex2e). Unofficial LaTeX reference manual. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY  File: latex2e.info, Node: Top, Next: About this document, Up: (dir) LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual *************************************** This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of March 2018) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. * Menu: * About this document:: Bug reporting, etc. * Overview:: What is LaTeX? * Document classes:: Some of the various classes available. * Fonts:: Italic, bold, typewriter, etc. * Layout:: Controlling the page layout. * Sectioning:: How to section properly. * Cross references:: Automatic referencing. * Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize. * Line breaking:: Influencing line breaks. * Page breaking:: Influencing page breaks. * Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes. * Definitions:: Define your own commands, etc. * Counters:: Internal counters used by LaTeX. * Lengths:: The length commands. * Making paragraphs:: Paragraph commands. * Math formulas:: How to create mathematical formulas. * Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes. * Page styles:: Various styles of page layout. * Spaces:: Horizontal and vertical space. * Boxes:: Making boxes. * Color:: Defining and using colors. * Graphics:: Importing graphics from outside LaTeX. * Special insertions:: Inserting reserved and special characters. * Splitting the input:: Dealing with big files by splitting. * Front/back matter:: Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. * Letters:: The 'letter' class. * Terminal input/output:: User interaction. * Command line:: System-independent command-line behavior. * Document templates:: Starter templates for various document classes. * Concept Index:: General index. * Command Index:: Alphabetical list of LaTeX commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: About this document, Next: Overview, Prev: Top, Up: Top 1 About this document ********************* This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (*note Overview::). This document's home page is . That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and subscriptions, and other infrastructure. In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than 'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was frozen decades ago. LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to . This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions. Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation. Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math. The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX. Many other guides by many other people are also available, independent of LaTeX itself; one such is the next item: A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages. Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Overview, Next: Document classes, Prev: About this document, Up: Top 2 Overview of LaTeX ******************* LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics. A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the TeX engine. The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user. The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX". It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with '\LaTeX'. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'. * Menu: * Starting and ending:: The standard beginning and end of a document. * Output files:: Files produced. * TeX engines:: Programs that can compile TeX and LaTeX. * LaTeX command syntax:: General syntax of LaTeX commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Starting and ending, Next: Output files, Up: Overview 2.1 Starting and ending ======================= LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. Here is a "hello, world" example: \documentclass{article} \begin{document} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end{document} Here, the 'article' is the so-called "document class", implemented in a file 'article.cls'. Any document class can be used. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. *Note Document classes::. You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and the '\begin{document}' commands. This area is called the "preamble". The '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' is a so-called "environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in all LaTeX documents (*note document::). LaTeX provides many environments itself, and many more are defined separately. *Note Environments::. The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Output files, Next: TeX engines, Prev: Starting and ending, Up: Overview 2.2 Output files ================ LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files. The main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'. '.dvi' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'. You can view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (). '.pdf' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included. LaTeX also produces at least two additional files. '.log' This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors. '.aux' Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark '??'. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux' file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location. LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file used to make a table of contents. A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended.  File: latex2e.info, Node: TeX engines, Next: LaTeX command syntax, Prev: Output files, Up: Overview 2.3 TeX engines =============== LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX implementation (*note Overview::). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs. 'latex' 'pdflatex' In TeX Live (), if LaTeX is invoked via either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX engine is run (). When invoked as 'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main output is a '.pdf' file. pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original program (), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi'). In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be available in LaTeX. 'lualatex' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX engine is run (). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua () to interact with TeX's typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a '.pdf' file by default. There is also 'dvilualatex' to produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used. 'xelatex' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX engine is run (). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output. Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this process is automatic. The '.xdv' file is only useful for debugging. Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX, , ).  File: latex2e.info, Node: LaTeX command syntax, Prev: TeX engines, Up: Overview 2.4 LaTeX command syntax ======================== In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash character, '\'. The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command). Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined. A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, '{...}'. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, '[...]'. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments. Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket {]}]'. Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make the first character of the following text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces. LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'. The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command. This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs). * Menu: * Environment:: Area of the source with distinct behavior. * Declaration:: Change the value or meaning of a command. * \makeatletter and \makeatother:: Change the status of the at-sign character.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Environment, Next: Declaration, Up: LaTeX command syntax 2.4.1 Environments ------------------ Synopsis: \begin{ENVIRONMENT NAME} ... \end{ENVIRONMENT NAME} An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between '\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'. \begin{verse} There once was a man from Nantucket \\ ... \end{verse} See *note Environments:: for a list of environments. The ENVIRONMENT NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT NAME ends in a star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star. Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns). \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l} ... rows of table ... \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Declaration, Next: \makeatletter and \makeatother, Prev: Environment, Up: LaTeX command syntax 2.4.2 Command declarations -------------------------- A command that changes the value, or changes the meaning, of some other command or parameter. For instance, the '\mainmatter' command changes the setting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makeatletter and \makeatother, Prev: Declaration, Up: LaTeX command syntax 2.4.3 '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother' ---------------------------------------- Synopsis: \makeatletter ... definition of commands with @ in their name .. \makeatother Used to redefine internal LaTeX commands. '\makeatletter' makes the at-sign character '@' have the category code of a letter, 11. '\makeatother' sets the category code of '@' to 12, its original value. As each character is read by TeX for LaTeX, it is assigned a character category code, or "catcode" for short. For instance, the backslash '\' is assigned the catcode 0, for characters that start a command. These two commands alter the catcode assigned to '@'. The alteration is needed because many of LaTeX's commands use '@' in their name, to prevent users from accidentally defining a command that replaces one of LaTeX's own. Command names consist of a category 0 character, ordinarily backslash, followed by letters, category 11 characters (except that a command name can also consist of a category 0 character followed by a single non-letter symbol). So under the default category codes, user-defined commands cannot contain an '@'. But '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother' allow users to define or redefine commands named with '@'. Use these two commands inside a '.tex' file, in the preamble, when defining or redefining a command with '@' in its name. Don't use them inside '.sty' or '.cls' files since the '\usepackage' and '\documentclass' commands set the at sign to have the character code of a letter. For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see . These macros are mainly intended to package or class authors. The example below is typical. In the user's class file is a command '\thesis@universityname'. The user wants to change the definition. These three lines should go in the preamble, before the '\begin{document}'. \makeatletter \renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael's College} \makeatother * Menu: * \@ifstar:: Define your own commands with *-variants.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \@ifstar, Up: \makeatletter and \makeatother 2.4.3.1 '\@ifstar' .................. Synopsis: \newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}} \newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[NON-STARRED COMMAND NUMBER OF ARGS]{BODY OF NON-STARRED COMMAND} \newcommand{\mycmd@star}[STARRED COMMAND NUMBER OF ARGS]{BODY OF STARRED COMMAND} Many standard LaTeX environments or commands have a variant with the same name but ending with a star character '*', an asterisk. Examples are the 'table' and 'table*' environments and the '\section' and '\section*' commands. When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward because '\newenvironment' and '\renewenvironment' allow the environment name to contain a star. For commands the situation is more complex. As in the synopsis above, there will be a user-called command, given above as '\mycmd', which peeks ahead to see if it is followed by a star. For instance, LaTeX does not really have a '\section*' command; instead, the '\section' command peeks ahead. This command does not accept arguments but instead expands to one of two commands that do accept arguments. In the synopsis these two are '\mycmd@nostar' and '\mycmd@star'. They could take the same number of arguments or a different number, or no arguments at all. As always, in a LaTeX document a command using at-sign '@' must be enclosed inside a '\makeatletter ... \makeatother' block (*note \makeatletter and \makeatother::). This example of '\@ifstar' defines the command '\ciel' and a variant '\ciel*'. Both have one required argument. A call to '\ciel{night}' will return "starry night sky" while '\ciel*{blue}' will return "starry not blue sky". \newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{starry #1 sky} \newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry not #1 sky} \newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}} In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of arguments than does the unstarred one. With this definition, Agent 007's '``My name is \agentsecret*{Bond}, \agentsecret{James}{Bond}.''' is equivalent to '``My name is \textsc{Bond}, \textit{James} textsc{Bond}.''' \newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}} \newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}} \newcommand*{\agentsecret}{\@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}} There are two sometimes more convenient ways to accomplish the work of '\@ifstar'. The 'suffix' package allows the construct '\newcommand\mycommand{UNSTARRED VERSION}' followed by '\WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{STARRED VERSION}'. And LaTeX3 has the 'xparse' package that allows this code. \NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1 {STARRED VERSION}% {UNSTARRED VERSION}% }  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document classes, Next: Fonts, Prev: Overview, Up: Top 3 Document classes ****************** The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file. \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.) 'article' For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use. 'book' Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (*note Front/back matter::). 'letter' Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::). 'report' For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters. 'slides' For slide presentations--rarely used today. In its place the 'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer template::). Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section. * Menu: * Document class options:: Global options. * Additional packages:: Bring in packages. * Class and package construction:: Create new classes and packages.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document class options, Next: Additional packages, Up: Document classes 3.1 Document class options ========================== You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the '\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma, as in: \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} Here is the list of the standard class options. All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'): 10pt 11pt 12pt All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these show height by width): 'a4paper' 210 by 297mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches) 'a5paper' 148 by 210mm (about 5.8 by 8.3 inches) 'b5paper' 176 by 250mm (about 6.9 by 9.8 inches) 'executivepaper' 7.25 by 10.5 inches 'legalpaper' 8.5 by 14 inches 'letterpaper' 8.5 by 11 inches (the default) When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but you must also set the physical paper size. One way to do that is to put '\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your document's preamble. The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of setting the print area and physical page size. Miscellaneous other options: 'draft' 'final' Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is 'final'. 'fleqn' Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. 'landscape' Selects landscape format; default is portrait. 'leqno' Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. 'openbib' Use "open" bibliography format. 'titlepage' 'notitlepage' Specifies whether there is a separate page for the title information and for the abstract also, if there is one. The default for the 'report' class is 'titlepage', for the other classes it is 'notitlepage'. The following options are not available with the 'slides' class. 'onecolumn' 'twocolumn' Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'. 'oneside' 'twoside' Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'. For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin') parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. 'openright' 'openany' Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'. The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at the bottom of each note.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Additional packages, Next: Class and package construction, Prev: Document class options, Up: Document classes 3.2 Additional packages ======================= Load a package PKG, with the package options given in the comma-separated list OPTIONS, as here. \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}. To specify more than one package you can separate them with a comma, as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage' commands. Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown to the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with '\usepackage'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package construction, Prev: Additional packages, Up: Document classes 3.3 Class and package construction ================================== You can create new document classes and new packages. For instance, if your memos must satisfy some local requirements, such as a standard header for each page, then you could create a new class 'smcmemo.cls' and begin your documents with '\documentclass{smcmemo}'. What separates a package from a document class is that the commands in a package are useful across classes while those in a document class are specific to that class. Thus, a command to set page headers is for a package while a command to make the page headers say 'Memo from the SMC Math Department' is for a class. Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign '@' as a character in command names without having to surround the code containing that command with '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother'. *Note \makeatletter and \makeatother::. This allow you to create commands that users will not accidentally redefine. Another technique is to preface class- or package-specific commands with some string to prevent your class or package from interfering with others. For instance, the class 'smcmemo' might have commands '\smc@tolist', '\smc@fromlist', etc. * Menu: * Class and package structure:: Layout of the file. * Class and package commands:: List of commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package structure, Next: Class and package commands, Up: Class and package construction 3.3.1 Class and package structure --------------------------------- A class file or package file typically has four parts. In the "identification part", the file says that it is a LaTeX package or class and describes itself, using the '\NeedsTeXFormat' and '\ProvidesClass' or '\ProvidesPackage' commands. 1. The "preliminary declarations part" declares some commands and can also load other files. Usually these commands will be those needed for the code used in the next part. For example, an 'smcmemo' class might be called with an option to read in a file with a list of people for the to-head, as '\documentclass[mathto]{smcmemo}', and therefore needs to define a command '\newcommand{\setto}[1]{\def\@tolist{#1}}' used in that file. 2. In the "handle options part" the class or package declares and processes its options. Class options allow a user to start their document as '\documentclass[OPTION LIST]{CLASS NAME}', to modify the behavior of the class. An example is when you declare '\documentclass[11pt]{article}' to set the default document font size. 3. Finally, in the "more declarations part" the class or package usually does most of its work: declaring new variables, commands and fonts, and loading other files. Here is a starting class file, which should be saved as 'stub.cls' where LaTeX can find it, for example in the same directory as the '.tex' file. \NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e} \ProvidesClass{stub}[2017/07/06 stub to start building classes from] \DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}} \ProcessOptions\relax \LoadClass{article} It identifies itself, handles the class options via the default of passing them all to the 'article' class, and then loads the 'article' class to provide the basis for this class's code. For more, see the official guide for class and package writers, the Class Guide, at (much of the descriptions here derive from this document), or the tutorial .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package commands, Prev: Class and package structure, Up: Class and package construction 3.3.2 Class and package commands -------------------------------- These are the commands designed to help writers of classes or packages. '\AtBeginDvi{specials}' Save in a box register things that are written to the '.dvi' file at the beginning of the shipout of the first page of the document. '\AtEndOfClass{CODE}' '\AtEndOfPackage{CODE}' Hook to insert CODE to be executed when LaTeX finishes processing the current class or package. You can use these hooks multiple times; the 'code' will be executed in the order that you called it. See also *note \AtBeginDocument::. '\CheckCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' '\CheckCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' Like '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but does not define CMD; instead it checks that the current definition of CMD is exactly as given by DEFINITION and is or is not "long" as expected. A long command is a command that accepts '\par' within an argument. The CMD command is expected to be long with the unstarred version of '\CheckCommand'. Raises an error when the check fails. This allows you to check before you start redefining 'cmd' yourself that no other package has already redefined this command. '\ClassError{CLASS NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}' '\PackageError{PACKAGE NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}' '\ClassWarning{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\PackageWarning{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\ClassWarningNoLine{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\PackageWarningNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\ClassInfo{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\PackageInfo{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\ClassInfoNoLine{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\PackageInfoNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}' Produce an error message, or warning or informational messages. For '\ClassError' and '\PackageError' the message is ERROR TEXT, followed by TeX's '?' error prompt. If the user then asks for help by typing 'h', they see the HELP TEXT. The four warning commands are similar except that they write WARNING TEXT on the screen with no error prompt. The four info commands write INFO TEXT only in the transcript file. The 'NoLine' versions do not show the number of the line generating the message, while the other versions do show that number. To format the messages, including the HELP TEXT: use '\protect' to stop a command from expanding, get a line break with '\MessageBreak', and get a space with '\space' when a space character does not allow it, like after a command. Note that LaTeX appends a period to the messages. '\CurrentOption' Expands to the name of the currently-being-processed option. Can only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or '\DeclareOption*'. '\DeclareOption{OPTION}{CODE}' '\DeclareOption*{CODE}' Make an option available to a user, for invoking in their '\documentclass' command. For example, the 'smcmemo' class could have an option allowing users to put the institutional logo on the first page with '\documentclass[logo]{smcmemo}'. The class file must contain '\DeclareOption{logo}{CODE}' (and later, '\ProcessOptions'). If you request an option that has not been declared, by default this will produce a warning like 'Unused global option(s): [badoption].' Change this behaviour with the starred version '\DeclareOption*{CODE}'. For example, many classes extend an existing class, using a declaration such as '\LoadClass{article}', and for passing extra options to the underlying class use code such as this. \DeclareOption*{% \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}% } Another example is that the class 'smcmemo' may allow users to keep lists of memo recipients in external files. Then the user could invoke '\documentclass[math]{smcmemo}' and it will read the file 'math.memo'. This code handles the file if it exists and otherwise passes the option to the 'article' class. \DeclareOption*{\InputIfFileExists{\CurrentOption.memo}{}{% \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}} '\DeclareRobustCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' '\DeclareRobustCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' Like '\newcommand' and '\newcommand*' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but these declare a robust command, even if some code within the DEFINITION is fragile. (For a discussion of robust and fragile commands *note \protect::.) Use this command to define new robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make them robust. Unlike '\newcommand' these do not give an error if macro CMD already exists; instead, a log message is put into the transcript file if a command is redefined. Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those defined using '\newcommand' so unless the command's data is fragile and the command is used within a moving argument, use '\newcommand'. The 'etoolbox' package offers commands '\newrobustcmd', '\newrobustcmd*', '\renewrobustcmd', '\renewrobustcmd*', '\providerobustcmd', and '\providerobustcmd*' which are similar to '\newcommand', '\newcommand*', '\renewcommand', '\renewcommand*', '\providecommand', and '\providecommand*', but define a robust CMD with two advantages as compared to '\DeclareRobustCommand': 1. They use the low-level e-TeX protection mechanism rather than the higher level LaTeX '\protect' mechanism, so they do not incur the slight loss of performance mentioned above, and 2. They make the same distinction between '\new...', '\renew...', and '\provide...', as the standard commands, so they do not just make a log message when you redefine CMD that already exists, in that case you need to use either '\renew...' or '\provide...' or you get an error. '\IfFileExists{FILE NAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}' '\InputIfFileExists{FILE NAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}' Execute TRUE CODE if LaTeX can find the file 'FILE NAME' and FALSE CODE otherwise. In the second case it inputs the file immediately after executing TRUE CODE. Thus '\IfFileExists{img.pdf}{\includegraphics{img.pdf}}{\typeout{WARNING: img.pdf not found}}' will include the graphic 'img.pdf' if it is found but otherwise just give a warning. This command looks for the file in all search paths that LaTeX uses, not only in the current directory. To look only in the current directory do something like '\IfFileExists{./filename}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}'. If you ask for a filename without a '.tex' extension then LaTeX will first look for the file by appending the '.tex'; for more on how LaTeX handles file extensions see *note \input::. '\LoadClass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\LoadClassWithOptions{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Load a class, as with '\documentclass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE INFO]'. An example is '\LoadClass[twoside]{article}'. The OPTIONS LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The RELEASE DATE is optional. If present it must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If you request a RELEASE DATE and the date of the package installed on your system is earlier, then you get a warning on the screen and in the log like 'You have requested, on input line 4, version `2038/01/19' of document class article, but only version `2014/09/29 v1.4h Standard LaTeX document class' is available.' The command version '\LoadClassWithOptions' uses the list of options for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command that lets you build classes on existing ones, such as the standard 'article' class, without having to track which options were passed. '\ExecuteOptions{OPTIONS-LIST}' For each option OPTION in the OPTIONS-LIST, in order, this command executes the command '\ds@OPTION'. If this command is not defined then that option is silently ignored. It can be used to provide a default option list before '\ProcessOptions'. For example, if in a class file you want the default to be 11pt fonts then you could specify '\ExecuteOptions{11pt}\ProcessOptions\relax'. '\NeedsTeXFormat{FORMAT}[FORMAT DATE]' Specifies the format that this class must be run under. Often issued as the first line of a class file, and most often used as: '\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}'. When a document using that class is processed, the format name given here must match the format that is actually being run (including that the FORMAT string is case sensitive). If it does not match then execution stops with an error like 'This file needs format `LaTeX2e' but this is `xxx'.' To specify a version of the format that you know to have certain features, include the optional FORMAT DATE on which those features were implemented. If present it must be in the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. If the format version installed on your system is earlier than FORMAT DATE then you get a warning like 'You have requested release `2038/01/20' of LaTeX, but only release `2016/02/01' is available.' '\OptionNotUsed' Adds the current option to the list of unused options. Can only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or '\DeclareOption*'. '\PassOptionsToClass{OPTION LIST}{CLASS NAME}' '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTION LIST}{PACKAGE NAME}' Adds the options in the comma-separated list OPTION LIST to the options used by any future '\RequirePackage' or '\usepackage' command for package PACKAGE NAME or the class CLASS NAME. The reason for these commands is: you may load a package any number of times with no options but if you want options then you may only supply them when you first load the package. Loading a package with options more than once will get you an error like 'Option clash for package foo.' (LaTeX throws an error even if there is no conflict between the options.) If your own code is bringing in a package twice then you can collapse that to once, for example replacing the two '\RequirePackage[landscape]{geometry}\RequirePackage[margins=1in]{geometry}' with the single '\RequirePackage[landscape,margins=1in]{geometry}'. But if you are loading a package that in turn loads another package then you need to queue up the options you desire for this other package. For instance, suppose the package 'foo' loads the package 'geometry'. Instead of '\RequirePackage{foo}\RequirePackage[draft]{graphics}' you must write '\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphics} \RequirePackage{foo}'. (If 'foo.sty' loads an option in conflict with what you want then you may have to look into altering its source.) These commands are useful for general users as well as class and package writers. For instance, suppose a user wants to load the 'graphicx' package with the option 'draft' and also wants to use a class 'foo' that loads the 'graphicx' package, but without that option. The user could start their LaTeX file with '\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\documentclass{foo}'. '\ProcessOptions' '\ProcessOptions*\@OPTIONS' Execute the code for each option that the user has invoked. Include it in the class file as '\ProcessOptions\relax' (because of the existence of the starred command). Options come in two types. "Local options" have been specified for this particular package in the OPTIONS argument of '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTIONS}', '\usepackage[OPTIONS]', or '\RequirePackage[OPTIONS]'. "Global options" are those given by the class user in '\documentclass[OPTIONS]' (If an option is specified both locally and globally then it is local.) When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a package 'pkg.sty', the following happens: 1. For each option OPTION so far declared with '\DeclareOption', it looks to see if that option is either a global or a local option for 'pkg'. If so then it executes the declared code. This is done in the order in which these options were given in 'pkg.sty'. 2. For each remaining local option, it executes the command '\ds@'OPTION if it has been defined somewhere (other than by a '\DeclareOption'); otherwise, it executes the default option code given in '\DeclareOption*'. If no default option code has been declared then it gives an error message. This is done in the order in which these options were specified. When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a class it works in the same way except that all options are local, and the default CODE for '\DeclareOption*' is '\OptionNotUsed' rather than an error. The starred version '\ProcessOptions*' executes the options in the order specified in the calling commands, rather than in the order of declaration in the class or package. For a package this means that the global options are processed first. '\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' '\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' '\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Identifies the class or package, printing a message to the screen and the log file. When a user writes '\documentclass{smcmemo}' then LaTeX loads the file 'smcmemo.cls'. Similarly, a user writing '\usepackage{test}' prompts LaTeX to load the file 'test.sty'. If the name of the file does not match the declared class or package name then you get a warning. Thus, if you invoke '\documentclass{smcmemo}', and the file 'smcmemo.cls' has the statement '\ProvidesClass{xxx}' then you get a warning like 'You have requested document class `smcmemo', but the document class provides 'xxx'.' This warning does not prevent LaTeX from processing the rest of the class file normally. If you include the optional argument, then you must include the date, before the first space if any, and it must have the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. The rest of the optional argument is free-form, although it traditionally identifies the class, and is written to the screen during compilation and to the log file. Thus, if your file 'smcmemo.cls' contains the line '\ProvidesClass{smcmemo}[2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class]' and your document's first line is '\documentclass{smcmemo}' then you will see 'Document Class: smcmemo 2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class'. The date in the optional argument allows class and package users to ask to be warned if the version of the class or package installed on their system is earlier than RELEASE DATE, by using the optional arguments such as '\documentclass{smcmemo}[2018/10/12]' or '\usepackage{foo}[[2017/07/07]]'. (Note that package users only rarely include a date, and class users almost never do.) '\ProvidesFile{FILE NAME}[ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' Declare a file other than the main class and package files, such as configuration files or font definition files. Put this command in that file and you get in the log a string like 'File: test.config 2017/10/12 config file for test.cls' for FILE NAME equal to 'test.config' and ADDITIONAL INFORMATION equal to '2017/10/12 config file for test.cls'. '\RequirePackage[OPTION LIST]{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\RequirePackageWithOptions{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Load a package, like the document author command '\usepackage'. *Note Additional packages::. An example is '\RequirePackage[landscape,margin=1in]{geometry}'. Note that the LaTeX development team strongly recommends use of these commands over Plain TeX's '\input'; see the Class Guide. The OPTION LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The RELEASE DATE, if present, must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If the release date of the package as installed on your system is earlier than RELEASE DATE then you get a warning like 'You have requested, on input line 9, version `2017/07/03' of package jhtest, but only version `2000/01/01' is available'. The '\RequirePackageWithOptions' version uses the list of options for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command to allow easily building classes on existing ones without having to track which options were passed. The difference between '\usepackage' and '\RequirePackage' is small. The '\usepackage' command is intended for the document file while '\RequirePackage' is intended for package and class files. Thus, using '\usepackage' before the '\documentclass' command causes LaTeX to give error like '\usepackage before \documentclass', but you can use '\RequirePackage' there.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Fonts, Next: Layout, Prev: Document classes, Up: Top 4 Fonts ******* Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. * Menu: * Font styles:: Select roman, italics, etc. * Font sizes:: Select point size. * Low-level font commands:: Select encoding, family, series, shape.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Font styles, Next: Font sizes, Up: Fonts 4.1 Font styles =============== The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in '\textit{TEXT}'. In the table below, the corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration form", which takes no arguments, as in '{\itshape TEXT}'. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; e.g., you can say either '\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif. You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for instance, '\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'. These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections if needed. (*Note \/::, for the details of italic corrections.) Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument, such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'. '\textrm (\rmfamily)' Roman. '\textit (\itshape)' Italics. '\textmd (\mdseries)' Medium weight (default). '\textbf (\bfseries)' Boldface. '\textup (\upshape)' Upright (default). '\textsl (\slshape)' Slanted. '\textsf (\sffamily)' Sans serif. '\textsc (\scshape)' Small caps. '\texttt (\ttfamily)' Typewriter. '\textnormal (\normalfont)' Main document font. Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a substitute for '\textit'. For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics, but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman. LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. Also, they are used differently than the above commands: '{\CMD...}' instead of '\CMD{...}'. These are two unrelated constructs. '\bf' Switch to bold face. '\cal' Switch to calligraphic letters for math. '\it' Italics. '\rm' Roman. '\sc' Small caps. '\sf' Sans serif. '\sl' Slanted (oblique). '\tt' Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'. (Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such as '\tt', obsolete and that only the cumulative commands ('\texttt') should be used. Others think that both sets of commands have their place and sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely what you want; for one example, *note 'description': description.) The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment. '\mathrm' Roman, for use in math mode. '\mathbf' Boldface, for use in math mode. '\mathsf' Sans serif, for use in math mode. '\mathtt' Typewriter, for use in math mode. '\mathit' '(\mit)' Italics, for use in math mode. '\mathnormal' For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration. '\mathcal' Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode. In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. '\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called "old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have the same height as uppercase letters. LaTeX's default fonts support this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Font sizes, Next: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font styles, Up: Fonts 4.2 Font sizes ============== The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options, respectively (*note Document class options::). Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt' -------------------------------------------------- '\tiny' 5 6 6 '\scriptsize' 7 8 8 '\footnotesize' 8 9 10 '\small' 9 10 10.95 '\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 '\large' 12 12 14.4 '\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 '\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 '\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 '\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font sizes, Up: Fonts 4.3 Low-level font commands =========================== These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. '\fontencoding{ENCODING}' Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a large number of valid encodings. The most common are 'OT1', Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and 'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the accented characters used by the most widespread European languages (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to hyphenate words containing accented letters. For more, see . '\fontfamily{FAMILY}' Select the font family. The web page provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are examples of some common families: 'pag' Avant Garde 'fvs' Bitstream Vera Sans 'pbk' Bookman 'bch' Charter 'ccr' Computer Concrete 'cmr' Computer Modern 'cmss' Computer Modern Sans Serif 'cmtt' Computer Modern Typewriter 'pcr' Courier 'phv' Helvetica 'fi4' Inconsolata 'lmr' Latin Modern 'lmss' Latin Modern Sans 'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter 'pnc' New Century Schoolbook 'ppl' Palatino 'ptm' Times 'uncl' Uncial 'put' Utopia 'pzc' Zapf Chancery '\fontseries{SERIES}' Select the font series. A "series" combines a "weight" and a "width". Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combined series values include: 'm' Medium (normal) 'b' Bold 'c' Condensed 'bc' Bold condensed 'bx' Bold extended The possible values for weight, individually, are: 'ul' Ultra light 'el' Extra light 'l' Light 'sl' Semi light 'm' Medium (normal) 'sb' Semi bold 'b' Bold 'eb' Extra bold 'ub' Ultra bold The possible values for width, individually, are (the meaning and relationship of these terms varies with individual typefaces): 'uc' Ultra condensed 'ec' Extra condensed 'c' Condensed 'sc' Semi condensed 'm' Medium 'sx' Semi expanded 'x' Expanded 'ex' Extra expanded 'ux' Ultra expanded When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the 'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m''). '\fontshape{SHAPE}' Select font shape. Valid shapes are: 'n' Upright (normal) 'it' Italic 'sl' Slanted (oblique) 'sc' Small caps 'ui' Upright italics 'ol' Outline The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps are often missing as well. '\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}' Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters defaults to points ('pt'). The line spacing is the nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'. The default '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the '\fontsize'. Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see '\baselinestretch', next. '\baselinestretch' LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the '\baselinestretch' parameter; the default factor is 1. A change takes effect when '\selectfont' (see below) is called. You can make a line skip change happen for the entire document, for instance doubling it, by doing '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}' in the preamble. However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the 'setspace' package. In addition to offering a number of spacing options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and figure captions. See the package documentation. '\linespread{FACTOR}' Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as just described. '\selectfont' The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until '\selectfont' is called, as in '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'. It is often useful to put this in a macro: '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). '\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}' The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries' and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by '\selectfont'. For example: \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Layout, Next: Sectioning, Prev: Fonts, Up: Top 5 Layout ******** Commands for controlling the general page layout. * Menu: * \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout. * \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout. * \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height. * \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height. * Page layout parameters:: '\headheight' '\footskip'. * Floats:: Figures, tables, etc.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \onecolumn, Next: \twocolumn, Up: Layout 5.1 '\onecolumn' ================ Start a new page and produce single-column output. If the document is given the class option 'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior (*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \twocolumn, Next: \flushbottom, Prev: \onecolumn, Up: Layout 5.2 '\twocolumn' ================ Synopses: \twocolumn \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT] Start a new page and produce two-column output. If the document is given the class option 'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note Document class options::). If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: '\columnsep' The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}' You must change it before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good place. '\columnseprule' The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway between the two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column environment starts. '\columnwidth' The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to '\textwidth'. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width of each of the two columns to be half of '\textwidth' minus '\columnsep'. In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and 'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments 'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note table::). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page. The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output. '\dbltopfraction' The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not exceed '0.7\textheight' . If the height of your starred float environment exceeds this then you can take one of the following actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document: * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page. * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float. * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large number, to avoid going to float pages so soon. You can redefine it, for instance with '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'. '\dblfloatpagefraction' For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space. LaTeX's default is '0.5'. Change it with '\renewcommand'. '\dblfloatsep' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt' or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at '12pt'. '\dbltextfloatsep' This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. The default is '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. '\dbltopnumber' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX default is '2'. This example uses '\twocolumn''s optional argument of to create a title that spans the two-column article: \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}} \begin{document} \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text \centering \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em] \large Author One\authormark{1}, Author Two\authormark{2}, Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em] \normalsize \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}} \authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\ School one &School two \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part }] Two column text here.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \flushbottom, Next: \raggedbottom, Prev: \twocolumn, Up: Layout 5.3 '\flushbottom' ================== Make all pages in the documents after this declaration have the same height, by stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is most often used when making two-sided documents since the differences in facing pages can be glaring. If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'. If you get that, one option is to change to '\raggedbottom' (*note \raggedbottom::). Alternatively, you can adjust the 'textheight' to make compatible pages, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in '\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'. Your last option is to, in a final editing stage, adjust the height of individual pages (*note \enlargethispage::). The '\flushbottom' state is the default only if you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedbottom, Next: Page layout parameters, Prev: \flushbottom, Up: Layout 5.4 '\raggedbottom' =================== Make all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no rubber vertical lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided document the facing pages may be different heights. This command can go at any point in the document body. See *note \flushbottom::. This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page layout parameters, Next: Floats, Prev: \raggedbottom, Up: Layout 5.5 Page layout parameters ========================== '\columnsep' '\columnseprule' '\columnwidth' The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::). *Note \twocolumn::. '\headheight' Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type sizes. '\headsep' Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '25pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: if the document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt and 12pt it is '0.275in'. '\footskip' Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '30pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: when the type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'. '\linewidth' Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note list::). That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). '\marginparpush' '\marginsep' '\marginparwidth' The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of the notes. Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and '\normalmarginpar' changes it back). The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article' classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt. For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the default is '11pt'. For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode. For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth', while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance. '\oddsidemargin' '\evensidemargin' The '\oddsidemargin' is the extra distance between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when 'oneside' is in effect. When 'twoside' is in effect, on even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is 'evensidemargin'. LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. '\paperheight' The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area. It is normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\paperwidth' The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area. It is normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\textheight' The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or 'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is '41\baselineskip'. At a type size of 11pt the default is '38\baselineskip' for all document classes. At 12pt it is '36\baselineskip' for all classes. '\textwidth' The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an 'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is '390pt' at 12pt. For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt. In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column (*note \twocolumn::). In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists. Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the 'minipage' or '\parbox'. This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX documents. '\topmargin' Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in - \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided by two. '\topskip' Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Floats, Prev: Page layout parameters, Up: Layout 5.6 Floats ========== Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a later page. LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material. The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table' (*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package 'float'. Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it appears in the output after it. The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may end up being typeset far from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big may migrate to the end of the document. In which event, because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order, every following float in that class also appears at the end. In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its PLACEMENT argument. The possible values are a sequence of the letters below. The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and 'book' classes, is 'tbp'. 't' (Top)--at the top of a text page. 'b' (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. (However, 'b' is not allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix' package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: . 'h' (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment appears. However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is automatically added. To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at . 'p' (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page containing no text, only floats. '!' Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see above. Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'. All that PLACEMENT does is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that location. Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location except placing the float where it occurs in the source. To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'. This will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all outstanding floats. LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source (although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the PLACEMENT parameter. If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the top position on this page to moved to the next page. Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'): '\bottomfraction' The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default '.3'. '\floatpagefraction' The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default '.5'. '\textfraction' Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is '.2'. '\topfraction' Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default '.7'. Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with '\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'): '\floatsep' Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt'. '\intextsep' Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents. '\textfloatsep' Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with '\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'): 'bottomnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1. 'dbltopnumber' Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2. 'topnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2. 'totalnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3. The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats contains suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explanation of the float placement algorithm is in Frank Mittelbach's article "How to influence the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?" ().  File: latex2e.info, Node: Sectioning, Next: Cross references, Prev: Layout, Up: Top 6 Sectioning ************ Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: '\part' '\chapter' ('report' and 'book' class only) '\section' '\subsection' '\subsubsection' '\paragraph' '\subparagraph' All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places: 1. The table of contents. 2. The running head at the top of the page. You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. Also, all sectioning commands have '*'-forms that print TITLE as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance: \section*{Preamble} The '\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The '\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like \chapter{A Chapter} ... \appendix \chapter{The First Appendix} The 'secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers. The setting \setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL} suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where 'chapter' is level zero. The default 'secnumdepth' is 3 in LaTeX's 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes. (*Note \setcounter::.) * Menu: * \@startsection:: Redefine layout of start of sections, subsections, etc.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \@startsection, Up: Sectioning 6.1 '\@startsection' ==================== Synopsis: \@startsection{NAME}{LEVEL}{INDENT}{BEFORESKIP}{AFTERSKIP}{STYLE} Used to help redefine the behavior of commands that start sectioning divisions such as '\section' or '\subsection'. Note that the 'titlesec' package makes manipulation of sectioning easier. Further, while most requirements for sectioning commands can be satisfied with '\@startsection', some cannot. For instance, in the standard LaTeX 'book' and 'report' classes the commands '\chapter' and '\report' are not constructed in this way. To make such a command you may want to use the '\secdef' command. Technically, '\@startsection' has the form \@startsection{NAME}{LEVEL}{INDENT}{BEFORESKIP}{AFTERSKIP}{STYLE}*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} (the star '*' is optional), so that issuing \renewcommand{\section}{\@startsection{NAME}{LEVEL}{INDENT}{BEFORESKIP}{AFTERSKIP}{STYLE}} redefines '\section' to have the form '\section*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}' (here too, the star '*' is optional). *Note Sectioning::. This implies that when you write a command like '\renewcommand{section}{...}', the '\@startsection{...}' must come last in the definition. See the examples below. NAME Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header. This counter must be defined separately. Most commonly this is either 'section', 'subsection', or 'paragraph'. Although in those three cases the counter name is the same as the sectioning command itself, using the same name is not required. Then '\the'NAME displays the title number and '\'NAME'mark' is for the page headers. See the third example below. LEVEL An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command: 0 for 'chapter' (only applies to the standard 'book' and 'report' classes), 1 for 'section', 2 for 'subsection', 3 for 'subsubsection', 4 for 'paragraph', and 5 for 'subparagraph'. In the 'book' and 'report' classes 'part' has level -1, while in the 'article' class 'part' has level 0. If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of 'secnumdepth' then the titles for this sectioning command will be numbered. For instance, in an 'article', if 'secnumdepth' is 1 then a '\section{Introduction}' command will produce output like "1 Introduction" while '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like "Discussion", without the number prefix. *Note Sectioning/secnumdepth::. If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of TOCDEPTH then the table of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit. For instance, in an 'article', if TOCDEPTH is 1 then the table of contents will list sections but not subsections. INDENT A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with respect to the left margin. To have the title flush with the margin use '0pt'. A negative indentation such as '-\parindent' will move the title into the left margin. BEFORESKIP The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space that is inserted before this sectioning unit's title. This space will be discarded if the sectioning unit happens to start at the top of a fresh page. If this number is negative then the first paragraph following the header is not indented, if it is non-negative then the first paragraph is indented. (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt'.) For example, if BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex' then to start the new sectioning unit, LaTeX will add about 3.5 times the height of a letter x in vertical space, and the first paragraph in the section will not be indented. Using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus', is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more flexibility in making up the page (*note Lengths::). The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the line prior to this sectioning unit's header and the baseline of the header is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the text font, the '\baselineskip' of the title font, and the absolute value of the BEFORESKIP. This space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page so that the vertical space is discarded then the baseline of the header text will be where LaTeX would put the baseline of the first text line on that page.) AFTERSKIP This is a length. If AFTERSKIP is non-negative then this is the vertical space inserted after the sectioning unit's title header. If it is negative then the title header becomes a run-in header, so that it becomes part of the next paragraph. In this case the absolute value of the length gives the horizontal space between the end of the title and the beginning of the following paragraph. (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt'.) As with BEFORESKIP, using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more flexibility in putting together the page. If 'afterskip' is non-negative then the full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the sectioning unit's header and the baseline of the first line of the following paragraph is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the title font, the '\baselineskip' of the text font, and the value of AFTER. That space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (Note that because the sign of 'afterskip' changes the sectioning unit header's from standalone to run-in, you cannot use a negative 'afterskip' to cancel part of the '\parskip'.) STYLE Controls the styling of the title. See the examples below. Typical commands to use here are '\centering', '\raggedright', '\normalfont', '\hrule', or '\newpage'. The last command in STYLE may be one such as '\MakeUppercase' or '\fbox' that takes one argument. The section title will be supplied as the argument to this command. For instance, setting STYLE to '\bfseries\MakeUppercase' would produce titles that are bold and upper case. These are LaTeX's defaults for the first three sectioning units that are defined with '\@startsection', for the 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes. 'section' 'subsection' 'subsubsection' ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note NAME: \@startsection/name.sectionsubsection subsubsection *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level.12 3 *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent.'0pt''0pt' '0pt' *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip.'-3.5ex plus -1ex'-3.25ex plus -1ex'-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex' minus -0.2ex' minus -0.2ex' *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip.'2.3ex plus 0.2ex''1.5ex plus 0.2ex''1.5ex plus 0.2ex' *note STYLE: \@startsection/style.'\normalfont\Large\bfseries''\normalfont\large\bfseries''\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries' Here are examples. They go either in a package or class file or in the preamble of a LaTeX document. If you put them in the preamble they must go between a '\makeatletter' command and a '\makeatother'. (Probably the error message 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode.' means that you forgot this.) *Note \makeatletter and \makeatother::. This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered. It says '\renewcommand' because LaTeX's standard classes have already defined a '\section'. For the same reason it does not define a 'section' counter, or the commands '\thesection' and '\l@section'. \renewcommand\section{% \@startsection{section}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name. {1}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level. {0pt}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent. {-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -.2ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip. {2.3ex plus.2ex}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip. {\centering\normalfont\Large\bfseries}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style. } This will put 'subsection' titles in small caps type, inline with the paragraph. \renewcommand\subsection{% \@startsection{subsection}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name. {2}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level. {0em}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent. {-1ex plus 0.1ex minus -0.05ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip. {-1em plus 0.2em}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip. {\scshape}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style. } The prior examples redefined existing sectional unit title commands. This defines a new one, illustrating the needed counter and macros to display that counter. \setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}% show counters this far down \newcounter{subsubparagraph}[subparagraph]% counter for numbering \renewcommand{\thesubsubparagraph}% how to display {\thesubparagraph.\@arabic\c@subsubparagraph}% numbering \newcommand{\subsubparagraph}{\@startsection {subsubparagraph}% {6}% {0em}% {\baselineskip}% {0.5\baselineskip}% {\normalfont\normalsize}} \newcommand*\l@subsubparagraph{\@dottedtocline{6}{10em}{5em}}% for toc \newcommand{\subsubparagraphmark}[1]{}% for page headers  File: latex2e.info, Node: Cross references, Next: Environments, Prev: Sectioning, Up: Top 7 Cross references ****************** One reason for numbering things such as figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in "See Figure~3 for more details." Including the figure number in the source is poor practice since if that number changes as the document evolves then you must remember to update this reference by hand. Instead, LaTeX has you write a "label" like '\label{eq:GreensThm}' and refer to it with 'See equation~\ref{eq:GreensThm}'. LaTeX writes the information from the labels to a file with the same name as the file containing the '\label{...}' but with an '.aux' extension. (The information has the format '\newlabel{LABEL}{{CURRENTLABEL}{PAGENUMBER}}' where CURRENTLABEL is the current value of the macro '\@currentlabel' that is usually updated whenever you call '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'.) The most common side effect of the prior paragraph happens when your document has a "forward reference", a '\ref{KEY}' that appears earlier than the associated '\label{KEY}'; see the example in the '\pageref{...}' description. LaTeX gets the information for references from the '.aux' file. If this is the first time you are compiling the document then you will get a message 'LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross references right.' and in the output the reference will appear as two question marks '??', in boldface. Or, if you change some things so the references change then you get the same warning and the output contains the old reference information. The solution in either case is just to compile the document a second time. * Menu: * \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. * \pageref:: Refer to a page number. * \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \label, Next: \pageref, Up: Cross references 7.1 '\label' ============ Synopsis: \label{KEY} Assign a reference number to KEY. In ordinary text '\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of the current sectional unit. Inside an environment with numbering, such as a 'table' or 'theorem' environment, '\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of that environment. Retrieve the assigned number with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::). A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual. A common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, and makes your source more readable. Some commonly-used prefixes: 'ch' for chapters 'sec' for lower-level sectioning commands 'fig' for figures 'tab' for tables 'eq' for equations Thus, '\label{fig:Euler}' is a label for a figure with a portrait of the great man. In this example below the key 'sec:test' will get the number of the current section and the key 'fig:test' will get the number of the figure. (Incidentally, put labels after captions in figures and tables.) \section{section name} \label{sec:test} This is Section~\ref{sec:test}. \begin{figure} ... \caption{caption text} \label{fig:test} \end{figure} See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pageref, Next: \ref, Prev: \label, Up: Cross references 7.2 '\pageref{KEY}' =================== Synopsis: \pageref{KEY} Produce the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears. In this example the '\label{eq:main}' is used both for the formula number and for the page number. (Note that the two references are forward references, so this document would need to be compiled twice to resolve those.) The main result is formula~\ref{eq:main} on page~\pageref{eq:main}. ... \begin{equation} \label{eq:main} \mathbf{P}=\mathbf{NP} \end{equation}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ref, Prev: \pageref, Up: Cross references 7.3 '\ref{KEY}' =============== Synopsis: \ref{KEY} Produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command (*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word 'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself. In this example, the '\ref{popular}' produces '2'. Note that it is a forward reference since it comes before '\label{popular}'. The most widely-used format is item number~\ref{popular}. \begin{enumerate} \item Plain \TeX \item \label{popular} \LaTeX \item Con\TeX t \end{enumerate}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Environments, Next: Line breaking, Prev: Cross references, Up: Top 8 Environments ************** LaTeX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior. An environment begins with '\begin' and ends with '\end', like this: \begin{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} ... \end{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} The ENVIRONMENT-NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. For instance, the input '\begin{table*}...\end{table}' will cause an error like: '! LaTeX Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by \end{table}.' Environments are executed within a group. * Menu: * abstract:: Produce an abstract. * array:: Math arrays. * center:: Centered lines. * description:: Labelled lists. * displaymath:: Formulas that appear on their own line. * document:: Enclose the whole document. * enumerate:: Numbered lists. * eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations. * equation:: Displayed equation. * figure:: Floating figures. * filecontents:: Writing multiple files from the source. * flushleft:: Flushed left lines. * flushright:: Flushed right lines. * itemize:: Bulleted lists. * letter:: Letters. * list:: Generic list environment. * math:: In-line math. * minipage:: Miniature page. * picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. * quotation and quote:: Include a quotation. * tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily. * table:: Floating tables. * tabular:: Align text in columns. * thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list. * theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc. * titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages. * verbatim:: Simulating typed input. * verse:: For poetry and other things.  File: latex2e.info, Node: abstract, Next: array, Up: Environments 8.1 'abstract' ============== Synopsis: \begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract} Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. This environment is only defined in the 'article' and 'report' document classes (*note Document classes::). Using the example below in the 'article' class produces a displayed paragraph. Document class option 'titlepage' causes the abstract to be on a separate page (*note Document class options::); this is the default only in the 'report' class. \begin{abstract} We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused. \end{abstract} The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column document (for a more flexible solution, use the package 'abstract'). \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} ... \begin{document} \title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach} \author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}} \twocolumn[ \begin{@twocolumnfalse} \maketitle \begin{abstract} Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat team. \end{abstract} \end{@twocolumnfalse} ] { % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}} \footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.} }  File: latex2e.info, Node: array, Next: center, Prev: abstract, Up: Environments 8.2 'array' =========== Synopsis: \begin{array}{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} or \begin{array}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::). Column entries are separated by an ampersand ('&'). Rows are terminated with double-backslashes (*note \\::). The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. See *note tabular:: for the complete description of COLS, and of the other common features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument. There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'. The first is that 'array' entries are typeset in math mode, in textstyle (except if the COLS definition specifies the column with 'p{...}', which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode). The second is that, instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's intercolumn space in an 'array' is governed by '\arraycolsep', which gives half the width between columns. The default for this is '5pt'. To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath' package. It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded by parentheses '(...)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square brackets '[...]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly braces '{...}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical bars '|...|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical bars '||...||', along with a number of other array constructs. Here is an example of an array: \begin{equation} \begin{array}{cr} \sqrt{y} &12.3 \\ x^2 &3.4 \end{array} \end{equation} The next example works if '\usepackage{amsmath}' is in the preamble: \begin{equation} \begin{vmatrix}{cc} a &b \\ c &d \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc \end{equation}  File: latex2e.info, Node: center, Next: description, Prev: array, Up: Environments 8.3 'center' ============ Synopsis: \begin{center} ... text ... \end{center} Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. Use double-backslash to get a line break at a particular spot (*note \\::). If some text environment body is too long to fit on a line, LaTeX will insert line breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any interword space. This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See *note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure' environment. This example produces three centered lines. There is extra vertical space between the last two lines. \begin{center} A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\ of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex] the School of Environmental Engineering \end{center} In this example, depending on the page's line width, LaTeX may choose a line break for the part before the double backslash. If so, it will center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line. Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the ending. \begin{center} My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton \end{center} A double backslash after the final line is optional. * Menu: * \centering:: Declaration form of the 'center' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \centering, Up: center 8.3.1 '\centering' ------------------ A declaration that causes material in its scope to be centered. It is most often used inside an environment such as 'figure', or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not add vertical space above and below the text. It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or 'table' that ends the paragraph unit. Thus, if '{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with 'zz' that is formatted as usual. See also the following example. This example's '\centering' causes the graphic to be horizontally centered. \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png} \caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion} \end{figure} The scope of the '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: description, Next: displaymath, Prev: center, Up: Environments 8.4 'description' ================= Synopsis: \begin{description} \item[LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] text of first item \item[LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] text of second item ... \end{description} Environment to make a labeled list of items. Each item's LABEL is typeset in bold, and is flush left so that long labels continue into the first line of the item text. There must be at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions. The labels 'lama' and 'llama' come out in boldface with their left edges aligned on the left margin. \begin{definition} \item[lama] A priest. \item[llama] A beast. \end{definition} Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). Use the optional labels, as in '\item[Main point]', because there is no sensible default. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it will come out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way to get non-bold typewriter is to use declarative style: '\item[{\tt label text}]'. Similarly, get the standard roman font with '\item[{\rm label text}]'. For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize:: and *note enumerate::. Unlike those environments, nesting 'description' environments does not change the default label; it is boldface and flush left at all levels. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example changes the description labels to small caps. \renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{% {\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: displaymath, Next: document, Prev: description, Up: Environments 8.5 'displaymath' ================= Synopsis: \begin{displaymath} MATH TEXT \end{displaymath} Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::. In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation' environment (*note equation::). LaTeX will not break the MATH TEXT across lines. Note that the 'amsmath' package has significantly more extensive displayed equation facilities. For example, there are a number of ways in that package for having math text broken across lines. The construct '\[MATH TEXT\]' is essentially a synonym for '\begin{displaymath}MATH TEXT\end{displaymath}' but the latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will likely be unique. (The construct '$$MATH TEXT$$' from Plain TeX is sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'. It is not a synonym, because the 'displaymath' environment checks that it isn't started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching environment start, because the 'displaymath' environment has different vertical spacing, and because the 'displaymath' environment honors the 'fleqn' option.) The output from this example is centered and alone on its line. \begin{displaymath} \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \end{displaymath} Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces.  File: latex2e.info, Node: document, Next: enumerate, Prev: displaymath, Up: Environments 8.6 'document' ============== The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document. It is required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting and ending::. * Menu: * \AtBeginDocument:: Hook for commands at the start of the document. * \AtEndDocument:: Hook for commands at the end of the document.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \AtBeginDocument, Next: \AtEndDocument, Up: document 8.6.1 '\AtBeginDocument' ------------------------ Synopsis: \AtBeginDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the very end of the preamble. The code is executed after the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \AtEndDocument, Prev: \AtBeginDocument, Up: document 8.6.2 '\AtEndDocument' ---------------------- Synopsis: \AtEndDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically, it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.  File: latex2e.info, Node: enumerate, Next: eqnarray, Prev: document, Up: Environments 8.7 'enumerate' =============== Synopsis: \begin{enumerate} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] text of first item \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] text of second item ... \end{enumerate} Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see below. The default top-level numbering is '1.', '2.', etc. Each 'enumerate' list environment must have at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon. As a top-level list the labels would come out as '1.' and '2.'. \begin{enumerate} \item Johnny Hayes (USA) \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) \end{enumerate} Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in '\item[Interstitial label]', then the next item will continue the interrupted sequence (*note \item::). That is, you will get labels like '1.', then 'Interstitial label', then '2.'. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Enumerations may be nested within other 'enumerate' environments, or within any paragraph-making environment such as 'itemize' (*note itemize::), up to four levels deep. This gives LaTeX's default for the format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level, the outermost level. 1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ... 2. lower case letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ... 3. lower case roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ... 4. upper case letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ... The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through '\enumiv' (*note Counters::). For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note description:: and *note itemize::. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through '\labelenumiv'. For instance, this first level list will be labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period. \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}} \begin{enumerate} \item Shows as boldface A \item Shows as boldface B \end{enumerate} For a list of counter-labeling commands see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: eqnarray, Next: equation, Prev: enumerate, Up: Environments 8.8 'eqnarray' ============== First, a caveat: the 'eqnarray' environment is depreciated. It has infelicities that cannot be overcome, including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements (see the article "Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen ). New documents should include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment. Nevertheless, for completeness and for a reference when working with old documents, a synopsis: \begin{eqnarray} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray} or \begin{eqnarray*} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray*} Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode. It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by double backslash '\\'). The starred form of line break ('\\*') can also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there (*note \\::). The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line (using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber' command. The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while otherwise being the same. The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side. \begin{eqnarray*} \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\ &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\ &= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n \end{eqnarray*}  File: latex2e.info, Node: equation, Next: figure, Prev: eqnarray, Up: Environments 8.9 'equation' ============== Synopsis: \begin{equation} math text \end{equation} Make a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) with an equation number in the right margin. The equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter. You should have no blank lines between '\begin{equation}' and '\begin{equation}', or LaTeX will tell you that there is a missing dollar sign, $'$'. Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents.  File: latex2e.info, Node: figure, Next: filecontents, Prev: equation, Up: Environments 8.10 'figure' ============= Synopsis: \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT] figure body \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} \label{LABEL} \end{figure} or \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT] figure body \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} \label{LABEL} \end{figure*} A class of floats (*note Floats::). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page. For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::). It produces a figure that spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note Floats::. The figure body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so it can contain text, commands, etc. The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text for the figure. By default it is numbered. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Tables of contents::). This example makes a figure out of a graphic. It requires one of the packages 'graphics' or 'graphicx'. The graphic, with its caption, will be placed at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page of floats. \begin{figure}[t] \centering \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png} \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby} \end{figure}  File: latex2e.info, Node: filecontents, Next: flushleft, Prev: figure, Up: Environments 8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file =========================================== Synopsis: \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents} or \begin{filecontents*}{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents*} Create a file named FILENAME and fill it with TEXT. The unstarred version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the created file with a header; see the example below. The starred version 'filecontents*' does not include the header. This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often appears before the '\documentclass' command. It is typically used when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file. The environment will write that file to the directory containing the source and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to include 'bib' references in the file, again to make it self-contained. The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if so, does not do anything. There is a 'filecontents' package that redefines the 'filecontents' environment so that instead of doing nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file. For example, this document \documentclass{article} \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty} \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} \end{filecontents} \usepackage{JH} \begin{document} Article by \myname. \end{document} produces this file 'JH.sty'. %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty' %% generated by the `filecontents' environment %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12. %% \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}  File: latex2e.info, Node: flushleft, Next: flushright, Prev: filecontents, Up: Environments 8.12 'flushleft' ================ \begin{flushleft} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushleft} The 'flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right. Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'. * Menu: * \raggedright:: Declaration form of the 'flushleft' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedright, Up: flushleft 8.12.1 '\raggedright' --------------------- The '\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the 'flushleft' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex2e.info, Node: flushright, Next: itemize, Prev: flushleft, Up: Environments 8.13 'flushright' ================= \begin{flushright} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushright} The 'flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the control sequence '\\'. * Menu: * \raggedleft:: Declaration form of the 'flushright' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedleft, Up: flushright 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' -------------------- The '\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the 'flushright' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex2e.info, Node: itemize, Next: letter, Prev: flushright, Up: Environments 8.14 'itemize' ============== Synopsis: \begin{itemize} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] text of first item \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] text of second item ... \end{itemize} The 'itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list. The format of the label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see below. Each 'itemize' list environment must have at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example gives a two-item list. As a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, *. \begin{itemize} \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra \item Rice portrait \end{itemize} Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in '\item[Optional label]', then by default it will appear in bold and be flush right, so it could extend into the left margin. For labels that are flush left see the *note description:: environment. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Itemized lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::). The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through '\labelitemiv' to produce the default label (this also uses the convention of lower case roman numerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting level). These are the default marks at each level. 1. * (bullet, from '\textbullet') 2. -- (bold en-dash, from '\normalfont\bfseries\textendash') 3. * (asterisk, from '\textasteriskcentered') 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period, from '\textperiodcentered') Change the labels with '\renewcommand'. For instance, this makes the first level use diamonds. \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the 'itemize' list is determined by the parameters '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi'. (Note the convention of using lower case roman numerals a the end of the command name to denote the nesting level.) The defaults are: '2.5em' in level 1 ('2em' in two-column mode), '2.2em' in level 2, '1.87em' in level 3, and '1.7em' in level 4, with smaller values for more deeply nested levels. For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note description:: and *note enumerate::. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized lists. \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*' environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note \parskip::): \newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: letter, Next: list, Prev: itemize, Up: Environments 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters ========================================== This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: list, Next: math, Prev: letter, Up: Environments 8.16 'list' =========== Synopsis: \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] text of first item \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] text of second item ... \end{list} The 'list' environment is a generic environment for constructing more specialized lists. It is most often used to create lists via the 'description', 'enumerate', and 'itemize' environments (*note description::, *note enumerate::, and *note itemize::). Also, many standard LaTeX environments that are not visually lists are constructed using 'list', including 'quotation', 'quote', 'center', 'verbatim', and plenty more (*note quotation and quote::, *note center::, *note flushright::). The third-party package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. Here, we describe the 'list' environment by defining a new custom environment. \newcounter{namedlistcounter} % number the items \newenvironment{named} {\begin{list} {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling argument {\usecounter{namedlistcounter} % spacing argument \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % still spacing arg } {\end{list}} \begin{named} \item Shows as ``Item~I.'' \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.'' \item Shows as ``Item~II.'' \end{named} The 'list' environment's mandatory first argument, LABELING, specifies the default labeling of list items. It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as above where it contains both 'Item' and '\Roman{...}'. LaTeX forms the label by putting the LABELING argument in a box of width '\labelwidth'. If the label is wider than that, the additional material extends to the right. When making an instance of a list you can override the default labeling by giving '\item' an optional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the above '\item[Special label.]'; *note \item::. The label box is constructed by the command '\makelabel'. By default it positions the contents flush right. It takes one argument, the label. It typesets the contents in LR mode. An example of changing its definition is that to the above example before the definition of the 'named' environment add '\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}', and between the '\setlength' command and the parenthesis that closes the SPACING argument also add '\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel'. Then the items will be typeset in small caps. Similarly, changing the second code line to '\let\makelabel\fbox' puts the labels inside a framed box. Another example is at the bottom of this entry. The mandatory second argument SPACING can have a list of commands to redefine the spacing parameters for the list, such as '\setlength{\labelwidth}{2em}'. If this argument is empty, i.e., '{}', then the list will have the default spacing given below. To number the items using a counter, put '\usecounter{COUNTERNAME}' in this argument (*note \usecounter::). Below are the spacing parameters for list formatting. See also the figure below. Each is a length (*note Lengths::). The vertical spaces are normally rubber lengths, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, to give TeX flexibility in setting the page. Change each with a command such as '\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}'. For some effects these lengths should be zero or negative. Default values for derived environments such as 'itemize' can be changed from the values shown here for the basic 'list'. '\itemindent' Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond 'leftmargin', of the first line each item. Its default value is '0pt'. '\itemsep' Vertical space between items, beyond the '\parsep'. The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 11 point are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and 'topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'). '\labelsep' Horizontal space between the label and text of an item. The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes is '0.5em'. '\labelwidth' Horizontal width. The box containing the label is nominally this wide. If '\makelabel' returns text that is wider than this then the first line of the item will be indented to make room for this extra material. If '\makelabel' returns text of width less than or equal to '\labelwidth' then LaTeX's default is that the label is typeset flush right in a box of this width. The left edge of the label box is '\leftmargin'+'\itemindent'-'\labelsep'-'\labelwidth' from the left margin of the enclosing environment. The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at the top level is '\leftmargini'-'\labelsep', (which is '2em' in one column mode and '1.5em' in two column mode). At the second level it is '\leftmarginii'-'\labelsep', and at the third level it is '\leftmarginiii'-'\labelsep'. These definitions make the label's left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing environment. '\leftmargin' Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing environment (or the left margin of the page if this is a top-level list), and the left margin of this list. It must be non-negative. In the standard LaTeX document classes, a top-level list has this set to the value of '\leftmargini', while a list that is nested inside a top-level list has this margin set to '\leftmarginii'. More deeply nested lists get the values of '\leftmarginiii' through '\leftmarginvi'. (Nesting greater than level five generates the error message 'Too deeply nested'.) The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes are: '\leftmargini' is '2.5em' (in two column mode, '2em'), '\leftmarginii' is '2.2em', and '\leftmarginiii' is '1.87em'. '\listparindent' Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond '\leftmargin', for second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item. A negative value makes this an "outdent". Its default value is '0pt'. '\parsep' Vertical space between paragraphs within an item. In the 'book' and 'article' classes The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 11 point size are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 12 point size are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. '\partopsep' Vertical space added, beyond '\topsep'+'\parskip', to the top and bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded by a blank line. (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the line following the list is blank does not matter.) The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '2pt plus1 minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 11 point are: '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point are: '3pt plus2pt minus3pt', '3pt plus2pt minus2pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. '\rightmargin' Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right margin of the enclosing environment. Its default value is '0pt'. It must be non-negative. '\topsep' Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition to '\parskip' (*note \parskip::). The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '8pt plus2pt minus4pt', '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 11 point are: '9pt plus3pt minus5pt', '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 12 point are: '10pt plus4pt minus6pt', '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', and '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'. This shows the horizontal and vertical distances. [image src="latex2e-figures/list.png" text="....................................................................... ..............Surrounding environment, preceding material.............. - | v0 |---h0--|-h1-| | ..Label.. .....First item..................................... - ............................................................ ............................................................ - | v1 ........First item, second paragraph .................. - |-h2-| | v2 | ..Label.. .....Second item.................................... - ............................................................ ............................................................ - |-h3--|-h4-| |-h5-| |v3 | ..............Surrounding environment, following material.............. - ......................................................................."] The lengths shown are listed below. The key relationship is that the right edge of the bracket for H1 equals the right edge of the bracket for H4, so that the left edge of the label box is at H3+H4-(H0+H1). V0 '\topsep' + '\parskip' if the list environment does not start a new paragraph, and '\topsep'+'\parskip'+'\partopsep' if it does V1 '\parsep' V2 '\itemsep'+'\parsep' V3 Same as V0. (This space is affected by whether a blank line appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line appears in the source below the environment does not matter.) H1 '\labelsep' H2 '\listparindent' H3 '\leftmargin' H4 '\itemindent' H5 '\rightmargin' The list's left and right margins, shown above as H3 and H5, are with respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or with respect to the page margins for a top-level list. The line width used for typesetting the list items is '\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). For instance, set the list's left margin to be one quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the enclosing environment with '\setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}'. Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three parameters below. For each, the LaTeX default is '-\@lowpenalty', that is, '-51'. Because it is negative, it somewhat encourages a page break at each spot. Change it with, e.g., '\@beginparpenalty=9999'; a value of 10000 prohibits a page break. '\@beginparpenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default '-51'). '\@itempenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default '-51'). '\@endparpenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default '-51'). This example has the labels in red. They are numbered, and the left edge of the label lines up with the left edge of the item text. \usepackage{color} \newcounter{cnt} \newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}} \newenvironment{redlabel} {\begin{list} {\arabic{cnt}} {\usecounter{cnt} \setlength{\labelwidth}{0em} \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em} \setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em} \setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep \let\makelabel=\makeredlabel } } {\end{list} } * Menu: * \item:: An entry in a list. * trivlist:: A restricted form of 'list'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \item, Next: trivlist, Up: list 8.16.1 '\item': An entry in a list ---------------------------------- Synopsis: \item text of item or \item[OPTIONAL-LABEL] text of item An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the list type. Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets '[...]', if you have an item whose text starts with '[', you have to to hide the bracket inside curly braces, as in: '\item {[} is an open square bracket'; otherwise, LaTeX will think it marks the start of an optional label. Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a close square bracket inside that label, you must hide it in the same way: '\item[Close square bracket, {]}]'. *Note LaTeX command syntax::. In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default label and one that uses the optional label. \begin{enumerate} \item Moe \item[sometimes] Shemp \item Larry \end{enumerate} The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled 'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.'. Because of the optional label in the second item, the third item is not labelled '3.'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: trivlist, Prev: \item, Up: list 8.16.2 'trivlist': A restricted form of 'list' ---------------------------------------------- Synopsis: \begin{trivlist} ... \end{trivlist} A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are not indented and an '\item' without an optional argument produces no text. It is most often used in macros, to define an environment where the '\item' command as part of the environment's definition. For instance, the 'center' environment is defined essentially like this: \newenvironment{center} {\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax} {\end{trivlist}} Using 'trivlist' in this way allows the macro to inherit some common code: combining vertical space of two adjacent environments; detecting whether the text following the environment should be considered a new paragraph or a continuation of the previous one; adjusting the left and right margins for possible nested list environments. Specifically, 'trivlist' uses the current values of the list parameters (*note list::), except that '\parsep' is set to the value of '\parskip', and '\leftmargin', '\labelwidth', and '\itemindent' are set to zero. This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by default) they have no paragraph indent and are vertically separated. \begin{trivlist} \item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old. \item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines. \end{trivlist}  File: latex2e.info, Node: math, Next: minipage, Prev: list, Up: Environments 8.17 'math' =========== Synopsis: \begin{math} MATH \end{math} The 'math' environment inserts given MATH material within the running text. '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: minipage, Next: picture, Prev: math, Up: Environments 8.18 'minipage' =============== \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH} TEXT \end{minipage} The 'minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the '\parbox' command (*note \parbox::), but unlike '\parbox', other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage. The arguments are the same as for '\parbox' (*note \parbox::). By default, paragraphs are not indented in the 'minipage' environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as '\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command. Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A '\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the '\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note Counters::). However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.  File: latex2e.info, Node: picture, Next: quotation and quote, Prev: minipage, Up: Environments 8.19 'picture' ============== \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET) ... PICTURE COMMANDS ... \end{picture} The 'picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign--a number like '5', '0.3' or '-3.1416'. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if '\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of '\unitlength', using the '\setlength' command, outside of a 'picture' environment. The default value is '1pt'. The 'picture' package redefine the 'picture' environment so that everywhere a number is used in a PICTURE COMMANDS to specify a coordinate, one can use alternatively a length. Be aware however that this will prevent scaling those lengths by changing '\unitlength'. A "position" is a pair of coordinates, such as '(2.4,-5)', specifying the point with x-coordinate '2.4' and y-coordinate '-5'. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. The 'picture' environment has one mandatory argument which is a position (WIDTH,HEIGHT), which specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with these WIDTH and HEIGHT. The 'picture' environment also has an optional position argument (XOFFSET,YOFFSET), following the size argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it. Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the '\put' command. The command \put (11.3,-.3){...} puts the object specified by '...' in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. The '\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the '\put' command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. The 'picture' commands are described in the following sections. * Menu: * \circle:: Draw a circle. * \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size. * \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it. * \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box. * \frame:: Draw a frame around an object. * \line:: Draw a straight line. * \linethickness:: Set the line thickness. * \thicklines:: A heavier line thickness. * \thinlines:: The default line thickness. * \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object. * \oval:: Draw an ellipse. * \put:: Place an object at a specified place. * \shortstack:: Make a pile of objects. * \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \circle, Next: \makebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.1 '\circle' ---------------- Synopsis: \circle[*]{DIAMETER} The '\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The '*'-form of the command draws a solid circle. Circles up to 40pt can be drawn.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makebox (picture), Next: \framebox (picture), Prev: \circle, Up: picture 8.19.2 '\makebox' ----------------- Synopsis: \makebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} The '\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the normal '\makebox' command except that you must specify a WIDTH and HEIGHT in multiples of '\unitlength'. The optional argument, '[POSITION]', specifies the quadrant that your TEXT appears in. You may select up to two of the following: 't' Moves the item to the top of the rectangle. 'b' Moves the item to the bottom. 'l' Moves the item to the left. 'r' Moves the item to the right. *Note \makebox::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \framebox (picture), Next: \dashbox, Prev: \makebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.3 '\framebox' ------------------ Synopsis: \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...} The '\framebox' command is like '\makebox' (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The '\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness '\fboxrule', and leaves a space '\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \dashbox, Next: \frame, Prev: \framebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.4 '\dashbox' ----------------- Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT} '\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a 'picture' environment. Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT. The TEXT is positioned at optional POS. A dashed box looks best when the RWIDTH and RHEIGHT are multiples of the DLEN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frame, Next: \line, Prev: \dashbox, Up: picture 8.19.5 '\frame' --------------- Synopsis: \frame{TEXT} The '\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \line, Next: \linethickness, Prev: \frame, Up: picture 8.19.6 '\line' -------------- Synopsis: \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} The '\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope XSLOPE/YSLOPE. Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, and plenty of other shapes, see 'pict2e' and many other packages on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \linethickness, Next: \thicklines, Prev: \line, Up: picture 8.19.7 '\linethickness' ----------------------- The '\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a positive length. '\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by '\oval'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thicklines, Next: \thinlines, Prev: \linethickness, Up: picture 8.19.8 '\thicklines' -------------------- The '\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: and *note \thinlines::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinlines, Next: \multiput, Prev: \thicklines, Up: picture 8.19.9 '\thinlines' ------------------- The '\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: and *note \thicklines::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \multiput, Next: \oval, Prev: \thinlines, Up: picture 8.19.10 '\multiput' ------------------- Synopsis: \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ} The '\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern across a picture. OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \oval, Next: \put, Prev: \multiput, Up: picture 8.19.11 '\oval' --------------- Synopsis: \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] The '\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument PORTION allows you to produce only half of the oval via the following: 't' selects the top half; 'b' selects the bottom half; 'r' selects the right half; 'l' selects the left half. It is also possible to produce only one quarter of the oval by setting PORTION to 'tr', 'br', 'bl', or 'tl'. The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with rounded corners.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \put, Next: \shortstack, Prev: \oval, Up: picture 8.19.12 '\put' -------------- Synopsis: \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){ ... } The '\put' command places the material specified by the (mandatory) argument in braces at the given coordinate, (XCOORD,YCOORD).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \shortstack, Next: \vector, Prev: \put, Up: picture 8.19.13 '\shortstack' --------------------- Synopsis: \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...} The '\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: 'r' Move the objects to the right of the stack. 'l' Move the objects to the left of the stack 'c' Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) Objects are separated with '\\'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vector, Prev: \shortstack, Up: picture 8.19.14 '\vector' ----------------- Synopsis: \vector(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} The '\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The XSLOPE and YSLOPE values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.  File: latex2e.info, Node: quotation and quote, Next: tabbing, Prev: picture, Up: Environments 8.20 'quotation' and 'quote' ============================ Synopsis: \begin{quotation} TEXT \end{quotation} or \begin{quote} TEXT \end{quote} Include a quotation. In both environments, margins are indented on both sides by '\leftmargin' and the text is justified at both. As with the main text, leaving a blank line produces a new paragraph. To compare the two: in the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, '0pt plus 1pt'. In the 'quote' environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length '\parsep'). Thus, the 'quotation' environment may be more suitable for documents where new paragraphs are marked by an indent rather than by a vertical separation. In addition, 'quote' may be more suitable for a short quotation or a sequence of short quotations. \begin{quotation} \it Four score and seven years ago ... shall not perish from the earth. \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln \end{quotation}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tabbing, Next: table, Prev: quotation and quote, Up: Environments 8.21 'tabbing' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabbing} ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 ... \\ ROW2COL1 \> ROW2COL2 ... \\ ... \end{tabbing} The 'tabbing' environment aligns text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on a typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit widths, ended by a '\kill' command (which is described below): \begin{tabbing} \hspace{0.75in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \kill Ship \> Guns \> Year \\ \textit{Sophie} \> 14 \> 1800 \\ \textit{Polychrest} \> 24 \> 1803 \\ \textit{Lively} \> 38 \> 1804 \\ \textit{Surprise} \> 28 \> 1805 \\ \end{tabbing} Both the 'tabbing' environment and the more widely-used 'tabular' environment put text in columns. The most important distinction is that in 'tabular' the width of columns is determined automatically by LaTeX, while in 'tabbing' the user sets the tab stops. Another distinction is that 'tabular' generates a box, but 'tabbing' can be broken across pages. Finally, while 'tabular' can be used in any mode, 'tabbing' can be used only in paragraph mode and it starts a new paragraph. A 'tabbing' environment always starts a new paragraph, without indentation. Moreover, as shown in the example above, there is no need to use the starred form of the '\hspace' command at the beginning of a tabbed row. The right margin of the 'tabbing' environment is the end of line, so that the width of the environment is '\linewidth'. The 'tabbing' environment contains a sequence of "tabbed rows". The first tabbed row begins immediately after '\begin{tabbing}' and each row ends with '\\' or '\kill'. The last row may omit the '\\' and end with just '\end{tabbing}'. At any point the 'tabbing' environment has a current tab stop pattern, a sequence of N > 0 tab stops, numbered 0, 1, etc. These create N corresponding columns. Tab stop 0 is always the left margin, defined by the enclosing environment. Tab stop number I is set if it is assigned a horizontal position on the page. Tab stop number I can only be set if all the stops 0, ..., i-1 have already been set; normally later stops are to the right of earlier ones. By default any text typeset in a 'tabbing' environment is typeset ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is done in LR mode (*note Modes::). The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment. They are all fragile (*note \protect::). '\\ (tabbing)' End a tabbed line and typeset it. '\= (tabbing)' Sets a tab stop at the current position. '\> (tabbing)' Advances to the next tab stop. '\<' Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. '\+' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\-' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\' (tabbing)' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or '\kill' command, to the previous column and aligned to the right, flush against the current column's tab stop. '\` (tabbing)' Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line, to the right margin of the 'tabbing' environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the '\`' and the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line. '\a (tabbing)' In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, use the commands '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`'. '\kill' Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. Any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line remain in effect. '\poptabs' Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'. '\pushtabs' Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing' environment. '\tabbingsep' Distance of the text moved by '\'' to left of current tab stop. This example typesets a Pascal function: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n > 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing} The output looks like this: function fact(n : integer) : integer; begin if n > 1 then fact := n * fact(n-1); else fact := 1; end; (The above example is just for illustration of the environment. To actually typeset computer code in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment (*note verbatim::) would normally suffice. For pretty-printed code, there are quite a few packages, including 'algorithm2e', 'fancyvrb', 'listings', and 'minted'.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: table, Next: tabular, Prev: tabbing, Up: Environments 8.22 'table' ============ Synopsis: \begin{table}[PLACEMENT] table body \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} \label{LABEL} \end{table} A class of floats (*note Floats::). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page. For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The table body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so it can contain text, commands, etc. The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text for the table. By default it is numbered. If LOTTITLE is present, it is used in the list of tables instead of TITLE (*note Tables of contents::). In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end. \begin{table}[b] \centering \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline One &The loneliest number \\ Two &Can be as sad as one. It's the loneliest number since the number one. \end{tabular} \caption{Cardinal virtues} \label{tab:CardinalVirtues} \end{table}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tabular, Next: thebibliography, Prev: table, Up: Environments 8.23 'tabular' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS} column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular*} These environments produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features. \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\ \hline Hank Aaron &755 \\ Babe Ruth &714 \end{tabular} The vertical format of two left-aligned columns, with a vertical bar between them, is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'. Columns are separated with an ampersand '&'. A horizontal rule between two rows is created with '\hline'. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash '\\'. This '\\' is optional after the last row unless an '\hline' command follows, to put a rule below the table. The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of: WIDTH Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'. Specifies the width of the 'tabular*' environment. The space between columns should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment ...' warning. POS Optional. Specifies the table's vertical position. The default is to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: 't' aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row. This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no difference. COLS Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumn material. 'l' A column of left-aligned items. 'r' A column of right-aligned items. 'c' A column of centered items. '|' A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. '@{TEXT OR SPACE}' This inserts TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row. The TEXT OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (*note \protect::). This specifier is optional: with no @-expression, LaTeX's 'book', 'article', and 'report' classes will put on either side of each column a space of length '\tabcolsep', which by default is '6pt'. That is, by default adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is misleadingly-named since it is not the separation between tabular columns). By implication, a space of 6pt also comes before the first column and after the final column, unless you put a '@{...}' or '|' there. If you override the default and use an @-expression then you must insert any desired space yourself, as in '@{\hspace{1em}}'. An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space, including the space at the start or end, as in the example below where the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin. \begin{flushleft} \begin{tabular}{@{}l} ... \end{tabular} \end{flushleft} This example shows text, a decimal point, between the columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on that decimal point. \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l} $3$ &$14$ \\ $9$ &$80665$ \end{tabular} An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another '\extracolsep' command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in the 'cols' argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide. \begin{center} \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\ \ldots\extracolsep{\fill}}l} Seven times down, eight times up &such is life! \end{tabular*} \end{center} To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}' specifier. 'p{WD}' Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD. Note that a line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in the item, except inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft' declaration (when used in a 'p'-column element these declarations must appear inside braces, as with '{\centering .. \\ ..}'). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as ending the row. '*{NUM}{COLS}' Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive integer and COLS is a list of specifiers. Thus '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'. Note that COLS may contain another '*'-expression. Parameters that control formatting: '\arrayrulewidth' A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|', '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments. The default is '.4pt'. Change it as in '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'. '\arraystretch' A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments is multiplied. The default is '1', for no scaling. Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'. '\doublerulesep' A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the '||' specifier. The default is '2pt'. '\tabcolsep' A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is '6pt'. Change it with '\setlength'. The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular' environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between lines: * Menu: * \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns. * \vline:: Draw a vertical line. * \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. * \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \multicolumn, Next: \vline, Up: tabular 8.23.1 '\multicolumn' --------------------- Synopsis: \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT} Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns. The first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span. The second argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right. The third argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry. In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the single heading 'Name'. \begin{tabular}{lccl} \textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline % row one 978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick &55 \\ % row two ... \end{tabular} What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the 'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part (except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'. So from '\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c', and 'p{1.5in}|'. The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the placement of vertical rules, and '@{...}' expressions. Thus if COLS is '|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior. \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|} \multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three &z % entry four \end{tabular} Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical rule; although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the second COLS does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn' leaves it out, and that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a vertical rule because of the default. The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1. Besides giving the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area specification, including the placement of vertical rules. In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'. Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with '\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page range en-dash. \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}} &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline Baroque &1600 &1760 \\ Classical &1730 &1820 \\ Romantic &1780 &1910 \\ Impressionistic &1875 &1925 \end{tabular} Note that although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a vertical rule between the first and second columns, because there is no vertical bar in the COLS of either of the first row's '\multicolumn' commands, no rule appears in the first row.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vline, Next: \cline, Prev: \multicolumn, Up: tabular 8.23.2 '\vline' --------------- Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the full height and depth of an entry's row. Can also be used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common. This command is rarely used in the body of a table; typically a table's vertical lines are specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overridden as needed with '\multicolumn'. This example illustrates some pitfalls. In the first line's second entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so in that row between the first and second columns there are two vertical rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one produced by the '\vline\hfill'. In contrast, the first line's third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns. In the second line, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the '\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace. \begin{tabular}{c|cc} x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cline, Next: \hline, Prev: \vline, Up: tabular 8.23.3 '\cline' --------------- Synopsis: \cline{I-J} Draw a horizontal rule in an 'array' or 'tabular' environment beginning in column I and ending in column J. The dash '-' must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single column use the number twice. This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same height. \begin{tabular}{llrr} a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} e &f &g &h \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hline, Prev: \cline, Up: tabular 8.23.4 '\hline' --------------- Draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single rule spanning both columns. Because of the '\hline', the 'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required. \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline Baseball &Red Sox \\ Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: thebibliography, Next: theorem, Prev: tabular, Up: Environments 8.24 'thebibliography' ====================== Synopsis: \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} ... \end{thebibliography} The 'thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or reference list. In the 'article' class, this reference list is labelled 'References' and the label is stored in macro '\refname'; in the 'report' class, it is labelled 'Bibliography' and the label is stored in macro '\bibname'. You can change the label by redefining the command '\refname' or '\bibname', whichever is applicable depending on the class: * For standard classes whose top level sectioning is '\chapter' (such as 'book' and 'report'), the label is in the macro '\bibname'; * For standard classes whose the top level sectioning is '\section' (such as 'article'), the label is in macro '\refname'. Typically it is neither necessary nor desirable to directly redefine '\refname' or '\bibname'; language support packages like 'babel' do this. The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. It is typically given as '9' for bibliographies with less than 10 references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc. * Menu: * \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item. * \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item. * \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography. * Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bibitem, Next: \cite, Up: thebibliography 8.24.1 '\bibitem' ----------------- Synopsis: \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} The '\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the 'enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is a "citation key" consisting in any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry to the '.aux' file containing the item's CITE_KEY and LABEL. When the '.aux' file is read by the '\begin{document}' command, the item's LABEL is associated with 'cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a '\cite' command (*note \cite::) to produce the associated LABEL.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cite, Next: \nocite, Prev: \bibitem, Up: thebibliography 8.24.2 '\cite' -------------- Synopsis: \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS} The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys (*note \bibitem::), separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with KEYS by entries in the '.aux' file. The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the citation. For example, '\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce '[Knuth, p. 314]'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \nocite, Next: Using BibTeX, Prev: \cite, Up: thebibliography 8.24.3 '\nocite' ---------------- Synopsis: \nocite{KEYS} The '\nocite' command produces no text, but writes KEYS, which is a list of one or more citation keys, to the '.aux' file.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Using BibTeX, Prev: \nocite, Up: thebibliography 8.24.4 Using BibTeX ------------------- If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the 'thebibliography' environment (*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2} The '\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE'.bst', which defines how your citations will look. The standard BIBSTYLE names distributed with BibTeX are: 'alpha' Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. 'plain' Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. 'unsrt' Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation. 'abbrv' Like 'plain', but more compact labels. In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See . The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to '\bibliography' refers to files named 'BIBFILE1.bib', 'BIBFILE2.bib', ..., which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in the bibliography.  File: latex2e.info, Node: theorem, Next: titlepage, Prev: thebibliography, Up: Environments 8.25 'theorem' ============== Synopsis: \begin{theorem} THEOREM-TEXT \end{theorem} The 'theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: titlepage, Next: verbatim, Prev: theorem, Up: Environments 8.26 'titlepage' ================ Synopsis: \begin{titlepage} ... text and spacing ... \end{titlepage} Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading. The following page will be numbered page one. To instead produce a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment you can use '\maketitle' (*note \maketitle::). Notice in this example that all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left to the author. \begin{titlepage} \vspace*{\stretch{1}} \begin{center} {\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex] title} \\[6.5ex] {\large\bfseries Author name} \\ \vspace{4ex} Thesis submitted to \\[5pt] \textit{University name} \\[2cm] in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm] \textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy} \\[2ex] \textsc{\large Mathematics} \\[12ex] \vfill Department of Mathematics \\ Address \\ \vfill \today \end{center} \vspace{\stretch{2}} \end{titlepage}  File: latex2e.info, Node: verbatim, Next: verse, Prev: titlepage, Up: Environments 8.27 'verbatim' =============== Synopsis: \begin{verbatim} LITERAL-TEXT \end{verbatim} The 'verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the '\' character produces a printed '\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter. The 'verbatim' environment uses a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt'). * Menu: * \verb:: The macro form of the 'verbatim' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \verb, Up: verbatim 8.27.1 '\verb' -------------- Synopsis: \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR The '\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font. No spaces are allowed between '\verb' or '\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in LITERAL-TEXT. The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible space" character.  File: latex2e.info, Node: verse, Prev: verbatim, Up: Environments 8.28 'verse' ============ Synopsis: \begin{verse} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{verse} The 'verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it. The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Line breaking, Next: Page breaking, Prev: Environments, Up: Top 9 Line breaking *************** The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in some environments you manually force line breaks. * Menu: * \\:: Start a new line. * \obeycr & \restorecr:: Make each input line start a new output line. * \newline:: Break the line * \- (hyphenation):: Insert explicit hyphenation. * \discretionary:: Insert explicit hyphenation with control of hyphen character. * \fussy:: Be fussy about line breaking. * \sloppy:: Be sloppy about line breaking. * \hyphenation:: Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word. * \linebreak & \nolinebreak:: Forcing & avoiding line breaks.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \\, Next: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking 9.1 '\\' ======== Synopsis: \\[MORESPACE] or \\*[MORESPACE] Start a new line. The optional argument MORESPACE specifies extra vertical space to be insert before the next line. This can be a negative length. The text before the break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width. Explicit line breaks in the text body are unusual in LaTeX. In particular, to start a new paragraph instead leave a blank line. This command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment. Under ordinary circumstances (e.g., outside of a 'p{...}' column in a 'tabular' environment) the '\newline' command is a synonym for '\\' (*note \newline::). In addition to starting a new line, the starred form '\\*' tells LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a '\nobreak'. \title{My story: \\[0.25in] a tale of woe}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \obeycr & \restorecr, Next: \newline, Prev: \\, Up: Line breaking 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' ============================ The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M', internally) the same as '\\' (followed by '\relax'). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. '\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newline, Next: \- (hyphenation), Prev: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking 9.3 '\newline' ============== In ordinary text this is equivalent to double-backslash (*note \\::); it breaks a line, with no stretching of the text before it. Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, in a column with a specifier producing a paragraph box, like typically 'p{...}', '\newline' will insert a line break inside of the column, that is, it does not break the entire row. To break the entire row use '\\' or its equivalent '\tabularnewline'. This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell of the table. \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}} Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline \end{tabular} The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \- (hyphenation), Next: \discretionary, Prev: \newline, Up: Line breaking 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) =============================== The '\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The '\-' command is used for the exceptional cases. When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \discretionary, Next: \fussy, Prev: \- (hyphenation), Up: Line breaking 9.5 '\discretionary' (generalized hyphenation point) ==================================================== Synopsis: \discretionary{PRE-BREAK-TEXT}{POST-BREAK-TEXT}{NO-BREAK-TEXT}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \fussy, Next: \sloppy, Prev: \discretionary, Up: Line breaking 9.6 '\fussy' ============ The declaration '\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. This command cancels the effect of a previous '\sloppy' command (*note \sloppy::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \sloppy, Next: \hyphenation, Prev: \fussy, Up: Line breaking 9.7 '\sloppy' ============= The declaration '\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. Lasts until a '\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hyphenation, Next: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \sloppy, Up: Line breaking 9.8 '\hyphenation' ================== Synopsis: \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO} The '\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a '-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words): \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \hyphenation, Up: Line breaking 9.9 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' ================================= Synopses: \linebreak[PRIORITY] \nolinebreak[PRIORITY] By default, the '\linebreak' ('\nolinebreak') command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For '\linebreak', the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual. With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page breaking, Next: Footnotes, Prev: Line breaking, Up: Top 10 Page breaking **************** LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. * Menu: * \cleardoublepage:: Start a new right-hand page. * \clearpage:: Start a new page. * \newpage:: Start a new page. * \enlargethispage:: Enlarge the current page a bit. * \pagebreak & \nopagebreak:: Forcing & avoiding page breaks.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cleardoublepage, Next: \clearpage, Up: Page breaking 10.1 '\cleardoublepage' ======================= The '\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \clearpage, Next: \newpage, Prev: \cleardoublepage, Up: Page breaking 10.2 '\clearpage' ================= The '\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newpage, Next: \enlargethispage, Prev: \clearpage, Up: Page breaking 10.3 '\newpage' =============== The '\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (*note \clearpage::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \enlargethispage, Next: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \newpage, Up: Page breaking 10.4 '\enlargethispage' ======================= '\enlargethispage{size}' '\enlargethispage*{size}' Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page by the specified amount; e.g., '\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one additional line. The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit '\pagebreak'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \enlargethispage, Up: Page breaking 10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' ================================== Synopses: \pagebreak[PRIORITY] \nopagebreak[PRIORITY] By default, the '\pagebreak' ('\nopagebreak') command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. With '\pagebreak', the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the '\pagebreak' command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes, Next: Definitions, Prev: Page breaking, Up: Top 11 Footnotes ************ Place a numbered footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here. Noe"l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making love.\footnote{I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.} You can place multiple footnotes on a page. If the text becomes too long it will flow to the next page. You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances. To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a bibliographic style with that behavior. * Menu: * \footnote:: Insert a footnote. * \footnotemark:: Insert footnote mark only. * \footnotetext:: Insert footnote text only. * Footnotes in a table:: Table footnotes. * Footnotes in section headings:: Chapter or section titles. * Footnotes of footnotes:: Multiple classes of footnotes. * Multiple reference to footnotes:: Referring to a footnote more than once. * Footnote parameters:: Parameters for footnote formatting.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnote, Next: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes 11.1 '\footnote' ================ Synopsis: \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place a numbered footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page. There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained, ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''} The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the footnote number. If you use this option then the footnote number counter is not incremented, and if you do not use it then the counter is incremented. Change how LaTeX shows the footnote counter with something like '\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with '\setcounter{footnote}{0}'. By default LaTeX uses arabic numbers. LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a '\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer paragraph mode). There are some workarounds; see following sections. In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the 'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are shown alphabetically. *Note minipage::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotemark, Next: \footnotetext, Prev: \footnote, Up: Footnotes 11.2 '\footnotemark' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotemark \footnotemark[NUMBER] Put the current footnote number in the text. (See *note \footnotetext:: for giving the text of the footnote separately.) The version with the optional argument NUMBER uses that number to determine the mark printed. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version of 'footnote'). \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem} \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds} \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University} \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]} \begin{document} \maketitle If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then it does not. This produces several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote. The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.} and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotetext, Next: Footnotes in a table, Prev: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes 11.3 '\footnotetext' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotetext{TEXT} \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the '\footnotemark' command. The optional argument NUMBER changes the displayed footnote number. The '\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph mode.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes in a table, Next: Footnotes in section headings, Prev: \footnotetext, Up: Footnotes 11.4 Footnotes in a table ========================= Inside a 'table' environment the '\footnote' command does not work. For instance, if the code below appears on its own then the footnote simply disappears; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but nothing is set at the bottom of the page. \begin{center} \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline \textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\ \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{Starting with HMS Surprise.} \end{tabular} \end{center} The solution is to surround the 'tabular' environment with a 'minipage' environment, as here (*note minipage::). \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{.5\textwidth} ... tabular material ... \end{minipage} \end{center} The same technique will work inside a floating 'table' environment (*note table::). To get the footnote at the bottom of the page use the 'tablefootnote' package, as illustrated in this example. If you put '\usepackage{tablefootnote}' in the preamble and use the code shown then the footnote appears at the bottom and is numbered in sequence with other footnotes. \begin{table} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline 1862 &Fort Donelson \\ 1863 &Vicksburg \\ 1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\footnote{Ending the war.} \end{tabular} \caption{Forces captured by US Grant} \end{table}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes in section headings, Next: Footnotes of footnotes, Prev: Footnotes in a table, Up: Footnotes 11.5 Footnotes in section headings ================================== Putting a footnote in a section heading, as in: \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material due to ...}} causes the footnote to appear at the bottom of the page where the section starts, as usual, but also at the bottom of the table of contents, where it is not likely to be desired. To have it not appear on the table of contents use the package 'footmisc' with the 'stable' option. \usepackage[stable]{footmisc} ... \begin{document} ... \section{Full sets\footnote{This material due to ...}} Note that the '\protect' is gone; including it would cause the footnote to reappear on the table of contents.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes of footnotes, Next: Multiple reference to footnotes, Prev: Footnotes in section headings, Up: Footnotes 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes =========================== Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package 'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example. \usepackage{bigfoot} \DeclareNewFootnote{Default} \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{} ... \begin{document} ... The third theorem is a partial converse of the second.\footnotefrom{First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}} ...  File: latex2e.info, Node: Multiple reference to footnotes, Next: Footnote parameters, Prev: Footnotes of footnotes, Up: Footnotes 11.7 Multiple references to footnotes ===================================== You can refer to a single footnote more than once. This example uses the package 'cleverref'. \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % this version of package or later \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3} ... \begin{document} ... The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker and Evers, 1994.} The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers and Chance, 1990.} But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE} ... This solution will work with the package 'hyperref'. See *note \footnotemark:: for a simpler solution in the common case of multiple authors with the same affiliation.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnote parameters, Prev: Multiple reference to footnotes, Up: Footnotes 11.8 Footnote parameters ======================== '\footnoterule' Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions: '0.4pt' thick (or wide), and '0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except 'slides', where it does not appear). '\footnotesep' The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize' fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Definitions, Next: Counters, Prev: Footnotes, Up: Top 12 Definitions ************** LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. * Menu: * \newcommand & \renewcommand:: (Re)define a new command. * \providecommand:: Define a new command, if name not used. * \newcounter:: Define a new counter. * \newlength:: Define a new length. * \newsavebox:: Define a new box. * \newenvironment & \renewenvironment:: Define a new environment. * \newtheorem:: Define a new theorem-like environment. * \newfont:: Define a new font name. * \protect:: Using tricky commands. * \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend:: Discard extra spaces.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Next: \providecommand, Up: Definitions 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' ==================================== '\newcommand' and '\renewcommand' define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses: \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} The starred form of these two commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not '\long', in plain TeX terms). CMD Required; '\CMD' is the command name. For '\newcommand', it must not be already defined and must not begin with '\end'. For '\renewcommand', it must already be defined. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that the command can take, including any optional argument. If this argument is not present, the default is for the command to have no arguments. When redefining a command, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of defined command '\CMD' is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then '\CMD' does not take an optional argument. That is, if '\CMD' is used with square brackets following, as in '\CMD[MYVAL]', then within DEFN the first "positional parameter" '#1' expands MYVAL. On the other hand, if '\CMD' is called without square brackets following, then within DEFN the positional parameter '#1' expands to the default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments will be referred to starting with '#2'. Omitting '[MYVAL]' in a call is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1' expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to the empty string. DEFN The text to be substituted for every occurrence of '\CMD'; the positional parameter '#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the Nth argument. TeX ignores spaces in the source following an alphabetic control sequence, as in '\cmd '. If you actually want a space there, one solution is to type '{}' after the command ('\cmd{} '; another solution is to use an explicit control space ('\cmd\ '). A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\RS}{Robin Smith}' results in '\RS' being replaced by the longer text. Redefining an existing command is similar: '\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}'. Here's a command definition with one required argument: \newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}} Then, '\defref{def:basis}' expands to 'Definition~\ref{def:basis}', which will ultimately expand to something like 'Definition~3.14'. An example with two required arguments: '\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'. An example with an optional argument: \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:} Then, '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]' gives 'Dear John:'. And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'. The braces around DEFN do not define a group, that is, they do not delimit the scope of the result of expanding DEFN. So '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}' is problematic; in this sentence, The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}. the words 'met the' would incorrectly be in italics. Another pair of braces in the definition is needed, like this: '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}'. Those braces are part of the definition and thus do define a group.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \providecommand, Next: \newcounter, Prev: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Up: Definitions 12.2 '\providecommand' ====================== Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. Synopses: \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect as '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). If a command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a style file, or other file that may be loaded more than once.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcounter, Next: \newlength, Prev: \providecommand, Up: Definitions 12.3 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter ======================================== Synopsis, one of: \newcounter{COUNTERNAME} \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER] Globally defines a new counter named COUNTERNAME and initialize the new counter to zero. The name COUNTERNAME must consists of letters only, and does not begin with a backslash. This name must not already be in use by another counter. When you use the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' then COUNTERNAME will be numbered within, or subsidiary to, the existing counter SUPERCOUNTER. For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within 'section' so that any time SUPERCOUNTER is incremented with '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::) then COUNTERNAME is reset to zero. *Note Counters::, for more information about counters.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newlength, Next: \newsavebox, Prev: \newcounter, Up: Definitions 12.4 '\newlength': Allocating a length ====================================== Allocate a new "length" register. Synopsis: \newlength{\ARG} This command takes one required argument, which must begin with a backslash ('\'). It creates a new length register named '\ARG', which is a place to hold (rubber) lengths such as '1in plus.2in minus.1in' (what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register). The register gets an initial value of zero. The control sequence '\ARG' must not already be defined. *Note Lengths::, for more about lengths.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newsavebox, Next: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Prev: \newlength, Up: Definitions 12.5 '\newsavebox': Allocating a box ==================================== Allocate a "bin" for holding a box. Synopsis: \newsavebox{\CMD} Defines '\CMD' to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. Such a box is for holding typeset material, to use multiple times (*note Boxes::) or to measure or manipulate. The name '\CMD' must start with a backslash ('\'), and must not be already defined. The allocation of a box is global. This command is fragile (*note \protect::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Next: \newtheorem, Prev: \newsavebox, Up: Definitions 12.6 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' ============================================ These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is, '\begin{ENV} BODY \end{ENV}'. Synopses: \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN} The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text. The body of these environments can still contain multiple paragraphs. ENV Required; the environment name. It consists only of letters or the '*' character, and thus does not begin with backslash ('\'). It must not begin with the string 'end'. For '\newenvironment', the name ENV must not be the name of an already existing environment, and also the command '\ENV' must be undefined. For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an existing environment. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of that the environment will take. When the environment is used these arguments appear after the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1}...{ARGN}'. If this argument is not present then the default is for the environment to have no arguments. When redefining an environment, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of the defined environment is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then the environment does not take an optional argument. That is, when '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is present in the environment definition, if '\begin{ENV}' is used with square brackets following, as in '\begin{ENV}[MYVAL]', then, within BEGDEFN, the positional parameter '#1' expands to MYVAL. If '\begin{ENV}' is called without square brackets following, then, within within BEGDEFN, the positional parameter '#1' expands to the default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments will be referred to starting with '#2'. Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1' expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to the empty string. BEGDEFN Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'. Within BEGDEF, the Nth positional parameter (i.e., '#N') is replaced by the text of the Nth argument. ENDDEFN Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'. This may not contain any positional parameters, so '#N' cannot be used here (but see the final example below). All environments, that is to say the BEGDEFN code, the environment body and the ENDDEFN code, are processed within a group. Thus, in the first example below, the effect of the '\small' is limited to the quote and does not extend to material following the environment. This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except that it will be set in smaller type: \newenvironment{smallquote}{% \small\begin{quotation} }{% \end{quotation} } This one shows the use of arguments; it gives a quotation environment that cites the author: \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \begin{quotation} \noindent\textit{#1}: }{% \end{quotation} } The author's name is optional, and defaults to 'Shakespeare'. In the document, use the environment like this: \begin{citequote}[Lincoln] ... \end{citequote} The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in ENDDEFN, in this case in a box (*note \sbox::): \newsavebox{\quoteauthor} \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}% \begin{quotation} }{% \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor} \end{quotation} }  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newtheorem, Next: \newfont, Prev: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Up: Definitions 12.7 '\newtheorem' ================== Define a new theorem-like environment. Synopses: \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE} \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN] \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE} Using the first form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}' creates an environment that will be labelled with TITLE. See the first example below. The second form '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]' creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter NUMBERED_WITHIN (its counter will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is reset). The third form '\newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}', with optional argument between the two required arguments, will create an environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter NUMBERED_LIKE. You can specify one of NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither, but not both. This command creates a counter named NAME. In addition, unless the optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, inside of the theorem-like environment the current '\ref' value will be that of '\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::). This declaration is global. It is fragile (*note \protect::). Arguments: NAME The name of the environment. It must not begin with a backslash ('\'). It must not be the name of an existing environment; indeed, the command name '\NAME' must not already be defined as anything. TITLE The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, 'Theorem'. NUMBERED_WITHIN Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'. When the NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's counter will also be reset. If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME' is set to '\arabic{NAME}'. NUMBERED_LIKE Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The new environment will be numbered in sequence with NUMBERED_LIKE. Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. The example below has a declaration in the preamble that results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} Because the next example specifies the optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN to '\newtheorem' as 'section', the example, with the same document body, gives 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same counter as 'defn'. It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1' and 'Definition 2.2'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{thm} First thm \end{thm} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newfont, Next: \protect, Prev: \newtheorem, Up: Definitions 12.8 '\newfont': Define a new font (obsolete) ============================================= '\newfont', now obsolete, defines a command that will switch fonts. Synopsis: \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION} This defines a control sequence '\CMD' that will change the current font. LaTeX will look on your system for a file named 'FONTNAME.tfm'. The control sequence must must not already be defined. It must begin with a backslash ('\'). This command is obsolete. It is a low-level command for setting up an individual font. Today fonts are almost always defined in families (which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman) through the so-called "New Font Selection Scheme", either by using '.fd' files or through the use of an engine that can access system fonts such as XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::). But since it is part of LaTeX, here is an explanation: the FONT DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at clause"; this can have the form either 'at DIMEN' or 'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of '1000' means no scaling. For LaTeX's purposes, all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font's design size, which is a value defined in the '.tfm' file. This example defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each: \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt} \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100} \testfontat abc \testfontscaled abc  File: latex2e.info, Node: \protect, Next: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend, Prev: \newfont, Up: Definitions 12.9 '\protect' =============== All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust". A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain other commands. Commands that contain data that LaTeX writes to an auxiliary file and re-reads later are fragile. This includes material that goes into a table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, etc. Fragile commands also include line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more. To prevent such commands from breaking, one solution is to preceded them with the command '\protect'. For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument". A command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX code. Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the '\caption{...}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{...}' command (*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments (*note tabular::). If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try preceding it with '\protect'. Every fragile commands must be protected with their own '\protect'. Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command. Nor can a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or '\setcounter' command. In this example the '\caption' command gives a mysterious error about an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox' command with '\protect'. \begin{figure} ... \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}} \end{figure} In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the '.toc' file. You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to '\protect\(..\protect\)'. \begin{document} \tableofcontents ... \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)} ...  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend, Prev: \protect, Up: Definitions 12.10 '\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend' ============================================= Synopsis: \ignorespaces or \ignorespacesafterend Both commands cause LaTeX to ignore spaces after the end of the command up until the first non-space character. The first is a command from Plain TeX, and the second is LaTeX-specific. The 'ignorespaces' is often used when defining commands via '\newcommand', or '\newenvironment', or '\def'. The example below illustrates. It allows a user to show the points values for quiz questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as shown in the 'enumerate' list, users must not put any space between the command and the question text. \newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}} \begin{enumerate} \item\points{10}no extra space output here \item\points{15} extra space output between the number and the word `extra' \end{enumerate} The solution is to change to '\newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces}'. A second example shows spaces being removed from the front of text. The commands below allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names. But, as given, if a title accidentally starts with a space then '\fullname' will reproduce that. \makeatletter \newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\@honorific{#1}} % remember title \newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\@honorific~#1} % recall title; put before name \makeatother \begin{tabular}{|l|} \honorific{Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} \\ % no extra space here \honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} % extra space before title \end{tabular} To fix this, change to '\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\@honorific~#1}'. The '\ignorespaces' is also often used in a '\newenvironment' at the end of the BEGIN clause, that is, as part of the second argument, as in '\begin{newenvironment}{ENV NAME}{... \ignorespaces}{...}'. To strip spaces off the end of an environment use '\ignorespacesafterend'. An example is that this will show a much larger vertical space between the first and second environments than between the second and third. \newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}} \begin{eq} e=mc^2 \end{eq} \begin{equation} F=ma \end{equation} \begin{equation} E=IR \end{equation} Putting a comment character '%' immediately after the '\end{eq}' will make the vertical space disappear, but that is inconvenient. The solution is to change to '\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Counters, Next: Lengths, Prev: Definitions, Up: Top 13 Counters *********** Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or command associated with the number, except that the counter's name has no backslash '\'. Thus, associated with the '\chapter' command is the 'chapter' counter that keeps track of the chapter number. Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering. part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of a minipage (*note minipage::). The counters 'enumi' through 'enumiv' are used in the 'enumerate' environment, for up to four levels of nesting (*note enumerate::). New counters are created with '\newcounter'. *Note \newcounter::. * Menu: * \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter. * \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment. * \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression. * \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter. * \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter. * \refstepcounter:: Add to a counter. * \stepcounter:: Add to a counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \day \month \year:: Numeric date values.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Next: \usecounter, Up: Counters 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters ===================================================================== Print the value of a counter, in a specified style. For instance, if the counter COUNTER has the value 1 then a '\alph{COUNTER}' in your source will result in a lower case letter a appearing in the output. All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, '\alph{enumi}'. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. '\alph{COUNTER}' Print the value of COUNTER in lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ... '\Alph{COUNTER}' Print in uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ... '\arabic{COUNTER}' Print in Arabic numbers: '1', '2', ... '\roman{COUNTER}' Print in lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ... '\Roman{COUNTER}' Print in uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ... '\fnsymbol{COUNTER}' Prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of COUNTER must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. Here are the symbols: Name Command Equivalent Unicode symbol and/or numeric code point --------------------------------------------------------------------------- asterisk '\ast' * dagger '\dagger' U+2020 ddagger '\ddagger' U+2021 section-sign '\S' U+00A7 paragraph-sign '\P' U+00B6 double-vert '\parallel' U+2016 double-asterisk '\ast\ast' ** double-dagger '\dagger\dagger' U+2020U+2020 double-ddagger '\ddagger\ddagger' U+2021U+2021  File: latex2e.info, Node: \usecounter, Next: \value, Prev: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Up: Counters 13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}' =========================== Synopsis: \usecounter{COUNTER} In the 'list' environment, when used in the second argument, this command sets up COUNTER to number the list items. It initializes COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called without its optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by '\refstepcounter', making its value be the current 'ref' value. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). Put in the preamble, this makes a new list environment enumerated with TESTCOUNTER: \newcounter{testcounter} \newenvironment{test}{% \begin{list}{}{% \usecounter{testcounter} } }{% \end{list} }  File: latex2e.info, Node: \value, Next: \setcounter, Prev: \usecounter, Up: Counters 13.3 '\value{COUNTER}' ====================== Synopsis: \value{COUNTER} This command expands to the value of COUNTER. It is often used in '\setcounter' or '\addtocounter', but '\value' can be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number. It must not be preceded by '\protect' (*note \protect::). The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the counter. *Note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::. This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'. \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5} \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}} \addtocounter{test}{1} Test counter is \arabic{test}. Other counter is \arabic{other}. This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'. \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1} \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \setcounter, Next: \addtocounter, Prev: \value, Up: Counters 13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' ================================== Synopsis: \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE} The '\setcounter' command globally sets the value of COUNTER to the VALUE argument. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. In this example the section value appears as 'V'. \setcounter{section}{5} Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtocounter, Next: \refstepcounter, Prev: \setcounter, Up: Counters 13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' ==================================== The '\addtocounter' command globally increments COUNTER by the amount specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative. In this example the section value appears as 'VII'. \setcounter{section}{5} \addtocounter{section}{2} Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \refstepcounter, Next: \stepcounter, Prev: \addtocounter, Up: Counters 13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' =============================== The '\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::): it globally increments the value of COUNTER by one and resets the value of any counter numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter'. While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set locally, i.e., inside the current group.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \stepcounter, Next: \day \month \year, Prev: \refstepcounter, Up: Counters 13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}' ============================ The '\stepcounter' command globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all counters numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: \day \month \year, Prev: \stepcounter, Up: Counters 13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters ============================================= LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month ('\day', 1-31), month of the year ('\month', 1-12), and year ('\year', Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. The related command '\today' produces a string representing the current day (*note \today::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Lengths, Next: Making paragraphs, Prev: Counters, Up: Top 14 Lengths ********** A "length" is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument. Lengths come in two types. A "rigid length" (what Plain TeX calls a "dimen") such as '10pt' cannot contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component. A "rubber length" (what Plain TeX calls a "skip") can contain those, as with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm'. These give the ability to stretch or shrink; the length in the prior sentence could appear in the output as long as 1.05 cm or as short as 0.99 cm, depending on what TeX's typesetting algorithm finds optimum. The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a "fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'. This gives the length infinite stretchability or shrinkability, so that the length in the prior sentence can be set by TeX to any distance greater than or equal to 1 inch. TeX actually provides three infinite glue components 'fil', 'fill', and 'filll', such that the later ones overcome the earlier ones, but only the middle value is ordinarily used. *Note \hfill::, *Note \vfill::. Multiplying an entire rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and '\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'. * Menu: * Units of length:: The units that LaTeX knows. * \setlength:: Set the value of a length. * \addtolength:: Add a quantity to a length. * \settodepth:: Set a length to the depth of something. * \settoheight:: Set a length to the height of something. * \settowidth:: Set a length to the width of something. * Predefined lengths:: Lengths that are, like, predefined.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Units of length, Next: \setlength, Up: Lengths 14.1 Units of length ==================== TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode. 'pt' Point 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two decimal places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm. 'pc' Pica, 12 pt 'in' Inch, 72.27 pt 'bp' Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript and many desktop publishing systems. 'cm' Centimeter 'mm' Millimeter 'dd' Didot point, 1.07 pt 'cc' Cicero, 12 dd 'sp' Scaled point, 1/65536 pt Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of the font. The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the height of the lower case letter x, is often used for vertical lengths. Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is '0.5em'). Use of these can help make a definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition of the vertical space between list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}' is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition given in points. In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. *Note Spacing in math mode::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \setlength, Next: \addtolength, Prev: Units of length, Up: Lengths 14.2 '\setlength' ================= Synopsis: \setlength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} The '\setlength' sets the value of "length command" '\LEN' to the VALUE argument which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches ('in'), millimeters ('mm'), points ('pt'), big points ('bp'), etc.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtolength, Next: \settodepth, Prev: \setlength, Up: Lengths 14.3 '\addtolength' =================== Synopsis: \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} The '\addtolength' command increments a length command '\LEN' by the amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settodepth, Next: \settoheight, Prev: \addtolength, Up: Lengths 14.4 '\settodepth' ================== Synopsis: \settodepth{\LEN}{TEXT} The '\settodepth' command sets the value of a length command '\LEN' equal to the depth of the TEXT argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settoheight, Next: \settowidth, Prev: \settodepth, Up: Lengths 14.5 '\settoheight' =================== Synopsis: \settoheight{\LEN}{text} The '\settoheight' command sets the value of a length command '\LEN' equal to the height of the 'text' argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settowidth, Next: Predefined lengths, Prev: \settoheight, Up: Lengths 14.6 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' ============================== Synopsis: \settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT} The '\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the width of the TEXT argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Predefined lengths, Prev: \settowidth, Up: Lengths 14.7 Predefined lengths ======================= '\width' '\height' '\depth' '\totalheight' These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width, etc., of the text in the box. '\totalheight' equals '\height' + '\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Making paragraphs, Next: Math formulas, Prev: Lengths, Up: Top 15 Making paragraphs ******************** A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not containing even a '%'. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command. * Menu: * \indent:: Indent this paragraph. * \noindent:: Do not indent this paragraph. * \parskip:: Space added before paragraphs. * Marginal notes:: Putting remarks in the margin.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \indent, Next: \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.1 '\indent' ============== '\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals to the '\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. The default value for '\parindent' is '1em' in two-column mode, otherwise '15pt' for '10pt' documents, '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em' for '12pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \noindent, Next: \parskip, Prev: \indent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.2 '\noindent' ================ When used at the beginning of the paragraph, this command suppresses any paragraph indentation, as in this example. ... end of the prior paragraph. \noindent This paragraph is not indented. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph. To eliminate paragraph indentation in an entire document, put '\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \parskip, Next: Marginal notes, Prev: \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.3 '\parskip' =============== '\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is '0pt plus1pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Marginal notes, Prev: \parskip, Up: Making paragraphs 15.4 Marginal notes =================== Synopsis: \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} The '\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the '\marginpar' occurs. When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be placed * in the right margin for one-sided layout (option 'oneside', see *note Document class options::); * in the outside margin for two-sided layout (option 'twoside', see *note Document class options::); * in the nearest margin for two-column layout (option 'twocolumn', see *note Document class options::). The command '\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. '\normalmarginpar' places them in the default position. When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin, and RIGHT is used for the right margin. The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with '\hspace{0pt}'. These parameters affect the formatting of the note: '\marginparpush' Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt' documents, '5pt' else. '\marginparsep' Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt' for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else. '\marginparwidth' Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is '48pt'. The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math formulas, Next: Modes, Prev: Making paragraphs, Up: Top 16 Math formulas **************** There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: 'math' For formulas that appear right in the text. 'displaymath' For formulas that appear on their own line. 'equation' The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin. The 'math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the 'displaymath' and 'equation' environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The 'math' and 'displaymath' environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: \(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} In fact, the 'math' environment is so common that it has an even shorter form: $ ... $ instead of \(...\) The '\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used _outside_ of math mode. Conversely, the '\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used _outside_ of math mode. The '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of 'displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example: $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ * Menu: * Subscripts & superscripts:: Also known as exponent or index. * Math symbols:: Various mathematical squiggles. * Math functions:: Math function names like sin and exp. * Math accents:: Accents in math. * Spacing in math mode:: Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces. * Math miscellany:: Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Subscripts & superscripts, Next: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts ============================== In math mode, use the caret character '^' to make the EXP appear as a superscript: '^{EXP}'. Similarly, in math mode, underscore '_{EXP}' makes a subscript out of EXP. In this example the '0' and '1' appear as subscripts while the '2' is a superscript. \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \) To have more than one character in EXP use curly braces as in 'e^{-2x}'. LaTeX handles superscripts on superscripts, and all of that stuff, in the natural way, so expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{a_0}' will look right. It also does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. In this example the '0' appears at the bottom of the integral sign while the '10' appears at the top. \int_0^{10} x^2 \,dx You can put a superscript or subscript before a symbol with a construct such as '{}_t K^2' in math mode (the initial '{}' prevents the prefixed subscript from being attached to any prior symbols in the expression). Outside of math mode, a construct like 'A test$_\textnormal{subscript}$' will produce a subscript typeset in text mode, not math mode. Note that there are packages specialized for writing Chemical formulas such as 'mhchem'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math symbols, Next: Math functions, Prev: Subscripts & superscripts, Up: Math formulas 16.2 Math symbols ================= LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi symbol U+03C0. Below is a list of commonly-available symbols. It is by no means an exhaustive list. Each symbol here is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class (which determines the spacing around it) is given in parenthesis. Unless said otherwise, the commands for these symbols can be used only in math mode. To redefine a command so that it can be used whatever the current mode, see *note \ensuremath::. '\|' U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\parallel'. '\aleph' U+2135 Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary). '\alpha' U+03B1 Lower case Greek letter alpha (ordinary). '\amalg' U+2A3F Disjoint union (binary) '\angle' U+2220 Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign '<' and angle bracket '\langle'. '\approx' U+2248 Almost equal to (relation). '\ast' U+2217 Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary). Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes reserved for cross-correlation. '\asymp' U+224D Asymptotically equivalent (relation). '\backslash' \ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus '\setminus', and '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode. '\beta' U+03B2 Lower case Greek letter beta (ordinary). '\bigcap' U+22C2 Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar: binary intersection '\cap'. '\bigcirc' U+26AA Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function composition '\circ'. '\bigcup' U+22C3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary union '\cup'. '\bigodot' U+2A00 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator). '\bigoplus' U+2A01 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator). '\bigotimes' U+2A02 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator). '\bigtriangledown' U+25BD Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator). '\bigtriangleup' U+25B3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator). '\bigsqcup' U+2A06 Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator). '\biguplus' U+2A04 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.) '\bigvee' U+22C1 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator). '\bigwedge' U+22C0 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator). '\bot' U+22A5 Up tack, bottom, least element of a partially ordered set, or a contradiction (ordinary). See also '\top'. '\bowtie' U+22C8 Natural join of two relations (relation). '\Box' U+25A1 Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\bullet' U+2022 Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'. '\cap' U+2229 Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcap'. '\cdot' U+22C5 Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'. '\chi' U+03C7 Lower case Greek chi (ordinary). '\circ' U+2218 Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'. '\clubsuit' U+2663 Club card suit (ordinary). '\complement' U+2201 Set complement, used as a superscript as in '$S^\complement$' (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. Also used: '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'. '\cong' U+2245 Congruent (relation). '\coprod' U+2210 Coproduct (operator). '\cup' U+222A Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcup'. '\dagger' U+2020 Dagger relation (binary). '\dashv' U+22A3 Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar: turnstile '\vdash'. '\ddagger' U+2021 Double dagger relation (binary). '\Delta' U+0394 Greek upper case delta, used for increment (ordinary). '\delta' U+03B4 Greek lower case delta (ordinary). '\Diamond' U+25C7 Large diamond operator (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\diamond' U+22C4 Diamond operator, or diamond bullet (binary). Similar: large diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'. '\diamondsuit' U+2662 Diamond card suit (ordinary). '\div' U+00F7 Division sign (binary). '\doteq' U+2250 Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal to '\Doteq'. '\downarrow' U+2193 Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: double line down arrow '\Downarrow'. '\Downarrow' U+21D3 Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: single line down arrow '\downarrow'. '\ell' U+2113 Lowercase cursive letter l (ordinary). '\emptyset' U+2205 Empty set symbol (ordinary). The variant form is '\varnothing'. '\epsilon' U+03F5 Lower case lunate epsilon (ordinary). Similar to Greek text letter. More widely used in mathematics is the script small letter epsilon '\varepsilon' U+03B5. Related: the set membership relation '\in' U+2208. '\equiv' U+2261 Equivalence (relation). '\eta' U+03B7 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\exists' U+2203 Existential quantifier (ordinary). '\flat' U+266D Musical flat (ordinary). '\forall' U+2200 Universal quantifier (ordinary). '\frown' U+2322 Downward curving arc (ordinary). '\Gamma' U+0393 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\gamma' U+03B3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\ge' U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\geq'. '\geq' U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\ge'. '\gets' U+2190 Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: '\leftarrow'. '\gg' U+226B Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less than '\ll'. '\hbar' U+210F Planck constant over two pi (ordinary). '\heartsuit' U+2661 Heart card suit (ordinary). '\hookleftarrow' U+21A9 Hooked left arrow (relation). '\hookrightarrow' U+21AA Hooked right arrow (relation). '\iff' U+27F7 If and only if (relation). It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with a '\thickmuskip' on either side. '\Im' U+2111 Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part '\Re'. '\in' U+2208 Set element (relation). See also: lower case lunate epsilon '\epsilon'U+03F5 and small letter script epsilon '\varepsilon'. '\infty' U+221E Infinity (ordinary). '\int' U+222B Integral (operator). '\iota' U+03B9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\Join' U+2A1D Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TeX. '\kappa' U+03BA Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\Lambda' U+039B Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\lambda' U+03BB Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\land' U+2227 Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for '\wedge'. See also logical or '\lor'. '\langle' U+27E8 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar: less-than '<'. Matches '\rangle'. '\lbrace' U+007B Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: '\{'. Matches '\rbrace'. '\lbrack' U+005B Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: '['. Matches '\rbrack'. '\lceil' U+2308 Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom shaved off (opening). Matches '\rceil'. '\le' U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\leq'. '\leadsto' U+21DD Squiggly right arrow (relation). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and then use '\Leadsto' instead. '\Leftarrow' U+21D0 Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar: single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'. '\leftarrow' U+2190 Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: '\gets'. Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'. '\leftharpoondown' U+21BD Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation). '\leftharpoonup' U+21BC Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation). '\Leftrightarrow' U+21D4 Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'. '\leftrightarrow' U+2194 Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'. '\leq' U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\le'. '\lfloor' U+230A Left floor bracket (opening). Matches: '\floor'. '\lhd' U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\ll' U+226A Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater than '\gg'. '\lnot' U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\neg'. '\longleftarrow' U+27F5 Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'. '\longleftrightarrow' U+27F7 Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'. '\longmapsto' U+27FC Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'. '\longrightarrow' U+27F6 Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'. '\lor' U+2228 Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge '\wedge'. '\mapsto' U+21A6 Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'. '\mho' U+2127 Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\mid' U+2223 Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'. Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'. '\models' U+22A8 Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash (relation). Similar: long double dash '\vDash'. '\mp' U+2213 Minus or plus (relation). '\mu' U+03BC Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\nabla' U+2207 Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary). '\natural' U+266E Musical natural notation (ordinary). '\ne' U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\neq'. '\nearrow' U+2197 North-east arrow (relation). '\neg' U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\lnot'. Sometimes instead used for negation: '\sim'. '\neq' U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\ne'. '\ni' U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\owns'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\not' U+0020U+00A0U+0338 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation). Many negated operators that don't require '\not' are available, particularly with the 'amssymb' package. For example, '\notin' is probably typographically preferable to '\not\in'. '\notin' U+2209 Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset of '\nsubseteq'. '\nu' U+03BD Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\nwarrow' U+2196 North-west arrow (relation). '\odot' U+2299 Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigodot'. '\oint' U+222E Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator). '\Omega' U+03A9 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\omega' U+03C9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\ominus' U+2296 Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary). '\oplus' U+2295 Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigoplus'. '\oslash' U+2298 Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary). '\otimes' U+2297 Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'. '\owns' U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\ni'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\parallel' U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\|'. '\partial' U+2202 Partial differential (ordinary). '\perp' U+27C2 Perpendicular (relation). Similar: '\bot' uses the same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class ordinary. '\phi' U+03D5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varphi' U+03C6. '\Pi' U+03A0 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\pi' U+03C0 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varpi' U+03D6. '\pm' U+00B1 Plus or minus (binary). '\prec' U+227A Precedes (relation). Similar: less than '<'. '\preceq' U+2AAF Precedes or equals (relation). Similar: less than or equals '\leq'. '\prime' U+2032 Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically used as a superscript: '$f^\prime$'; '$f^\prime$' and '$f'$' produce the same result. An advantage of the second is that '$f'''$' produces the desired symbol, that is, the same result as '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses rather less typing. You can only use '\prime' in math mode. Using the right single quote ''' in text mode produces a different character (apostrophe). '\prod' U+220F Product (operator). '\propto' U+221D Is proportional to (relation) '\Psi' U+03A8 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\psi' U+03C8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\rangle' U+27E9 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater than '>'. Matches:'\langle'. '\rbrace' U+007D Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: '\}'. Matches '\lbrace'. '\rbrack' U+005D Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: ']'. Matches '\lbrack'. '\rceil' U+2309 Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches '\lceil'. '\Re' U+211C Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access this, load the 'amsfonts' package. '\restriction' U+21BE Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym: '\upharpoonright'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\revemptyset' U+29B0 Reversed empty set symbol (ordinary). Related: '\varnothing'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'stix' package. '\rfloor' U+230B Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut off (closing). Matches '\lfloor'. '\rhd' U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\rho' U+03C1 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varrho' U+03F1. '\Rightarrow' U+21D2 Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'. '\rightarrow' U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\to'. Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'. '\rightharpoondown' U+21C1 Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation). '\rightharpoonup' U+21C0 Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation). '\rightleftharpoons' U+21CC Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation). '\searrow' U+2198 Arrow pointing southeast (relation). '\setminus' U+29F5 Set difference, reverse solidus or slash, like \ (binary). Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also '\textbackslash' outside of math mode. '\sharp' U+266F Musical sharp (ordinary). '\Sigma' U+03A3 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\sigma' U+03C3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varsigma' U+03C2. '\sim' U+223C Similar, in a relation (relation). '\simeq' U+2243 Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation). '\smallint' U+222B Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator). '\smile' U+2323 Upward curving arc, smile (ordinary). '\spadesuit' U+2660 Spade card suit (ordinary). '\sqcap' U+2293 Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar: intersection 'cap'. '\sqcup' U+2294 Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union 'cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'. '\sqsubset' U+228F Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset '\subset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsubseteq' U+2291 Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or equal to '\subseteq'. '\sqsupset' U+2290 Square superset symbol (relation). Similar: superset '\supset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsupseteq' U+2292 Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset or equal '\supseteq'. '\star' U+22C6 Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript, as with the Kleene star. '\subset' U+2282 Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation). '\subseteq' U+2286 Subset or equal to (relation). '\succ' U+227B Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less than '>'. '\succeq' U+2AB0 Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or equal to '\leq'. '\sum' U+2211 Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital sigma '\Sigma'. '\supset' U+2283 Superset (relation). '\supseteq' U+2287 Superset or equal to (relation). '\surd' U+221A Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command '\sqrt{...}' typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends to cover the argument. '\swarrow' U+2199 Southwest-pointing arrow (relation). '\tau' U+03C4 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\theta' U+03B8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\vartheta' U+03D1. '\times' U+00D7 Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See also '\cdot'. '\to' U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\rightarrow'. '\top' U+22A4 Top, greatest element of a partially ordered set (ordinary). See also '\bot'. '\triangle' U+25B3 Triangle (ordinary). '\triangleleft' U+25C1 Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary). Similar: '\lhd'. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\triangleright' U+25B7 Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unlhd' U+22B4 Left-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unrhd' U+22B5 Right-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\Uparrow' U+21D1 Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'. '\uparrow' U+2191 Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'. '\Updownarrow' U+21D5 Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\updownarrow'. '\updownarrow' U+2195 Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\Updownarrow'. '\upharpoonright' U+21BE Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation). Synonym: '\restriction'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\uplus' U+228E Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle (binary). Similar: union '\cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\biguplus'. '\Upsilon' U+03A5 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\upsilon' U+03C5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\varepsilon' U+03B5 Small letter script epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in mathematics than the non-variant lunate epsilon form '\epsilon' U+03F5. Related: set membership '\in'. '\vanothing' U+2205 Empty set symbol. Similar: '\emptyset'. Related: '\revemptyset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\varphi' U+03C6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\phi' U+03D5. '\varpi' U+03D6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\pi' U+03C0. '\varrho' U+03F1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\rho' U+03C1. '\varsigma' U+03C2 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\sigma' U+03C3. '\vartheta' U+03D1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\theta' U+03B8. '\vdash' U+22A2 Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'. '\vee' U+2228 Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical and '\wedge'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'. '\Vert' U+2016 Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single bar '\vert'. For a norm symbol, you can use the 'mathtools' package and add '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}' to your preamble. This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version '$\norm*{M^\perp}$' then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with '\norm{M^\perp}' the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and '\norm[SIZE COMMAND]{M^\perp}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'. '\vert' U+007C Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line vertical bar '\Vert'. For such that, as in the definition of a set, use '\mid' because it is a relation. For absolute value you can use the 'mathtools' package and add '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}' to your preamble. This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version '$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$' then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}' the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and '\abs[SIZE COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'. '\wedge' U+2227 Logical and (binary). Synonym: '\land'. See also logical or '\vee'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'. '\wp' U+2118 Weierstrass p (ordinary). '\wr' U+2240 Wreath product (binary). '\Xi' U+039E Upper case Greek letter (ordinary). '\xi' U+03BE Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). '\zeta' U+03B6 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math functions, Next: Math accents, Prev: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas 16.3 Math functions =================== These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing. '\arccos' \arccos '\arcsin' \arcsin '\arctan' \arctan '\arg' \arg '\bmod' Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) '\cos' \cos '\cosh' \cosh '\cot' \cot '\coth' \coth '\csc' \csc '\deg' \deg '\det' \det '\dim' \dim '\exp' \exp '\gcd' \gcd '\hom' \hom '\inf' \inf '\ker' \ker '\lg' \lg '\lim' \lim '\liminf' \liminf '\limsup' \limsup '\ln' \ln '\log' \log '\max' \max '\min' \min '\pmod' parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) '\Pr' \Pr '\sec' \sec '\sin' \sin '\sinh' \sinh '\sup' \sup '\tan' \tan '\tanh' \tanh  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math accents, Next: Spacing in math mode, Prev: Math functions, Up: Math formulas 16.4 Math accents ================= LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note Accents::). '\acute' Math acute accent: \acute{x}. '\bar' Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}. '\breve' Math breve accent: \breve{x}. '\check' Math ha'c' Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'. The longer name is '\medspace'. Math mode only. '\,' Normally '3mu'. The longer name is '\thinspace'. This can be used in both math mode and text mode. *Note \thinspace::. '\!' A negative thin space. Normally '-3mu'. Math mode only. '\quad' This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment. It is available in both text and math mode. '\qquad' A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both text and math mode. In this example a thinspace separates the function from the infinitesimal. \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math miscellany, Prev: Spacing in math mode, Up: Math formulas 16.6 Math miscellany ==================== '\*' A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed. Without the break multiplication is implicitly indicated by a space, while in the case of a break a U+00D7 symbol is printed immediately before the break. So \documentclass{article} \begin{document} Now \(A_3 = 0\), hence the product of all terms \(A_1\) through \(A_4\), that is \(A_1\* A_2\* A_3 \* A_4\), is equal to zero. \end{document} will make that sort of output (the ellipsis '[...]' is here to show the line break at the same place as in a TeX output): Now A_3 = 0, [...] A_1 through A_4, that is A_1 A_2 \times A_3 A_4, is equal to zero. '\cdots' A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. '\ddots' A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. '\frac{NUM}{DEN}' Produces the fraction NUM divided by DEN. '\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2' The two delimiters need not match; '.' acts as a "null delimiter", producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: '\left( \sum_{i=1}^{10} a_i \right]'. '\mathdollar' Dollar sign in math mode: $. '\mathellipsis' Ellipsis (spaced for text) in math mode: .... '\mathparagraph' Paragraph sign (pilcrow) in math mode: U+00B6. '\mathsection' Section sign in math mode. '\mathsterling' Sterling sign in math mode: #. '\mathunderscore' Underscore in math mode: _. '\overbrace{MATH}' Generates a brace over MATH. For example, '\overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \;\textrm{times}}'. '\overline{TEXT}' Generates a horizontal line over TEX. For example, '\overline{x+y}'. '\sqrt[ROOT]{ARG}' Produces the representation of the square root of ARG. The optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of 'x+y' would be typed as '\sqrt[3]{x+y}'. '\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}' Puts TEXT above RELATION. For example, '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'. '\underbrace{MATH}' Generates MATH with a brace underneath. For example, '\underbrace{x+y+z}_{>\,0}' '\underline{TEXT}' Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders. '\vdots' Produces a vertical ellipsis.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Modes, Next: Page styles, Prev: Math formulas, Up: Top 17 Modes ******** When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes: * Paragraph mode * Math mode * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in "math mode" when it's generating a mathematical formula, either displayed math or within a line. In "LR mode", as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an '\mbox', LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line). LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an '\mbox' command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box--for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode. The box made by one of these commands or environments will be called a 'parbox'. When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner paragraph mode" (no page breaks). Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called "outer paragraph mode". * Menu: * \ensuremath:: Ensure that math mode is active  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ensuremath, Up: Modes 17.1 '\ensuremath' ================== Synopsis: \ensuremath{FORMULA} The '\ensuremath' command ensures that FORMULA is typeset in math mode whatever the current mode in which the command is used. For instance: \documentclass{report} \newcommand{\ab}{\ensuremath{(\delta, \varepsilon)}} \begin{document} Now, the \ab\ pair is equal to \(\ab = (\frac{1}{\pi}, 0)\), ... \end{document} One can redefine commands that can be used only in math mode so that they ca be used in any mode like in the following example given for '\leadsto': \documentclass{report} \usepackage{amssymb} \newcommand{\originalMeaningOfLeadsTo}{} \let\originalMeaningOfLeadsTo\leadsto \renewcommand\leadsto{\ensuremath{\originalMeaningOfLeadsTo}} \begin{document} All roads \leadsto\ Rome. \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page styles, Next: Spaces, Prev: Modes, Up: Top 18 Page styles ************** The '\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. * Menu: * \maketitle:: Generate a title page. * \pagenumbering:: Set the style used for page numbers. * \pagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style. * \thispagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style for this page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \maketitle, Next: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles 18.1 '\maketitle' ================= The '\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title page--except in the 'article' class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations: '\author{NAME \and NAME2}' The '\author' command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. Use '\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example, to give the author's institution or address. '\date{TEXT}' The '\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With no '\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used. '\thanks{TEXT}' The '\thanks' command produces a '\footnote' to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements. '\title{TEXT}' The '\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document. Use '\\' to force a line break, as usual.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagenumbering, Next: \pagestyle, Prev: \maketitle, Up: Page styles 18.2 '\pagenumbering' ===================== Synopsis: \pagenumbering{STYLE} Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE; also resets the page number to 1. The STYLE argument is one of the following: 'arabic' arabic numerals 'roman' lowercase Roman numerals 'Roman' uppercase Roman numerals 'alph' lowercase letters 'Alph' uppercase letters  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagestyle, Next: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles 18.3 '\pagestyle' ================= Synopsis: \pagestyle{STYLE} The '\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for STYLE: 'plain' Just a plain page number. 'empty' Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. 'headings' Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers. 'myheadings' Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright' commands. Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright': '\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}' Sets both the left and the right heading. A "left-hand heading" (LEFT) is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT) is generated by the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. '\markright{RIGHT}' Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagestyle, Up: Page styles 18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}' ============================ The '\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the '\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to STYLE for the current page only.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Spaces, Next: Boxes, Prev: Page styles, Up: Top 19 Spaces ********* LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. * Menu: Horizontal space * \hspace:: Fixed horizontal space. * \hfill:: Stretchable horizontal space. * \spacefactor:: Stretchability of following space * \(SPACE) after control sequence:: Space (gobbling) after a control sequence. * \thinspace:: One-sixth of an em. * \/:: Insert italic correction. * \hrulefill \dotfill:: Stretchable horizontal rule or dots. Vertical space * \addvspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space if needed. * \bigskip \medskip \smallskip:: Fixed vertical spaces. * \vfill:: Infinitely stretchable vertical space. * \vspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hspace, Next: \hfill, Up: Spaces 19.1 '\hspace' ============== Synopsis: \hspace{LENGTH} \hspace*{LENGTH} Add the horizontal space given by LENGTH. The LENGTH is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, in any unit that LaTeX understands (*note Lengths::). This command can add both positive and negative space; adding negative space is like backspacing. Normally when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines it discards white space (glues and kerns) that would come at the start of a line, so you get an inter-word space or a line break between words but not both. This command's starred version '\hspace*{...}' puts a non-discardable invisible item in front of the space, so the space appears in the output. This example make a one-line paragraph that puts 'Name:' an inch from the right margin. \noindent\makebox[\linewidth]{\hspace{\fill}Name:\hspace{1in}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hfill, Next: \spacefactor, Prev: \hspace, Up: Spaces 19.2 '\hfill' ============= Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but can stretch horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::). The command '\hfill' is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}'. For space that does not disappear at line breaks use '\hspace*{\fill}' instead (*note \hspace::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \spacefactor, Next: \(SPACE) after control sequence, Prev: \hfill, Up: Spaces 19.3 '\spacefactor' =================== Synopsis: \spacefactor=INTEGER While LaTeX is making the page, to give the lines the best appearance it may stretch or shrink the gaps between words. The '\spacefactor' command (from Plain TeX) allows you to change the LaTeX's default behavior. After LaTeX places each character, or rule or other box, it sets a parameter called the "space factor". If the next thing in the input is a space then this parameter affects how much of a horizontal gap LaTeX will have it span. (This gap is not a character; it is called "interword glue".) A larger space factor means that the glue gap can stretch more and shrink less. Normally, the space factor is 1000; this value is in effect following most characters, and any non-character box or math formula. But it is 3000 after a period, exclamation mark, or question mark, it is 2000 after a colon, 1500 after a semicolon, 1250 after a comma, and 0 after a right parenthesis or bracket, or closing double quote or single quote. Finally, it is 999 after a capital letter. If the space factor F is 1000 then the glue gap will be the font's normal space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is 3.3333 points). Otherwise, if the space factor F is greater than 2000 then TeX adds the font's extra space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is 1.11111 points), and then the font's normal stretch value is multiplied by f /1000 and the normal shrink value is multiplied by 1000/f (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point these are 1.66666 and 1.11111 points). In short, compared to a normal space, such as the space following a word ending in a lowercase letter, inter-sentence spacing has a fixed extra space added and then the space can stretch 3 times as much and shrink 1/3 as much. The rules for how TeX uses space factors are even more complex because they play two more roles. In practice, there are two consequences. First, if a period or other punctuation is followed by a close parenthesis or close double quote then its effect is still in place, that is, the following glue will have increased stretch and shrink. Second, conversely, if punctuation comes after a capital letter then its effect is not in place so you get an ordinary space. For how to adjust to this second case, for instance if an abbreviation does not end in a capital letter, *note \(SPACE) and \@::. * Menu: * \(SPACE) and \@:: Space after a period. * \frenchspacing:: Equal interword and inter-sentence space. * \normalsfcodes:: Restore space factor settings to the default.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \(SPACE) and \@, Next: \frenchspacing, Up: \spacefactor 19.3.1 '\(SPACE)' and '\@' -------------------------- Here, '\(SPACE)' means a backslash followed by a space. These commands mark a punctuation character, typically a period, as either ending a sentence or as ending an abbreviation. By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words. *Note \spacefactor::. As described there, LaTeX assumes that the period ends a sentence unless it is preceded by a capital letter, in which case it takes that period for part of an abbreviation. Note that if a sentence-ending period is immediately followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote, then the space effect of that period follows through that parenthesis or quote. So: if you have a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the sentence, then follow that period with a backslash-space ('\ ') or a tie ('~') or a '\@'. Examples are 'Nat.\ Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and '(manure, etc.\@) for sale' (note that in the last the '\@' comes before the closing parenthesis). In the opposite situation, if you have a capital letter followed by a period that does end the sentence, then put '\@' before the period. For example, 'book by the MAA\@.' will have correct inter-sentence spacing after the period. For another use of '\(SPACE)', *note \(SPACE) after control sequence::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frenchspacing, Next: \normalsfcodes, Prev: \(SPACE) and \@, Up: \spacefactor 19.3.2 '\frenchspacing' ----------------------- This declaration (from Plain TeX) causes LaTeX to treat inter-sentence spacing in the same way as interword spacing. In justifying the text in a line, some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or after other punctuation marks) more than the space between words. Following this declaration, all spaces are instead treated equally. Revert to the default behavior by declaring '\nonfrenchspacing'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \normalsfcodes, Prev: \frenchspacing, Up: \spacefactor 19.3.3 '\normalsfcodes' ----------------------- Reset the LaTeX space factor values to the default.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \(SPACE) after control sequence, Next: \thinspace, Prev: \spacefactor, Up: Spaces 19.4 '\ ' after control sequence ================================ The '\ ' command is often used after control sequences to keep them from gobbling the space that follows, as in '\TeX\ is nice'. And, under normal circumstances, '\' and '\' are equivalent to '\ '. For another use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) and \@::. Some people prefer to use '{}' for the same purpose, as in '\TeX{} is nice'. This has the advantage that you can always write it the same way, namely '\TeX{}', whether it is followed by a space or by a punctuation mark. Compare: \TeX\ is a nice system. \TeX, a nice system. \TeX{} is a nice system. \TeX{}, a nice system. Some individual commands, notably those defined with the 'xspace', package do not follow the standard behavior.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinspace, Next: \/, Prev: \(SPACE) after control sequence, Up: Spaces 19.5 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em =============================== '\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in '".  File: latex2e.info, Node: \/, Next: \hrulefill \dotfill, Prev: \thinspace, Up: Spaces 19.6 '\/': Insert italic correction =================================== The '\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character typically has a large italic correction value. If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the 'f's are nicely separated) with f: f;. When changing fonts with commands such as '\textit{italic text}' or '{\itshape italic text}', LaTeX will automatically insert an italic correction if appropriate (*note Font styles::). Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the 'f') with pdfTeX. There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hrulefill \dotfill, Next: \addvspace, Prev: \/, Up: Spaces 19.7 '\hrulefill \dotfill' ========================== Produce an infinite rubber length (*note Lengths::) filled with a horizontal rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of just white space. When placed between blank lines this example creates a paragraph that is left and right justified, where the space in the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots. \noindent Jack Aubrey\dotfill Melbury Lodge To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the start or end. To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as with '\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with '\renewcommand{\dotfill}{\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@ 1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addvspace, Next: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Prev: \hrulefill \dotfill, Up: Spaces 19.8 '\addvspace' ================= '\addvspace{LENGTH}' Add a vertical space of height LENGTH, which is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous '\addvspace' command then this command will not add more space than what is needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to LENGTH. Use this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an environment that starts a new paragraph. For instance, a Theorem environment is defined to begin and end with '\addvspace{...}' so that two consecutive Theorem's are separated by one vertical space, not two. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). The error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' means that you were not in vertical mode when you invoked this command; one way to change that is to precede this command with a '\par' command.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Next: \vfill, Prev: \addvspace, Up: Spaces 19.9 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' =================================== These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the document class. '\bigskip' The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt'). '\medskip' The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt'). '\smallskip' The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt').  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vfill, Next: \vspace, Prev: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Up: Spaces 19.10 '\vfill' ============== End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length (*note Lengths::) that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed. It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that '\vfill' ends the current paragraph, whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the infinite vertical space below its line irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary; to circumvent this see *note \vspace::. In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the third 'Lost Dog!' is exactly halfway between them. \begin{document} Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vspace, Prev: \vfill, Up: Spaces 19.11 '\vspace{LENGTH}' ======================= Synopsis, one of these two: \vspace{LENGTH} \vspace*{LENGTH} Add the vertical space LENGTH. This can be negative or positive, and is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). LaTeX removes the vertical space from '\vspace' at a page break, that is, at the top or bottom of a page. The starred version '\vspace*{...}' causes the space to stay. If '\vspace' is used in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in horizontal mode), the space is inserted _after_ the line with the '\vspace' command. A new paragraph is not started. In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with at least one inch of space below each. \begin{document} 1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} 2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Boxes, Next: Color, Prev: Spaces, Up: Top 20 Boxes ******** All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands. * Menu: * \mbox:: Horizontal boxes. * \fbox and \framebox:: Put a frame around a box. * lrbox:: An environment like '\sbox'. * \makebox:: Box, adjustable position. * \parbox:: Box with text in paragraph mode. * \raisebox:: Raise or lower text. * \savebox:: Like '\makebox', but save the text for later use. * \sbox:: Like '\mbox', but save the text for later use. * \usebox:: Print saved text.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \mbox, Next: \fbox and \framebox, Up: Boxes 20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}' ================== The '\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \fbox and \framebox, Next: lrbox, Prev: \mbox, Up: Boxes 20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox' ============================ Synopses: \fbox{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} The '\fbox' and '\framebox' commands are like '\mbox', except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. In addition, the '\framebox' command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument. Both commands produce a rule of thickness '\fboxrule' (default '0.4pt'), and leave a space of '\fboxsep' (default '3pt') between the rule and the contents of the box. *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the '\framebox' command in the 'picture' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: lrbox, Next: \makebox, Prev: \fbox and \framebox, Up: Boxes 20.3 'lrbox' ============ Synopsis: \begin{lrbox}{\CMD} TEXT \end{lrbox} This is the environment form of *note '\sbox': \sbox. The TEXT inside the environment is saved in the box '\CMD', which must have been declared with '\newsavebox'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makebox, Next: \parbox, Prev: lrbox, Up: Boxes 20.4 '\makebox' =============== Synopsis: \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} The '\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the TEXT specified. The width of the box can be overridden by the optional WIDTH argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values: 'c' Centered (default). 'l' Flush left. 'r' Flush right. 's' Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain stretchable space for this to work. '\makebox' is also used within the 'picture' environment *note \makebox (picture)::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \parbox, Next: \raisebox, Prev: \makebox, Up: Boxes 20.5 '\parbox' ============== Synopsis: \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT} The '\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in "paragraph mode". It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a '\parbox' argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::). '\parbox' has two mandatory arguments: WIDTH the width of the parbox; TEXT the text that goes inside the parbox. By default LaTeX will position vertically a parbox so its center lines up with the center of the surrounding text line. When the optional POSITION argument is present and equal either to 't' or 'b', this allows you respectively to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text. You may also specify 'm' for POSITION to get the default behaviour. The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box. The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used. 't' text is placed at the top of the box. 'c' text is centered in the box. 'b' text is placed at the bottom of the box. 's' stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raisebox, Next: \savebox, Prev: \parbox, Up: Boxes 20.6 '\raisebox' ================ Synopsis: \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{TEXT} The '\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). TEXT itself is processed in LR mode. The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the baseline (HEIGHT) or below (DEPTH), ignoring its natural height and depth.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \savebox, Next: \sbox, Prev: \raisebox, Up: Boxes 20.7 '\savebox' =============== Synopsis: \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with '\makebox' (*note \makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \sbox, Next: \usebox, Prev: \savebox, Up: Boxes 20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' =========================== Synopsis: \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT} '\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD. \BOXCMD must have been previously declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \usebox, Prev: \sbox, Up: Boxes 20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}' ======================= Synopsis: \usebox{\BOXCMD} '\usebox' produces the box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by a '\savebox' command (*note \savebox::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Color, Next: Graphics, Prev: Boxes, Up: Top 21 Color ******** You can add color to text, rules, etc. You can also have color in a box or on an entire page and write text on top of it. Color support comes as an additional package. So all the commands below will only work if your document preamble contains '\usepackage{color}', that brings in the standard package. Many other packages also supplement LaTeX's color abilities. Particularly worth mentioning is 'xcolor', which is widely used and significantly extends the capabilities described here, including adding 'HTML' and 'Hsb' color models. * Menu: * Color package options:: Options when you load the standard package. * Color models:: How colors are represented. * Commands for color:: The available commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Color package options, Next: Color models, Up: Color 21.1 Color package options ========================== Synopsis (must be in the document preamble): \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{color} When you load the 'color' package there are two kinds of available options. The first specifies the "printer driver". LaTeX doesn't contain information about different output systems but instead depends on information stored in a file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completeness we include a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex', 'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex' (and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). The second kind of options, beyond the drivers, are below. 'monochrome' Disable the color commands, so that they do not generate errors but do not generate color either. 'dvipsnames' Make available a list of 68 color names that are often used, particularly in legacy documents. These color names were originally provided by the 'dvips' driver, giving the option name. 'nodvipsnames' Do not load that list of color names, saving LaTeX a tiny amount of memory space.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Color models, Next: Commands for color, Prev: Color package options, Up: Color 21.2 Color models ================= A "color model" is a way of representing colors. LaTeX's capabilities depend on the printer driver. However, the 'pdftex', 'xetex', and 'luatex' printer drivers are today by far the most commonly used. The models below work for those drivers. All but one of these is also supported by essentially all other printer drivers used today. Note that color combination can be additive or subtractive. Additive mixes colors of light, so that for instance combining full intensities of red, green, and blue produces white. Subtractive mixes pigments, such as with inks, so that combining full intensity of cyan, magenta, and yellow makes black. 'cmyk' A comma-separated list with four real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. The first number is the intensity of cyan, the second is magenta, and the others are yellow and black. A number value of 0 means minimal intensity, while a 1 is for full intensity. This model is often used in color printing. It is a subtractive model. 'gray' A single real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. The colors are shades of grey. The number 0 produces black while 1 gives white. 'rgb' A comma-separated list with three real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. The first number is the intensity of the red component, the second is green, and the third the blue. A number value of 0 means that none of that component is added in, while a 1 means full intensity. This is an additive model. 'RGB' ('pdftex', 'xetex', 'luatex' drivers) A comma-separated list with three integers between 0 and 255, inclusive. This model is a convenience for using 'rgb' since outside of LaTeX colors are often described in a red-green-blue model using numbers in this range. The values entered here are converted to the 'rgb' model by dividing by 255. 'named' Colors are accessed by name, such as 'PrussianBlue'. The list of names depends on the driver, but all support the names 'black', 'blue', 'cyan', 'green', 'magenta', 'red', 'white', and 'yellow' (See the 'dvipsnames' option in *note Color package options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Commands for color, Prev: Color models, Up: Color 21.3 Commands for color ======================= These are the commands available with the 'color' package. * Menu: * Define colors:: Give a color a name. * Colored text:: Text or rules in color. * Colored boxes:: A box of color, to write over. * Colored pages:: A whole page colored.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Define colors, Next: Colored text, Up: Commands for color 21.3.1 Define colors -------------------- Synopsis: \definecolor{NAME}{MODEL}{SPECIFICATION} Give the name NAME to the color. For example, after '\definecolor{silver}{rgb}{0.75,0.75,0.74}' you can use that color name with 'Hi ho, \textcolor{silver}{Silver}!'. This example gives the color a more abstract name, so it could change and not be misleading. \definecolor{logocolor}{RGB}{145,92,131} % RGB needs pdflatex \newcommand{\logo}{\textcolor{logocolor}{Bob's Big Bagels}} Often a document's colors are defined in the preamble, or in the class or style, rather than in the document body.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored text, Next: Colored boxes, Prev: Define colors, Up: Commands for color 21.3.2 Colored text ------------------- Synopses: \textcolor{NAME}{...} \textcolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION}{...} or \color{NAME} \color[COLOR MODEL]{SPECIFICATION} The affected text gets the color. This line \textcolor{magenta}{My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:} Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! causes the first half to be in magenta while the rest is in black. You can use a color declared with '\definecolor' in exactly the same way that we just used the builtin color 'magenta'. \definecolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{rgb}{1.0,0.11,0.0} I'm thinking about getting a \textcolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{sports car}. The two '\textcolor' and '\color' differ in that the first is a command form, enclosing the text to be colored as an argument. Often this form is more convenient, or at least more explicit. The second form is a declaration, as in 'The moon is made of {\color{green} green} cheese', so it is in effect until the end of the current group or environment. This is sometimes useful when writing macros or as below where it colors everything inside the 'center' environment, including the vertical and horizontal lines. \begin{center} \color{blue} \begin{tabular}{l|r} UL &UR \\ \hline LL &LR \end{tabular} \end{center} You can use color in equations. A document might have '\definecolor{highlightcolor}{RGB}{225,15,0}' in the preamble, and then contain this equation. \begin{equation} \int_a^b \textcolor{highlightcolor}{f'(x)}\,dx=f(b)-f(a) \end{equation} Typically the colors used in a document are declared in a class or style but sometimes you want a one-off. Those are the second forms in the synopses. Colors of \textcolor[rgb]{0.33,0.14,0.47}{Purple} and {\color[rgb]{0.72,0.60,0.37} Gold} for the team The format of COLOR SPECIFICATION depends on the color model (*note Color models::). For instance, while 'rgb' takes three numbers, 'gray' takes only one. The selection was \textcolor[gray]{0.5}{grayed out}. Colors inside colors do not combine. Thus \textcolor{green}{kind of \textcolor{blue}{blue}} has a final word that is blue, not a combination of blue and green.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored boxes, Next: Colored pages, Prev: Colored text, Up: Commands for color 21.3.3 Colored boxes -------------------- Synopses: \colorbox{NAME}{...} \colorbox[MODEL NAME]{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR SPECIFICATION}{...} or \fcolorbox{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} \fcolorbox[MODEL NAME]{FRAME COLOR SPECIFICATION}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR SPECIFICATION}{...} Make a box with the stated background color. The '\fcolorbox' command puts a frame around the box. For instance this Name:~\colorbox{cyan}{\makebox[5cm][l]{\strut}} makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its depth and height from the '\strut' (so the depth is '-.3\baselineskip' and the height is '\baselineskip'). This puts white text on a blue background. \colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}} The '\fcolorbox' commands use the same parameters as '\fbox' (*note \fbox and \framebox::), '\fboxrule' and '\fboxsep', to set the thickness of the rule and the boundary between the box interior and the surrounding rule. LaTeX's defaults are '0.4pt' and '3pt', respectively. This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points. Note that it is surrounded by curly braces so that the change ends at the end of the second line. {\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt} \fcolorbox{black}{red}{Under no circumstances turn this knob.}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored pages, Prev: Colored boxes, Up: Commands for color 21.3.4 Colored pages -------------------- Synopses: \pagecolor{NAME} \pagecolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION} \nopagecolor The first two set the background of the page, and all subsequent pages, to the color. For an explanation of the specification in the second form *note Colored text::. The third returns the background to normal, which is a transparent background. (If that is not supported use '\pagecolor{white}', although that will make a white background rather than the default transparent background.) ... \pagecolor{cyan} ... \nopagecolor  File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics, Next: Special insertions, Prev: Color, Up: Top 22 Graphics *********** You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LaTeX document. You need an additional package, which comes standard with LaTeX. This example is the short how-to. \include{graphicx} % goes in the preamble ... \includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf} To use the commands described here your document preamble must contain either '\usepackage{graphicx}' or '\usepackage{graphics}'. Most of the time, 'graphicx' is the better choice. Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector. LaTeX can use both. In raster graphics the file contains an entry for each location in an array, describing what color it is. An example is a photograph, in JPG format. In vector graphics, the file contains a list of instructions such as 'draw a circle with this radius and that center'. An example is a line drawing produced by the Asymptote program, in PDF format. Generally vector graphics are more useful because you can rescale their size without pixelation or other problems, and because they often have a smaller size. There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a LaTeX document. For example, these allow you to use the same fonts as in your document. LaTeX comes with a 'picture' environment (*note picture::) that has simple capabilities. Besides that, there are other ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document. Two such systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages. There are also systems external to LaTeX, that generate a graphic that you include using the commands of this chapter. Two that use a programming language are Asymptote and MetaPost. One that uses a graphical interface is Xfig. Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document; see their documentation. * Menu: * Graphics package options:: Options when you load the package. * Graphics package configuration:: Where to look for files, which file types. * Commands for graphics:: The available commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics package options, Next: Graphics package configuration, Up: Graphics 22.1 Graphics package options ============================= Synopsis (must be in the document preamble): \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphics} or \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphicx} The 'graphicx' package has a format for optional arguments to the '\includegraphics' command that is convenient (it is the key-value format), so it is the better choice for new documents. When you load the 'graphics' or 'graphicx' package with '\usepackage' there are two kinds of available options. The first is that LaTeX does not contain information about different output systems but instead depends on information stored in a "printer driver" file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completeness here is a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex', 'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex' (and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). These are stored in files with a '.def' extension, such as 'pdftex.def'. The second kind of options are below. 'demo' Instead of an image file, LaTeX puts in a 150 pt by 100 pt rectangle (unless another size is specified in the '\includegraphics' command). 'draft' For each graphic file, it is not shown but instead the file name is printed in a box of the correct size. In order to determine the size, the file must be present. 'final' (Default) Override any previous 'draft' option, so that the document shows the contents of the graphic files. 'hiderotate' Do not show rotated text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer does not have the capability to rotate text.) 'hidescale' Do not show scaled text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer does not have the capability to scale.) 'hiresbb' In a PS or EPS file the graphic size may be specified in two ways. The '%%BoundingBox' lines describe the graphic size using integer multiples of a PostScript point, that is, integer multiples of 1/72 inch. A later addition to the PostScript language allows decimal multiples, such as 1.23, in '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines. This option has LaTeX to read the size from the latter.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics package configuration, Next: Commands for graphics, Prev: Graphics package options, Up: Graphics 22.2 Graphics package configuration =================================== These commands configure the way LaTeX searches the file system for the graphic. The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform dependent. In this document we cover Linux, Macintosh, and Windows, as those systems are typically configured. For other situations consult the documentation in 'grfguide.pdf', or the LaTeX source, or your TeX distribution's documentation. * Menu: * \graphicspath:: Directories to search. * \DeclareGraphicsExtensions:: File types, such as JPG or EPS. * \DeclareGraphicsRule:: How to handle file types.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \graphicspath, Next: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Up: Graphics package configuration 22.2.1 '\graphicspath' ---------------------- Synopsis: \graphicspath{LIST OF DIR NAMES INSIDE CURLY BRACKETS} Declare a list of directories to search for graphics files. This allows you to later say something like '\includegraphics{lion.png}' instead of having to give its path. LaTeX always looks for graphic files first in the current directory. The declaration below tells the system to then look in the subdirectory 'pix', and then '../pix'. \usepackage{graphicx} % or graphics; put in preamble ... \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} } The '\graphicspath' declaration is optional. If you don't include it then LaTeX's default is to search all of the places that it usually looks for a file (it uses LaTeX's '\input@path'). In particular, in this case one of the places it looks is the current directory. Enclose each directory name in curly braces; for example, above it says ''{pix}''. Do this even if there is only one directory. Each directory name must end in a forward slash, '/'. This is true even on Windows, where good practice is to use forward slashes for all the directory separators since it makes the document portable to other platforms. If you have spaces in your directory name then use double quotes, as with '{"my docs/"}'. Getting one of these rules wrong will cause LaTeX to report 'Error: File `FILENAME' not found'. Basically, the algorithm is that with this example, after looking in the current directory, \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} } ... \usepackage{lion.png} for each of the listed directories, LaTeX concatenates it with the file name and searches for the result, checking for 'pix/lion.png' and then '../pix/lion.png'. This algorithm means that the '\graphicspath' command does not recursively search subdirectories: if you issue '\graphicspath{{a/}}' and the graphic is in 'a/b/lion.png' then LaTeX will not find it. It also means that you can use absolute paths such as '\graphicspath{{/home/jim/logos/}}' or '\graphicspath{{C:/Users/Albert/Pictures/}}'. However, using these means that the document is not portable. (You could preserve portability by adjusting your TeX system settings configuration file parameter 'TEXINPUTS'; see the documentation of your system.) You can use '\graphicspath' in the preamble or in the document body. You can use it more than once. For debugging, show its value with '\makeatletter\typeout{\Ginput@path}\makeatother'. The directories are taken with respect to the base file. That is, suppose that you are working on a document based on 'book/book.tex' and it contains '\include{chapters/chap1}'. If in 'chap1.tex' you put '\graphicspath{{plots/}}' then LaTeX will not search for graphics in 'book/chapters/plots', but instead in 'book/plots'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Next: \DeclareGraphicsRule, Prev: \graphicspath, Up: Graphics package configuration 22.2.2 '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' ----------------------------------- Synopses: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{COMMA-SEPARATED LIST OF FILE EXTENSIONS} Declare the filename extensions to try. This allows you to specify the order in which to choose graphic formats when you include graphic files by giving the filename without the extension, as in '\includegraphics{functionplot}'. In this example, LaTeX will find files in the PNG format before PDF files. \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.png,PNG,.pdf,.PDF} ... \includegraphics{lion} % will find lion.png before lion.pdf Because the file name 'lion' does not have a period, LaTeX uses the extension list. For each directory in the graphics path (*note \graphicspath::), LaTeX will try the extensions in the order given. If it does not find such a file after trying all the directories and extensions then it reports '! LaTeX Error: File `'lion'' not found'. Note that you must include the periods at the start of the extensions. Because Linux and Macintosh filenames are case sensitive, the list of file extensions is case sensitive on those platforms. The Windows platform is not case sensitive. You are not required to include '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' in your document; the printer driver has a sensible default. For example, the most recent 'pdftex.def' has the extension list ''.png,.pdf,.jpg,.mps,.jpeg,.jbig2,.jb2,.PNG,.PDF,.JPG,.JPEG,.JBIG2,.JB2''. You can use this command in the preamble or in the document body. You can use it more than once. For debugging, show its value with '\makeatletter\typeout{\Gin@extensions}\makeatother'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \DeclareGraphicsRule, Prev: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Up: Graphics package configuration 22.2.3 '\DeclareGraphicsRule' ----------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareGraphicsRule{EXTENSION}{TYPE}{SIZE-FILE EXTENSION}{COMMAND} Declare how to handle graphic files whose names end in EXTENSION. This example declares that all files with names have the form 'filename-without-dot.mps' will be treated as output from MetaPost, meaning that the printer driver will use its MetaPost-handling code to input the file. \DeclareGraphicsRule{.mps}{mps}{.mps}{} This \DeclareGraphicsRule{*}{mps}{*}{} tells LaTeX that it should handle as MetaPost output any file with an extension not covered by another rule, so it covers 'filename.1', 'filename.2', etc. This describes the four arguments. EXTENSION The file extension to which this rule applies. The extension is anything after and including the first dot in the filename. Use the Kleene star, '*', to denote the default behaviour for all undeclared extensions. TYPE The type of file involved. This type is a string that must be defined in the printer driver. For instance, files with extensions '.ps', '.eps', or '.ps.gz' may all be classed as type 'eps'. All files of the same type will be input with the same internal command by the printer driver. For example, the file types that 'pdftex' recognizes are: 'jpg', 'jbig2', 'mps', 'pdf', 'png', 'tif'. SIZE-FILE EXTENSION The extension of the file to be read to determine the size of the graphic, if there is such a file. It may be the same as EXTENSION but it may be different. As an example, consider a PostScript graphic. To make it smaller, it might be compressed into a '.ps.gz' file. Compressed files are not easily read by LaTeX so you can put the bounding box information in a separate file. If SIZE-FILE EXTENSION is empty then you must specify size information in the arguments of '\includegraphics'. If the driver file has a procedure for reading size files for 'type' then that will be used, otherwise it will use the procedure for reading '.eps' files. (Thus you may specify the size of bitmap files in a file with a PostScript style '%%BoundingBox' line if no other format is available.) COMMAND A command that will be applied to the file. This is very often left blank. This command must start with a single backward quote. Thus, '\DeclareGraphicsRule{.eps.gz}{eps}{.eps.bb}{`gunzip -c #1}' specifies that any file with the extension '.eps.gz' should be treated as an 'eps' file, with the the BoundingBox information stored in the file with extension '.eps.bb', and that the command 'gunzip -c' will run on your platform to decompresses the file. Such a command is specific to your platform. In addition, your TeX system must allow you to run external commands; as a security measure modern systems restrict running commands unless you explicitly allow it. See the documentation for your TeX distribution.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Commands for graphics, Prev: Graphics package configuration, Up: Graphics 22.3 Commands for graphics ========================== These are the commands available with the 'graphics' and 'graphicx' packages. * Menu: * \includegraphics:: Using a graphic in your document. * \rotatebox:: Rotating boxes, including graphics. * \scalebox:: Scaling boxes, including graphics. * \resizebox:: Scaling boxes, including graphics, to a set size.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \includegraphics, Next: \rotatebox, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.1 '\includegraphics' ------------------------- Synopses for 'graphics' package: \includegraphics{FILENAME} \includegraphics[URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME} Synopses for 'graphicx' package: \includegraphics{FILENAME} \includegraphics[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME} Include a graphics file. The starred form '\includegraphics*' will clip the graphic to the size specified, while for the unstarred form any part of the graphic that is outside the box of the specified size will over-print the surrounding area. This \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \includegraphics{plot.pdf} \end{center} will incorporate into the document the graphic in 'plot.pdf', centered and at its nominal size. You can also give a path to the file, as with '\includegraphics{graphics/plot.pdf}'. To specify a list of locations to search for the file, *note \graphicspath::. If your filename includes spaces then put it in double quotes, as with '\includegraphics{"sister picture.jpg"}'. The '\includegraphics{FILENAME}' command decides on the type of graphic by splitting FILENAME on the first dot. You can use FILENAME with no dot, as in '\includegraphics{turing}' and then LaTeX tries a sequence of extensions such as '.png' and '.pdf' until it finds a file with that extension (*note \DeclareGraphicsExtensions::). If your file name contains dots before the extension then you can hide them with curly braces, as in '\includegraphics{{plot.2018.03.12.a}.pdf}'. Or, if you use the 'graphicx' package then you can use the options 'type' and 'ext'; see below. This and other filename issues are also handled with the package 'grffile'. This example puts a graphic in a figure environment so LaTeX can move it to the next page if fitting it on the current page is awkward (*note figure::). \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=3cm]{lungxray.jpg} \caption{The evidence is overwhelming: don't smoke.} \label{fig:xray} \end{figure} This places a graphic that will not float, so it is sure to appear at this point in the document even if makes LaTeX stretch the text or resort to blank areas on the page. It will be centered and will have a caption. \usepackage{caption} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \includegraphics{pix/nix.png} \captionof{figure}{The spirit of the night} \label{pix:nix} % if you want a caption \end{center} This example puts a box with a graphic side by side with one having text, with the two vertically centered. \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begingroup \setbox0=\hbox{#1}\parbox{\wd0}{\box0}\endgroup} ... \begin{center} \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{plot}} \hspace{1em} \vcenteredhbox{\begin{minipage}{0.4\textwidth} \begin{displaymath} f(x)=x\cdot \sin (1/x) \end{displaymath} \end{minipage}} \end{center} If you use the 'graphics' package then the only options involve the size of the graphic (but see *note \rotatebox:: and *note \scalebox::). When one optional argument is present then it is '[URX,URY]' and it gives the coordinates of the top right corner of the image, as a pair of TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::). If the units are omitted they default to 'bp'. In this case, the lower left corner of the image is assumed to be at (0,0). If two optional arguments are present then the leading one is '[LLX,LLY]', specifying the coordinates of the image's lower left. Thus, '\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...}' calls for the graphic to be placed so it is 1 inch wide and 0.618 inches tall and so its origin is at (0,0). The 'graphicx' package gives you many more options. Specify them in a key-value form, as here. \begin{center} \includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion} \hspace{2em} \includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion} \end{center} The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made one inch wide and then rotated, while the second is rotated and then made one inch wide. Thus, unless the graphic is perfectly square, the two will end with different widths and heights. There are many options. The primary ones are listed first. Note that a graphic is placed by LaTeX into a box, which is traditionally referred to as its bounding box (distinct from the PostScript BoundingBox described below). The graphic's printed area may go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LaTeX makes up a page it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the graphic. 'width' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width. An example is '\includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}'. You can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::) and also convenient is '\linewidth', or in a two-column document, '\columnwidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). An example is that by using the 'calc' package you can make the graphic be 1 cm narrow than the width of the text with '\includegraphics[width=\linewidth-1.0cm]{hefferon.jpg}'. 'height' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height. You can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::), and also convenient are '\pageheight' and '\textheight' (*note Page layout parameters::). For instance, '\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel}' will make the graphic be a quarter of the height of the text area. 'totalheight' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus depth. This differs from the height if the graphic was rotated. For instance, if it has been rotated by -90 then it will have zero height but a large depth. 'keepaspectratio' If set to 'true', or just specified as with '\includegraphics[...,keepaspectratio,...]{...}' and you give as options both 'width' and 'height' (or 'totalheight'), then LaTeX will make the graphic is as large as possible without distortion. That is, LaTeX will ensure that neither is the graphic wider than 'width' nor taller than 'height' (or 'totalheight'). 'scale' Factor by which to scale the graphic. Specifying '\includegraphics[scale=2.0]{...}' makes the graphic twice its nominal size. This number may be any value; a number between 1 and 0 will shrink the graphic and a negative number will reflect it. 'angle' Rotate the picture. The angle is taken in degrees and counterclockwise. The graphic is rotated about its 'origin'; see that option. For a complete description of how rotated material is typeset, *note \rotatebox::. 'origin' The point of the graphic about which the rotation happens. Possible values are any string containing one or two of: 'l' for left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top, and 'B' for baseline. Thus, '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon}' will turn the picture upside down from the center, while '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau}' will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc', but gives the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc'.) The default is 'lB'. To rotate about an arbitrary point, *note \rotatebox::. These are lesser-used options. 'viewport' Pick out a subregion of the graphic to show. Takes four arguments, separated by spaces and given in TeX dimensions, as with '\includegraphics[.., viewport=0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. The dimensions default to big points, 'bp'. They are taken relative to the origin specified by the bounding box. See also the 'trim' option. 'trim' Gives parts of the graphic to not show. Takes four arguments, separated by spaces, that are given in TeX dimensions, as with '\includegraphics[.., trim= 0in 0.1in 0.2in 0.3in, ...]{...}'. These give the amounts of the graphic not to show, that is, LaTeX will crop the picture by 0 inches on the left, 0.1 inches on the bottom, 0.2 inches on the right, and 0.3 inches on the top. See also the 'viewport' option. 'clip' If set to 'true', or just specified as with '\includegraphics[...,clip,...]{...}', then the graphic is cropped to the bounding box. You can get this effect by instead using the starred form of the command, as '\includegraphics*[...]{...}'. 'page' Give the page number of a multi-page PDF file. The default is 'page=1'. 'pagebox' Specifies which bounding box to use for PDF files from among 'mediabox', 'cropbox', 'bleedbox', 'trimbox', or 'artbox'. PDF files do not have the BoundingBox that PostScript files have, but may specify up to four predefined rectangles. The MediaBox gives the boundaries of the physical medium. The CropBox is the region to which the contents of the page are to be clipped when displayed. The BleedBox is the region to which the contents of the page should be clipped in production. The TrimBox is the intended dimensions of the finished page. The ArtBox is the extent of the page's meaningful content. The driver will set the image size based on CropBox if present, otherwise it will not use one of the others, with a driver-defined order of preference. MediaBox is always present. 'interpolate' Enable or disable interpolation of raster images by the viewer. Can be set with 'interpolate=true' or just specified as with '\includegraphics[...,interpolate,...]{...}'. 'quiet' Do not write information to the log. You can set it with 'quiet=true' or just specified it with '\includegraphics[...,quite,...]{...}', 'draft' If you set it with 'draft=true' or just specified it with '\includegraphics[...,draft,...]{...}', then the graphic will not appear in the document, possibly saving color printer ink. Instead, LaTeX will put an empty box of the correct size with the filename printed in it. These options address the bounding box for Encapsulated PostScript graphic files, which have a size specified with a line '%%BoundingBox' that appears in the file. It has four values, giving the lower x coordinate, lower y coordinate, upper x coordinate, and upper y coordinate. The units are PostScript points, equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch. For example, if an '.eps' file has the line '%%BoundingBox 10 20 40 80' then its natural size is 30/72 inch wide by 60/72 inch tall. 'bb' Specify the bounding box of the displayed region. The argument is four dimensions separated by spaces, as with '\includegraphics[.., bb= 0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. Usually '\includegraphics' reads the BoundingBox numbers from the EPS file automatically, so this option is only useful if the bounding box is missing from that file or if you want to change it. 'bbllx, bblly, bburx, bbury' Set the bounding box. These four are obsolete, but are retained for compatibility with old packages. 'natwidth, natheight' An alternative for 'bb'. Setting '\includegraphics[...,natwidth=1in,natheight=0.618in,...]{...}' is the same as setting 'bb=0 0 1in 0.618in'. 'hiresbb' If set to 'true', or just specified as with '\includegraphics[...,hiresbb,...]{...}', then LaTeX will look for '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines instead of '%%BoundingBox' lines. (The 'BoundingBox' lines use only natural numbers while the 'HiResBoundingBox' lines use decimals; both use units equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch.) To override a prior setting of 'true', you can set it to 'false'. These following options allow a user to override LaTeX's method of choosing the graphic type based on the filename extension. An example is that '\includegraphics[type=png,ext=.xxx,read=.xxx]{lion}' will read the file 'lion.xxx' as though it were 'lion.png'. For more on these, *note \DeclareGraphicsRule::. 'type' Specify the graphics type. 'ext' Specify the graphics extension. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. 'read' Specify the file extension of the read file. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. 'command' Specify a command to be applied to this file. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \rotatebox, Next: \scalebox, Prev: \includegraphics, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.2 '\rotatebox' ------------------- Synopsis for 'graphics' package: \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} Synopses for 'graphicx' package: \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} \rotatebox[KEY-VALUE LIST]{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} Put MATERIAL in a box and rotate it ANGLE degrees counterclockwise. This example rotates the table column heads forty five degrees. \begin{tabular}{ll} \rotatebox{45}{Character} &\rotatebox{45}{NATO phonetic} \\ A &AL-FAH \\ B &BRAH-VOH \end{tabular} The MATERIAL can be anything that goes in a box, including a graphic. \rotatebox[origin=c]{45}{\includegraphics[width=1in]{lion}} To place the rotated material, the first step is that LaTeX sets MATERIAL in a box, with a reference point on the left baseline. The second step is the rotation, by default about the reference point. The third step is that LaTeX computes a box to bound the rotated material. Fourth, LaTeX moves this box horizontally so that the left edge of this new bounding box coincides with the left edge of the box from the first step (they need not coincide vertically). This new bounding box, in its new position, is what LaTeX uses as the box when typesetting this material. If you use the 'graphics' package then the rotation is about the reference point of the box. If you use the 'graphicx' package then then these are the options that can go in the KEY-VALUE LIST, but note that you can get the same effect without needing this package, except for the 'x' and 'y' options (*note \includegraphics::). 'origin' The point of the MATERIAL's box about which the rotation happens. Possible values are any string containing one or two of: 'l' for left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top, and 'B' for baseline. Thus, '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon}' will turn the picture upside down from the center, while '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau}' will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc' but gives the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc'.) The default is 'lB'. 'x, y' Specify an arbitrary point of rotation with '\rotatebox[x=TeX DIMENSION,y=TeX DIMENSION]{...}' (*note Units of length::). These give the offset from the box's reference point. 'units' This key allows you to change the default of degrees counterclockwise. Setting 'units=-360' changes the direction to degrees clockwise and setting 'units=6.283185' changes to radians counterclockwise.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \scalebox, Next: \resizebox, Prev: \rotatebox, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.3 '\scalebox' ------------------ Synopses: \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}{MATERIAL} \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}[VERTICAL FACTOR]{MATERIAL} \reflectbox{MATERIAL} Scale the MATERIAL. This example halves the size, both horizontally and vertically, of the first text and doubles the size of the second. \scalebox{0.5}{DRINK ME} and \scalebox{2.0}{Eat Me} If you do not specify the optional VERTICAL FACTOR then it defaults to the same value as the HORIZONTAL FACTOR. You can use this command to resize a graphic, as with '\scalebox{0.5}{\includegraphics{lion}}'. If you use the 'graphicx' package then you can accomplish the same thing with optional arguments to '\includegraphics' (*note \includegraphics::). The '\reflectbox' command abbreviates '\scalebox{-1}[1]{MATERIAL}'. Thus, 'Able was I\reflectbox{Able was I}' will show the phrase 'Able was I' immediately followed by its mirror reflection.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \resizebox, Prev: \scalebox, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.4 '\resizebox' ------------------- Synopses: \resizebox{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL} \resizebox*{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL} Given a size, such as '3cm', transform MATERIAL to make it that size. If either HORIZONTAL LENGTH or VERTICAL LENGTH is an exclamation point '!' then the other argument is used to determine a scale factor for both directions. This example makes the graphic be a half inch wide and scales it vertically by the same factor to keep it from being distorted. \resizebox{0.5in}{!}{\includegraphics{lion}} The unstarred form '\resizebox' takes VERTICAL LENGTH to be the box's height while the starred form '\resizebox*' takes it to be height+depth. For instance, make the text have a height+depth of a quarter inch with '\resizebox*{!}{0.25in}{\parbox{1in}{This box has both height and depth.}}'. You can use '\depth', '\height', '\totalheight', and '\width' to refer to the original size of the box. Thus, make the text two inches wide but keep the original height with '\resizebox{2in}{\height}{Two inches}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Special insertions, Next: Splitting the input, Prev: Graphics, Up: Top 23 Special insertions ********************* LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. * Menu: * Reserved characters:: Inserting '# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \' * Upper and lower case:: Make text upper or lower case. * Symbols by font position:: Inserting font symbols by number. * Text symbols:: Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. * Accents:: Inserting accents. * Additional Latin letters:: Inserting other non-English characters. * \rule:: Inserting lines and rectangles. * \today:: Inserting today's date.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Reserved characters, Next: Upper and lower case, Up: Special insertions 23.1 Reserved characters ======================== LaTeX sets aside the following characters for special purposes (for example, the percent sign '%' is for comments) so they are called "reserved characters" or "special characters". # $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \ If you want a reserved character to be printed as itself, in the text body font, for all but the final three characters in that list simply put a backslash '\' in front of the character. Thus, '\$1.23' will produce '$1.23' in your output. As to the last three characters, to get a tilde in the text body font use '\~{}' (omitting the curly braces would result in the next character receiving a tilde accent). Similarly, to get a get a text body font circumflex use '\^{}'. A text body font backslash results from '\textbackslash{}'. To produce the reserved characters in a typewriter font use '\verb!!', as below. \begin{center} \# \$ \% \& \{ \} \_ \~{} \^{} \textbackslash \\ \verb!# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \! \end{center} In that example the double backslash '\\' is only there to split the lines.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Upper and lower case, Next: Symbols by font position, Prev: Reserved characters, Up: Special insertions 23.2 Upper and lower case ========================= Synopsis: \uppercase{TEXT} \lowercase{TEXT} \MakeUppercase{TEXT} \MakeLowercase{TEXT} Change the case of characters. The TeX primitives commands '\uppercase' and '\lowercase' only work for American characters. The LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' commands also change characters accessed by commands such as '\ae' or '\aa'. The commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' are robust but they have moving arguments (*note \protect::). These commands do not change the case of letters used in the name of a command within TEXT. But they do change the case of every other Latin letter inside the argument TEXT. Thus, '\MakeUppercase{Let $y=f(x)$'} produces 'LET Y=F(X)'. Another example is that the name of an environment will be changed, so that '\MakeUppercase{\begin{tabular} ... \end{tabular}}' will produce an error because the first half is changed to '\begin{TABULAR}'. LaTeX uses the same fixed table for changing case throughout a document, The table used is designed for the font encoding T1; this works well with the standard TeX fonts for all Latin alphabets but will cause problems when using other alphabets. To change the case of text that results from a macro inside TEXT you need to do expansion. Here the '\Schoolname' produces 'COLLEGE OF MATHEMATICS'. \newcommand{\schoolname}{College of Mathematics} \newcommand{\Schoolname}{\expandafter\MakeUppercase \expandafter{\schoolname}} The 'textcase' package brings some of the missing feature of the standard LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowerCase'. To uppercase only the first letter of words, you can use the package 'mfirstuc'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Symbols by font position, Next: Text symbols, Prev: Upper and lower case, Up: Special insertions 23.3 Symbols by font position ============================= You can access any character of the current font using its number with the '\symbol' command. For example, the visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'. You can also specify numbers in octal (base 8) by using a ''' prefix, or hexadecimal (base 16) with a '"' prefix, so the previous example could also be written as '\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Text symbols, Next: Accents, Prev: Symbols by font position, Up: Special insertions 23.4 Text symbols ================= LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1; you may need to load the 'textcomp' package. '\copyright' '\textcopyright' The copyright symbol, (C). '\dag' The dagger symbol (in text). '\ddag' The double dagger symbol (in text). '\LaTeX' The LaTeX logo. '\LaTeXe' The LaTeX2e logo. '\guillemotleft (<<)' '\guillemotright (>>)' '\guilsinglleft (<)' '\guilsinglright (>)' Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: <<, >>, <, >. '\ldots' '\dots' '\textellipsis' An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '...'. '\ldots' and '\dots' also work in math mode. '\lq' Left (opening) quote: '. '\P' '\textparagraph' Paragraph sign (pilcrow): U+00B6. '\pounds' '\textsterling' English pounds sterling: #. '\quotedblbase (,,)' '\quotesinglbase (,)' Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: ,, and ,. '\rq' Right (closing) quote: '. '\S' \itemx \textsection Section sign: U+00A7. '\TeX' The TeX logo. '\textasciicircum' ASCII circumflex: ^. '\textasciitilde' ASCII tilde: ~. '\textasteriskcentered' Centered asterisk: *. '\textbackslash' Backslash: \. '\textbar' Vertical bar: |. '\textbardbl' Double vertical bar. '\textbigcircle' Big circle symbol. '\textbraceleft' Left brace: {. '\textbraceright' Right brace: }. '\textbullet' Bullet: *. '\textcircled{LETTER}' LETTER in a circle, as in (R). '\textcompwordmark' '\textcapitalcompwordmark' '\textascendercompwordmark' Composite word mark (invisible). The '\textcapital...' form has the cap height of the font, while the '\textascender...' form has the ascender height. '\textdagger' Dagger: \dag. '\textdaggerdbl' Double dagger: \ddag. '\textdollar (or '\$')' Dollar sign: $. '\textemdash (or '---')' Em-dash: -- (for punctuation). '\textendash (or '--')' En-dash: - (for ranges). '\texteuro' The Euro symbol: Euro. '\textexclamdown (or '!`')' Upside down exclamation point: !. '\textgreater' Greater than: >. '\textless' Less than: <. '\textleftarrow' Left arrow. '\textordfeminine' '\textordmasculine' Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: a, o. '\textperiodcentered' Centered period: U+00B7. '\textquestiondown (or '?`')' Upside down question mark: ?. '\textquotedblleft (or '``')' Double left quote: ". '\textquotedblright (or '''')' Double right quote: ". '\textquoteleft (or '`')' Single left quote: '. '\textquoteright (or ''')' Single right quote: '. '\textquotesingle' Straight single quote. (From TS1 encoding.) '\textquotestraightbase' '\textquotestraightdblbase' Single and double straight quotes on the baseline. '\textregistered' Registered symbol: (R). '\textrightarrow' Right arrow. '\textthreequartersemdash' "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\texttrademark' Trademark symbol: U+2122. '\texttwelveudash' "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\textunderscore' Underscore: _. '\textvisiblespace' Visible space symbol.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Accents, Next: Additional Latin letters, Prev: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions 23.5 Accents ============ LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, through the 'babel' package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters. The '\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1. '\"' '\capitaldieresis' Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in o". '\'' '\capitalacute' Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the 'tabbing' environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note tabbing::). '\.' Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. '\=' '\capitalmacron' Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=. '\^' '\capitalcircumflex' Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^. '\`' '\capitalgrave' Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`. In the 'tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin (*note tabbing::). '\~' '\capitaltilde' Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~. '\b' Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. See also '\underbar' hereinafter. '\c' '\capitalcedilla' Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in c,. '\d' '\capitaldotaccent' Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. '\H' '\capitalhungarumlaut' Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''. '\i' Produces a dotless i, as in 'i'. '\j' Produces a dotless j, as in 'j'. '\k' '\capitalogonek' Produces a letter with ogonek, as in 'o;'. Not available in the OT1 encoding. '\r' '\capitalring' Produces a ring accent, as in 'o*'. '\t' '\capitaltie' '\newtie' '\capitalnewtie' Produces a tie-after accent, as in 'oo['. The '\newtie' form is centered in its box. '\u' '\capitalbreve' Produces a breve accent, as in 'o('. '\underbar' Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text. The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::. See also '\b' above. '\v' '\capitalcaron' Produces a ha'c) or (the multi-lingual) 'xindy' (). This results in a '.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index. The index is usually generated with the '\printindex' command. This is defined in the 'makeidx' package, so '\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to be in the preamble. The rubber length '\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in the printed index; its default value is '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'. The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index. The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic, .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Letters, Next: Terminal input/output, Prev: Front/back matter, Up: Top 26 Letters ********** Synopsis: \documentclass{letter} \address{SENDER ADDRESS} \signature{SENDER NAME} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS} \opening{SALUTATION} LETTER BODY \closing{CLOSING TEXT} \end{letter} ... more letters ... \end{document} Produce one or more letters. Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double backslash ('\\'). For example, you might have: \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith \\ 2345 Princess St. \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} ... \end{letter} The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1, and the footnote number to 1 also. The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines separated by a double backslash ('\\'). LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature; it also can contain multiple lines. Each 'letter' environment body begins with a required '\opening' command such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'. The LETTER BODY text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each 'letter' environment body typically ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'. Additional material may come after the '\closing'. You can say who is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}'. There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'. LaTeX's default is to indent the signature and the '\closing' above it by a length of '\longindentation'. By default this is '0.5\textwidth'. To make them flush left, put '\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your preamble. To set a fixed date use something like '\renewcommand{\today}{2015-Oct-12}'. If put in your preamble then it will apply to all the letters. This example shows only one 'letter' environment. The three lines marked as optional are typically omitted. \documentclass{letter} \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town} \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title} % optional: \location{Mailbox 13} % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address} \opening{Sir:} % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage} I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you. \closing{Your most humble, etc.,} \end{letter} \end{document} These commands are used with the 'letter' class. * Menu: * \address:: Sender's return address. * \cc:: Carbon copy list. * \closing:: Saying goodbye. * \encl:: List of enclosed material. * \location:: Sender's organizational location. * \makelabels:: Make address labels. * \name:: Sender's name, for the return address. * \opening:: Saying hello. * \ps:: Adding a postscript. * \signature:: Sender's signature. * \telephone:: Sender's phone number.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \address, Next: \cc, Up: Letters 26.1 '\address' =============== Synopsis: \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} Specifies the return address as it appears on the letter and on the envelope. Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double backslash '\\'. Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an individual 'letter' environment. This command is optional: without the '\address' declaration the letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed letterhead paper. (*Note Overview::, for details on your local implementation.) With the '\address' declaration, it is formatted as a personal letter. Here is an example. \address{Stephen Maturin \\ The Grapes of the Savoy}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cc, Next: \closing, Prev: \address, Up: Letters 26.2 '\cc' ========== Synopsis: \cc{FIRST NAME \\ ... } Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after '\closing'. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\', as in: \cc{President \\ Vice President}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \closing, Next: \encl, Prev: \cc, Up: Letters 26.3 '\closing' =============== Synopsis: \closing{TEXT} Usually at the end of a letter, above the handwritten signature, there is a '\closing' (although this command is optional). For example, \closing{Regards,}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \encl, Next: \location, Prev: \closing, Up: Letters 26.4 '\encl' ============ Synopsis: \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\ ... } Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'. \encl{License \\ Passport }  File: latex2e.info, Node: \location, Next: \makelabels, Prev: \encl, Up: Letters 26.5 '\location' ================ Synopsis: \location{TEXT} The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the each page. It only appears if the page style is 'firstpage'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makelabels, Next: \name, Prev: \location, Up: Letters 26.6 '\makelabels' ================== Synopsis: \makelabels Create a sheet of address labels from the recipient addresses, one for each letter. This sheet will be output before the letters, with the idea that you can copy it to a sheet of peel-off labels. This command goes in the preamble. Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels', '\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' in the preamble. The command '\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed. The command '\mlabel{SENDER ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the SENDER ADDRESS). The SENDER ADDRESS is the value returned by the macro '\returnaddress' while RECIPIENT ADDRESS is the value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment. By default '\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the SENDER ADDRESS.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \name, Next: \opening, Prev: \makelabels, Up: Letters 26.7 '\name' ============ Synopsis: \name{NAME} Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \opening, Next: \ps, Prev: \name, Up: Letters 26.8 '\opening' =============== Synopsis: \opening{TEXT} This command is required. It starts a letter, following the '\begin{letter}{...}'. The mandatory argument TEXT is the text that starts your letter. For instance: \opening{Dear John:}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ps, Next: \signature, Prev: \opening, Up: Letters 26.9 '\ps' ========== Synopsis: \ps{TEXT} Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after '\closing'. \ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \signature, Next: \telephone, Prev: \ps, Up: Letters 26.10 '\signature' ================== Synopsis: \signature{FIRST LINE \\ ... } The sender's name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual. The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing and after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'. For example: \signature{J Fred Muggs \\ White House} LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times 0.7em. This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a 'letter' environment and before the '\closing'. You can include a graphic in the signature, for instance with '\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My name}' (this requires writing '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \telephone, Prev: \signature, Up: Letters 26.11 '\telephone' ================== Synopsis: \telephone{NUMBER} The sender's telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where it applies to all letters. This only appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Terminal input/output, Next: Command line, Prev: Letters, Up: Top 27 Terminal input/output ************************ * Menu: * \typein:: Read text from the terminal. * \typeout:: Write text to the terminal.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \typein, Next: \typeout, Up: Terminal input/output 27.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}' ======================== Synopsis: \typein[\CMD]{MSG} '\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional '\CMD' argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command. If the '\CMD' argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \typeout, Prev: \typein, Up: Terminal input/output 27.2 '\typeout{MSG}' ==================== Synopsis: \typeout{MSG} Prints 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file. Commands in 'msg' that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. A '\space' command in 'msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A '^^J' in 'msg' prints a newline.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line, Next: Document templates, Prev: Terminal input/output, Up: Top 28 Command line *************** The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses '.tex' as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You can also specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash. For example, this processes 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error: latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with '-' or '--'. For a list of those options, try 'latex --help'. If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a '*' prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type '\stop' (and return) and it will prematurely end the document. *Note TeX engines::, for other system commands invoking LaTeX.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document templates, Next: Concept Index, Prev: Command line, Up: Top Appendix A Document templates ***************************** Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at . * Menu: * beamer template:: * book template:: * tugboat template::  File: latex2e.info, Node: beamer template, Next: book template, Up: Document templates A.1 'beamer' template ===================== The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template: \documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2007} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document} One web resource for this: .  File: latex2e.info, Node: book template, Next: tugboat template, Prev: beamer template, Up: Document templates A.2 'book' template =================== \documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tugboat template, Prev: book template, Up: Document templates A.3 'tugboat' template ====================== 'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group, . \documentclass{ltugboat} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{ifpdf} \ifpdf \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref} \else \usepackage{url} \fi %%% Start of metadata %%% \title{Example \TUB\ article} % repeat info for each author. \author{First Last} \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} \netaddress{user (at) example dot org} \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} %%% End of metadata %%% \begin{document} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This is an example article for \TUB{}. Please write an abstract. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} This is an example article for \TUB, linked from \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the \texttt{hyperref} package if active urls are desired (in the \acro{PDF} output). Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively. The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations (and many more): % verbatim blocks are often better in \small \begin{verbatim}[\small] \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe \mf \MFB \plain \POBox \PS \SGML \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug \UNIX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE \, \bull \Dash \dash \hyph \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use! \cs{fred} -> \fred \meta{fred} -> \nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 \booktitle{Book of Fred} \end{verbatim} For references to other \TUB\ issue, please use the format \textsl{volno:issno}, e.g., ``\TUB\ 32:1'' for our \nth{100} issue. This file is just a template. The \TUB\ style documentation is the \texttt{ltubguid} document at \url{http://ctan.org/pkg/tugboat}. (For \CTAN\ references, where sensible we recommend that form of url, using \texttt{/pkg/}; or, if you need to refer to a specific file location, \texttt{http://mirror.ctan.org/\textsl{path}}.) Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. \bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style \nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty \bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX \makesignature \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Concept Index, Next: Command Index, Prev: Document templates, Up: Top Concept Index ************* [index] * Menu: * * prompt: Command line. (line 18) * *-form of environment commands: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 14) * *-form of sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 31) * *-form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 14) * .glo file: Glossaries. (line 8) * .idx file: Indexes. (line 9) * .ind file: Indexes. (line 23) * 'see' and 'see also' index entries: Indexes. (line 16) * abstracts: abstract. (line 6) * accents: Accents. (line 6) * accents, mathematical: Math accents. (line 6) * accessing any character of a font: Symbols by font position. (line 6) * acute accent: Accents. (line 20) * acute accent, math: Math accents. (line 11) * additional packages, loading: Additional packages. (line 6) * ae ligature: Additional Latin letters. (line 16) * algorithm2e package: tabbing. (line 144) * align environment, from amsmath: eqnarray. (line 6) * aligning equations: eqnarray. (line 6) * alignment via tabbing: tabbing. (line 6) * amsmath package: array. (line 40) * amsmath package <1>: displaymath. (line 22) * amsmath package, replacing eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 6) * appendix, creating: Sectioning. (line 37) * aring: Additional Latin letters. (line 12) * arrays, math: array. (line 6) * arrow, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 131) * arrow, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 166) * ascender height: Text symbols. (line 99) * ASCII circumflex, in text: Text symbols. (line 64) * ASCII tilde, in text: Text symbols. (line 67) * asterisk, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 70) * at clause, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 23) * author, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 12) * auxiliary file: Output files. (line 33) * babel package: thebibliography. (line 29) * babel package <1>: Accents. (line 6) * background, colored: Colored pages. (line 6) * backslash, in text: Text symbols. (line 73) * bar, double vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 79) * bar, vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 76) * bar-over accent: Accents. (line 29) * bar-over accent, math: Math accents. (line 14) * bar-under accent: Accents. (line 46) * basics of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6) * beamer template and class: beamer template. (line 6) * beginning of document hook: \AtBeginDocument. (line 6) * bibliography format, open: Document class options. (line 67) * bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX. (line 6) * bibliography, creating (manually): thebibliography. (line 6) * bibTeX, using: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * big circle symbols, in text: Text symbols. (line 82) * Big point: Units of length. (line 20) * black boxes, omitting: Document class options. (line 53) * bold font: Font styles. (line 71) * bold math: Font styles. (line 130) * bold typewriter, avoiding: description. (line 34) * box, allocating new: \newsavebox. (line 6) * box, colored: Colored boxes. (line 6) * boxes: Boxes. (line 6) * brace, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 85) * brace, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 88) * breaking lines: Line breaking. (line 6) * breaking pages: Page breaking. (line 6) * breve accent: Accents. (line 86) * breve accent, math: Math accents. (line 17) * bug reporting: About this document. (line 21) * bullet symbol: Math symbols. (line 114) * bullet, in text: Text symbols. (line 91) * bulleted lists: itemize. (line 6) * calligraphic letters for math: Font styles. (line 74) * cap height: Text symbols. (line 99) * caron accent: Accents. (line 97) * catcode: \makeatletter and \makeatother. (line 18) * category code, character: \makeatletter and \makeatother. (line 18) * cc list, in letters: \cc. (line 6) * cedilla accent: Accents. (line 51) * centered asterisk, in text: Text symbols. (line 70) * centered equations: Document class options. (line 57) * centered period, in text: Text symbols. (line 138) * centering text, declaration for: \centering. (line 6) * centering text, environment for: center. (line 6) * Centimeter: Units of length. (line 24) * character category code: \makeatletter and \makeatother. (line 18) * characters, accented: Accents. (line 6) * characters, case: Upper and lower case. (line 6) * characters, non-English: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * characters, reserved: Reserved characters. (line 6) * characters, special: Reserved characters. (line 6) * check accent: Accents. (line 97) * check accent, math: Math accents. (line 20) * Cicero: Units of length. (line 33) * circle symbol, big, in text: Text symbols. (line 82) * circled letter, in text: Text symbols. (line 94) * circumflex accent: Accents. (line 33) * circumflex accent, math: Math accents. (line 32) * circumflex, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 64) * citation key: \bibitem. (line 12) * class and package commands: Class and package commands. (line 6) * class and package difference: Class and package construction. (line 15) * class and package structure: Class and package structure. (line 6) * class file example: Class and package structure. (line 36) * class file layout: Class and package structure. (line 6) * class options: Document class options. (line 6) * class options <1>: Class and package structure. (line 6) * class options <2>: Class and package commands. (line 66) * classes of documents: Document classes. (line 6) * closing letters: \closing. (line 6) * closing quote: Text symbols. (line 55) * code, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6) * color: Color. (line 6) * color <1>: Define colors. (line 6) * color <2>: Colored text. (line 6) * color <3>: Colored boxes. (line 6) * color <4>: Colored pages. (line 6) * color models: Color models. (line 6) * color package commands: Commands for color. (line 6) * color package options: Color package options. (line 6) * color, define: Define colors. (line 6) * colored boxes: Colored boxes. (line 6) * colored page: Colored pages. (line 6) * colored text: Colored text. (line 6) * command line: Command line. (line 6) * command syntax: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * commands, class and package: Class and package commands. (line 6) * commands, defining new ones: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * commands, defining new ones <1>: \providecommand. (line 6) * commands, document class: Class and package construction. (line 6) * commands, graphics package: Commands for graphics. (line 6) * commands, ignore spaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * commands, redefining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * commands, star-variants: \@ifstar. (line 6) * composite word mark, in text: Text symbols. (line 99) * computer programs, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6) * configuration, graphics package: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * contents file: Output files. (line 43) * copyright symbol: Text symbols. (line 12) * counters, a list of: Counters. (line 6) * counters, defining new: \newcounter. (line 6) * counters, getting value of: \value. (line 6) * counters, printing: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 6) * counters, setting: \setcounter. (line 6) * creating pictures: picture. (line 6) * creating tables: table. (line 6) * credit footnote: \maketitle. (line 22) * cross references: Cross references. (line 6) * cross references, resolving: Output files. (line 33) * cross referencing with page number: \pageref. (line 6) * cross referencing, symbolic: \ref. (line 6) * currency, dollar: Text symbols. (line 110) * currency, euro: Text symbols. (line 119) * dagger, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 107) * dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 15) * dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 104) * date, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 18) * date, today's: \today. (line 6) * datetime package: \today. (line 22) * define color: Define colors. (line 6) * defining a new command: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * defining a new command <1>: \providecommand. (line 6) * defining new environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * defining new fonts: \newfont. (line 6) * defining new theorems: \newtheorem. (line 6) * definitions: Definitions. (line 6) * description lists, creating: description. (line 6) * design size, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 23) * Didot point: Units of length. (line 30) * dieresis accent: Accents. (line 16) * difference between class and package: Class and package construction. (line 15) * discretionary hyphenation: \discretionary. (line 6) * discretionary multiplication: Math miscellany. (line 7) * displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation and quote. (line 6) * displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quotation and quote. (line 6) * document class commands: Class and package construction. (line 6) * document class options: Document class options. (line 6) * document class, defined: Starting and ending. (line 14) * document classes: Document classes. (line 6) * document templates: Document templates. (line 6) * dollar sign: Text symbols. (line 110) * dot accent: Accents. (line 25) * dot over accent, math: Math accents. (line 26) * dot-over accent: Accents. (line 25) * dot-under accent: Accents. (line 55) * dotless i: Accents. (line 63) * dotless i, math: Math accents. (line 35) * dotless j: Accents. (line 66) * dotless j, math: Math accents. (line 38) * double angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * double dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 18) * double dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 107) * double dot accent, math: Math accents. (line 23) * double guillemets: Text symbols. (line 30) * double left quote: Text symbols. (line 144) * double low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 52) * double quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 160) * double right quote: Text symbols. (line 147) * double spacing: Low-level font commands. (line 118) * double vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 79) * e-dash: Text symbols. (line 116) * e-TeX: TeX engines. (line 12) * ellipsis: Text symbols. (line 36) * em: Units of length. (line 38) * em-dash: Text symbols. (line 113) * em-dash, three-quarters: Text symbols. (line 169) * em-dash, two-thirds: Text symbols. (line 175) * emphasis: Font styles. (line 59) * enclosure list: \encl. (line 6) * end of document hook: \AtEndDocument. (line 6) * ending and starting: Starting and ending. (line 6) * engines, TeX: TeX engines. (line 6) * enlarge current page: \enlargethispage. (line 6) * enumitem package: list. (line 24) * environment: Starting and ending. (line 22) * environment, theorem-like: \newtheorem. (line 6) * environments: Environments. (line 6) * environments, defining: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * EPS files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * EPS files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * equation number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * equation numbers, left vs. right: Document class options. (line 63) * equation numbers, omitting: eqnarray. (line 41) * equations, aligning: eqnarray. (line 6) * equations, environment for: equation. (line 6) * equations, flush left vs. centered: Document class options. (line 57) * es-zet German letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * eth, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * etoolbox package: Class and package commands. (line 110) * euro symbol: Text symbols. (line 119) * ex: Units of length. (line 38) * exclamation point, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 122) * exponent: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * extended Latin: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * external files, writing: filecontents. (line 6) * families, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 21) * fancyvrb package: tabbing. (line 144) * feminine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 135) * figure number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * figures, footnotes in: minipage. (line 21) * figures, inserting: figure. (line 6) * file, root: Splitting the input. (line 9) * fixed-width font: Font styles. (line 92) * flafter package: Floats. (line 82) * float package: Floats. (line 52) * float page: Floats. (line 58) * flush left equations: Document class options. (line 57) * flushing floats and starting a page: \clearpage. (line 6) * font catalogue: Low-level font commands. (line 21) * font commands, low-level: Low-level font commands. (line 6) * font size: Low-level font commands. (line 101) * font sizes: Font sizes. (line 6) * font styles: Font styles. (line 6) * font symbols, by number: Symbols by font position. (line 6) * fonts: Fonts. (line 6) * fonts, new commands for: \newfont. (line 6) * footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6) * footer, parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * footmisc package: Footnotes in section headings. (line 10) * footnote number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * footnote parameters: Footnote parameters. (line 6) * footnotes in figures: minipage. (line 21) * footnotes, creating: Footnotes. (line 6) * Footnotes, in a minipage: \footnote. (line 35) * Footnotes, in a table: Footnotes in a table. (line 6) * footnotes, in section headings: Footnotes in section headings. (line 6) * footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: \footnote. (line 23) * formulas, environment for: equation. (line 6) * formulas, math: Math formulas. (line 6) * forward reference: Cross references. (line 22) * forward references, resolving: Output files. (line 33) * fragile commands: \protect. (line 6) * French quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * functions, math: Math functions. (line 6) * geometry package: Document class options. (line 40) * geometry package <1>: Document class options. (line 44) * global options: Document class options. (line 6) * global options <1>: Additional packages. (line 15) * glossaries: Glossaries. (line 6) * glossary package: Glossaries. (line 15) * glue register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 6) * graphics: Graphics. (line 6) * graphics <1>: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * graphics <2>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * graphics package: Graphics. (line 6) * graphics package <1>: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * graphics package <2>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * graphics package commands: Commands for graphics. (line 6) * graphics package options: Graphics package options. (line 6) * graphics packages: \line. (line 13) * graphics, resizing: \scalebox. (line 6) * graphics, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * graphics, scaling: \scalebox. (line 6) * graphics, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * grave accent: Accents. (line 37) * grave accent, math: Math accents. (line 29) * greater than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 125) * greek letters: Math symbols. (line 6) * group, and environments: Environments. (line 18) * ha'c: \includegraphics. (line 6) * JPG files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * JPG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * justification, ragged left: \raggedleft. (line 6) * justification, ragged right: \raggedright. (line 6) * Knuth, Donald E.: Overview. (line 6) * label: Cross references. (line 9) * labelled lists, creating: description. (line 6) * Lamport TeX: Overview. (line 24) * Lamport, Leslie: Overview. (line 6) * landscape orientation: Document class options. (line 60) * LaTeX logo: Text symbols. (line 21) * LaTeX overview: Overview. (line 6) * LaTeX Project team: About this document. (line 17) * LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e: About this document. (line 13) * LaTeX2e logo: Text symbols. (line 24) * Latin letters, additional: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * layout commands: Layout. (line 6) * layout, page parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * left angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * left arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 131) * left brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 85) * left quote: Text symbols. (line 40) * left quote, double: Text symbols. (line 144) * left quote, single: Text symbols. (line 150) * left-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 63) * left-justifying text: \raggedright. (line 6) * left-justifying text, environment for: flushleft. (line 6) * left-to-right mode: Modes. (line 6) * length command: \setlength. (line 10) * lengths, adding to: \addtolength. (line 6) * lengths, allocating new: \newlength. (line 6) * lengths, defining and using: Lengths. (line 6) * lengths, predefined: Predefined lengths. (line 6) * lengths, setting: \setlength. (line 6) * less than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 128) * letters, accented: Accents. (line 6) * letters, additional Latin: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * letters, ending: \closing. (line 6) * letters, starting: \opening. (line 6) * letters, writing: Letters. (line 6) * line break, forcing: \\. (line 6) * line breaking: Line breaking. (line 6) * line breaks, forcing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * line breaks, preventing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * lines in tables: tabular. (line 6) * lining numerals: Font styles. (line 134) * lining text up in tables: tabular. (line 6) * lining text up using tab stops: tabbing. (line 6) * list items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 6) * list of figures file: Output files. (line 43) * list of tables file: Output files. (line 43) * listings package: tabbing. (line 144) * lists of items: itemize. (line 6) * lists of items, generic: list. (line 6) * lists of items, numbered: enumerate. (line 6) * loading additional packages: Additional packages. (line 6) * log file: Output files. (line 28) * logo, LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 21) * logo, LaTeX2e: Text symbols. (line 24) * logo, TeX: Text symbols. (line 61) * long command: Class and package commands. (line 23) * low-9 quotation marks, single and double: Text symbols. (line 52) * low-level font commands: Low-level font commands. (line 6) * Lower case: Upper and lower case. (line 6) * LR mode: Modes. (line 6) * ltugboat class: tugboat template. (line 6) * LuaTeX: TeX engines. (line 29) * m-width: Units of length. (line 38) * macro package, LaTeX as: Overview. (line 11) * macron accent: Accents. (line 29) * macron accent, math: Math accents. (line 14) * macros2e package: \makeatletter and \makeatother. (line 39) * Madsen, Lars: eqnarray. (line 6) * makeidx package: Indexes. (line 28) * makeindex program: Indexes. (line 23) * making a title page: titlepage. (line 6) * making paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 6) * marginal notes: Marginal notes. (line 6) * masculine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 135) * math accents: Math accents. (line 6) * math formulas: Math formulas. (line 6) * math functions: Math functions. (line 6) * math miscellany: Math miscellany. (line 6) * math mode: Modes. (line 6) * math mode, entering: Math formulas. (line 6) * math mode, spacing: Spacing in math mode. (line 6) * math symbols: Math symbols. (line 6) * math, bold: Font styles. (line 130) * mfirstuc package: Upper and lower case. (line 45) * Millimeter: Units of length. (line 27) * minipage, creating a: minipage. (line 6) * minted package: tabbing. (line 144) * modes: Modes. (line 6) * monospace font: Font styles. (line 92) * moving arguments: \protect. (line 19) * mpfootnote counter: \footnote. (line 35) * mu, math unit: Units of length. (line 49) * multicolumn text: \twocolumn. (line 6) * multilingual support: Accents. (line 6) * multind package: Indexes. (line 39) * multiplication symbol, discretionary line break: Math miscellany. (line 7) * nested \include, not allowed: \include. (line 18) * new class commands: Class and package construction. (line 6) * new command, check: Class and package commands. (line 21) * new command, definition: Class and package commands. (line 96) * new commands, defining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * new commands, defining <1>: \providecommand. (line 6) * new line, output as input: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * new line, starting: \\. (line 6) * new line, starting (paragraph mode): \newline. (line 6) * new page, starting: \newpage. (line 6) * non-English characters: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * notes in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 6) * null delimiter: Math miscellany. (line 36) * numbered items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 6) * numerals, old-style: Font styles. (line 134) * oblique font: Font styles. (line 89) * oe ligature: Additional Latin letters. (line 48) * ogonek: Accents. (line 70) * old-style numerals: Font styles. (line 134) * one-column output: \onecolumn. (line 6) * opening quote: Text symbols. (line 40) * OpenType fonts: TeX engines. (line 6) * options, class: Class and package commands. (line 66) * options, color package: Color package options. (line 6) * options, document class: Document class options. (line 6) * options, document class <1>: Class and package structure. (line 6) * options, global: Additional packages. (line 15) * options, graphics package: Graphics package options. (line 6) * options, package: Class and package structure. (line 6) * options, package <1>: Class and package commands. (line 66) * ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 135) * oslash: Additional Latin letters. (line 44) * overbar accent: Accents. (line 29) * overdot accent, math: Math accents. (line 26) * overview of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6) * package file layout: Class and package structure. (line 6) * package options: Class and package structure. (line 6) * package options <1>: Class and package commands. (line 66) * package, algorithm2e: tabbing. (line 144) * package, amsmath: array. (line 40) * package, amsmath <1>: displaymath. (line 22) * package, babel: thebibliography. (line 29) * package, babel <1>: Accents. (line 6) * package, datetime: \today. (line 22) * package, enumitem: list. (line 24) * package, etoolbox: Class and package commands. (line 110) * package, fancyvrb: tabbing. (line 144) * package, flafter: Floats. (line 82) * package, float: Floats. (line 52) * package, footmisc: Footnotes in section headings. (line 10) * package, geometry: Document class options. (line 40) * package, geometry <1>: Document class options. (line 44) * package, listings: tabbing. (line 144) * package, macros2e: \makeatletter and \makeatother. (line 39) * package, makeidx: Indexes. (line 28) * package, mfirstuc: Upper and lower case. (line 45) * package, minted: tabbing. (line 144) * package, multind: Indexes. (line 39) * package, picture: picture. (line 23) * package, setspace: Low-level font commands. (line 118) * package, showidx: Indexes. (line 35) * package, textcase: Upper and lower case. (line 42) * package, textcomp: Font styles. (line 134) * package, xspace: \(SPACE) after control sequence. (line 20) * packages, loading additional: Additional packages. (line 6) * page break, forcing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * page break, preventing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * page breaking: Page breaking. (line 6) * page layout parameters: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * page number, cross referencing: \pageref. (line 6) * page numbering style: \pagenumbering. (line 6) * page styles: Page styles. (line 6) * page, colored: Colored pages. (line 6) * paragraph indentation, in minipage: minipage. (line 17) * paragraph indentations in quoted text: quotation and quote. (line 6) * paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: quotation and quote. (line 6) * paragraph mode: Modes. (line 6) * paragraph mode <1>: \parbox. (line 10) * paragraph symbol: Text symbols. (line 44) * paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 6) * parameters, for footnotes: Footnote parameters. (line 6) * parameters, page layout: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * PDF graphic files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * PDF graphic files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * pdfTeX: Output files. (line 20) * pdfTeX engine: TeX engines. (line 12) * period, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 138) * pica: Units of length. (line 14) * pict2e package: \line. (line 13) * picture package: picture. (line 23) * pictures, creating: picture. (line 6) * pilcrow: Text symbols. (line 44) * placement of floats: Floats. (line 31) * PNG files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * PNG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * poetry, an environment for: verse. (line 6) * Point: Units of length. (line 10) * polish l: Additional Latin letters. (line 36) * portrait orientation: Document class options. (line 60) * position, in picture: picture. (line 28) * positional parameter: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 37) * postscript, in letters: \ps. (line 6) * pounds symbol: Text symbols. (line 48) * preamble, defined: Starting and ending. (line 19) * predefined lengths: Predefined lengths. (line 6) * prompt, *: Command line. (line 18) * pronunciation: Overview. (line 24) * quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 32) * question mark, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 141) * quotation marks, French: Text symbols. (line 30) * quote, single straight: Text symbols. (line 156) * quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 160) * quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation and quote. (line 6) * quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation and quote. (line 6) * ragged left text: \raggedleft. (line 6) * ragged left text, environment for: flushright. (line 6) * ragged right text: \raggedright. (line 6) * ragged right text, environment for: flushleft. (line 6) * redefining environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * reference, forward: Cross references. (line 22) * references, resolving forward: Output files. (line 33) * registered symbol: Text symbols. (line 163) * remarks in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 6) * reporting bugs: About this document. (line 21) * reserved characters: Reserved characters. (line 6) * resizing: \scalebox. (line 6) * resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * right angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * right arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 166) * right brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 88) * right quote: Text symbols. (line 55) * right quote, double: Text symbols. (line 147) * right quote, single: Text symbols. (line 153) * right-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 63) * right-justifying text: \raggedleft. (line 6) * right-justifying text, environment for: flushright. (line 6) * ring accent: Accents. (line 75) * ring accent, math: Math accents. (line 41) * robust commands: \protect. (line 6) * roman font: Font styles. (line 80) * root file: Splitting the input. (line 9) * rotating graphics: \rotatebox. (line 6) * rotating text: \rotatebox. (line 6) * rotation: \rotatebox. (line 6) * row, tabbing: tabbing. (line 45) * rubber lengths, defining new: \newlength. (line 6) * running header and footer: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * running header and footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6) * sans serif font: Font styles. (line 86) * Scaled point: Units of length. (line 36) * scaling: \scalebox. (line 6) * scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * script letters for math: Font styles. (line 74) * section number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * section numbers, printing: Sectioning. (line 47) * section symbol: Text symbols. (line 58) * section, redefining: \@startsection. (line 6) * sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 6) * series, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 48) * setspace package: Low-level font commands. (line 118) * setting counters: \setcounter. (line 6) * shapes, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 88) * sharp S letters: Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * showidx package: Indexes. (line 35) * simulating typed text: verbatim. (line 6) * single angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * single guillemets: Text symbols. (line 30) * single left quote: Text symbols. (line 150) * single low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 52) * single quote, straight: Text symbols. (line 156) * single right quote: Text symbols. (line 153) * sizes of text: Font sizes. (line 6) * skip register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 6) * slanted font: Font styles. (line 89) * small caps font: Font styles. (line 83) * space, inserting vertical: \addvspace. (line 6) * space, vertical: \vspace. (line 6) * spaces: Spaces. (line 6) * spaces, ignore around commands: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * spacing within math mode: Spacing in math mode. (line 6) * spacing, inter-sentence: \frenchspacing. (line 6) * spacing, inter-sentence <1>: \normalsfcodes. (line 6) * Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 135) * special characters: Reserved characters. (line 6) * special characters <1>: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * special insertions: Special insertions. (line 6) * specifier, float placement: Floats. (line 31) * splitting the input file: Splitting the input. (line 6) * stable option to footmisc package: Footnotes in section headings. (line 10) * star-variants, commands: \@ifstar. (line 6) * starred form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 14) * starting a new page: \newpage. (line 6) * starting a new page and clearing floats: \clearpage. (line 6) * starting and ending: Starting and ending. (line 6) * starting on a right-hand page: \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * sterling symbol: Text symbols. (line 48) * straight double quote, base: Text symbols. (line 160) * straight quote, base: Text symbols. (line 160) * straight single quote: Text symbols. (line 156) * stretch, infinite horizontal: \hfill. (line 6) * stretch, infinite vertical: \vfill. (line 6) * stretch, omitting vertical: \raggedbottom. (line 6) * styles of text: Font styles. (line 6) * styles, page: Page styles. (line 6) * subscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * superscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * symbols, math: Math symbols. (line 6) * symbols, text: Text symbols. (line 6) * tab stops, using: tabbing. (line 6) * table of contents entry, manually adding: \addcontentsline. (line 6) * table of contents file: Output files. (line 43) * table of contents, avoiding footnotes: Footnotes in section headings. (line 6) * table of contents, creating: Tables of contents. (line 6) * tables, creating: table. (line 6) * template, beamer: beamer template. (line 6) * template, book: book template. (line 6) * template, TUGboat: tugboat template. (line 6) * templates, document: Document templates. (line 6) * terminal input/output: Terminal input/output. (line 6) * TeX logo: Text symbols. (line 61) * text symbols: Text symbols. (line 6) * text, resizing: \scalebox. (line 6) * text, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * text, scaling: \scalebox. (line 6) * text, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * textcase package: Upper and lower case. (line 42) * textcomp package: Font styles. (line 134) * thanks, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 22) * theorem-like environment: \newtheorem. (line 6) * theorems, defining: \newtheorem. (line 6) * theorems, typesetting: theorem. (line 6) * thorn, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * three-quarters em-dash: Text symbols. (line 169) * tie-after accent: Accents. (line 81) * tilde accent: Accents. (line 43) * tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 44) * tilde, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 67) * title page, separate or run-in: Document class options. (line 71) * title pages, creating: titlepage. (line 6) * title, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 26) * titles, making: \maketitle. (line 6) * trademark symbol: Text symbols. (line 172) * transcript file: Output files. (line 28) * TrueType fonts: TeX engines. (line 6) * TUGboat template: tugboat template. (line 6) * two-column output: \twocolumn. (line 6) * two-thirds em-dash: Text symbols. (line 175) * type styles: Font styles. (line 6) * typed text, simulating: verbatim. (line 6) * typeface sizes: Font sizes. (line 6) * typefaces: Fonts. (line 6) * typewriter font: Font styles. (line 92) * typewriter labels in lists: description. (line 34) * umlaut accent: Accents. (line 16) * underbar: Accents. (line 89) * underscore, in text: Text symbols. (line 178) * Unicode input, native: TeX engines. (line 6) * units, of length: Units of length. (line 6) * unofficial nature of this manual: About this document. (line 17) * unordered lists: itemize. (line 6) * Upper case: Upper and lower case. (line 6) * using BibTeX: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * UTF-8: TeX engines. (line 6) * variables, a list of: Counters. (line 6) * vector symbol, math: Math accents. (line 47) * verbatim text: verbatim. (line 6) * verbatim text, inline: \verb. (line 6) * vertical bar, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 79) * vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 76) * vertical space: \addvspace. (line 6) * vertical space <1>: \vspace. (line 6) * vertical space before paragraphs: \parskip. (line 6) * visible space: \verb. (line 17) * visible space symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 181) * weights, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 58) * white space: Spaces. (line 6) * wide hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 50) * wide tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 53) * widths, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 70) * writing external files: filecontents. (line 6) * writing letters: Letters. (line 6) * x-height: Units of length. (line 38) * XeTeX: TeX engines. (line 38) * xindy program: Indexes. (line 23) * xspace package: \(SPACE) after control sequence. (line 20)  File: latex2e.info, Node: Command Index, Prev: Concept Index, Up: Top Command Index ************* [index] * Menu: * $: Math formulas. (line 24) * &: tabular. (line 32) * --help command-line option: Command line. (line 14) * .aux file: Output files. (line 33) * .dvi file: Output files. (line 10) * .fd file: \newfont. (line 16) * .lof file: Output files. (line 43) * .lof file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 16) * .log file: Output files. (line 28) * .lot file: Output files. (line 43) * .lot file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 16) * .pdf file: Output files. (line 20) * .tex, default extension: Command line. (line 6) * .toc file: Output files. (line 43) * .toc file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 6) * .xdv file: TeX engines. (line 38) * 10pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * 11pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * 12pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * [...] for optional arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * \ character starting commands: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * \!: Spacing in math mode. (line 29) * \" (umlaut accent): Accents. (line 16) * \#: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \$: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \%: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \&: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \' (acute accent): Accents. (line 20) * \' (tabbing): tabbing. (line 86) * \(: Math formulas. (line 16) * \(SPACE): \(SPACE) and \@. (line 6) * \): Math formulas. (line 16) * \*: Math miscellany. (line 6) * \+: tabbing. (line 78) * \,: Spacing in math mode. (line 25) * \-: tabbing. (line 82) * \- (hyphenation): \- (hyphenation). (line 6) * \. (dot-over accent): Accents. (line 25) * \/: \/. (line 6) * \:: Spacing in math mode. (line 21) * \;: Spacing in math mode. (line 16) * \<: tabbing. (line 74) * \= (macron accent): Accents. (line 29) * \= (tabbing): tabbing. (line 68) * \>: tabbing. (line 72) * \> <1>: Spacing in math mode. (line 21) * \> (tabbing): tabbing. (line 71) * \@: \(SPACE) and \@. (line 6) * \@beginparpenalty: list. (line 234) * \@endparpenalty: list. (line 242) * \@fnsymbol: \footnote. (line 23) * \@ifstar: \@ifstar. (line 6) * \@itempenalty: list. (line 238) * \@startsection: \@startsection. (line 6) * \a (tabbing): tabbing. (line 101) * \a' (acute accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 102) * \a= (macron accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 102) * \aa (aa): Additional Latin letters. (line 12) * \AA (AA): Additional Latin letters. (line 12) * \acute: Math accents. (line 10) * \addcontentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 6) * \address: \address. (line 6) * \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: \addtocontents. (line 6) * \addtocounter: \addtocounter. (line 6) * \addtolength: \addtolength. (line 6) * \addvspace: \addvspace. (line 6) * \ae (ae): Additional Latin letters. (line 16) * \AE (AE): Additional Latin letters. (line 16) * \aleph: Math symbols. (line 22) * \Alph example: enumerate. (line 61) * \alpha: Math symbols. (line 25) * \alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 14) * \Alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 17) * \alsoname: Indexes. (line 20) * \amalg: Math symbols. (line 28) * \and for \author: \maketitle. (line 12) * \angle: Math symbols. (line 31) * \appendix: Sectioning. (line 37) * \approx: Math symbols. (line 36) * \arabic{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 20) * \arccos: Math functions. (line 9) * \arcsin: Math functions. (line 12) * \arctan: Math functions. (line 15) * \arg: Math functions. (line 18) * \arraycolsep: array. (line 37) * \arrayrulewidth: tabular. (line 156) * \arraystretch: tabular. (line 162) * \ast: Math symbols. (line 39) * \asymp: Math symbols. (line 48) * \AtBeginDocument: \AtBeginDocument. (line 6) * \AtBeginDvi: Class and package commands. (line 9) * \AtEndDocument: \AtEndDocument. (line 6) * \AtEndOfClass: Class and package commands. (line 14) * \AtEndOfPackage: Class and package commands. (line 14) * \author{NAME \and NAME2}: \maketitle. (line 11) * \a` (grave accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 102) * \b (bar-under accent): Accents. (line 46) * \backslash: Math symbols. (line 51) * \bar: Math accents. (line 13) * \baselineskip: Low-level font commands. (line 101) * \baselinestretch: Low-level font commands. (line 111) * \begin: Environments. (line 6) * \beta: Math symbols. (line 55) * \bf: Font styles. (line 70) * \bfseries: Font styles. (line 39) * \bibitem: \bibitem. (line 6) * \bibliography: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * \bibliographystyle: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * \bibname: thebibliography. (line 23) * \bigcap: Math symbols. (line 58) * \bigcirc: Math symbols. (line 62) * \bigcup: Math symbols. (line 66) * \bigodot: Math symbols. (line 70) * \bigoplus: Math symbols. (line 73) * \bigotimes: Math symbols. (line 76) * \bigskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 9) * \bigskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 10) * \bigsqcup: Math symbols. (line 87) * \bigtriangledown: Math symbols. (line 79) * \bigtriangleup: Math symbols. (line 83) * \biguplus: Math symbols. (line 90) * \bigvee: Math symbols. (line 94) * \bigwedge: Math symbols. (line 97) * \bmod: Math functions. (line 21) * \boldmath: Math formulas. (line 29) * \bot: Math symbols. (line 100) * \bottomfraction: Floats. (line 94) * \bottomfraction <1>: Floats. (line 95) * \bowtie: Math symbols. (line 105) * \Box: Math symbols. (line 108) * \breve: Math accents. (line 16) * \bullet: Math symbols. (line 113) * \c (cedilla accent): Accents. (line 51) * \cal: Font styles. (line 73) * \cap: Math symbols. (line 116) * \capitalacute: Accents. (line 20) * \capitalbreve: Accents. (line 86) * \capitalcaron: Accents. (line 97) * \capitalcedilla: Accents. (line 51) * \capitalcircumflex: Accents. (line 33) * \capitaldieresis: Accents. (line 16) * \capitaldotaccent: Accents. (line 55) * \capitalgrave: Accents. (line 37) * \capitalhungarumlaut: Accents. (line 59) * \capitalmacron: Accents. (line 29) * \capitalnewtie: Accents. (line 81) * \capitalogonek: Accents. (line 70) * \capitalring: Accents. (line 75) * \capitaltie: Accents. (line 81) * \capitaltilde: Accents. (line 43) * \caption: figure. (line 40) * \caption <1>: table. (line 26) * \cc: \cc. (line 6) * \cdot: Math symbols. (line 121) * \cdots: Math miscellany. (line 25) * \centering: \centering. (line 6) * \chapter: Sectioning. (line 9) * \check: Math accents. (line 19) * \CheckCommand: Class and package commands. (line 21) * \CheckCommand*: Class and package commands. (line 21) * \chi: Math symbols. (line 124) * \circ: Math symbols. (line 127) * \circle: \circle. (line 6) * \cite: \cite. (line 6) * \ClassError: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassInfo: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassInfoNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassWarning: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassWarningNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \cleardoublepage: \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * \clearpage: \clearpage. (line 6) * \cline: \cline. (line 6) * \closing: \closing. (line 6) * \clubsuit: Math symbols. (line 132) * \columnsep: \twocolumn. (line 22) * \columnsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * \columnsep <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 9) * \columnseprule: \twocolumn. (line 28) * \columnseprule <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 7) * \columnseprule <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 9) * \columnwidth: \twocolumn. (line 35) * \columnwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 8) * \columnwidth <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 9) * \complement: Math symbols. (line 135) * \cong: Math symbols. (line 141) * \contentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 33) * \coprod: Math symbols. (line 144) * \copyright: Text symbols. (line 10) * \cos: Math functions. (line 24) * \cosh: Math functions. (line 27) * \cot: Math functions. (line 30) * \coth: Math functions. (line 33) * \csc: Math functions. (line 36) * \cup: Math symbols. (line 147) * \CurrentOption: Class and package commands. (line 60) * \d (dot-under accent): Accents. (line 55) * \dag: Text symbols. (line 14) * \dagger: Math symbols. (line 152) * \dashbox: \dashbox. (line 6) * \dashv: Math symbols. (line 155) * \date{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 17) * \day: \day \month \year. (line 6) * \dblfloatpagefraction: \twocolumn. (line 69) * \dblfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 75) * \dbltextfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 82) * \dbltopfraction: \twocolumn. (line 47) * \dbltopnumber: \twocolumn. (line 87) * \ddag: Text symbols. (line 17) * \ddagger: Math symbols. (line 159) * \ddot: Math accents. (line 22) * \ddots: Math miscellany. (line 29) * \DeclareGraphicsExtensions: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions. (line 6) * \DeclareGraphicsRule: \DeclareGraphicsRule. (line 6) * \DeclareOption: Class and package commands. (line 66) * \DeclareOption*: Class and package commands. (line 66) * \DeclareRobustCommand: Class and package commands. (line 96) * \DeclareRobustCommand*: Class and package commands. (line 96) * \deg: Math functions. (line 39) * \Delta: Math symbols. (line 162) * \delta: Math symbols. (line 165) * \depth: Predefined lengths. (line 10) * \det: Math functions. (line 42) * \dh (d): Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * \DH (D): Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * \Diamond: Math symbols. (line 168) * \diamond: Math symbols. (line 172) * \diamondsuit: Math symbols. (line 176) * \dim: Math functions. (line 45) * \displaystyle: Math formulas. (line 34) * \div: Math symbols. (line 179) * \dj: Additional Latin letters. (line 26) * \DJ: Additional Latin letters. (line 26) * \documentclass: Document classes. (line 6) * \dot: Math accents. (line 25) * \doteq: Math symbols. (line 182) * \dotfill: \hrulefill \dotfill. (line 6) * \dots: Text symbols. (line 34) * \doublerulesep: tabular. (line 167) * \downarrow: Math symbols. (line 186) * \Downarrow: Math symbols. (line 190) * \ell: Math symbols. (line 194) * \emph: Font styles. (line 59) * \emptyset: Math symbols. (line 197) * \encl: \encl. (line 6) * \end: Environments. (line 6) * \enlargethispage: \enlargethispage. (line 6) * \enumi: enumerate. (line 47) * \enumii: enumerate. (line 47) * \enumiii: enumerate. (line 47) * \enumiv: enumerate. (line 47) * \epsilon: Math symbols. (line 201) * \equiv: Math symbols. (line 207) * \eta: Math symbols. (line 210) * \evensidemargin: Document class options. (line 84) * \evensidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 67) * \evensidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 68) * \ExecuteOptions: Class and package commands. (line 166) * \exists: Math symbols. (line 213) * \exp: Math functions. (line 48) * \extracolsep: tabular. (line 115) * \fbox: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6) * \fboxrule: \framebox (picture). (line 14) * \fboxrule <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 18) * \fboxsep: \framebox (picture). (line 14) * \fboxsep <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 18) * \fill: \hfill. (line 9) * \flat: Math symbols. (line 216) * \floatpagefraction: Floats. (line 98) * \floatpagefraction <1>: Floats. (line 99) * \floatsep: Floats. (line 114) * \floatsep <1>: Floats. (line 115) * \flushbottom: \flushbottom. (line 6) * \fnsymbol, and footnotes: \footnote. (line 23) * \fnsymbol{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 29) * \fontencoding: Low-level font commands. (line 11) * \fontfamily: Low-level font commands. (line 21) * \fontseries: Low-level font commands. (line 48) * \fontshape: Low-level font commands. (line 88) * \fontsize: Low-level font commands. (line 101) * \footnote: \footnote. (line 6) * \footnotemark: \footnotemark. (line 6) * \footnoterule: Footnote parameters. (line 6) * \footnotesep: Footnote parameters. (line 12) * \footnotesize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \footnotetext: \footnotetext. (line 6) * \footskip: Page layout parameters. (line 26) * \footskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 27) * \forall: Math symbols. (line 219) * \frac: Math miscellany. (line 33) * \frac{NUM}{DEN}: Math miscellany. (line 32) * \frame: \frame. (line 6) * \framebox: \framebox (picture). (line 6) * \framebox <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6) * \frenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 6) * \frown: Math symbols. (line 222) * \fussy: \fussy. (line 6) * \Gamma: Math symbols. (line 225) * \gamma: Math symbols. (line 228) * \gcd: Math functions. (line 51) * \ge: Math symbols. (line 231) * \geq: Math symbols. (line 235) * \gets: Math symbols. (line 239) * \gg: Math symbols. (line 242) * \glossary: Glossaries. (line 8) * \glossaryentry: Glossaries. (line 11) * \graphicspath: \graphicspath. (line 6) * \grave: Math accents. (line 28) * \guillemotleft (<<): Text symbols. (line 26) * \guillemotright (>>): Text symbols. (line 27) * \guilsinglleft (<): Text symbols. (line 28) * \guilsinglright (>): Text symbols. (line 29) * \H (Hungarian umlaut accent): Accents. (line 59) * \hat: Math accents. (line 31) * \hbar: Math symbols. (line 246) * \headheight: Page layout parameters. (line 14) * \headheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 15) * \headsep: Page layout parameters. (line 19) * \headsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 20) * \heartsuit: Math symbols. (line 249) * \height: Predefined lengths. (line 8) * \hfill: \hfill. (line 6) * \hline: \hline. (line 6) * \hom: Math functions. (line 54) * \hookleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 252) * \hookrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 255) * \hrulefill: \hrulefill \dotfill. (line 6) * \hsize: Page layout parameters. (line 119) * \hsize <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 119) * \hspace: \hspace. (line 6) * \huge: Font sizes. (line 11) * \Huge: Font sizes. (line 11) * \hyphenation: \hyphenation. (line 6) * \i (dotless i): Accents. (line 63) * \iff: Math symbols. (line 258) * \IfFileExists: Class and package commands. (line 127) * \ignorespaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * \ignorespacesafterend: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * \ij (ij): Additional Latin letters. (line 32) * \IJ (IJ): Additional Latin letters. (line 32) * \Im: Math symbols. (line 262) * \imath: Math accents. (line 34) * \in: Math symbols. (line 265) * \include: \include. (line 6) * \includegraphics: \includegraphics. (line 6) * \includeonly: \includeonly. (line 6) * \indent: \indent. (line 6) * \index: Indexes. (line 9) * \indexentry: Indexes. (line 12) * \indexspace: Indexes. (line 32) * \inf: Math functions. (line 57) * \infty: Math symbols. (line 271) * \input: \input. (line 6) * \InputIfFileExists: Class and package commands. (line 127) * \int: Math symbols. (line 274) * \intextsep: Floats. (line 118) * \intextsep <1>: Floats. (line 119) * \iota: Math symbols. (line 277) * \it: Font styles. (line 76) * \item: description. (line 29) * \item <1>: enumerate. (line 29) * \item <2>: itemize. (line 6) * \item <3>: itemize. (line 28) * \itemindent: list. (line 80) * \itemsep: list. (line 84) * \itshape: Font styles. (line 33) * \j (dotless j): Accents. (line 66) * \jmath: Math accents. (line 37) * \Join: Math symbols. (line 280) * \k (ogonek): Accents. (line 70) * \kappa: Math symbols. (line 284) * \ker: Math functions. (line 60) * \kill: tabbing. (line 106) * \l (/l): Additional Latin letters. (line 36) * \L (/L): Additional Latin letters. (line 36) * \label: \label. (line 6) * \labelenumi: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelenumii: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelenumiii: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelenumiv: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelitemi: itemize. (line 35) * \labelitemii: itemize. (line 35) * \labelitemiii: itemize. (line 35) * \labelitemiv: itemize. (line 35) * \labelsep: list. (line 96) * \labelwidth: list. (line 101) * \Lambda: Math symbols. (line 287) * \lambda: Math symbols. (line 290) * \land: Math symbols. (line 293) * \langle: Math symbols. (line 298) * \large: Font sizes. (line 11) * \Large: Font sizes. (line 11) * \LARGE: Font sizes. (line 11) * \LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 20) * \LaTeXe: Text symbols. (line 23) * \lbrace: Math symbols. (line 303) * \lbrack: Math symbols. (line 307) * \lceil: Math symbols. (line 311) * \ldots: Text symbols. (line 33) * \le: Math symbols. (line 315) * \leadsto: Math symbols. (line 319) * \left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2: Math miscellany. (line 35) * \Leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 326) * \leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 331) * \lefteqn: eqnarray. (line 46) * \leftharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 335) * \leftharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 338) * \leftmargin: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmargin <1>: list. (line 121) * \leftmargini: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginii: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginiii: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginiv: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginv: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginvi: itemize. (line 54) * \Leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 341) * \leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 346) * \leq: Math symbols. (line 351) * \lfloor: Math symbols. (line 355) * \lg: Math functions. (line 63) * \lhd: Math symbols. (line 358) * \lim: Math functions. (line 66) * \liminf: Math functions. (line 69) * \limsup: Math functions. (line 72) * \line: \line. (line 6) * \linebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * \linespread: Low-level font commands. (line 125) * \linethickness: \linethickness. (line 6) * \linewidth: Page layout parameters. (line 33) * \linewidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 34) * \listoffigures: Tables of contents. (line 16) * \listoftables: Tables of contents. (line 16) * \listparindent: list. (line 138) * \ll: Math symbols. (line 366) * \ln: Math functions. (line 75) * \lnot: Math symbols. (line 370) * \LoadClass: Class and package commands. (line 144) * \LoadClassWithOptions: Class and package commands. (line 144) * \location: \location. (line 6) * \log: Math functions. (line 78) * \longleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 373) * \longleftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 378) * \longmapsto: Math symbols. (line 382) * \longrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 387) * \lor: Math symbols. (line 392) * \lq: Text symbols. (line 39) * \makebox: \makebox. (line 6) * \makebox (for picture): \makebox (picture). (line 6) * \makeglossary: Glossaries. (line 6) * \makeindex: Indexes. (line 6) * \makelabel: list. (line 53) * \makelabels: \makelabels. (line 6) * \maketitle: \maketitle. (line 6) * \mapsto: Math symbols. (line 395) * \marginpar: Marginal notes. (line 6) * \marginparpush: Page layout parameters. (line 40) * \marginparpush <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 43) * \marginparpush <2>: Marginal notes. (line 36) * \marginparsep: Marginal notes. (line 40) * \marginparwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 42) * \marginparwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 43) * \marginparwidth <2>: Marginal notes. (line 44) * \marginsep: Page layout parameters. (line 41) * \marginsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 43) * \markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 29) * \markright{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 36) * \mathbf: Font styles. (line 112) * \mathcal: Font styles. (line 128) * \mathdollar: Math miscellany. (line 40) * \mathellipsis: Math miscellany. (line 43) * \mathnormal: Font styles. (line 125) * \mathparagraph: Math miscellany. (line 46) * \mathring: Math accents. (line 40) * \mathrm: Font styles. (line 109) * \mathsection: Math miscellany. (line 49) * \mathsf: Font styles. (line 115) * \mathsterling: Math miscellany. (line 52) * \mathtt: Font styles. (line 118) * \mathunderscore: Math miscellany. (line 55) * \mathversion: Font styles. (line 130) * \max: Math functions. (line 81) * \mbox: \mbox. (line 6) * \mbox, and LR mode: Modes. (line 24) * \mdseries: Font styles. (line 36) * \medskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 14) * \medskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 15) * \medspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 21) * \mho: Math symbols. (line 399) * \mid: Math symbols. (line 404) * \min: Math functions. (line 84) * \models: Math symbols. (line 414) * \month: \day \month \year. (line 6) * \mp: Math symbols. (line 419) * \mu: Math symbols. (line 422) * \multicolumn: \multicolumn. (line 6) * \multiput: \multiput. (line 6) * \nabla: Math symbols. (line 425) * \name: \name. (line 6) * \natural: Math symbols. (line 428) * \ne: Math symbols. (line 431) * \nearrow: Math symbols. (line 434) * \NeedsTeXFormat: Class and package commands. (line 176) * \neg: Math symbols. (line 437) * \neq: Math symbols. (line 441) * \newcommand: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * \newcounter: \newcounter. (line 6) * \newenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * \newfont: \newfont. (line 6) * \newlength: \newlength. (line 6) * \newline: \newline. (line 6) * \NEWLINE: \(SPACE) and \@. (line 6) * \newpage: \newpage. (line 6) * \newsavebox: \newsavebox. (line 6) * \newtheorem: \newtheorem. (line 6) * \newtie: Accents. (line 81) * \ng: Additional Latin letters. (line 40) * \NG: Additional Latin letters. (line 40) * \ni: Math symbols. (line 444) * \nocite: \nocite. (line 6) * \nocorr: Font styles. (line 21) * \nocorrlist: Font styles. (line 21) * \nofiles: Tables of contents. (line 21) * \noindent: \noindent. (line 6) * \nolinebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * \nonfrenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 6) * \nonumber: eqnarray. (line 41) * \nopagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * \normalfont: Font styles. (line 57) * \normalmarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 24) * \normalsfcodes: \normalsfcodes. (line 6) * \normalsize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \not: Math symbols. (line 449) * \notin: Math symbols. (line 457) * \nu: Math symbols. (line 461) * \nwarrow: Math symbols. (line 464) * \o (/o): Additional Latin letters. (line 44) * \O (/O): Additional Latin letters. (line 44) * \obeycr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * \oddsidemargin: Document class options. (line 84) * \oddsidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 66) * \oddsidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 68) * \odot: Math symbols. (line 467) * \oe (oe): Additional Latin letters. (line 48) * \OE (OE): Additional Latin letters. (line 48) * \oint: Math symbols. (line 472) * \oldstylenums: Font styles. (line 134) * \Omega: Math symbols. (line 476) * \omega: Math symbols. (line 479) * \ominus: Math symbols. (line 482) * \onecolumn: \onecolumn. (line 6) * \opening: \opening. (line 6) * \oplus: Math symbols. (line 485) * \OptionNotUsed: Class and package commands. (line 192) * \oslash: Math symbols. (line 489) * \otimes: Math symbols. (line 492) * \oval: \oval. (line 6) * \overbrace{MATH}: Math miscellany. (line 58) * \overline{TEXT}: Math miscellany. (line 62) * \owns: Math symbols. (line 497) * \P: Text symbols. (line 42) * \PackageError: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageInfo: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageInfoNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageWarning: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageWarningNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \pagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * \pagenumbering: \pagenumbering. (line 6) * \pageref: \pageref. (line 6) * \pagestyle: \pagestyle. (line 6) * \paperheight: Page layout parameters. (line 79) * \paperheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 80) * \paperwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 85) * \paperwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 86) * \paragraph: Sectioning. (line 14) * \parallel: Math symbols. (line 502) * \parbox: \parbox. (line 6) * \parindent: minipage. (line 17) * \parindent <1>: \indent. (line 6) * \parsep: list. (line 144) * \parskip: \parskip. (line 6) * \parskip example: itemize. (line 73) * \part: Sectioning. (line 8) * \partial: Math symbols. (line 505) * \partopsep: list. (line 153) * \PassOptionsToClass: Class and package commands. (line 198) * \PassOptionsToPackage: Class and package commands. (line 198) * \pdfpageheight: Document class options. (line 40) * \pdfpagewidth: Document class options. (line 40) * \perp: Math symbols. (line 508) * \phi: Math symbols. (line 513) * \Pi: Math symbols. (line 517) * \pi: Math symbols. (line 520) * \pm: Math symbols. (line 524) * \pmod: Math functions. (line 87) * \poptabs: tabbing. (line 112) * \poptabs <1>: tabbing. (line 113) * \pounds: Text symbols. (line 46) * \Pr: Math functions. (line 90) * \prec: Math symbols. (line 527) * \preceq: Math symbols. (line 530) * \prime: Math symbols. (line 535) * \printindex: Indexes. (line 28) * \ProcessOptions: Class and package commands. (line 232) * \ProcessOptions*: Class and package commands. (line 232) * \prod: Math symbols. (line 544) * \propto: Math symbols. (line 547) * \protect: \protect. (line 6) * \providecommand: \providecommand. (line 6) * \ProvidesClass: Class and package commands. (line 270) * \ProvidesFile: Class and package commands. (line 301) * \ProvidesPackage: Class and package commands. (line 270) * \ps: \ps. (line 6) * \Psi: Math symbols. (line 550) * \psi: Math symbols. (line 553) * \pushtabs: tabbing. (line 115) * \put: \put. (line 6) * \qquad: Spacing in math mode. (line 38) * \quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 32) * \quotedblbase (,,): Text symbols. (line 50) * \quotesinglbase (,): Text symbols. (line 51) * \r (ring accent): Accents. (line 75) * \raggedbottom: \raggedbottom. (line 6) * \raggedleft: \raggedleft. (line 6) * \raggedright: \raggedright. (line 6) * \raisebox: \raisebox. (line 6) * \rangle: Math symbols. (line 556) * \rbrace: Math symbols. (line 560) * \rbrack: Math symbols. (line 564) * \rceil: Math symbols. (line 568) * \Re: Math symbols. (line 571) * \ref: \ref. (line 6) * \reflectbox: \scalebox. (line 6) * \refname: thebibliography. (line 26) * \refstepcounter: \refstepcounter. (line 6) * \renewenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * \RequirePackage: Class and package commands. (line 310) * \RequirePackageWithOptions: Class and package commands. (line 310) * \resizebox: \resizebox. (line 6) * \restorecr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * \restriction: Math symbols. (line 576) * \revemptyset: Math symbols. (line 581) * \reversemarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 24) * \rfloor: Math symbols. (line 586) * \rhd: Math symbols. (line 590) * \rho: Math symbols. (line 597) * \right: Math miscellany. (line 36) * \Rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 601) * \rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 605) * \rightharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 610) * \rightharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 613) * \rightleftharpoons: Math symbols. (line 616) * \rightmargin: list. (line 168) * \rm: Font styles. (line 79) * \rmfamily: Font styles. (line 30) * \roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 23) * \Roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 26) * \rotatebox: \rotatebox. (line 6) * \rq: Text symbols. (line 54) * \rule: \rule. (line 6) * \S: Text symbols. (line 57) * \savebox: \savebox. (line 6) * \sbox: \sbox. (line 6) * \sc: Font styles. (line 82) * \scalebox: \scalebox. (line 6) * \scriptsize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \scshape: Font styles. (line 51) * \searrow: Math symbols. (line 619) * \sec: Math functions. (line 93) * \section: Sectioning. (line 11) * \seename: Indexes. (line 20) * \selectfont: Low-level font commands. (line 131) * \setcounter: \setcounter. (line 6) * \setlength: \setlength. (line 6) * \setminus: Math symbols. (line 622) * \settodepth: \settodepth. (line 6) * \settoheight: \settoheight. (line 6) * \settowidth: \settowidth. (line 6) * \sf: Font styles. (line 85) * \sffamily: Font styles. (line 48) * \sharp: Math symbols. (line 628) * \shortstack: \shortstack. (line 6) * \Sigma: Math symbols. (line 631) * \sigma: Math symbols. (line 634) * \signature: \signature. (line 11) * \sim: Math symbols. (line 638) * \simeq: Math symbols. (line 641) * \sin: Math functions. (line 96) * \sinh: Math functions. (line 99) * \sl: Font styles. (line 88) * \sloppy: \sloppy. (line 6) * \slshape: Font styles. (line 45) * \small: Font sizes. (line 11) * \smallint: Math symbols. (line 644) * \smallskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 19) * \smallskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 20) * \smile: Math symbols. (line 648) * \spacefactor: \spacefactor. (line 10) * \spadesuit: Math symbols. (line 651) * \sqcap: Math symbols. (line 654) * \sqcup: Math symbols. (line 658) * \sqrt[ROOT]{ARG}: Math miscellany. (line 66) * \sqsubset: Math symbols. (line 662) * \sqsubseteq: Math symbols. (line 667) * \sqsupset: Math symbols. (line 672) * \sqsupseteq: Math symbols. (line 677) * \ss (ss): Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * \SS (SS): Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}: Math miscellany. (line 71) * \star: Math symbols. (line 681) * \stepcounter: \stepcounter. (line 6) * \stop: Command line. (line 18) * \subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 15) * \subsection: Sectioning. (line 12) * \subset: Math symbols. (line 688) * \subseteq: Math symbols. (line 691) * \subsubsection: Sectioning. (line 13) * \succ: Math symbols. (line 694) * \succeq: Math symbols. (line 698) * \sum: Math symbols. (line 703) * \sup: Math functions. (line 102) * \suppressfloats: Floats. (line 87) * \supset: Math symbols. (line 707) * \supseteq: Math symbols. (line 710) * \surd: Math symbols. (line 713) * \swarrow: Math symbols. (line 718) * \symbol: Symbols by font position. (line 6) * \t (tie-after accent): Accents. (line 81) * \TAB: \(SPACE) and \@. (line 6) * \tabbingsep: tabbing. (line 120) * \tabcolsep: tabular. (line 171) * \tableofcontents: Tables of contents. (line 6) * \tan: Math functions. (line 105) * \tanh: Math functions. (line 108) * \tau: Math symbols. (line 721) * \telephone: \telephone. (line 6) * \TeX: Text symbols. (line 60) * \textascendercompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 98) * \textasciicircum: Text symbols. (line 63) * \textasciitilde: Text symbols. (line 66) * \textasteriskcentered: Text symbols. (line 69) * \textbackslash: Reserved characters. (line 20) * \textbackslash <1>: Text symbols. (line 72) * \textbar: Text symbols. (line 75) * \textbardbl: Text symbols. (line 78) * \textbf: Font styles. (line 39) * \textbigcircle: Text symbols. (line 81) * \textbraceleft: Text symbols. (line 84) * \textbraceright: Text symbols. (line 87) * \textbullet: Text symbols. (line 90) * \textcapitalcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 97) * \textcircled{LETTER}: Text symbols. (line 93) * \textcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 96) * \textcopyright: Text symbols. (line 11) * \textdagger: Text symbols. (line 103) * \textdaggerdbl: Text symbols. (line 106) * \textdollar (or \$): Text symbols. (line 109) * \textellipsis: Text symbols. (line 35) * \textemdash (or ---): Text symbols. (line 112) * \textendash (or --): Text symbols. (line 115) * \texteuro: Text symbols. (line 118) * \textexclamdown (or !`): Text symbols. (line 121) * \textfloatsep: Floats. (line 123) * \textfloatsep <1>: Floats. (line 124) * \textfraction: Floats. (line 102) * \textfraction <1>: Floats. (line 103) * \textgreater: Text symbols. (line 124) * \textheight: Page layout parameters. (line 91) * \textheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 92) * \textit: Font styles. (line 33) * \textleftarrow: Text symbols. (line 130) * \textless: Text symbols. (line 127) * \textmd: Font styles. (line 36) * \textnormal: Font styles. (line 57) * \textordfeminine: Text symbols. (line 133) * \textordmasculine: Text symbols. (line 134) * \textparagraph: Text symbols. (line 43) * \textperiodcentered: Text symbols. (line 137) * \textquestiondown (or ?`): Text symbols. (line 140) * \textquotedblleft (or ``): Text symbols. (line 143) * \textquotedblright (or ''): Text symbols. (line 146) * \textquoteleft (or `): Text symbols. (line 149) * \textquoteright (or '): Text symbols. (line 152) * \textquotesingle: Text symbols. (line 155) * \textquotestraightbase: Text symbols. (line 158) * \textquotestraightdblbase: Text symbols. (line 159) * \textregistered: Text symbols. (line 162) * \textrightarrow: Text symbols. (line 165) * \textrm: Font styles. (line 30) * \textsc: Font styles. (line 51) * \textsf: Font styles. (line 48) * \textsl: Font styles. (line 45) * \textsterling: Text symbols. (line 47) * \textthreequartersemdash: Text symbols. (line 168) * \texttrademark: Text symbols. (line 171) * \texttt: Font styles. (line 54) * \texttwelveudash: Text symbols. (line 174) * \textunderscore: Text symbols. (line 177) * \textup: Font styles. (line 42) * \textvisiblespace: Text symbols. (line 180) * \textwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 99) * \textwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 100) * \th (th): Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * \TH (TH): Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * \thanks{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 21) * \theta: Math symbols. (line 724) * \thicklines: \thicklines. (line 6) * \thickspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 16) * \thinlines: \thinlines. (line 6) * \thinspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 25) * \thinspace <1>: \thinspace. (line 6) * \thispagestyle: \thispagestyle. (line 6) * \tilde: Math accents. (line 43) * \times: Math symbols. (line 728) * \tiny: Font sizes. (line 11) * \title{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 25) * \to: Math symbols. (line 732) * \today: \today. (line 6) * \top: Math symbols. (line 736) * \topfraction: Floats. (line 107) * \topfraction <1>: Floats. (line 108) * \topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 123) * \topsep: list. (line 173) * \topskip: Page layout parameters. (line 130) * \topskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 131) * \totalheight: Predefined lengths. (line 12) * \triangle: Math symbols. (line 741) * \triangleleft: Math symbols. (line 744) * \triangleright: Math symbols. (line 750) * \tt: Font styles. (line 91) * \ttfamily: Font styles. (line 54) * \twocolumn: \twocolumn. (line 6) * \typein: \typein. (line 6) * \typeout: \typeout. (line 6) * \u (breve accent): Accents. (line 86) * \unboldmath: Math formulas. (line 29) * \underbar: Accents. (line 89) * \underbrace{MATH}: Math miscellany. (line 75) * \underline{TEXT}: Math miscellany. (line 79) * \unitlength: picture. (line 10) * \unlhd: Math symbols. (line 756) * \unrhd: Math symbols. (line 763) * \Uparrow: Math symbols. (line 770) * \uparrow: Math symbols. (line 774) * \Updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 778) * \updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 783) * \upharpoonright: Math symbols. (line 788) * \uplus: Math symbols. (line 793) * \upshape: Font styles. (line 42) * \Upsilon: Math symbols. (line 800) * \upsilon: Math symbols. (line 803) * \usebox: \usebox. (line 6) * \usecounter: \usecounter. (line 6) * \usefont: Low-level font commands. (line 139) * \usepackage: Additional packages. (line 6) * \v (breve accent): Accents. (line 97) * \value: \value. (line 6) * \vanothing: Math symbols. (line 811) * \varepsilon: Math symbols. (line 806) * \varphi: Math symbols. (line 816) * \varpi: Math symbols. (line 820) * \varrho: Math symbols. (line 824) * \varsigma: Math symbols. (line 828) * \vartheta: Math symbols. (line 832) * \vdash: Math symbols. (line 836) * \vdots: Math miscellany. (line 84) * \vec: Math accents. (line 46) * \vector: \vector. (line 6) * \vee: Math symbols. (line 840) * \verb: \verb. (line 6) * \Vert: Math symbols. (line 845) * \vert: Math symbols. (line 861) * \vfill: \vfill. (line 6) * \vline: \vline. (line 6) * \vspace: \vspace. (line 6) * \wedge: Math symbols. (line 879) * \widehat: Math accents. (line 49) * \widetilde: Math accents. (line 52) * \width: Predefined lengths. (line 6) * \wp: Math symbols. (line 883) * \wr: Math symbols. (line 886) * \Xi: Math symbols. (line 889) * \xi: Math symbols. (line 892) * \year: \day \month \year. (line 6) * \zeta: Math symbols. (line 895) * \[: Math formulas. (line 16) * \\ (for center): center. (line 14) * \\ (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 29) * \\ (for flushright): flushright. (line 12) * \\ (for \shortstack objects): \shortstack. (line 20) * \\ (tabbing): tabbing. (line 65) * \\ for flushleft: flushleft. (line 12) * \\ for letters: Letters. (line 50) * \\ for tabular: tabular. (line 34) * \\ for verse: verse. (line 17) * \\ for \author: \maketitle. (line 12) * \\ for \title: \maketitle. (line 26) * \\ force line break: \\. (line 6) * \\* (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 37) * \]: Math formulas. (line 16) * \^: Reserved characters. (line 20) * \^ (circumflex accent): Accents. (line 33) * \_: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \` (grave accent): Accents. (line 37) * \` (tabbing): tabbing. (line 92) * \{: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \|: Math symbols. (line 19) * \}: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \~: Reserved characters. (line 20) * \~ (tilde accent): Accents. (line 43) * ^: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * _: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * {...} for required arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * a4paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * a5paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * abstract environment: abstract. (line 6) * array environment: array. (line 6) * article class: Document classes. (line 11) * b5paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * book class: Document classes. (line 11) * bottomnumber: Floats. (line 130) * bottomnumber <1>: Floats. (line 131) * bp: Units of length. (line 20) * cc: Units of length. (line 33) * center environment: center. (line 6) * clock option to slides class: Document class options. (line 99) * cm: Units of length. (line 24) * dbltopnumber: Floats. (line 134) * dbltopnumber <1>: Floats. (line 135) * dd: Units of length. (line 30) * description environment: description. (line 6) * displaymath environment: displaymath. (line 6) * displaymath environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * document environment: document. (line 6) * draft option: Document class options. (line 49) * dvipdfmx command: Output files. (line 10) * dvips command: Output files. (line 10) * dvitype command: Output files. (line 10) * em: Units of length. (line 38) * enumerate environment: enumerate. (line 6) * environment, abstract: abstract. (line 6) * environment, array: array. (line 6) * environment, center: center. (line 6) * environment, description: description. (line 6) * environment, displaymath: displaymath. (line 6) * environment, displaymath <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * environment, document: document. (line 6) * environment, enumerate: enumerate. (line 6) * environment, eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 6) * environment, equation: equation. (line 6) * environment, equation <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * environment, figure: figure. (line 6) * environment, filecontents: filecontents. (line 6) * environment, filecontents*: filecontents. (line 6) * environment, flushleft: flushleft. (line 6) * environment, flushright: flushright. (line 6) * environment, itemize: itemize. (line 6) * environment, letter: letter. (line 6) * environment, list: list. (line 6) * environment, math: math. (line 6) * environment, math <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * environment, minipage: minipage. (line 6) * environment, picture: picture. (line 6) * environment, quotation: quotation and quote. (line 6) * environment, quote: quotation and quote. (line 6) * environment, tabbing: tabbing. (line 6) * environment, table: table. (line 6) * environment, tabular: tabular. (line 6) * environment, thebibliography: thebibliography. (line 6) * environment, theorem: theorem. (line 6) * environment, titlepage: titlepage. (line 6) * environment, verbatim: verbatim. (line 6) * environment, verse: verse. (line 6) * eqnarray environment: eqnarray. (line 6) * equation environment: equation. (line 6) * equation environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * etex command: TeX engines. (line 12) * ex: Units of length. (line 38) * executivepaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * figure environment: figure. (line 6) * filecontents environment: filecontents. (line 6) * filecontents* environment: filecontents. (line 6) * final option: Document class options. (line 49) * first-latex-doc document: About this document. (line 33) * fleqn option: Document class options. (line 49) * flushleft environment: flushleft. (line 6) * flushright environment: flushright. (line 6) * home page: About this document. (line 6) * in: Units of length. (line 17) * inch: Units of length. (line 17) * itemize environment: itemize. (line 6) * landscape option: Document class options. (line 49) * latex command: Output files. (line 10) * latex-doc-ptr document: About this document. (line 30) * email address: About this document. (line 17) * legalpaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * leqno option: Document class options. (line 49) * letter class: Document classes. (line 11) * letter environment: letter. (line 6) * letterpaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * list environment: list. (line 6) * lR box: picture. (line 71) * lrbox: lrbox. (line 6) * lshort document: About this document. (line 41) * lualatex command: TeX engines. (line 29) * math environment: math. (line 6) * math environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * minipage environment: minipage. (line 6) * mm: Units of length. (line 27) * mu: Units of length. (line 49) * notitlepage option: Document class options. (line 49) * onecolumn option: Document class options. (line 78) * oneside option: Document class options. (line 78) * openany option: Document class options. (line 78) * openbib option: Document class options. (line 49) * openright option: Document class options. (line 78) * pc: Units of length. (line 14) * pdflatex command: Output files. (line 20) * picture environment: picture. (line 6) * pt: Units of length. (line 10) * quotation environment: quotation and quote. (line 6) * quote environment: quotation and quote. (line 6) * report class: Document classes. (line 11) * secnumdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 47) * slides class: Document classes. (line 11) * sp: Units of length. (line 36) * tabbing environment: tabbing. (line 6) * table environment: table. (line 6) * tabular environment: tabular. (line 6) * textcomp package: Text symbols. (line 6) * thebibliography environment: thebibliography. (line 6) * theorem environment: theorem. (line 6) * titlepage environment: titlepage. (line 6) * titlepage option: Document class options. (line 49) * topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 124) * topnumber: Floats. (line 138) * topnumber <1>: Floats. (line 139) * totalnumber: Floats. (line 142) * totalnumber <1>: Floats. (line 143) * twocolumn option: Document class options. (line 78) * twoside option: Document class options. (line 78) * usrguide official documentation: About this document. (line 36) * verbatim environment: verbatim. (line 6) * verse environment: verse. (line 6) * xdvi command: Output files. (line 10) * xdvipdfmx: TeX engines. (line 38) * xelatex command: TeX engines. 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