This is latex2e.info, produced by texi2any version 5.9.91+dev from latex2e.texi. This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document preparation system, version of May 2015. This manual was originally translated from 'LATEX.HLP' v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The LaTeX 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using 'Hypertext Help with LaTeX', by Sheldon Green, and 'LaTeX Command Summary' (for LaTeX 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the TeX Users Group as 'TeXniques' number 10), as reference material (no text was directly copied). Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 Karl Berry. Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore. Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. INFO-DIR-SECTION TeX START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * LaTeX2e: (latex2e). Unofficial LaTeX reference manual. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY  File: latex2e.info, Node: Top, Next: About this document, Up: (dir) LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual *************************************** This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of May 2015) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. * Menu: * About this document:: Bug reporting, etc. * Overview:: What is LaTeX? * Document classes:: Some of the various classes available. * Fonts:: Italic, bold, typewriter, etc. * Layout:: Controlling the page layout. * Sectioning:: How to section properly. * Cross references:: Automatic referencing. * Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize. * Line breaking:: Influencing line breaks. * Page breaking:: Influencing page breaks. * Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes. * Definitions:: Define your own commands, etc. * Counters:: Internal counters used by LaTeX. * Lengths:: The length commands. * Making paragraphs:: Paragraph commands. * Math formulas:: How to create mathematical formulas. * Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes. * Page styles:: Various styles of page layout. * Spaces:: Horizontal and vertical space. * Boxes:: Making boxes. * Special insertions:: Inserting reserved and special characters. * Splitting the input:: Dealing with big files by splitting. * Front/back matter:: Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. * Letters:: The 'letter' class. * Terminal input/output:: User interaction. * Command line:: System-independent command-line behavior. * Document templates:: Starter templates for various document classes. * Concept Index:: General index. * Command Index:: Alphabetical list of LaTeX commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: About this document, Next: Overview, Prev: Top, Up: Top 1 About this document ********************* This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (*note Overview::). This document's home page is . That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and subscriptions, and other infrastructure. In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than 'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was retired many years ago. LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to . This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions. Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation. Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math. The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX; there are plenty of others available elsewhere. A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages. Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Overview, Next: Document classes, Prev: About this document, Up: Top 2 Overview of LaTeX ******************* LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics. A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that file to the TeX engine. The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user. The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX". It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with '\LaTeX'. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'. * Menu: * Starting and ending:: The standard beginning and end of a document. * Output files:: Files produced. * TeX engines:: Programs that implementation LaTeX. * LaTeX command syntax:: General syntax of LaTeX commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Starting and ending, Next: Output files, Up: Overview 2.1 Starting and ending ======================= LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard starting and ending. Here is a "hello, world" example: \documentclass{article} \begin{document} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end{document} Here, the 'article' is the so-called "document class", implemented in a file 'article.cls'. Any document class can be used. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. *Note Document classes::. You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and the '\begin{document}' commands. This area is called the "preamble". The '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' is a so-called "environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in all LaTeX documents. LaTeX provides many environments itself, and many more are defined separately. *Note Environments::. The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Output files, Next: TeX engines, Prev: Starting and ending, Up: Overview 2.2 Output files ================ LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files. The main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'. '.dvi' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'. You can view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (). '.pdf' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included. LaTeX also produces at least two additional files. '.log' This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors. '.aux' Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark '??'. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux' file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location. LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file used to make a table of contents. A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended.  File: latex2e.info, Node: TeX engines, Next: LaTeX command syntax, Prev: Output files, Up: Overview 2.3 TeX engines =============== LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX implementation (*note Overview::). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs. 'latex' 'pdflatex' In TeX Live (, if LaTeX is invoked via either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX engine is run (). When invoked as 'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main output is a '.pdf' file. pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original program (), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi'). In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be available in LaTeX. 'lualatex' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX engine is run (). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua () to interact with TeX's typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a '.pdf' file by default. There is also 'dvilualatex' to produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used. 'xelatex' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX engine is run (). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX also natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output. Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX, , ).  File: latex2e.info, Node: LaTeX command syntax, Prev: TeX engines, Up: Overview 2.4 LaTeX command syntax ======================== In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a '\'; the name itself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments, either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, '{...}'. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, '[...]'. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments. Some commands have a '*' form that is related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'. LaTeX commands are case sensitive; neither '\Begin{document}' nor '\begin{Document}' will work. Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined. This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document classes, Next: Fonts, Prev: Overview, Up: Top 3 Document classes ****************** The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file. \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.) 'article' For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use. 'book' Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (*note Front/back matter::). 'report' For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters. 'slides' For slide presentations--rarely used today. In its place the 'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer template::). Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section. * Menu: * Document class options:: Global options.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document class options, Up: Document classes 3.1 Document class options ========================== You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the '\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma, as in: \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} Here is the list of the standard class options. All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'): 10pt 11pt 12pt All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is 'letterpaper'): a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper Miscellaneous other options: 'draft' 'final' Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is 'final'. 'fleqn' Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. 'landscape' Selects landscape format; default is portrait. 'leqno' Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. 'openbib' Use "open" bibliography format. 'titlepage' 'notitlepage' Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. The following options are not available with the 'slides' class. 'onecolumn' 'twocolumn' Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'. 'oneside' 'twoside' Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'. For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin') parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. 'openright' 'openany' Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'. The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at the bottom of each note. Additional packages are loaded like this: \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG} To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma, as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage' commands. Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with '\usepackage'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Fonts, Next: Layout, Prev: Document classes, Up: Top 4 Fonts ******* Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. * Menu: * Font styles:: Select roman, italics, etc. * Font sizes:: Select point size. * Low-level font commands:: Select encoding, family, series, shape.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Font styles, Next: Font sizes, Up: Fonts 4.1 Font styles =============== The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in '\textit{italic text}'. In the table below, the corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration form", which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; e.g., you can say either '\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif. You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for instance, '\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'. These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections if needed. (*Note \/::, for the details of italic corrections.) Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument, such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'. '\textrm (\rmfamily)' Roman. '\textit (\itshape)' Italics. '\emph' Emphasis (switches between '\textit' and '\textrm'). '\textmd (\mdseries)' Medium weight (default). '\textbf (\bfseries)' Boldface. '\textup (\upshape)' Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. '\textsl (\slshape)' Slanted. '\textsf (\sffamily)' Sans serif. '\textsc (\scshape)' Small caps. '\texttt (\ttfamily)' Typewriter. '\textnormal (\normalfont)' Main document font. '\mathrm' Roman, for use in math mode. '\mathbf' Boldface, for use in math mode. '\mathsf' Sans serif, for use in math mode. '\mathtt' Typewriter, for use in math mode. '\mathit' '(\mit)' Italics, for use in math mode. '\mathnormal' For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. '\mathcal' 'Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. '\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called "old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals. LaTeX's default fonts support this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: . LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. Also, they are used differently than the above commands: '{\CMD ...}' instead of '\CMD{...}'. These are two unrelated constructs. '\bf' Switch to bold face. '\cal' Switch to calligraphic letters for math. '\em' Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). '\it' Italics. '\rm' Roman. '\sc' Small caps. '\sf' Sans serif. '\sl' Slanted (oblique). '\tt' Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such as '\tt', obsolete and _only_ the cumulative commands ('\texttt') should be used. I (Karl) do not agree. There are perfectly reasonable situations when an unconditional font switch is precisely what you need to get the desired output; for one example, *note 'description': description. Both sets of commands have their place.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Font sizes, Next: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font styles, Up: Fonts 4.2 Font sizes ============== The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options, respectively (*note Document class options::). Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt' -------------------------------------------------- '\tiny' 5 6 6 '\scriptsize' 7 8 8 '\footnotesize' 8 9 10 '\small' 9 10 10.95 '\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 '\large' 12 12 14.4 '\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 '\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 '\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 '\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font sizes, Up: Fonts 4.3 Low-level font commands =========================== These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. '\fontencoding{enc}' Select font encoding. Valid encodings include 'OT1' and 'T1'. '\fontfamily{family}' Select font family. Valid families include: * 'cmr' for Computer Modern Roman * 'cmss' for Computer Modern Sans Serif * 'cmtt' for Computer Modern Typewriter and numerous others. '\fontseries{series}' Select font series. Valid series include: * 'm' Medium (normal) * 'b' Bold * 'c' Condensed * 'bc' Bold condensed * 'bx' Bold extended and various other combinations. '\fontshape{shape}' Select font shape. Valid shapes are: * 'n' Upright (normal) * 'it' Italic * 'sl' Slanted (oblique) * 'sc' Small caps * 'ui' Upright italics * 'ol' Outline The two last shapes are not available for most font families. '\fontsize{size}{skip}' Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter named '\baselineskip'. The unit of both parameters defaults to pt. The default '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the '\fontsize'. The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the '\baselinestretch' parameter when the type size changes; the default is 1. However, the best way to "double space" a document, if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the 'setspace' package; see . '\linespread{FACTOR}' Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as described just above. The changes made by calling the font commands described above do not come into effect until '\selectfont' is called. '\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}' The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries' and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by '\selectfont'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Layout, Next: Sectioning, Prev: Fonts, Up: Top 5 Layout ******** Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. * Menu: * \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout. * \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout. * \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height. * \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height. * Page layout parameters:: '\headheight' '\footskip'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \onecolumn, Next: \twocolumn, Up: Layout 5.1 '\onecolumn' ================ The '\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. This is the default.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \twocolumn, Next: \flushbottom, Prev: \onecolumn, Up: Layout 5.2 '\twocolumn' ================ Synopsis: \twocolumn[TEXT1COL] The '\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the optional TEXT1COL argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: '\columnsep' The distance between columns (35pt by default). '\columnseprule' The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. '\columnwidth' The width of the current column; this is equal to '\textwidth' in single-column text. These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: '\dbltopfraction' Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by floats. Default '.7', can be usefully redefined to (say) '.9' to avoid going to float pages so soon. '\dblfloatpagefraction' The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, for a two-column float page. Default '.5'. '\dblfloatsep' Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float page. Default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for '10pt' and '11pt' documents, '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for '12pt'. '\dbltextfloatsep' Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. Default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \flushbottom, Next: \raggedbottom, Prev: \twocolumn, Up: Layout 5.3 '\flushbottom' ================== The '\flushbottom' declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is the default if 'twocolumn' mode is selected (*note Document class options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedbottom, Next: Page layout parameters, Prev: \flushbottom, Up: Layout 5.4 '\raggedbottom' =================== The '\raggedbottom' declaration makes all pages the natural height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page layout parameters, Prev: \raggedbottom, Up: Layout 5.5 Page layout parameters ========================== '\headheight' Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is '30pt', except in the 'book' class, where it varies with the type size. '\headsep' Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. Default is '25pt', except in the 'book' class, where it varies with the type size. '\footskip' Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. Default is '30pt', except in the 'book' class, where it varies with the type size. '\linewidth' Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note list::). Specifically, it is smaller than '\textwidth' by the sum of '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). The default varies with the font size, paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an 'article' document in '10pt', it's set to '345pt'; in two-column mode, that becomes '229.5pt'. '\textheight' The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with the font size, document class, etc. For an 'article' or 'report' document in '10pt', it's set to '43\baselineskip'; for 'book', it's '41\baselineskip'. For '11pt', it's '38\baselineskip' and for '12pt', '36\baselineskip'. '\textwidth' The full horizontal width of the entire page body; the default varies as usual. For an 'article' or 'report' document, it's '345pt' at '10pt', '360pt' at '11pt', and '390pt' at '12pt'. For a 'book' document, it's '4.5in' at '10pt', and '5in' at '11pt' or '12pt'. In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column (*note \twocolumn::). In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists. Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the 'minipage' or '\parbox'. For completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX documents. '\topmargin' Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in - \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided by two. '\topskip' Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at '10pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Sectioning, Next: Cross references, Prev: Layout, Up: Top 6 Sectioning ************ Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: '\part' '\chapter' ('report' and 'book' class only) '\section' '\subsection' '\subsubsection' '\paragraph' '\subparagraph' All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places: 1. The table of contents. 2. The running head at the top of the page. You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. Also, all sectioning commands have '*'-forms that print TITLE as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance: \section*{Preamble} The '\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The '\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like \chapter{A Chapter} ... \appendix \chapter{The First Appendix} The 'secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers. The setting \setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL} suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where 'chapter' is level zero. (*Note \setcounter::.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: Cross references, Next: Environments, Prev: Sectioning, Up: Top 7 Cross references ****************** One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details." * Menu: * \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. * \pageref:: Refer to a page number. * \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \label, Next: \pageref, Up: Cross references 7.1 '\label' ============ Synopsis: \label{KEY} A '\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to KEY. A KEY name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual. To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: 'ch' for chapters 'sec' for lower-level sectioning commands 'fig' for figures 'tab' for tables 'eq' for equations Thus, a label for a figure would look like 'fig:snark' or 'fig.snark'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pageref, Next: \ref, Prev: \label, Up: Cross references 7.2 '\pageref{KEY}' =================== Synopsis: \pageref{KEY} The '\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ref, Prev: \pageref, Up: Cross references 7.3 '\ref{KEY}' =============== Synopsis: \ref{KEY} The '\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command (*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word 'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Environments, Next: Line breaking, Prev: Cross references, Up: Top 8 Environments ************** LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: \begin{ENVNAME} ... \end{ENVNAME} * Menu: * abstract:: Produce an abstract. * array:: Math arrays. * center:: Centered lines. * description:: Labelled lists. * displaymath:: Formulas that appear on their own line. * document:: Enclose the whole document. * enumerate:: Numbered lists. * eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations. * equation:: Displayed equation. * figure:: Floating figures. * filecontents:: Writing multiple files from the source. * flushleft:: Flushed left lines. * flushright:: Flushed right lines. * itemize:: Bulleted lists. * letter:: Letters. * list:: Generic list environment. * math:: In-line math. * minipage:: Miniature page. * picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. * quotation:: Indented environment with paragraph indentation. * quote:: Indented environment with no paragraph indentation. * tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily. * table:: Floating tables. * tabular:: Align text in columns. * thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list. * theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc. * titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages. * verbatim:: Simulating typed input. * verse:: For poetry and other things.  File: latex2e.info, Node: abstract, Next: array, Up: Environments 8.1 'abstract' ============== Synopsis: \begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract} Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.  File: latex2e.info, Node: array, Next: center, Prev: abstract, Up: Environments 8.2 'array' =========== Synopsis: \begin{array}{TEMPLATE} COL1 TEXT&COL1 TEXT&COLN}\\ ... \end{array} Math arrays are produced with the 'array' environment, normally within an 'equation' environment (*note equation::). It has a single mandatory TEMPLATE argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them. Each column COL is specified by a single letter that tells how items in each row of that column should be formatted, as follows: 'c' centered 'l' flush left 'r' flush right Column entries are separated by '&'. Column entries may include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with '\\'. In the template, the construct '@{TEXT}' puts TEXT between columns in each row. Here's an example: \begin{equation} \begin{array}{lrc} left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ \end{array} \end{equation} The '\arraycolsep' parameter defines half the width of the space separating columns; the default is '5pt'. *Note tabular::, for other parameters which affect formatting in 'array' environments, namely '\arrayrulewidth' and '\arraystretch'. The 'array' environment can only be used in math mode.  File: latex2e.info, Node: center, Next: description, Prev: array, Up: Environments 8.3 'center' ============ Synopsis: \begin{center} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ \end{center} The 'center' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the string '\\'. * Menu: * \centering:: Declaration form of the 'center' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \centering, Up: center 8.3.1 '\centering' ------------------ The '\centering' declaration corresponds to the 'center' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the page by putting a '\centering' command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command (of an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. Here's an example: \begin{quote} \centering first line \\ second line \\ \end{quote}  File: latex2e.info, Node: description, Next: displaymath, Prev: center, Up: Environments 8.4 'description' ================= Synopsis: \begin{description} \item [LABEL1] ITEM1 \item [LABEL2] ITEM2 ... \end{description} The 'description' environment is used to make labelled lists. Each LABEL is typeset in bold, flush right. The ITEM text may contain multiple paragraphs. Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if you typeset a label in typewriter using '\texttt', you'll get bold typewriter: '\item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]'. This may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use '\tt', which resets all other style variations: '\item[{\tt plain typewriter}]'. For details about list spacing, see *note itemize::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: displaymath, Next: document, Prev: description, Up: Environments 8.5 'displaymath' ================= Synopsis: \begin{displaymath} MATH \end{displaymath} or \[MATH\] The 'displaymath' environment ('\[...\]' is a synonym) typesets the MATH text on its own line, centered by default. The global 'fleqn' option makes equations flush left; see *note Document class options::. No equation number is added to 'displaymath' text; to get an equation number, use the 'equation' environment (*note equation::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: document, Next: enumerate, Prev: displaymath, Up: Environments 8.6 'document' ============== The 'document' environment encloses the body of a document. It is required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting and ending::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: enumerate, Next: eqnarray, Prev: document, Up: Environments 8.7 'enumerate' =============== Synopsis: \begin{enumerate} \item ITEM1 \item ITEM2 ... \end{enumerate} The 'enumerate' environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'itemize' (*note itemize::) and 'description' (*note description::). Each item of an enumerated list begins with an '\item' command. There must be at least one '\item' command within the environment. By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: 1. 1., 2., ... 2. (a), (b), ... 3. i., ii., ... 4. A., B., ... The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through '\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::). If the optional argument to '\item' is given, the counter is not incremented for that item. The 'enumerate' environment uses the commands '\labelenumi' through '\labelenumiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use '\renewcommand' to change the labels (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase letters: \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: eqnarray, Next: equation, Prev: enumerate, Up: Environments 8.8 'eqnarray' ============== First, a caveat: the 'eqnarray' environment has some infelicities which cannot be overcome; the article "Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen describes them in detail (). The bottom line is that it is better to use the 'align' environment (and others) from the 'amsmath' package. Nevertheless, here is a description of 'eqnarray': \begin{eqnarray} (or 'eqnarray*') FORMULA1 \\ FORMULA2 \\ ... \end{eqnarray} The 'eqnarray' environment is used to display a sequence of equations or inequalities. It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with consecutive rows separated by '\\' and consecutive items within a row separated by an '&'. '\\*' can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a '\nonumber' command. Alternatively, The '*'-form of the environment ('\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}') will omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as 'eqnarray'. The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width.  File: latex2e.info, Node: equation, Next: figure, Prev: eqnarray, Up: Environments 8.9 'equation' ============== Synopsis: \begin{equation} MATH \end{equation} The 'equation' environment starts a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::), e.g., centering the MATH text on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin.  File: latex2e.info, Node: figure, Next: filecontents, Prev: equation, Up: Environments 8.10 'figure' ============= \begin{figure[*]}[PLACEMENT] FIGBODY \label{LABEL} \caption[LOFTITLE]{TEXT} \end{figure} Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are instead "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages. When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a full-width figure (across both columns). The optional argument '[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float: 't' (Top)--at the top of a text page. 'b' (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. However, 'b' is not allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix' package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: . 'h' (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment appears. However, 't' is not allowed by itself; 't' is automatically added. To absolutely force a figure to appear "here", you can '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at . 'p' (Page of floats)--on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. '!' Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see above. The standard 'report' and 'article' classes use the default placement 'tbp'. The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. you wish. The '\caption' command specifies caption TEXT for the figure. The caption is numbered by default. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of TEXT (*note Tables of contents::). Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text: The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default '.3'. '\floatpagefraction' The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default '.5'. '\textfraction' Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is '.2'. '\topfraction' Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default '.7'. Parameters relating to vertical space around floats: '\floatsep' Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt'. '\intextsep' Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for '10pt' and '11pt' styles, '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for '12pt'. '\textfloatsep' Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. Counters relating to the number of floats on a page: 'bottomnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1. 'dbltopnumber' Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2. 'topnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2. 'totalnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3. The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats: .  File: latex2e.info, Node: filecontents, Next: flushleft, Prev: figure, Up: Environments 8.11 'filecontents': Create external files ========================================== Synopsis: \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME} CONTENTS-OF-FILE \end{filecontents} ... \documentclass{MY-DOCUMENT-CLASS} The 'filecontents' environment is an "initial command", meaning that it can be used only before the '\documentclass' command, as in the synopsis above. LaTeX will create a file named FILENAME with the content CONTENTS-OF-FILE preceded by a header comment indicating how and when the file was generated. If the file already exists then nothing will happen. You can also use the 'filecontents' package, which has the following advantages: * If the file already exists, then it will be overwritten. * You can use the 'filecontents' environment at any point after the declaration '\usepackage{filecontents}', not just before '\documentclass'. * The 'filecontents' package also provides a 'filecontents*' environment which is used in the same way as the 'filecontents' environment except that it won't insert any leading comment, so it is better suited to create files which aren't in LaTeX format. The 'filecontents' environment only creates the file, and is unrelated to using the created file. So you need to use, for instance, '\input' or '\usepackage' or '\bibliography' or whatever is applicable, to use the created file. This environment is also useful to make a document in a self-contained file, for example, for a bug report, or to keep the content of a '.bib' file in the same file as the main document.  File: latex2e.info, Node: flushleft, Next: flushright, Prev: filecontents, Up: Environments 8.12 'flushleft' ================ \begin{flushleft} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushleft} The 'flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'. * Menu: * \raggedright:: Declaration form of the 'flushleft' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedright, Up: flushleft 8.12.1 '\raggedright' --------------------- The '\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the 'flushleft' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex2e.info, Node: flushright, Next: itemize, Prev: flushleft, Up: Environments 8.13 'flushright' ================= \begin{flushright} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushright} The 'flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'. * Menu: * \raggedleft:: Declaration form of the 'flushright' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedleft, Up: flushright 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' -------------------- The '\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the 'flushright' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex2e.info, Node: itemize, Next: letter, Prev: flushright, Up: Environments 8.14 'itemize' ============== Synopsis: \begin{itemize} \item ITEM1 \item ITEM2 ... \end{itemize} The 'itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::). Each item of an 'itemize' list begins with an '\item' command. There must be at least one '\item' command within the environment. By default, the marks at each level look like this: 1. * (bullet) 2. -- (bold en-dash) 3. * (asterisk) 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through '\labelitemiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use '\renewcommand' to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds: \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} The '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi' parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, '\leftmargin' is set to the appropriate '\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered. The defaults vary from '.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to '2.5em' (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em Some parameters that affect list formatting: '\itemindent' Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. '\labelsep' Space between the label and text of an item; default '.5em'. '\labelwidth' Width of the label; default '2em', or '1.5em' in two-column mode. '\listparindent' Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default '0pt'. '\rightmargin' Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default '0pt', except in the 'quote', 'quotation', and 'verse' environments, where it is set equal to '\leftmargin'. Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default). '\itemsep' Vertical space between items. The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '12pt'. '\parsep' Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as '\itemsep'. '\topsep' Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. For top-level lists, the default is '8pt plus2pt minus4pt' for '10pt' documents, '9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for '11pt', and '10pt plus4pt minus6pt' for '12pt'. These are reduced for nested lists. '\partopsep' Extra space added to '\topsep' when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '3pt plus2pt minus2pt' for '12pt'. Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*' environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note \parskip::): \newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: letter, Next: list, Prev: itemize, Up: Environments 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters ========================================== This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: list, Next: math, Prev: letter, Up: Environments 8.16 'list' =========== The 'list' environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros. \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} \item ITEM1 \item ITEM2 ... \end{list} The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to '\item'). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., '{}', which leaves the default spacing. The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by '\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: math, Next: minipage, Prev: list, Up: Environments 8.17 'math' =========== Synopsis: \begin{math} MATH \end{math} The 'math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running text. '\(...\))' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: minipage, Next: picture, Prev: math, Up: Environments 8.18 'minipage' =============== \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH} TEXT \end{minipage} The 'minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the '\parbox' command (*note \parbox::), but unlike '\parbox', other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage. The arguments are the same as for '\parbox' (*note \parbox::). By default, paragraphs are not indented in the 'minipage' environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as '\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command. Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A '\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the '\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note Counters::). However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.  File: latex2e.info, Node: picture, Next: quotation, Prev: minipage, Up: Environments 8.19 'picture' ============== \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) ... PICTURE COMMANDS ... \end{picture} The 'picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign--a number like '5', '0.3' or '-3.1416'. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if '\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of '\unitlength', using the '\setlength' command, outside of a 'picture' environment. The default value is '1pt'. A position is a pair of coordinates, such as '(2.4,-5)', specifying the point with x-coordinate '2.4' and y-coordinate '-5'. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. The 'picture' environment has one mandatory argument, which is a 'position'. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates. The 'picture' environment also has an optional 'position' argument, following the 'size' argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it. Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the '\put' command. The command \put (11.3,-.3){...} puts the object specified by '...' in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. The '\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the '\put' command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. The 'picture' commands are described in the following sections. * Menu: * \circle:: Draw a circle. * \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size. * \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it. * \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box. * \frame:: Draw a frame around an object. * \line:: Draw a straight line. * \linethickness:: Set the line thickness. * \thicklines:: A heavier line thickness. * \thinlines:: The default line thickness. * \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object. * \oval:: Draw an ellipse. * \put:: Place an object at a specified place. * \shortstack:: Make a pile of objects. * \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \circle, Next: \makebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.1 '\circle' ---------------- Synopsis: \circle[*]{DIAMETER} The '\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The '*'-form of the command draws a solid circle. Circles up to 40pt can be drawn.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makebox (picture), Next: \framebox (picture), Prev: \circle, Up: picture 8.19.2 '\makebox' ----------------- Synopsis: \makebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} The '\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the normal '\makebox' command except that you must specify a WIDTH and HEIGHT in multiples of '\unitlength'. The optional argument, '[POSITION]', specifies the quadrant that your TEXT appears in. You may select up to two of the following: 't' Moves the item to the top of the rectangle. 'b' Moves the item to the bottom. 'l' Moves the item to the left. 'r' Moves the item to the right. *Note \makebox::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \framebox (picture), Next: \dashbox, Prev: \makebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.3 '\framebox' ------------------ Synopsis: \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...} The '\framebox' command is like '\makebox' (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The '\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness '\fboxrule', and leaves a space '\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \dashbox, Next: \frame, Prev: \framebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.4 '\dashbox' ----------------- Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT} '\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a 'picture' environment. Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT. The TEXT is positioned at optional POS. A dashed box looks best when the RWIDTH and RHEIGHT are multiples of the DLEN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frame, Next: \line, Prev: \dashbox, Up: picture 8.19.5 '\frame' --------------- Synopsis: \frame{TEXT} The '\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \line, Next: \linethickness, Prev: \frame, Up: picture 8.19.6 '\line' -------------- Synopsis: \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} The '\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope XSLOPE/YSLOPE. Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, and plenty of other shapes, see 'pict2e' and many other packages on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \linethickness, Next: \thicklines, Prev: \line, Up: picture 8.19.7 '\linethickness' ----------------------- The '\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a positive length. '\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by '\oval'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thicklines, Next: \thinlines, Prev: \linethickness, Up: picture 8.19.8 '\thicklines' -------------------- The '\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: and *note \thinlines::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinlines, Next: \multiput, Prev: \thicklines, Up: picture 8.19.9 '\thinlines' ------------------- The '\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: and *note \thicklines::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \multiput, Next: \oval, Prev: \thinlines, Up: picture 8.19.10 '\multiput' ------------------- Synopsis: \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ} The '\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern across a picture. OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \oval, Next: \put, Prev: \multiput, Up: picture 8.19.11 '\oval' --------------- Synopsis: \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] The '\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument PORTION allows you to select part of the oval via the following: 't' selects the top portion; 'b' selects the bottom portion; 'r' selects the right portion; 'l' selects the left portion. The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with rounded corners.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \put, Next: \shortstack, Prev: \oval, Up: picture 8.19.12 '\put' -------------- Synopsis: \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){ ... } The '\put' command places the material specified by the (mandatory) argument in braces at the given coordinate, (XCOORD,YCOORD).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \shortstack, Next: \vector, Prev: \put, Up: picture 8.19.13 '\shortstack' --------------------- Synopsis: \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...} The '\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: 'r' Move the objects to the right of the stack. 'l' Move the objects to the left of the stack 'c' Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) Objects are separated with '\\'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vector, Prev: \shortstack, Up: picture 8.19.14 '\vector' ----------------- Synopsis: \vector(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} The '\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The XSLOPE and YSLOPE values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.  File: latex2e.info, Node: quotation, Next: quote, Prev: picture, Up: Environments 8.20 'quotation' ================ Synopsis: \begin{quotation} TEXT \end{quotation} The margins of the 'quotation' environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. Unlike the 'quote' environment, each paragraph is indented normally.  File: latex2e.info, Node: quote, Next: tabbing, Prev: quotation, Up: Environments 8.21 'quote' ============ Synopsis: \begin{quote} TEXT \end{quote} The margins of the 'quote' environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. Unlike the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are not indented.  File: latex2e.info, Node: tabbing, Next: table, Prev: quote, Up: Environments 8.22 'tabbing' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabbing} ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 \= ROW1COL3 \= ROW1COL4 \\ ROW2COL1 \> \> ROW2COL3 \\ ... \end{tabbing} The 'tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the 'tabular' environment. The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment: '\\ (tabbing)' End a line. '\= (tabbing)' Sets a tab stop at the current position. '\> (tabbing)' Advances to the next tab stop. '\<' Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. '\+' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\-' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\' (tabbing)' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e. everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or '\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. '\` (tabbing)' Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the '\`' and the command that ends the line. '\a (tabbing)' In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, the commands '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`' are used. '\kill' Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line remain in effect. '\poptabs' Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'. '\pushtabs' Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing' environment. '\tabbingsep' Distance to left of tab stop moved by '\''. This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing}  File: latex2e.info, Node: table, Next: tabular, Prev: tabbing, Up: Environments 8.23 'table' ============ Synopsis: \begin{table}[placement] body of the table \caption{table title} \end{table} Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages. The optional argument '[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float; these are the same as that used with the 'figure' environment, and described there (*note figure::). The standard 'report' and 'article' classes use the default placement '[tbp]'. The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., you wish. The '\caption' command allows you to title your table.  File: latex2e.info, Node: tabular, Next: thebibliography, Prev: table, Up: Environments 8.24 'tabular' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular*} These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. '\\' must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except for the last, where it is optional--unless an '\hline' command (to put a rule below the table) follows. The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: 'width' Specifies the width of the 'tabular*' environment. There must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified width. 'pos' Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of the environment. 't' align on top row 'b' align on bottom row 'cols' Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and intercolumn material. 'l' A column of left-aligned items. 'r' A column of right-aligned items. 'c' A column of centered items. '|' A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. '@{TEXT}' This inserts TEXT in every row. An @-expression suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space before the adjacent item must be included in TEXT. To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, you have to load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}' specifier. An '\extracolsep{wd}' command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width 'wd' to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another '\extracolsep' command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in the 'cols' argument. 'p{WD}' Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width WD, as if it were the argument of a '\parbox[t]{WD}' command. However, a '\\' may not appear in the item, except in the following situations: 1. inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or 'tabular'. 2. inside an explicit '\parbox'. 3. in the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft' declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an environment when used in a 'p'-column element. '*{NUM}{COLS}' Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive integer and COLS is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another '*-expression'. Parameters that control formatting: '\arrayrulewidth' Thickness of the rule created by '|', '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments; the default is '.4pt'. '\arraystretch' Scaling of spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments; default is '1', for no scaling. '\doublerulesep' Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by '||' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments; default is '2pt'. '\tabcolsep' Half the width of the space between columns; default is '6pt'. The following commands can be used inside a 'tabular' environment: * Menu: * \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns. * \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. * \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns. * \vline:: Draw a vertical line.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \multicolumn, Next: \cline, Up: tabular 8.24.1 '\multicolumn' --------------------- Synopsis: \multicolumn{COLS}{POS}{TEXT} The '\multicolumn' command makes an entry that spans several columns. The first mandatory argument, COLS, specifies the number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, POS, specifies the formatting of the entry; 'c' for centered, 'l' for flushleft, 'r' for flushright. The third mandatory argument, TEXT, specifies what text to put in the entry. Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; '\multicolumn' is used for the heading: \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l} \multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr 0x80&0x7FF \cr 0x800&0xFFFF \cr 0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cline, Next: \hline, Prev: \multicolumn, Up: tabular 8.24.2 '\cline' --------------- Synopsis: \cline{I-J} The '\cline' command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified, beginning in column I and ending in column J, which are specified in the mandatory argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hline, Next: \vline, Prev: \cline, Up: tabular 8.24.3 '\hline' --------------- The '\hline' command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vline, Prev: \hline, Up: tabular 8.24.4 '\vline' --------------- The '\vline' command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and depth of its row. An '\hfill' command can be used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @-expression.  File: latex2e.info, Node: thebibliography, Next: theorem, Prev: tabular, Up: Environments 8.25 'thebibliography' ====================== Synopsis: \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} ... \end{thebibliography} The 'thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or reference list. In the 'article' class, this reference list is labelled "References"; in the 'report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command '\refname'. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: \renewcommand{\refname}{} The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. It is typically given as '9' for bibliographies with less than 10 references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc. * Menu: * \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item. * \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item. * \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography. * Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bibitem, Next: \cite, Up: thebibliography 8.25.1 '\bibitem' ----------------- Synopsis: \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} The '\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the 'enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry to the '.aux' file containing the item's CITE_KEY and label. When the '.aux' file is read by the '\begin{document}' command, the item's 'label' is associated with 'cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a '\cite' command (see next section) to produce the associated label.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cite, Next: \nocite, Prev: \bibitem, Up: thebibliography 8.25.2 '\cite' -------------- Synopsis: \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with KEYS by entries in the '.aux' file. The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the citation. For example, '\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce '[Knuth, p. 314]'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \nocite, Next: Using BibTeX, Prev: \cite, Up: thebibliography 8.25.3 '\nocite' ---------------- '\nocite{key_list}' The '\nocite' command produces no text, but writes 'key_list', which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the '.aux' file.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Using BibTeX, Prev: \nocite, Up: thebibliography 8.25.4 Using BibTeX ------------------- If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the 'thebibliography' environment (*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2} The '\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE'.bst', which defines how your citations will look. The standard STYLE names distributed with BibTeX are: 'alpha' Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. 'plain' Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. 'unsrt' Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation. 'abbrv' Like 'plain', but more compact labels. In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See . The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to '\bibliography' refers to files named 'BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in the bibliography.  File: latex2e.info, Node: theorem, Next: titlepage, Prev: thebibliography, Up: Environments 8.26 'theorem' ============== Synopsis: \begin{theorem} THEOREM-TEXT \end{theorem} The 'theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: titlepage, Next: verbatim, Prev: theorem, Up: Environments 8.27 'titlepage' ================ Synopsis: \begin{titlepage} TEXT \end{titlepage} The 'titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The '\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::). You can use the '\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: verbatim, Next: verse, Prev: titlepage, Up: Environments 8.28 'verbatim' =============== Synopsis: \begin{verbatim} LITERAL-TEXT \end{verbatim} The 'verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the '\' character produces a printed '\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter. The 'verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt'). * Menu: * \verb:: The macro form of the 'verbatim' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \verb, Up: verbatim 8.28.1 '\verb' -------------- Synopsis: \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR The '\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font. No spaces are allowed between '\verb' or '\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in LITERAL-TEXT. The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible space" character.  File: latex2e.info, Node: verse, Prev: verbatim, Up: Environments 8.29 'verse' ============ Synopsis: \begin{verse} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{verse} The 'verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it. The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Line breaking, Next: Page breaking, Prev: Environments, Up: Top 9 Line breaking *************** The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the '\\' command, and you can always manually force breaks. * Menu: * \\:: Start a new line. * \obeycr & \restorecr:: Make each input line start a new output line. * \newline:: Break the line * \- (hyphenation):: Insert explicit hyphenation. * \fussy:: Be fussy about line breaking. * \sloppy:: Be sloppy about line breaking. * \hyphenation:: Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word. * \linebreak & \nolinebreak:: Forcing & avoiding line breaks.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \\, Next: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking 9.1 '\\'[*][MORESPACE] ====================== The '\\' command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an optional argument, MORESPACE, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount. The '\\*' command is the same as the ordinary '\\' command except that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \obeycr & \restorecr, Next: \newline, Prev: \\, Up: Line breaking 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' ============================ The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M', internally) the same as '\\' (followed by '\relax'). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. '\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newline, Next: \- (hyphenation), Prev: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking 9.3 '\newline' ============== The '\newline' command breaks the line at the present point, with no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph mode.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \- (hyphenation), Next: \fussy, Prev: \newline, Up: Line breaking 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) =============================== The '\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The '\-' command is used for the exceptional cases. When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \fussy, Next: \sloppy, Prev: \- (hyphenation), Up: Line breaking 9.5 '\fussy' ============ The declaration '\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. This command cancels the effect of a previous '\sloppy' command (*note \sloppy::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \sloppy, Next: \hyphenation, Prev: \fussy, Up: Line breaking 9.6 '\sloppy' ============= The declaration '\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. Lasts until a '\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hyphenation, Next: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \sloppy, Up: Line breaking 9.7 '\hyphenation' ================== Synopsis: \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO} The '\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a '-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words): \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \hyphenation, Up: Line breaking 9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' ================================= Synopses: \linebreak[PRIORITY] \nolinebreak[PRIORITY] By default, the '\linebreak' ('\nolinebreak') command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For '\linebreak', the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual. With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page breaking, Next: Footnotes, Prev: Line breaking, Up: Top 10 Page breaking **************** LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. * Menu: * \cleardoublepage:: Start a new right-hand page. * \clearpage:: Start a new page. * \newpage:: Start a new page. * \enlargethispage:: Enlarge the current page a bit. * \pagebreak & \nopagebreak:: Forcing & avoiding page breaks.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cleardoublepage, Next: \clearpage, Up: Page breaking 10.1 '\cleardoublepage' ======================= The '\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \clearpage, Next: \newpage, Prev: \cleardoublepage, Up: Page breaking 10.2 '\clearpage' ================= The '\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newpage, Next: \enlargethispage, Prev: \clearpage, Up: Page breaking 10.3 '\newpage' =============== The '\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (see '\clearpage' above).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \enlargethispage, Next: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \newpage, Up: Page breaking 10.4 '\enlargethispage' ======================= '\enlargethispage{size}' '\enlargethispage*{size}' Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page by the specified amount; e.g. '\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one additional line. The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit '\pagebreak'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \enlargethispage, Up: Page breaking 10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' ================================== Synopses: \pagebreak[PRIORITY] \nopagebreak[PRIORITY] By default, the '\pagebreak' ('\nopagebreak') command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. With '\pagebreak', the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the '\pagebreak' command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes, Next: Definitions, Prev: Page breaking, Up: Top 11 Footnotes ************ Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced with one command, the '\footnote' command. They can also be produced with two commands, the '\footnotemark' and the '\footnotetext' commands. * Menu: * \footnote:: Insert a footnote. * \footnotemark:: Insert footnote mark only. * \footnotetext:: Insert footnote text only. * Symbolic footnotes:: Using symbols instead of numbers for footnotes. * Footnote parameters:: Parameters for footnote formatting.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnote, Next: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes 11.1 '\footnote' ================ Synopsis: \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} The '\footnote' command places the numbered footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument NUMBER changes the default footnote number. This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning commands like '\chapter', in figures, tables or in a 'tabular' environment. (See following sections.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotemark, Next: \footnotetext, Prev: \footnote, Up: Footnotes 11.2 '\footnotemark' ==================== With no optional argument, the '\footnotemark' command puts the current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the '\footnotetext' command. This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote with \footnotemark[\value{footnote}] after the first '\footnote' command.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotetext, Next: Symbolic footnotes, Prev: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes 11.3 '\footnotetext' ==================== Synopsis: \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} The '\footnotetext' command places TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the '\footnotemark' command. The '\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph mode. The optional argument NUMBER changes the default footnote number.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Symbolic footnotes, Next: Footnote parameters, Prev: \footnotetext, Up: Footnotes 11.4 Symbolic footnotes ======================= If you want to use symbols for footnotes, rather than increasing numbers, redefine '\thefootnote' like this: \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}} The '\fnsymbol' command produces a predefined series of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). If you want to use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you'll need to also redefine '\@fnsymbol'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnote parameters, Prev: Symbolic footnotes, Up: Footnotes 11.5 Footnote parameters ======================== '\footnoterule' Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions: '0.4pt' thick (or wide), and '0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except 'slides', where it does not appear). '\footnotesep' The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize' fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Definitions, Next: Counters, Prev: Footnotes, Up: Top 12 Definitions ************** LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. * Menu: * \newcommand & \renewcommand:: (Re)define a new command. * \newcounter:: Define a new counter. * \newlength:: Define a new length. * \newsavebox:: Define a new box. * \newenvironment & \renewenvironment:: Define a new environment. * \newtheorem:: Define a new 'theorem'-like environment. * \newfont:: Define a new font name. * \protect:: Using tricky commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Next: \newcounter, Up: Definitions 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' ==================================== '\newcommand' and '\renewcommand' define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses: \newcommand[*]{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGVAL]{DEFN} \renewcommand[*]{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGVAL]{DEFN} '*' The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not '\long', in plain TeX terms). CMD The command name, beginning with '\'. For '\newcommand', it must not be already defined and must not begin with '\end'; for '\renewcommand', it must already be defined. NARGS An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no arguments. OPTARGVAL If this optional parameter is present, it means that the first argument of command CMD is optional and its default value (i.e., if it is not specified in the call) is OPTARG. In otherwise, when calling the macro, if no '[VALUE]' is given after 'CMD'--which is different from having '[]' for an empty VALUE--then string 'OPTARGVAL' becomes the value of '#1' within DEFN when the macro is expanded. DEFN The text to be substituted for every occurrence of 'cmd'; a construct of the form '#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the Nth argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcounter, Next: \newlength, Prev: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Up: Definitions 12.2 '\newcounter' ================== Synopsis: \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER] The '\newcounter' command defines a new counter named COUNTERNAME. The new counter is initialized to zero. Given the optional argument '[SUPER]', COUNTERNAME will be reset whenever the counter named SUPERCOUNTER is incremented. *Note Counters::, for more information about counters.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newlength, Next: \newsavebox, Prev: \newcounter, Up: Definitions 12.3 '\newlength' ================= Synopsis: \newlength{\ARG} The '\newlength' command defines the mandatory argument as a "length" command with a value of zero. The argument must be a control sequence, as in '\newlength{\foo}'. An error occurs if '\foo' is already defined. *Note Lengths::, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and for more information about lengths in general.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newsavebox, Next: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Prev: \newlength, Up: Definitions 12.4 '\newsavebox' ================== Synopsis: \newsavebox{CMD} Defines '\CMD', which must be a command name not already defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Next: \newtheorem, Prev: \newsavebox, Up: Definitions 12.5 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' ============================================ Synopses: \newenvironment[*]{ENV}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment[*]{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is, '\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'. '*' The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments (not the contents of the environment) not contain multiple paragraphs of text. ENV The name of the environment. For '\newenvironment', ENV must not be an existing environment, and the command '\ENV' must be undefined. For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an existing environment. NARGS An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. DEFAULT If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and DEFAULT gives the default value for that argument. BEGDEF The text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'; a construct of the form '#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of the Nth argument. ENDDEF The text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'. It may not contain any argument parameters.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newtheorem, Next: \newfont, Prev: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Up: Definitions 12.6 '\newtheorem' ================== \newtheorem{NEWENV}{LABEL}[WITHIN] \newtheorem{NEWENV}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{LABEL} This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: NEWENV The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an existing environment or otherwise defined. LABEL The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, 'Theorem'. NUMBERED_LIKE (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; the new environment will be numbered just like NUMBERED_LIKE. WITHIN (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the WITHIN counter. At most one of NUMBERED_LIKE and WITHIN can be specified, not both.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newfont, Next: \protect, Prev: \newtheorem, Up: Definitions 12.7 '\newfont' =============== Synopsis: \newfont{CMD}{FONTNAME} Defines a control sequence '\CMD', which must not already be defined, to make FONTNAME be the current font. The file looked for on the system is named 'FONTNAME.tfm'. This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. More commonly, fonts are defined in families through '.fd' files.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \protect, Prev: \newfont, Up: Definitions 12.8 '\protect' =============== Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more are so-called "fragile" commands. When a fragile command is used in certain contexts, called "moving arguments", it must be preceded by '\protect'. In addition, any fragile commands within the arguments must have their own '\protect'. Some examples of moving arguments are '\caption' (*note figure::), '\thanks' (*note \maketitle::), and expressions in 'tabular' and 'array' environments (*note tabular::). Commands which are not fragile are called "robust". They must not be preceded by '\protect'. See also:  File: latex2e.info, Node: Counters, Next: Lengths, Prev: Definitions, Up: Top 13 Counters *********** Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that produces the number, except with no '\'. ('enumi'-'enumiv' are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering. part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection * Menu: * \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter. * \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment. * \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression. * \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter. * \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter. * \refstepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \stepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \day \month \year:: Numeric date values.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Next: \usecounter, Up: Counters 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters ===================================================================== All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, '\alph{enumi}'. '\alph' prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ... '\Alph' uses uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ... '\arabic' uses Arabic numbers: '1', '2', ... '\roman' uses lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ... '\Roman' uses uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ... '\fnsymbol' prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of COUNTER must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output): asterisk(*) dagger(U+2021) ddagger(U+2021) section-sign(U+00A7) paragraph-sign(U+00B6) parallel(U+2225) double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(U+2021U+2021) double-ddagger(U+2021U+2021)  File: latex2e.info, Node: \usecounter, Next: \value, Prev: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Up: Counters 13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}' =========================== Synopsis: \usecounter{COUNTER} The '\usecounter' command is used in the second argument of the 'list' environment to specify COUNTER to be used to number the list items.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \value, Next: \setcounter, Prev: \usecounter, Up: Counters 13.3 '\value{COUNTER}' ====================== Synopsis: \value{COUNTER} The '\value' command produces the value of COUNTER. It can be used anywhere LaTeX expects a number, for example: \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1} \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \setcounter, Next: \addtocounter, Prev: \value, Up: Counters 13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' ================================== Synopsis: \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE} The '\setcounter' command sets the value of COUNTER to the VALUE argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtocounter, Next: \refstepcounter, Prev: \setcounter, Up: Counters 13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' ==================================== The '\addtocounter' command increments COUNTER by the amount specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \refstepcounter, Next: \stepcounter, Prev: \addtocounter, Up: Counters 13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' =============================== The '\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as '\stepcounter' *Note \stepcounter::, except it also defines the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \stepcounter, Next: \day \month \year, Prev: \refstepcounter, Up: Counters 13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}' ============================ The '\stepcounter' command adds one to COUNTER and resets all subsidiary counters.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \day \month \year, Prev: \stepcounter, Up: Counters 13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters ============================================= LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month ('\day', 1-31), month of the year ('\month', 1-12), and year ('\year', Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. The related command '\today' produces a string representing the current day (*note \today::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Lengths, Next: Making paragraphs, Prev: Counters, Up: Top 14 Lengths ********** A 'length' is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument. * Menu: * \setlength:: Set the value of a length. * \addtolength:: Add a quantity to a length. * \settodepth:: Set a length to the depth of something. * \settoheight:: Set a length to the height of something. * \settowidth:: Set a length to the width of something. * Predefined lengths:: Lengths that are, like, predefined.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \setlength, Next: \addtolength, Up: Lengths 14.1 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' ============================== The '\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches ('in'), millimeters ('mm'), points ('pt'), big points ('bp', etc.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtolength, Next: \settodepth, Prev: \setlength, Up: Lengths 14.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} =============================== The '\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settodepth, Next: \settoheight, Prev: \addtolength, Up: Lengths 14.3 '\settodepth' ================== '\settodepth{\gnat}{text}' The '\settodepth' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal to the depth of the 'text' argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settoheight, Next: \settowidth, Prev: \settodepth, Up: Lengths 14.4 '\settoheight' =================== '\settoheight{\gnat}{text}' The '\settoheight' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal to the height of the 'text' argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settowidth, Next: Predefined lengths, Prev: \settoheight, Up: Lengths 14.5 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' ============================== The '\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the width of the TEXT argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Predefined lengths, Prev: \settowidth, Up: Lengths 14.6 Predefined lengths ======================= '\width' '\height' '\depth' '\totalheight' These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width, etc., of the text in the box. '\totalheight' equals '\height' + '\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say '\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}'  File: latex2e.info, Node: Making paragraphs, Next: Math formulas, Prev: Lengths, Up: Top 15 Making paragraphs ******************** A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not containing even a '%'. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command. * Menu: * \indent:: Indent this paragraph. * \noindent:: Do not indent this paragraph. * \parskip:: Space added before paragraphs. * Marginal notes:: Putting remarks in the margin.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \indent, Next: \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.1 '\indent' ============== '\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the '\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. The default value for '\parindent' is '1em' in two-column mode, otherwise '15pt' for '10pt' documents, '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em' for '12pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \noindent, Next: \parskip, Prev: \indent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.2 '\noindent' ================ When used at the beginning of the paragraph, '\noindent' suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \parskip, Next: Marginal notes, Prev: \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.3 '\parskip' =============== '\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is '0pt plus1pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Marginal notes, Prev: \parskip, Up: Making paragraphs 15.4 Marginal notes =================== Synopsis: \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} The '\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the '\marginpar' occurs. When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be placed * in the right margin for one-sided layout; * in the outside margin for two-sided layout; * in the nearest margin for two-column layout. The command '\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. '\normalmarginpar' places them in the default position. When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin, and RIGHT is used for the right margin. The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with '\hspace{0pt}'. These parameters affect the formatting of the note: '\marginparpush' Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt' documents, '5pt' else. '\marginparsep' Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt' for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else. '\marginparwidth' Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is '48pt'. The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math formulas, Next: Modes, Prev: Making paragraphs, Up: Top 16 Math formulas **************** There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: 'math' For formulas that appear right in the text. 'displaymath' For formulas that appear on their own line. 'equation' The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin. The 'math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the 'displaymath' and 'equation' environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The 'math' and 'displaymath' environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: \(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} In fact, the 'math' environment is so common that it has an even shorter form: $ ... $ instead of \(...\) The '\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used _outside_ of math mode. Conversely, the '\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used _outside_ of math mode. The '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of 'displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ * Menu: * Subscripts & superscripts:: Also known as exponent or index. * Math symbols:: Various mathematical squiggles. * Math functions:: Math function names like sin and exp. * Math accents:: Accents in math. * Spacing in math mode:: Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces. * Math miscellany:: Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Subscripts & superscripts, Next: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts ============================== To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type '_{'exp'}'. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type '^{'exp'}'. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math symbols, Next: Math functions, Prev: Subscripts & superscripts, Up: Math formulas 16.2 Math symbols ================= LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi symbol (\pi) in your output. '\|' \| '\aleph' \aleph '\alpha' \alpha '\amalg' \amalg (binary operation) '\angle' \angle '\approx' \approx (relation) '\ast' \ast (binary operation) '\asymp' \asymp (relation) '\backslash' \ (delimiter) '\beta' \beta '\bigcap' \bigcap '\bigcirc' \bigcirc (binary operation) '\bigcup' \bigcup '\bigodot' \bigodot '\bigoplus' \bigoplus '\bigotimes' \bigotimes '\bigtriangledown' \bigtriangledown (binary operation) '\bigtriangleup' \bigtriangleup (binary operation) '\bigsqcup' \bigsqcup '\biguplus' \biguplus '\bigcap' \bigvee '\bigwedge' \bigwedge '\bot' \bot '\bowtie' \bowtie (relation) '\Box' (square open box symbol) '\bullet' \bullet (binary operation) '\cap' \cap (binary operation) '\cdot' \cdot (binary operation) '\chi' \chi '\circ' \circ (binary operation) '\clubsuit' \clubsuit '\cong' \cong (relation) '\coprod' \coprod '\cup' \cup (binary operation) '\dagger' \dagger (binary operation) '\dashv' \dashv (relation) '\ddagger' \dagger (binary operation) '\Delta' \Delta '\delta' \delta '\Diamond' bigger \diamond '\diamond' \diamond (binary operation) '\diamondsuit' \diamondsuit '\div' \div (binary operation) '\doteq' \doteq (relation) '\downarrow' \downarrow (delimiter) '\Downarrow' \Downarrow (delimiter) '\ell' \ell '\emptyset' \emptyset '\epsilon' \epsilon '\equiv' \equiv (relation) '\eta' \eta '\exists' \exists '\flat' \flat '\forall' \forall '\frown' \frown (relation) '\Gamma' \Gamma '\gamma' \gamma '\ge' \ge '\geq' \geq (relation) '\gets' \gets '\gg' \gg (relation) '\hbar' \hbar '\heartsuit' \heartsuit '\hookleftarrow' \hookleftarrow '\hookrightarrow' \hookrightarrow '\iff' \iff '\Im' \Im '\in' \in (relation) '\infty' \infty '\int' \int '\iota' \iota '\Join' condensed bowtie symbol (relation) '\kappa' \kappa '\Lambda' \Lambda '\lambda' \lambda '\land' \land '\langle' \langle (delimiter) '\lbrace' \lbrace (delimiter) '\lbrack' \lbrack (delimiter) '\lceil' \lceil (delimiter) '\le' \le '\leadsto' '\Leftarrow' \Leftarrow '\leftarrow' \leftarrow '\leftharpoondown' \leftharpoondown '\leftharpoonup' \leftharpoonup '\Leftrightarrow' \Leftrightarrow '\leftrightarrow' \leftrightarrow '\leq' \leq (relation) '\lfloor' \lfloor (delimiter) '\lhd' (left-pointing arrow head) '\ll' \ll (relation) '\lnot' \lnot '\longleftarrow' \longleftarrow '\longleftrightarrow' \longleftrightarrow '\longmapsto' \longmapsto '\longrightarrow' \longrightarrow '\lor' \lor '\mapsto' \mapsto '\mho' '\mid' \mid (relation) '\models' \models (relation) '\mp' \mp (binary operation) '\mu' \mu '\nabla' \nabla '\natural' \natural '\ne' \ne '\nearrow' \nearrow '\neg' \neg '\neq' \neq (relation) '\ni' \ni (relation) '\not' Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=. '\notin' \ni '\nu' \nu '\nwarrow' \nwarrow '\odot' \odot (binary operation) '\oint' \oint '\Omega' \Omega '\omega' \omega '\ominus' \ominus (binary operation) '\oplus' \oplus (binary operation) '\oslash' \oslash (binary operation) '\otimes' \otimes (binary operation) '\owns' \owns '\parallel' \parallel (relation) '\partial' \partial '\perp' \perp (relation) '\phi' \phi '\Pi' \Pi '\pi' \pi '\pm' \pm (binary operation) '\prec' \prec (relation) '\preceq' \preceq (relation) '\prime' \prime '\prod' \prod '\propto' \propto (relation) '\Psi' \Psi '\psi' \psi '\rangle' \rangle (delimiter) '\rbrace' \rbrace (delimiter) '\rbrack' \rbrack (delimiter) '\rceil' \rceil (delimiter) '\Re' \Re '\rfloor' \rfloor '\rhd' (binary operation) '\rho' \rho '\Rightarrow' \Rightarrow '\rightarrow' \rightarrow '\rightharpoondown' \rightharpoondown '\rightharpoonup' \rightharpoonup '\rightleftharpoons' \rightleftharpoons '\searrow' \searrow '\setminus' \setminus (binary operation) '\sharp' \sharp '\Sigma' \Sigma '\sigma' \sigma '\sim' \sim (relation) '\simeq' \simeq (relation) '\smallint' \smallint '\smile' \smile (relation) '\spadesuit' \spadesuit '\sqcap' \sqcap (binary operation) '\sqcup' \sqcup (binary operation) '\sqsubset' (relation) '\sqsubseteq' \sqsubseteq (relation) '\sqsupset' (relation) '\sqsupseteq' \sqsupseteq (relation) '\star' \star (binary operation) '\subset' \subset (relation) '\subseteq' \subseteq (relation) '\succ' \succ (relation) '\succeq' \succeq (relation) '\sum' \sum '\supset' \supset (relation) '\supseteq' \supseteq (relation) '\surd' \surd '\swarrow' \swarrow '\tau' \tau '\theta' \theta '\times' \times (binary operation) '\to' \to '\top' \top '\triangle' \triangle '\triangleleft' \triangleleft (binary operation) '\triangleright' \triangleright (binary operation) '\unlhd' left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) '\unrhd' right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) '\Uparrow' \Uparrow (delimiter) '\uparrow' \uparrow (delimiter) '\Updownarrow' \Updownarrow (delimiter) '\updownarrow' \updownarrow (delimiter) '\uplus' \uplus (binary operation) '\Upsilon' \Upsilon '\upsilon' \upsilon '\varepsilon' \varepsilon '\varphi' \varphi '\varpi' \varpi '\varrho' \varrho '\varsigma' \varsigma '\vartheta' \vartheta '\vdash' \vdash (relation) '\vee' \vee (binary operation) '\Vert' \Vert (delimiter) '\vert' \vert (delimiter) '\wedge' \wedge (binary operation) '\wp' \wp '\wr' \wr (binary operation) '\Xi' \Xi '\xi' \xi '\zeta' \zeta  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math functions, Next: Math accents, Prev: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas 16.3 Math functions =================== These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing. '\arccos' \arccos '\arcsin' \arcsin '\arctan' \arctan '\arg' \arg '\bmod' Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) '\cos' \cos '\cosh' \cosh '\cot' \cos '\coth' \cosh '\csc' \csc '\deg' \deg '\det' \deg '\dim' \dim '\exp' \exp '\gcd' \gcd '\hom' \hom '\inf' \inf '\ker' \ker '\lg' \lg '\lim' \lim '\liminf' \liminf '\limsup' \limsup '\ln' \ln '\log' \log '\max' \max '\min' \min '\pmod' parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) '\Pr' \Pr '\sec' \sec '\sin' \sin '\sinh' \sinh '\sup' sup '\tan' \tan '\tanh' \tanh  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math accents, Next: Spacing in math mode, Prev: Math functions, Up: Math formulas 16.4 Math accents ================= LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note Accents::). '\acute' Math acute accent: \acute{x}. '\bar' Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}. '\breve' Math breve accent: \breve{x}. '\check' Math ha'c' Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad). '\,' A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode. '\!' A negative thin space (-{1\over6}\,quad).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math miscellany, Prev: Spacing in math mode, Up: Math formulas 16.6 Math miscellany ==================== '\*' A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed. '\cdots' A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. '\ddots' A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. '\frac{num}{den}' Produces the fraction 'num' divided by 'den'. '\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2' The two delimiters need not match; '.' acts as a null delimiter, producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: '\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'. '\overbrace{TEXT}' Generates a brace over TEXT. For example, \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}. '\overline{TEXT}' Generates a horizontal line over TEX. For example, \overline{x+y}. '\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}' Produces the representation of the square root of ARG. The optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of 'x+y' would be typed as '$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'. '\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}' Puts TEXT above RELATION. For example, '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'. '\underbrace{math}' Generates MATH with a brace underneath. '\underline{text}' Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders. '\vdots' Produces a vertical ellipsis.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Modes, Next: Page styles, Prev: Math formulas, Up: Top 17 Modes ******** When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes: * Paragraph mode * Math mode * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in "math mode" when it's generating a mathematical formula, either displayed math or within a line. In "LR mode", as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an '\mbox', LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line). LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an '\mbox' command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box--for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode. The box made by one of these commands or environments will be called a 'parbox'. When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner paragraph mode" (no page breaks). Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called "outer paragraph mode".  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page styles, Next: Spaces, Prev: Modes, Up: Top 18 Page styles ************** The '\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. * Menu: * \maketitle:: Generate a title page. * \pagenumbering:: Set the style used for page numbers. * \pagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style. * \thispagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style for this page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \maketitle, Next: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles 18.1 '\maketitle' ================= The '\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title page--except in the 'article' class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations: '\author{NAME \and NAME2}' The '\author' command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. Use '\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example, to give the author's institution or address. '\date{TEXT}' The '\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With no '\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used. '\thanks{TEXT}' The '\thanks' command produces a '\footnote' to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements. '\title{TEXT}' The '\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document. Use '\\' to force a line break, as usual.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagenumbering, Next: \pagestyle, Prev: \maketitle, Up: Page styles 18.2 '\pagenumbering' ===================== Synopsis: \pagenumbering{STYLE} Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE; also resets the page number to 1. The STYLE argument is one of the following: 'arabic' arabic numerals 'roman' lowercase Roman numerals 'Roman' uppercase Roman numerals 'alph' lowercase letters 'Alph' uppercase letters  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagestyle, Next: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles 18.3 '\pagestyle' ================= Synopsis: \pagestyle{STYLE} The '\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for STYLE: 'plain' Just a plain page number. 'empty' Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. 'headings' Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers. 'myheadings' Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright' commands. Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright': '\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}' Sets both the left and the right heading. A "left-hand heading" (LEFT) is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT) is generated by the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. '\markright{RIGHT}' Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagestyle, Up: Page styles 18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}' ============================ The '\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the '\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to STYLE for the current page only.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Spaces, Next: Boxes, Prev: Page styles, Up: Top 19 Spaces ********* LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Another space-producing command is '\,' to produce a "thin" space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is more often useful in math mode (*note Spacing in math mode::). * Menu: Horizontal space * \hspace:: Fixed horizontal space. * \hfill:: Stretchable horizontal space. * \SPACE:: Normal interword space. * \@:: Ending a sentence. * \thinspace:: One-sixth of an em. * \/:: Insert italic correction. * \hrulefill:: Stretchable horizontal rule. * \dotfill:: Stretchable horizontal dots. Vertical space * \addvspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space if needed. * \bigskip \medskip \smallskip:: Fixed vertical spaces. * \vfill:: Infinitely stretchable vertical space. * \vspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hspace, Next: \hfill, Up: Spaces 19.1 '\hspace' ============== Synopsis: \hspace[*]{LENGTH} The '\hspace' command adds horizontal space. The LENGTH argument can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands: points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive space with an '\hspace' command; adding negative space is like backspacing. LaTeX normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional '*' form.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hfill, Next: \SPACE, Prev: \hspace, Up: Spaces 19.2 '\hfill' ============= The '\hfill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which has no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed. The '\fill' parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the glue value '0pt plus1fill'); thus, '\hspace\fill' is equivalent to '\hfill'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \SPACE, Next: \@, Prev: \hfill, Up: Spaces 19.3 '\SPACE': Normal interword space ===================================== The '\ ' (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example, 'the article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental'. It is also often used after control sequences, as in '\TeX\ is a nice system.' In normal circumstances, '\' and '\' are equivalent to '\ '.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \@, Next: \thinspace, Prev: \SPACE, Up: Spaces 19.4 '\@': Force sentence-ending punctuation ============================================ The '\@' command makes the following punctuation character end a sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without '\@': ... in C\@. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ... produces ... in C. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ...  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinspace, Next: \/, Prev: \@, Up: Spaces 19.5 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em =============================== '\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in '".  File: latex2e.info, Node: \/, Next: \hrulefill, Prev: \thinspace, Up: Spaces 19.6 '\/': Insert italic correction =================================== The '\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character typically has a large italic correction value. If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the 'f's are nicely separated) with f: f;. When changing fonts with commands such as '\textit{italic text}' or '{\itshape italic text}', LaTeX will automatically insert an italic correction if appropriate (*note Font styles::). Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the 'f') with pdfTeX. There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hrulefill, Next: \dotfill, Prev: \/, Up: Spaces 19.7 '\hrulefill' ================= The '\hrulefill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal rule.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \dotfill, Next: \addvspace, Prev: \hrulefill, Up: Spaces 19.8 '\dotfill' =============== The '\dotfill' command produces a "rubber length" that fills with dots instead of just white space.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addvspace, Next: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Prev: \dotfill, Up: Spaces 19.9 '\addvspace' ================= '\addvspace{length}' The '\addvspace' command normally adds a vertical space of height length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous '\addvspace' command, then this command will not add more space than is needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to 'length'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Next: \vfill, Prev: \addvspace, Up: Spaces 19.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' ==================================== These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the document class. '\bigskip' The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt'). '\medskip' The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt'). '\smallskip' The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt').  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vfill, Next: \vspace, Prev: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, Up: Spaces 19.11 '\vfill' ============== The '\vfill' fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to '\vspace{\fill}' (*note \hfill::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vspace, Prev: \vfill, Up: Spaces 19.12 '\vspace[*]{LENGTH}' ========================== Synopsis: \vspace[*]{LENGTH} The '\vspace' command adds the vertical space LENGTH, i.e., a rubber length. LENGTH can be negative or positive. Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by '\vspace' at the top or bottom of a page. With the optional '*' argument, the space is not removed.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Boxes, Next: Special insertions, Prev: Spaces, Up: Top 20 Boxes ******** All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands. * Menu: * \mbox:: Horizontal boxes. * \fbox and \framebox:: Put a frame around a box. * lrbox:: An environment like '\sbox'. * \makebox:: Box, adjustable position. * \parbox:: Box with text in paragraph mode. * \raisebox:: Raise or lower text. * \savebox:: Like '\makebox', but save the text for later use. * \sbox:: Like '\mbox', but save the text for later use. * \usebox:: Print saved text.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \mbox, Next: \fbox and \framebox, Up: Boxes 20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}' ================== The '\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \fbox and \framebox, Next: lrbox, Prev: \mbox, Up: Boxes 20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox' ============================ Synopses: \fbox{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} The '\fbox' and '\framebox' commands are like '\mbox', except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. In addition, the '\framebox' command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument. Both commands produce a rule of thickness '\fboxrule' (default '.4pt'), and leave a space of '\fboxsep' (default '3pt') between the rule and the contents of the box. *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the '\framebox' command in the 'picture' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: lrbox, Next: \makebox, Prev: \fbox and \framebox, Up: Boxes 20.3 'lrbox' ============ '\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}' This is the environment form of '\sbox'. The text inside the environment is saved in the box 'cmd', which must have been declared with '\newsavebox'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makebox, Next: \parbox, Prev: lrbox, Up: Boxes 20.4 '\makebox' =============== Synopsis: \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} The '\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the TEXT specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional WIDTH argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values: 'c' Centered (default). 'l' Flush left. 'r' Flush right. 's' Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain stretchable space for this to work. '\makebox' is also used within the picture environment *note \makebox (picture)::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \parbox, Next: \raisebox, Prev: \makebox, Up: Boxes 20.5 '\parbox' ============== Synopsis: \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT} The '\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in 'paragraph' mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a '\parbox' argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::). '\parbox' has two mandatory arguments: WIDTH the width of the parbox; TEXT the text that goes inside the parbox. The optional POSITION argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top). The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box. The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used. 't' text is placed at the top of the box. 'c' text is centered in the box. 'b' text is placed at the bottom of the box. 's' stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raisebox, Next: \savebox, Prev: \parbox, Up: Boxes 20.6 '\raisebox' ================ Synopsis: \raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text} The '\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). TEXT itself is processed in LR mode. The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \savebox, Next: \sbox, Prev: \raisebox, Up: Boxes 20.7 '\savebox' =============== Synopsis: \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with '\makebox' (*note \makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \sbox, Next: \usebox, Prev: \savebox, Up: Boxes 20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' =========================== Synopsis: \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT} '\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD. \BOXCMD must have been previously declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \usebox, Prev: \sbox, Up: Boxes 20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}' ======================= Synopsis: \usebox{\BOXCMD} '\usebox' produces the box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by a '\savebox' command (*note \savebox::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Special insertions, Next: Splitting the input, Prev: Boxes, Up: Top 21 Special insertions ********************* LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. * Menu: * Reserved characters:: Inserting '# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }' * Text symbols:: Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. * Accents:: Inserting accents. * Non-English characters:: Inserting other non-English characters. * \rule:: Inserting lines and rectangles. * \today:: Inserting today's date.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Reserved characters, Next: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions 21.1 Reserved characters ======================== The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called "reserved characters" or "special characters". # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX will do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as itself, include a '\' in front of the character. For example, '\$' will produce '$' in your output. One exception to this rule is '\' itself, because '\\' has its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing '$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter '\' is produced by using '\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::). Also, '\~' and '\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a standalone '~' or '^', you can again use a verbatim command. Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you know its number by using the '\symbol' command. For example, the visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'. You can also specify octal numbers with ''' or hexadecimal numbers with '"', so the previous example could also be written as '\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Text symbols, Next: Accents, Prev: Reserved characters, Up: Special insertions 21.2 Text symbols ================= LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1; you may need to load the 'textcomp' package. '\copyright' '\textcopyright' The copyright symbol, (C). '\dag' The dagger symbol (in text). '\ddag' The double dagger symbol (in text). '\LaTeX' The LaTeX logo. '\LaTeXe' The LaTeX2e logo. '\guillemotleft (<<)' '\guillemotright (>>)' '\guilsinglleft (<)' '\guilsinglright (>)' Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: <<, >>, <, >. '\ldots' '\dots' '\textellipsis' An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '...'. '\ldots' and '\dots' also work in math mode. '\lq' Left (opening) quote: '. '\P' '\textparagraph' Paragraph sign (pilcrow). '\pounds' '\textsterling' English pounds sterling: #. '\quotedblbase (,,)' '\quotesinglbase (,)' Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: ,, and ,. '\rq' Right (closing) quote: '. '\S' Section symbol. '\TeX' The TeX logo. '\textasciicircum' ASCII circumflex: ^. '\textasciitilde' ASCII tilde: ~. '\textasteriskcentered' Centered asterisk: *. '\textbackslash' Backslash: \. '\textbar' Vertical bar: |. '\textbardbl' Double vertical bar. '\textbigcircle' Big circle symbol. '\textbraceleft' Left brace: {. '\textbraceright' Right brace: }. '\textbullet' Bullet: *. '\textcircled{LETTER}' LETTER in a circle, as in (R). '\textcompwordmark' '\textcapitalwordmark' '\textascenderwordmark' Composite word mark (invisible). The '\textcapital...' form has the cap height of the font, while the '\textascender...' form has the ascender height. '\textdagger' Dagger: \dag. '\textdaggerdbl' Double dagger: \ddag. '\textdollar (or '$')' Dollar sign: $. '\textemdash (or '---')' Em-dash: -- (for punctuation). '\textendash (or '--')' En-dash: -- (for ranges). '\texteuro' The Euro symbol: Euro. '\textexclamdown (or '!`')' Upside down exclamation point: !. '\textgreater' Greater than: >. '\textless' Less than: <. '\textleftarrow' Left arrow. '\textordfeminine' '\textordmasculine' Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: a, o. '\textperiodcentered' Centered period: \cdot. '\textquestiondown (or '?`')' Upside down question mark: ?. '\textquotedblleft (or '``')' Double left quote: ". '\textquotedblright (or ''')' Double right quote: ". '\textquoteleft (or '`')' Single left quote: '. '\textquoteright (or ''')' Single right quote: '. '\textquotestraightbase' '\textquotestraightdblbase' Single and double straight quotes on the baseline. '\textregistered' Registered symbol: (R). '\textrightarrow' Right arrow. '\textthreequartersemdash' "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\texttrademark' Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}. '\texttwelveudash' "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\textunderscore' Underscore: _. '\textvisiblespace' Visible space symbol.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Accents, Next: Non-English characters, Prev: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions 21.3 Accents ============ LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, through the 'babel' package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters. The '\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1. '\"' '\capitaldieresis' Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in o". '\'' '\capitalacute' Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the 'tabbing' environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note tabbing::). '\.' Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. '\=' '\capitalmacron' Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=. '\^' '\capitalcircumflex' Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^. '\`' '\capitalgrave' Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`. In the 'tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin (*note tabbing::). '\~' '\capitaltilde' Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~. '\b' Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. '\c' '\capitalcedilla' Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in c,. '\d' '\capitaldotaccent' Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. '\H' '\capitalhungarumlaut' Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''. '\i' Produces a dotless i, as in 'i'. '\j' Produces a dotless j, as in 'j'. '\k' '\capitalogonek' Produces a letter with ogonek, as in 'o;'. Not available in the OT1 encoding. '\r' '\capitalring' Produces a ring accent, as in 'o*'. '\t' '\capitaltie' '\newtie' '\capitalnewtie' Produces a tie-after accent, as in 'oo['. The '\newtie' form is centered in its box. '\u' '\capitalbreve' Produces a breve accent, as in 'o('. '\underbar' Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text. The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::. '\v' '\capitalcaron' Produces a ha'c) or (the multi-lingual) 'xindy' (). This results in a '.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index. The index is usually generated with the '\printindex' command. This is defined in the 'makeidx' package, so '\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to be in the preamble. The rubber length '\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in the printed index; its default value is '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'. The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index. The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic, .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Letters, Next: Terminal input/output, Prev: Front/back matter, Up: Top 24 Letters ********** You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The 'letter' document class is designed to make a number of letters at once, although you can make just one if you so desire. Your '.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum: \documentclass{letter} \begin{document} ... letters ... \end{document} Each letter is a 'letter' environment, whose argument is the name and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St. \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} ... \end{letter} The letter itself begins with the '\opening' command. The text of the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that make no sense in a letter, like '\chapter', do not work. The letter closes with a '\closing' command. After the 'closing', you can have additional material. The '\cc' command produces the usual "cc: ...". There's also a similar '\encl' command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use '\\' to separate the items. These commands are used with the 'letter' class. * Menu: * \address:: Your return address. * \cc:: Cc list. * \closing:: Saying goodbye. * \encl:: List of enclosed material. * \location:: Your organization's address. * \makelabels:: Making address labels. * \name:: Your name, for the return address. * \opening:: Saying hello. * \ps:: Adding a postscript. * \signature:: Your signature. * \startbreaks:: Allow page breaks. * \stopbreaks:: Disallow page breaks. * \telephone:: Your phone number.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \address, Next: \cc, Up: Letters 24.1 \address{RETURN-ADDRESS} ============================= The '\address' specifies the return address of a letter, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the address should be separated by '\\' commands. If you do not make an '\address' declaration, then the letter will be formatted for copying onto your organization's standard letterhead. (*Note Overview::, for details on your local implementation). If you give an '\address' declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a personal letter.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cc, Next: \closing, Prev: \address, Up: Letters 24.2 '\cc' ========== Synopsis: \cc{NAME1\\NAME2} Produce a list of NAMEs the letter was copied to. Each name is printed on a separate line.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \closing, Next: \encl, Prev: \cc, Up: Letters 24.3 '\closing' =============== Synopsis: \closing{text} A letter closes with a '\closing' command, for example, \closing{Best Regards,}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \encl, Next: \location, Prev: \closing, Up: Letters 24.4 '\encl' ============ Synopsis: \encl{LINE1\\LINE2} Declare a list of one more enclosures.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \location, Next: \makelabels, Prev: \encl, Up: Letters 24.5 '\location' ================ '\location{address}' This modifies your organization's standard address. This only appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makelabels, Next: \name, Prev: \location, Up: Letters 24.6 '\makelabels' ================== '\makelabels{number}' If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \name, Next: \opening, Prev: \makelabels, Up: Letters 24.7 '\name' ============ '\name{June Davenport}' Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \opening, Next: \ps, Prev: \name, Up: Letters 24.8 '\opening{TEXT}' ===================== Synopsis: \opening{TEXT} A letter begins with the '\opening' command. The mandatory argument, TEXT, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. For instance: \opening{Dear Joe,}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ps, Next: \signature, Prev: \opening, Up: Letters 24.9 '\ps' ========== Use the '\ps' command to start a postscript in a letter, after '\closing'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \signature, Next: \startbreaks, Prev: \ps, Up: Letters 24.10 '\signature{TEXT}' ======================== Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space for your signature. '\\' starts a new line within TEXT as usual.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \startbreaks, Next: \stopbreaks, Prev: \signature, Up: Letters 24.11 '\startbreaks' ==================== '\startbreaks' Used after a '\stopbreaks' command to allow page breaks again.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \stopbreaks, Next: \telephone, Prev: \startbreaks, Up: Letters 24.12 '\stopbreaks' =================== '\stopbreaks' Inhibit page breaks until a '\startbreaks' command occurs.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \telephone, Prev: \stopbreaks, Up: Letters 24.13 '\telephone' ================== '\telephone{number}' This is your telephone number. This only appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Terminal input/output, Next: Command line, Prev: Letters, Up: Top 25 Terminal input/output ************************ * Menu: * \typein:: Read text from the terminal. * \typeout:: Write text to the terminal.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \typein, Next: \typeout, Up: Terminal input/output 25.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}' ======================== Synopsis: \typein[\CMD]{MSG} '\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional \CMD argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command. If the \CMD argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \typeout, Prev: \typein, Up: Terminal input/output 25.2 '\typeout{MSG}' ==================== Synopsis: \typeout{MSG} Prints 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file. Commands in 'msg' that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. A '\space' command in 'msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A '^^J' in 'msg' prints a newline.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line, Next: Document templates, Prev: Terminal input/output, Up: Top 26 Command line *************** The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses '.tex' as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You can also specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash. For example, this processes 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error: latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with '-' or '--'. For a list of those options, try 'latex --help'. If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a '*' prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type '\stop' (and return) and it will prematurely end the document. *Note TeX engines::, for other system commands invoking LaTeX.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document templates, Next: Concept Index, Prev: Command line, Up: Top Appendix A Document templates ***************************** Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at . * Menu: * beamer template:: * book template:: * tugboat template::  File: latex2e.info, Node: beamer template, Next: book template, Up: Document templates A.1 'beamer' template ===================== The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template: \documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2007} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document} One web resource for this: .  File: latex2e.info, Node: book template, Next: tugboat template, Prev: beamer template, Up: Document templates A.2 'book' template =================== \documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tugboat template, Prev: book template, Up: Document templates A.3 'tugboat' template ====================== 'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group, . \documentclass{ltugboat} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{ifpdf} \ifpdf \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref} \else \usepackage{url} \fi \title{Example \TUB\ article} % repeat info for each author. \author{First Last} \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} \netaddress{user (at) example dot org} \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} \begin{document} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This is an example article for \TUB{}. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} This is an example article for \TUB, from \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the \texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output. Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively. The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more: % verbatim blocks are often better in \small \begin{verbatim}[\small] \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe \Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX \PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS \SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE \Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag \careof \thinskip \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use! \cs{fred} -> \fred \env{fred} -> \begin{fred} \meta{fred} -> \nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 \booktitle{Book of Fred} \end{verbatim} For more information, see the ltubguid document at: \url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} (we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references). Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. \bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style \nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty \bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX \makesignature \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Concept Index, Next: Command Index, Prev: Document templates, Up: Top Concept Index ************* [index] * Menu: * '*' prompt: Command line. (line 18) * *-form of defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 13) * *-form of environment commands: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 15) * *-form of sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 31) * '.glo' file: Glossaries. (line 8) * '.idx' file: Indexes. (line 9) * '.ind' file: Indexes. (line 23) * 'see' and 'see also' index entries: Indexes. (line 16) * abstracts: abstract. (line 6) * accents: Accents. (line 6) * accents, mathematical: Math accents. (line 6) * accessing any character of a font: Reserved characters. (line 25) * acute accent: Accents. (line 20) * acute accent, math: Math accents. (line 11) * additional packages, loading: Document class options. (line 75) * ae ligature: Non-English characters. (line 15) * align environment, from 'amsmath': eqnarray. (line 6) * aligning equations: eqnarray. (line 6) * alignment via tabbing: tabbing. (line 6) * amsmath package, replacing 'eqnarray': eqnarray. (line 6) * appendix, creating: Sectioning. (line 37) * aring: Non-English characters. (line 11) * arrays, math: array. (line 6) * arrow, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 131) * arrow, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 163) * ascender height: Text symbols. (line 99) * ASCII circumflex, in text: Text symbols. (line 64) * ASCII tilde, in text: Text symbols. (line 67) * asterisk, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 70) * author, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 12) * auxiliary file: Output files. (line 33) * 'babel' package: Accents. (line 6) * backslash, in text: Text symbols. (line 73) * bar, double vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 79) * bar, vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 76) * bar-over accent: Accents. (line 29) * bar-over accent, math: Math accents. (line 14) * bar-under accent: Accents. (line 46) * basics of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6) * 'beamer' template and class: beamer template. (line 6) * bibliography format, open: Document class options. (line 42) * bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX. (line 6) * bibliography, creating (manually): thebibliography. (line 6) * bibTeX, using: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * big circle symbols, in text: Text symbols. (line 82) * black boxes, omitting: Document class options. (line 28) * bold font: Font styles. (line 104) * bold math: Font styles. (line 84) * bold typewriter, avoiding: description. (line 18) * boxes: Boxes. (line 6) * brace, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 85) * brace, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 88) * breaking lines: Line breaking. (line 6) * breaking pages: Page breaking. (line 6) * breve accent: Accents. (line 85) * breve accent, math: Math accents. (line 17) * bug reporting: About this document. (line 6) * bullet symbol: Math symbols. (line 87) * bullet, in text: Text symbols. (line 91) * bulleted lists: itemize. (line 6) * calligraphic letters for math: Font styles. (line 107) * cap height: Text symbols. (line 99) * caron accent: Accents. (line 95) * cc list, in letters: \cc. (line 6) * cedilla accent: Accents. (line 50) * centered asterisk, in text: Text symbols. (line 70) * centered equations: Document class options. (line 32) * centered period, in text: Text symbols. (line 138) * centering text, declaration for: \centering. (line 6) * centering text, environment for: center. (line 6) * characters, accented: Accents. (line 6) * characters, non-English: Non-English characters. (line 6) * characters, reserved: Reserved characters. (line 6) * check accent: Accents. (line 95) * check accent, math: Math accents. (line 20) * circle symbol, big, in text: Text symbols. (line 82) * circled letter, in text: Text symbols. (line 94) * circumflex accent: Accents. (line 33) * circumflex accent, math: Math accents. (line 32) * circumflex, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 64) * class options: Document class options. (line 6) * classes of documents: Document classes. (line 6) * closing letters: \closing. (line 6) * closing quote: Text symbols. (line 55) * code, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6) * command line: Command line. (line 6) * command syntax: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * commands, defining new ones: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * composite word mark, in text: Text symbols. (line 99) * computer programs, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6) * contents file: Output files. (line 43) * copyright symbol: Text symbols. (line 12) * counters, a list of: Counters. (line 6) * counters, defining new: \newcounter. (line 6) * counters, getting value of: \value. (line 6) * counters, setting: \setcounter. (line 6) * creating letters: Letters. (line 6) * creating pictures: picture. (line 6) * creating tables: table. (line 6) * credit footnote: \maketitle. (line 22) * cross references: Cross references. (line 6) * cross references, resolving: Output files. (line 33) * cross referencing with page number: \pageref. (line 6) * cross referencing, symbolic: \ref. (line 6) * currency, dollar: Text symbols. (line 110) * currency, euro: Text symbols. (line 119) * dagger, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 107) * dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 15) * dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 104) * date, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 18) * 'datetime' package: \today. (line 11) * defining a new command: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * defining new environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * defining new fonts: \newfont. (line 6) * defining new theorems: \newtheorem. (line 6) * definitions: Definitions. (line 6) * description lists, creating: description. (line 6) * dieresis accent: Accents. (line 16) * discretionary multiplication: Math miscellany. (line 7) * displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation. (line 6) * displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quote. (line 6) * document class options: Document class options. (line 6) * document class, defined: Starting and ending. (line 14) * document classes: Document classes. (line 6) * document templates: Document templates. (line 6) * dollar sign: Text symbols. (line 110) * dot accent: Accents. (line 25) * dot over accent, math: Math accents. (line 26) * dot-over accent: Accents. (line 25) * dot-under accent: Accents. (line 54) * dotless i: Accents. (line 62) * dotless i, math: Math accents. (line 35) * dotless j: Accents. (line 65) * dotless j, math: Math accents. (line 38) * double angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * double dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 18) * double dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 107) * double dot accent, math: Math accents. (line 23) * double guillemets: Text symbols. (line 30) * double left quote: Text symbols. (line 144) * double low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 52) * double quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 157) * double right quote: Text symbols. (line 147) * double spacing: Low-level font commands. (line 52) * double vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 79) * e-dash: Text symbols. (line 116) * e-TeX: TeX engines. (line 12) * ellipsis: Text symbols. (line 36) * em-dash: Text symbols. (line 113) * em-dash, three-quarters: Text symbols. (line 166) * em-dash, two-thirds: Text symbols. (line 172) * emphasis: Font styles. (line 36) * emphasis <1>: Font styles. (line 110) * enclosure list: \encl. (line 6) * ending & starting: Starting and ending. (line 6) * engines, TeX: TeX engines. (line 6) * enlarge current page: \enlargethispage. (line 6) * environments: Environments. (line 6) * environments, defining: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * equation number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * equation numbers, left vs. right: Document class options. (line 38) * equation numbers, omitting: eqnarray. (line 29) * equations, aligning: eqnarray. (line 6) * equations, environment for: equation. (line 6) * equations, flush left vs. centered: Document class options. (line 32) * es-zet German letter: Non-English characters. (line 47) * eth, Icelandic letter: Non-English characters. (line 19) * euro symbol: Text symbols. (line 119) * exclamation point, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 122) * exponent: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * external files, creating: filecontents. (line 6) * feminine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 135) * figure number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * figures, footnotes in: minipage. (line 21) * figures, inserting: figure. (line 6) * fixed-width font: Font styles. (line 128) * 'float' package: figure. (line 38) * flush left equations: Document class options. (line 32) * flushing floats and starting a page: \clearpage. (line 6) * font commands, low-level: Low-level font commands. (line 6) * font sizes: Font sizes. (line 6) * font styles: Font styles. (line 6) * fonts: Fonts. (line 6) * fonts, new commands for: \newfont. (line 6) * footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6) * footer, parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * footnote number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * footnote parameters: Footnote parameters. (line 6) * footnotes in figures: minipage. (line 21) * footnotes, creating: Footnotes. (line 6) * footnotes, symbolic instead of numbered: Symbolic footnotes. (line 6) * formulas, environment for: equation. (line 6) * formulas, math: Math formulas. (line 6) * forward references, resolving: Output files. (line 33) * fragile commands: \protect. (line 6) * French quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 30) * functions, math: Math functions. (line 6) * global options: Document class options. (line 6) * global options <1>: Document class options. (line 83) * glossaries: Glossaries. (line 6) * glossary package: Glossaries. (line 15) * graphics packages: \line. (line 13) * grave accent: Accents. (line 37) * grave accent, math: Math accents. (line 29) * greater than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 125) * greek letters: Math symbols. (line 6) * ha'c: Tables of contents. (line 16) * .log file: Output files. (line 28) * .lot file: Output files. (line 43) * .lot file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 16) * .pdf file: Output files. (line 20) * .tex, default extension: Command line. (line 6) * .toc file: Output files. (line 43) * .toc file <1>: Tables of contents. (line 6) * 10pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * 11pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * 12pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * @{...}: array. (line 30) * [...] for optional arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * \ character starting commands: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * \" (umlaut accent): Accents. (line 16) * \#: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \$: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \%: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \&: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \' (acute accent): Accents. (line 20) * \' (tabbing): tabbing. (line 45) * \(: Math formulas. (line 16) * \): Math formulas. (line 16) * \*: Math miscellany. (line 6) * \+: tabbing. (line 37) * \,: Spacing in math mode. (line 17) * \-: tabbing. (line 41) * \- (hyphenation): \- (hyphenation). (line 6) * \. (dot-over accent): Accents. (line 25) * \/: \/. (line 6) * \:: Spacing in math mode. (line 15) * \;: Spacing in math mode. (line 12) * \<: tabbing. (line 33) * \= (macron accent): Accents. (line 29) * \= (tabbing): tabbing. (line 27) * \>: tabbing. (line 31) * \> <1>: Spacing in math mode. (line 15) * \> (tabbing): tabbing. (line 30) * \@: \@. (line 6) * \@fnsymbol: Symbolic footnotes. (line 11) * \a (tabbing): tabbing. (line 60) * \a' (acute accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 61) * \a= (macron accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 61) * \aa (aa): Non-English characters. (line 11) * \AA (AA): Non-English characters. (line 11) * \acute: Math accents. (line 10) * \addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT}: \addcontentsline. (line 6) * \address: \address. (line 6) * \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: \addtocontents. (line 6) * \addtocounter: \addtocounter. (line 6) * \addtolength: \addtolength. (line 6) * \addvspace: \addvspace. (line 6) * \ae (ae): Non-English characters. (line 15) * \AE (AE): Non-English characters. (line 15) * \aleph: Math symbols. (line 14) * \alph: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 9) * \Alph: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 12) * \Alph example: enumerate. (line 39) * \alpha: Math symbols. (line 17) * \alsoname: Indexes. (line 20) * \amalg: Math symbols. (line 20) * \and for '\author': \maketitle. (line 12) * \angle: Math symbols. (line 23) * \appendix: Sectioning. (line 37) * \approx: Math symbols. (line 26) * \arabic: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 15) * \arccos: Math functions. (line 9) * \arcsin: Math functions. (line 12) * \arctan: Math functions. (line 15) * \arg: Math functions. (line 18) * \arraycolsep: array. (line 42) * \arrayrulewidth: tabular. (line 100) * \arraystretch: tabular. (line 104) * \ast: Math symbols. (line 29) * \asymp: Math symbols. (line 32) * \author{NAME \and NAME2}: \maketitle. (line 11) * \a` (grave accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 61) * \b (bar-under accent): Accents. (line 46) * \backslash: Math symbols. (line 35) * \backslash <1>: Reserved characters. (line 16) * \bar: Math accents. (line 13) * \baselineskip: Low-level font commands. (line 46) * \baselinestretch: Low-level font commands. (line 52) * \begin: Environments. (line 6) * \beta: Math symbols. (line 38) * \bf: Font styles. (line 103) * \bfseries: Font styles. (line 42) * \bibitem: \bibitem. (line 6) * \bibliography: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * \bibliographystyle: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * \bigcap: Math symbols. (line 41) * \bigcap <1>: Math symbols. (line 71) * \bigcirc: Math symbols. (line 44) * \bigcup: Math symbols. (line 47) * \bigodot: Math symbols. (line 50) * \bigoplus: Math symbols. (line 53) * \bigotimes: Math symbols. (line 56) * \bigskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 10) * \bigskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 10) * \bigsqcup: Math symbols. (line 65) * \bigtriangledown: Math symbols. (line 59) * \bigtriangleup: Math symbols. (line 62) * \biguplus: Math symbols. (line 68) * \bigwedge: Math symbols. (line 74) * \bmod: Math functions. (line 21) * \boldmath: Math formulas. (line 29) * \bot: Math symbols. (line 77) * \bottomfraction: figure. (line 67) * \bowtie: Math symbols. (line 80) * \Box: Math symbols. (line 83) * \breve: Math accents. (line 16) * \bullet: Math symbols. (line 86) * \c (cedilla accent): Accents. (line 50) * \cal: Font styles. (line 106) * \cap: Math symbols. (line 89) * \capitalacute: Accents. (line 20) * \capitalbreve: Accents. (line 85) * \capitalcaron: Accents. (line 95) * \capitalcedilla: Accents. (line 50) * \capitalcircumflex: Accents. (line 33) * \capitaldieresis: Accents. (line 16) * \capitaldotaccent: Accents. (line 54) * \capitalgrave: Accents. (line 37) * \capitalhungarumlaut: Accents. (line 58) * \capitalmacron: Accents. (line 29) * \capitalnewtie: Accents. (line 80) * \capitalogonek: Accents. (line 69) * \capitalring: Accents. (line 74) * \capitaltie: Accents. (line 80) * \capitaltilde: Accents. (line 43) * \caption: figure. (line 60) * \cc: \cc. (line 6) * \cdot: Math symbols. (line 92) * \cdots: Math miscellany. (line 10) * \centering: \centering. (line 6) * \chapter: Sectioning. (line 9) * \check: Math accents. (line 19) * \chi: Math symbols. (line 95) * \circ: Math symbols. (line 98) * \circle: \circle. (line 6) * \cite: \cite. (line 6) * \cleardoublepage: \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * \clearpage: \clearpage. (line 6) * \cline: \cline. (line 6) * \closing: \closing. (line 6) * \clubsuit: Math symbols. (line 101) * \columnsep: \twocolumn. (line 16) * \columnseprule: \twocolumn. (line 19) * \columnwidth: \twocolumn. (line 23) * \cong: Math symbols. (line 104) * \contentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 29) * \coprod: Math symbols. (line 107) * \copyright: Text symbols. (line 10) * \cos: Math functions. (line 24) * \cosh: Math functions. (line 27) * \cot: Math functions. (line 30) * \coth: Math functions. (line 33) * \csc: Math functions. (line 36) * \cup: Math symbols. (line 110) * \d (dot-under accent): Accents. (line 54) * \dag: Text symbols. (line 14) * \dagger: Math symbols. (line 113) * \dashbox: \dashbox. (line 6) * \dashv: Math symbols. (line 116) * \date{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 17) * \day: \day \month \year. (line 6) * \dblfloatpagefraction: \twocolumn. (line 34) * \dblfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 38) * \dbltextfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 43) * \dbltopfraction: \twocolumn. (line 29) * \ddag: Text symbols. (line 17) * \ddagger: Math symbols. (line 119) * \ddot: Math accents. (line 22) * \ddots: Math miscellany. (line 14) * \deg: Math functions. (line 39) * \Delta: Math symbols. (line 122) * \delta: Math symbols. (line 125) * \depth: Predefined lengths. (line 10) * \det: Math functions. (line 42) * \dh (d): Non-English characters. (line 19) * \DH (D): Non-English characters. (line 19) * \Diamond: Math symbols. (line 128) * \diamond: Math symbols. (line 131) * \diamondsuit: Math symbols. (line 134) * \dim: Math functions. (line 45) * \displaystyle: Math formulas. (line 34) * \div: Math symbols. (line 137) * \dj: Non-English characters. (line 23) * \DJ: Non-English characters. (line 23) * \documentclass: Document classes. (line 6) * \documentclass, commands before: filecontents. (line 14) * \dot: Math accents. (line 25) * \doteq: Math symbols. (line 140) * \dotfill: \dotfill. (line 6) * \dots: Text symbols. (line 34) * \doublerulesep: tabular. (line 108) * \downarrow: Math symbols. (line 143) * \Downarrow: Math symbols. (line 146) * \ell: Math symbols. (line 149) * \em: Font styles. (line 109) * \emph: Font styles. (line 36) * \emptyset: Math symbols. (line 152) * \encl: \encl. (line 6) * \end: Environments. (line 6) * \enlargethispage: \enlargethispage. (line 6) * \enumi: enumerate. (line 29) * \enumii: enumerate. (line 29) * \enumiii: enumerate. (line 29) * \enumiv: enumerate. (line 29) * \epsilon: Math symbols. (line 155) * \equiv: Math symbols. (line 158) * \eta: Math symbols. (line 161) * \evensidemargin: Document class options. (line 57) * \exists: Math symbols. (line 164) * \exp: Math functions. (line 48) * \extracolsep: tabular. (line 71) * \fbox: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6) * \fboxrule: \framebox (picture). (line 14) * \fboxrule <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 18) * \fboxsep: \framebox (picture). (line 14) * \fboxsep <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 18) * \fill: \hfill. (line 9) * \flat: Math symbols. (line 167) * \floatpagefraction: figure. (line 70) * \floatsep: figure. (line 85) * \flushbottom: \flushbottom. (line 6) * \fnsymbol: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 24) * \fnsymbol, and footnotes: Symbolic footnotes. (line 11) * \fontencoding: Low-level font commands. (line 11) * \fontfamily: Low-level font commands. (line 14) * \fontseries: Low-level font commands. (line 23) * \fontshape: Low-level font commands. (line 34) * \fontsize: Low-level font commands. (line 46) * \footnote: \footnote. (line 6) * \footnotemark: \footnotemark. (line 6) * \footnoterule: Footnote parameters. (line 6) * \footnotesep: Footnote parameters. (line 12) * \footnotesize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \footnotetext: \footnotetext. (line 6) * \footskip: Page layout parameters. (line 16) * \forall: Math symbols. (line 170) * \frac: Math miscellany. (line 18) * \frac{num}{den}: Math miscellany. (line 17) * \frame: \frame. (line 6) * \framebox: \framebox (picture). (line 6) * \framebox <1>: \fbox and \framebox. (line 6) * \frown: Math symbols. (line 173) * \fussy: \fussy. (line 6) * \Gamma: Math symbols. (line 176) * \gamma: Math symbols. (line 179) * \gcd: Math functions. (line 51) * \ge: Math symbols. (line 182) * \geq: Math symbols. (line 185) * \gets: Math symbols. (line 188) * \gg: Math symbols. (line 191) * \glossary: Glossaries. (line 8) * \glossaryentry: Glossaries. (line 11) * \grave: Math accents. (line 28) * \guillemotleft (<<): Text symbols. (line 26) * \guillemotright (>>): Text symbols. (line 27) * \guilsinglleft (<): Text symbols. (line 28) * \guilsinglright (>): Text symbols. (line 29) * \H (Hungarian umlaut accent): Accents. (line 58) * \hat: Math accents. (line 31) * \hbar: Math symbols. (line 194) * \headheight: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * \headsep: Page layout parameters. (line 11) * \heartsuit: Math symbols. (line 197) * \height: Predefined lengths. (line 8) * \hfill: \hfill. (line 6) * \hline: \hline. (line 6) * \hom: Math functions. (line 54) * \hookleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 200) * \hookrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 203) * \hrulefill: \hrulefill. (line 6) * \hsize: Page layout parameters. (line 56) * \hspace: \hspace. (line 6) * \huge: Font sizes. (line 11) * \Huge: Font sizes. (line 11) * \hyphenation: \hyphenation. (line 6) * \i (dotless i): Accents. (line 62) * \iff: Math symbols. (line 206) * \ij (ij): Non-English characters. (line 27) * \IJ (IJ): Non-English characters. (line 27) * \Im: Math symbols. (line 209) * \imath: Math accents. (line 34) * \in: Math symbols. (line 212) * \include: \include. (line 6) * \includeonly: \includeonly. (line 6) * \indent: \indent. (line 6) * \index: Indexes. (line 9) * \indexentry: Indexes. (line 12) * \inf: Math functions. (line 57) * \infty: Math symbols. (line 215) * \input: \input. (line 6) * \int: Math symbols. (line 218) * \intextsep: figure. (line 89) * \iota: Math symbols. (line 221) * \it: Font styles. (line 112) * \item: description. (line 14) * \item <1>: enumerate. (line 19) * \item <2>: itemize. (line 6) * \itemindent: itemize. (line 49) * \itemsep: itemize. (line 71) * \itshape: Font styles. (line 33) * \j (dotless j): Accents. (line 65) * \jmath: Math accents. (line 37) * \Join: Math symbols. (line 224) * \k (ogonek): Accents. (line 69) * \kappa: Math symbols. (line 227) * \ker: Math functions. (line 60) * \kill: tabbing. (line 65) * \l (/l): Non-English characters. (line 31) * \L (/L): Non-English characters. (line 31) * \label: \label. (line 6) * \labelenumi: enumerate. (line 33) * \labelenumii: enumerate. (line 33) * \labelenumiii: enumerate. (line 33) * \labelenumiv: enumerate. (line 33) * \labelitemi: itemize. (line 29) * \labelitemii: itemize. (line 29) * \labelitemiii: itemize. (line 29) * \labelitemiv: itemize. (line 29) * \labelsep: itemize. (line 52) * \labelwidth: itemize. (line 55) * \Lambda: Math symbols. (line 230) * \lambda: Math symbols. (line 233) * \land: Math symbols. (line 236) * \langle: Math symbols. (line 239) * \large: Font sizes. (line 11) * \Large: Font sizes. (line 11) * \LARGE: Font sizes. (line 11) * \LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 20) * \LaTeXe: Text symbols. (line 23) * \lbrace: Math symbols. (line 242) * \lbrack: Math symbols. (line 245) * \lceil: Math symbols. (line 248) * \ldots: Text symbols. (line 33) * \le: Math symbols. (line 251) * \leadsto: Math symbols. (line 254) * \left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2: Math miscellany. (line 20) * \Leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 256) * \leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 259) * \lefteqn: eqnarray. (line 34) * \leftharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 262) * \leftharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 265) * \leftmargin: itemize. (line 36) * \leftmargini: itemize. (line 36) * \leftmarginii: itemize. (line 36) * \leftmarginiii: itemize. (line 36) * \leftmarginiv: itemize. (line 36) * \leftmarginv: itemize. (line 36) * \leftmarginvi: itemize. (line 36) * \Leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 268) * \leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 271) * \leq: Math symbols. (line 274) * \lfloor: Math symbols. (line 277) * \lg: Math functions. (line 63) * \lhd: Math symbols. (line 280) * \lim: Math functions. (line 66) * \liminf: Math functions. (line 69) * \limsup: Math functions. (line 72) * \line: \line. (line 6) * \linebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * \linespread: Low-level font commands. (line 59) * \linethickness: \linethickness. (line 6) * \linewidth: Page layout parameters. (line 21) * \listoffigures: Tables of contents. (line 16) * \listoftables: Tables of contents. (line 16) * \listparindent: itemize. (line 58) * \ll: Math symbols. (line 283) * \ln: Math functions. (line 75) * \lnot: Math symbols. (line 286) * \location: \location. (line 6) * \log: Math functions. (line 78) * \longleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 289) * \longleftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 292) * \longmapsto: Math symbols. (line 295) * \longrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 298) * \lor: Math symbols. (line 301) * \lq: Text symbols. (line 39) * \makebox: \makebox. (line 6) * \makebox (for 'picture'): \makebox (picture). (line 6) * \makeglossary: Glossaries. (line 6) * \makeindex: Indexes. (line 6) * \makelabels: \makelabels. (line 6) * \maketitle: \maketitle. (line 6) * \mapsto: Math symbols. (line 304) * \marginpar: Marginal notes. (line 6) * \marginparpush: Marginal notes. (line 33) * \marginparsep: Marginal notes. (line 37) * \marginparwidth: Marginal notes. (line 41) * \markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 29) * \markright{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 36) * \mathbf: Font styles. (line 66) * \mathcal: Font styles. (line 82) * \mathnormal: Font styles. (line 79) * \mathring: Math accents. (line 40) * \mathrm: Font styles. (line 63) * \mathsf: Font styles. (line 69) * \mathtt: Font styles. (line 72) * \mathversion: Font styles. (line 84) * \max: Math functions. (line 81) * \mbox: \mbox. (line 6) * \mbox, and LR mode: Modes. (line 24) * \mdseries: Font styles. (line 39) * \medskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 15) * \medskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 15) * \mho: Math symbols. (line 307) * \mid: Math symbols. (line 309) * \min: Math functions. (line 84) * \models: Math symbols. (line 312) * \month: \day \month \year. (line 6) * \mp: Math symbols. (line 315) * \mu: Math symbols. (line 318) * \multicolumn: \multicolumn. (line 6) * \multiput: \multiput. (line 6) * \nabla: Math symbols. (line 321) * \name: \name. (line 6) * \natural: Math symbols. (line 324) * \ne: Math symbols. (line 327) * \nearrow: Math symbols. (line 330) * \neg: Math symbols. (line 333) * \neq: Math symbols. (line 336) * \newcommand: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * \newcounter: \newcounter. (line 6) * \newenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * \newfont: \newfont. (line 6) * \newlength: \newlength. (line 6) * \newline: \newline. (line 6) * \NEWLINE: \SPACE. (line 6) * \newpage: \newpage. (line 6) * \newsavebox: \newsavebox. (line 6) * \newtheorem: \newtheorem. (line 6) * \newtie: Accents. (line 80) * \ng: Non-English characters. (line 35) * \NG: Non-English characters. (line 35) * \ni: Math symbols. (line 339) * \nocite: \nocite. (line 6) * \nocorr: Font styles. (line 21) * \nocorrlist: Font styles. (line 21) * \nofiles: Tables of contents. (line 21) * \noindent: \noindent. (line 6) * \nolinebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * \nonumber: eqnarray. (line 29) * \nopagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * \normalfont: Font styles. (line 60) * \normalmarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 21) * \normalsize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \not: Math symbols. (line 342) * \notin: Math symbols. (line 345) * \nu: Math symbols. (line 348) * \nwarrow: Math symbols. (line 351) * \o (/o): Non-English characters. (line 39) * \O (/O): Non-English characters. (line 39) * \obeycr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * \oddsidemargin: Document class options. (line 57) * \odot: Math symbols. (line 354) * \oe (oe): Non-English characters. (line 43) * \OE (OE): Non-English characters. (line 43) * \oint: Math symbols. (line 357) * \oldstylenums: Font styles. (line 88) * \Omega: Math symbols. (line 360) * \omega: Math symbols. (line 363) * \ominus: Math symbols. (line 366) * \onecolumn: \onecolumn. (line 6) * \opening: \opening. (line 6) * \oplus: Math symbols. (line 369) * \oslash: Math symbols. (line 372) * \otimes: Math symbols. (line 375) * \oval: \oval. (line 6) * \overbrace{TEXT}: Math miscellany. (line 25) * \overline{TEXT}: Math miscellany. (line 29) * \owns: Math symbols. (line 378) * \P: Text symbols. (line 42) * \pagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * \pagenumbering: \pagenumbering. (line 6) * \pageref: \pageref. (line 6) * \pagestyle: \pagestyle. (line 6) * \paragraph: Sectioning. (line 14) * \parallel: Math symbols. (line 381) * \parbox: \parbox. (line 6) * \parindent: minipage. (line 17) * \parindent <1>: \indent. (line 6) * \parsep: itemize. (line 76) * \parskip: \parskip. (line 6) * \parskip example: itemize. (line 92) * \part: Sectioning. (line 8) * \partial: Math symbols. (line 384) * \partopsep: itemize. (line 86) * \perp: Math symbols. (line 387) * \phi: Math symbols. (line 390) * \Pi: Math symbols. (line 393) * \pi: Math symbols. (line 396) * \pm: Math symbols. (line 399) * \pmod: Math functions. (line 87) * \poptabs: tabbing. (line 71) * \poptabs <1>: tabbing. (line 72) * \pounds: Text symbols. (line 46) * \Pr: Math functions. (line 90) * \prec: Math symbols. (line 402) * \preceq: Math symbols. (line 405) * \prime: Math symbols. (line 408) * \prod: Math symbols. (line 411) * \propto: Math symbols. (line 414) * \protect: \protect. (line 6) * \ps: \ps. (line 6) * \Psi: Math symbols. (line 417) * \psi: Math symbols. (line 420) * \pushtabs: tabbing. (line 74) * \put: \put. (line 6) * \quotedblbase (,,): Text symbols. (line 50) * \quotesinglbase (,): Text symbols. (line 51) * \r (ring accent): Accents. (line 74) * \raggedbottom: \raggedbottom. (line 6) * \raggedleft: \raggedleft. (line 6) * \raggedright: \raggedright. (line 6) * \raisebox: \raisebox. (line 6) * \rangle: Math symbols. (line 423) * \rbrace: Math symbols. (line 426) * \rbrack: Math symbols. (line 429) * \rceil: Math symbols. (line 432) * \Re: Math symbols. (line 435) * \ref: \ref. (line 6) * \refstepcounter: \refstepcounter. (line 6) * \renewenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * \restorecr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * \reversemarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 21) * \rfloor: Math symbols. (line 438) * \rhd: Math symbols. (line 441) * \rho: Math symbols. (line 444) * \right: Math miscellany. (line 21) * \Rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 447) * \rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 450) * \rightharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 453) * \rightharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 456) * \rightleftharpoons: Math symbols. (line 459) * \rightmargin: itemize. (line 62) * \rm: Font styles. (line 115) * \rmfamily: Font styles. (line 30) * \roman: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 18) * \Roman: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 21) * \rq: Text symbols. (line 54) * \rule: \rule. (line 6) * \S: Text symbols. (line 57) * \savebox: \savebox. (line 6) * \sbox: \sbox. (line 6) * \sc: Font styles. (line 118) * \scriptsize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \scshape: Font styles. (line 54) * \searrow: Math symbols. (line 462) * \sec: Math functions. (line 93) * \section: Sectioning. (line 11) * \seename: Indexes. (line 20) * \selectfont: Low-level font commands. (line 65) * \setcounter: \setcounter. (line 6) * \setlength: \setlength. (line 6) * \setminus: Math symbols. (line 465) * \settodepth: \settodepth. (line 6) * \settoheight: \settoheight. (line 6) * \settowidth: \settowidth. (line 6) * \sf: Font styles. (line 121) * \sffamily: Font styles. (line 51) * \sharp: Math symbols. (line 468) * \shortstack: \shortstack. (line 6) * \Sigma: Math symbols. (line 471) * \sigma: Math symbols. (line 474) * \signature: \signature. (line 6) * \sim: Math symbols. (line 477) * \simeq: Math symbols. (line 480) * \sin: Math functions. (line 96) * \sinh: Math functions. (line 99) * \sl: Font styles. (line 124) * \slshape: Font styles. (line 48) * \small: Font sizes. (line 11) * \smallint: Math symbols. (line 483) * \smallskip: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 20) * \smallskipamount: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip. (line 20) * \smile: Math symbols. (line 486) * \SPACE: \SPACE. (line 6) * \spadesuit: Math symbols. (line 489) * \sqcap: Math symbols. (line 492) * \sqcup: Math symbols. (line 495) * \sqrt[ROOT]{arg}: Math miscellany. (line 32) * \sqsubset: Math symbols. (line 498) * \sqsubseteq: Math symbols. (line 501) * \sqsupset: Math symbols. (line 504) * \sqsupseteq: Math symbols. (line 507) * \ss (ss): Non-English characters. (line 47) * \SS (SS): Non-English characters. (line 47) * \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}: Math miscellany. (line 38) * \star: Math symbols. (line 510) * \startbreaks: \startbreaks. (line 6) * \stepcounter: \stepcounter. (line 6) * \stop: Command line. (line 18) * \stopbreaks: \stopbreaks. (line 6) * \subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 15) * \subsection: Sectioning. (line 12) * \subset: Math symbols. (line 513) * \subseteq: Math symbols. (line 516) * \subsubsection: Sectioning. (line 13) * \succ: Math symbols. (line 519) * \succeq: Math symbols. (line 522) * \sum: Math symbols. (line 525) * \sup: Math functions. (line 102) * \supset: Math symbols. (line 528) * \supseteq: Math symbols. (line 531) * \surd: Math symbols. (line 534) * \swarrow: Math symbols. (line 537) * \symbol: Reserved characters. (line 25) * \t (tie-after accent): Accents. (line 80) * \TAB: \SPACE. (line 6) * \tabbingsep: tabbing. (line 79) * \tabcolsep: tabular. (line 112) * \tableofcontents: Tables of contents. (line 6) * \tan: Math functions. (line 105) * \tanh: Math functions. (line 108) * \tau: Math symbols. (line 540) * \telephone: \telephone. (line 6) * \TeX: Text symbols. (line 60) * \textascenderwordmark: Text symbols. (line 98) * \textasciicircum: Text symbols. (line 63) * \textasciitilde: Text symbols. (line 66) * \textasteriskcentered: Text symbols. (line 69) * \textbackslash: Text symbols. (line 72) * \textbar: Text symbols. (line 75) * \textbardbl: Text symbols. (line 78) * \textbf: Font styles. (line 42) * \textbigcircle: Text symbols. (line 81) * \textbraceleft: Text symbols. (line 84) * \textbraceright: Text symbols. (line 87) * \textbullet: Text symbols. (line 90) * \textcapitalwordmark: Text symbols. (line 97) * \textcircled{LETTER}: Text symbols. (line 93) * \textcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 96) * \textcopyright: Text symbols. (line 11) * \textdagger: Text symbols. (line 103) * \textdaggerdbl: Text symbols. (line 106) * \textdollar (or '$'): Text symbols. (line 109) * \textellipsis: Text symbols. (line 35) * \textemdash (or '---'): Text symbols. (line 112) * \textendash (or '--'): Text symbols. (line 115) * \texteuro: Text symbols. (line 118) * \textexclamdown (or '!`'): Text symbols. (line 121) * \textfloatsep: figure. (line 94) * \textfraction: figure. (line 74) * \textgreater: Text symbols. (line 124) * \textheight: Page layout parameters. (line 29) * \textit: Font styles. (line 33) * \textleftarrow: Text symbols. (line 130) * \textless: Text symbols. (line 127) * \textmd: Font styles. (line 39) * \textnormal: Font styles. (line 60) * \textordfeminine: Text symbols. (line 133) * \textordmasculine: Text symbols. (line 134) * \textparagraph: Text symbols. (line 43) * \textperiodcentered: Text symbols. (line 137) * \textquestiondown (or '?`'): Text symbols. (line 140) * \textquotedblleft (or '``'): Text symbols. (line 143) * \textquotedblright (or '''): Text symbols. (line 146) * \textquoteleft (or '`'): Text symbols. (line 149) * \textquoteright (or '''): Text symbols. (line 152) * \textquotestraightbase: Text symbols. (line 155) * \textquotestraightdblbase: Text symbols. (line 156) * \textregistered: Text symbols. (line 159) * \textrightarrow: Text symbols. (line 162) * \textrm: Font styles. (line 30) * \textsc: Font styles. (line 54) * \textsf: Font styles. (line 51) * \textsl: Font styles. (line 48) * \textsterling: Text symbols. (line 47) * \textthreequartersemdash: Text symbols. (line 165) * \texttrademark: Text symbols. (line 168) * \texttt: Font styles. (line 57) * \texttwelveudash: Text symbols. (line 171) * \textunderscore: Text symbols. (line 174) * \textup: Font styles. (line 45) * \textvisiblespace: Text symbols. (line 177) * \textwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 36) * \th (th): Non-English characters. (line 51) * \TH (TH): Non-English characters. (line 51) * \thanks{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 21) * \theta: Math symbols. (line 543) * \thicklines: \thicklines. (line 6) * \thinlines: \thinlines. (line 6) * \thinspace: \thinspace. (line 6) * \thispagestyle: \thispagestyle. (line 6) * \tilde: Math accents. (line 43) * \times: Math symbols. (line 546) * \tiny: Font sizes. (line 11) * \title{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 25) * \to: Math symbols. (line 549) * \today: \today. (line 6) * \top: Math symbols. (line 552) * \topfraction: figure. (line 79) * \topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 60) * \topsep: itemize. (line 80) * \topskip: Page layout parameters. (line 67) * \totalheight: Predefined lengths. (line 12) * \triangle: Math symbols. (line 555) * \triangleleft: Math symbols. (line 558) * \triangleright: Math symbols. (line 561) * \tt: Font styles. (line 127) * \ttfamily: Font styles. (line 57) * \twocolumn: \twocolumn. (line 6) * \typein: \typein. (line 6) * \typeout: \typeout. (line 6) * \u (breve accent): Accents. (line 85) * \unboldmath: Math formulas. (line 29) * \underbar: Accents. (line 88) * \underbrace{math}: Math miscellany. (line 42) * \underline{text}: Math miscellany. (line 45) * \unitlength: picture. (line 10) * \unlhd: Math symbols. (line 564) * \unrhd: Math symbols. (line 567) * \Uparrow: Math symbols. (line 570) * \uparrow: Math symbols. (line 573) * \Updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 576) * \updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 579) * \uplus: Math symbols. (line 582) * \upshape: Font styles. (line 45) * \Upsilon: Math symbols. (line 585) * \upsilon: Math symbols. (line 588) * \usebox: \usebox. (line 6) * \usecounter: \usecounter. (line 6) * \usefont: Low-level font commands. (line 69) * \usepackage: Document class options. (line 75) * \v (breve accent): Accents. (line 95) * \value: \value. (line 6) * \varepsilon: Math symbols. (line 591) * \varphi: Math symbols. (line 594) * \varpi: Math symbols. (line 597) * \varrho: Math symbols. (line 600) * \varsigma: Math symbols. (line 603) * \vartheta: Math symbols. (line 606) * \vdash: Math symbols. (line 609) * \vdots: Math miscellany. (line 50) * \vdots <1>: Math miscellany. (line 51) * \vec: Math accents. (line 46) * \vector: \vector. (line 6) * \vee: Math symbols. (line 612) * \verb: \verb. (line 6) * \Vert: Math symbols. (line 615) * \vert: Math symbols. (line 618) * \vfill: \vfill. (line 6) * \vline: \vline. (line 6) * \vspace: \vspace. (line 6) * \wedge: Math symbols. (line 621) * \widehat: Math accents. (line 49) * \widehat <1>: Math accents. (line 52) * \width: Predefined lengths. (line 6) * \wp: Math symbols. (line 624) * \wr: Math symbols. (line 627) * \Xi: Math symbols. (line 630) * \xi: Math symbols. (line 633) * \year: \day \month \year. (line 6) * \zeta: Math symbols. (line 636) * \[: Math formulas. (line 16) * \\ (for 'array'): array. (line 27) * \\ (for 'center'): center. (line 13) * \\ (for 'eqnarray'): eqnarray. (line 21) * \\ (for 'flushright'): flushright. (line 12) * \\ (for '\shortstack' objects): \shortstack. (line 20) * \\ (tabbing): tabbing. (line 24) * \\ for 'flushleft': flushleft. (line 12) * \\ for letters: Letters. (line 32) * \\ for 'tabular': tabular. (line 23) * \\ for 'verse': verse. (line 17) * \\ for '\author': \maketitle. (line 12) * \\ for '\title': \maketitle. (line 26) * \\ force line break: \\. (line 6) * \\* (for 'eqnarray'): eqnarray. (line 26) * \]: Math formulas. (line 16) * \^: Reserved characters. (line 21) * \^ (circumflex accent): Accents. (line 33) * \_: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \` (grave accent): Accents. (line 37) * \` (tabbing): tabbing. (line 51) * \{: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \|: Math symbols. (line 11) * \}: Reserved characters. (line 11) * \~: Reserved characters. (line 21) * \~ (tilde accent): Accents. (line 43) * ^: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * _: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * {...} for required arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * a4paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * a5paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * abstract environment: abstract. (line 6) * array environment: array. (line 6) * article class: Document classes. (line 11) * b5paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * book class: Document classes. (line 11) * bottomnumber: figure. (line 100) * center environment: center. (line 6) * clock option to 'slides' class: Document class options. (line 72) * dbltopnumber: figure. (line 104) * description environment: description. (line 6) * displaymath environment: displaymath. (line 6) * displaymath environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * document environment: document. (line 6) * draft option: Document class options. (line 24) * dvipdfmx command: Output files. (line 10) * dvips command: Output files. (line 10) * dvitype command: Output files. (line 10) * enumerate environment: enumerate. (line 6) * eqnarray environment: eqnarray. (line 6) * equation environment: equation. (line 6) * equation environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * etex command: TeX engines. (line 12) * executivepaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * figure: figure. (line 6) * filecontents: filecontents. (line 6) * final option: Document class options. (line 24) * first-latex-doc document: About this document. (line 33) * fleqn option: Document class options. (line 24) * flushleft environment: flushleft. (line 6) * flushright environment: flushright. (line 6) * home page: About this document. (line 6) * indexspace: Indexes. (line 32) * itemize environment: itemize. (line 6) * landscape option: Document class options. (line 24) * latex command: Output files. (line 10) * latex-doc-ptr document: About this document. (line 30) * email address: About this document. (line 17) * legalpaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * leqno option: Document class options. (line 24) * letter: letter. (line 6) * letter class: Document classes. (line 11) * letterpaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * list: list. (line 6) * lR box: picture. (line 66) * lrbox: lrbox. (line 6) * lshort document: About this document. (line 40) * lualatex command: TeX engines. (line 29) * math environment: math. (line 6) * math environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * minipage environment: minipage. (line 6) * notitlepage option: Document class options. (line 24) * onecolumn option: Document class options. (line 51) * oneside option: Document class options. (line 51) * openany option: Document class options. (line 51) * openbib option: Document class options. (line 24) * openright option: Document class options. (line 51) * pdflatex command: Output files. (line 20) * picture: picture. (line 6) * printindex: Indexes. (line 28) * quotation: quotation. (line 6) * quote: quote. (line 6) * report class: Document classes. (line 11) * secnumdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 47) * slides class: Document classes. (line 11) * tabbing environment: tabbing. (line 6) * table: table. (line 6) * tabular environment: tabular. (line 6) * textcomp package: Text symbols. (line 6) * thebibliography: thebibliography. (line 6) * theorem environment: theorem. (line 6) * titlepage environment: titlepage. (line 6) * titlepage option: Document class options. (line 24) * topnumber: figure. (line 108) * totalnumber: figure. (line 112) * twocolumn option: Document class options. (line 51) * twoside option: Document class options. (line 51) * usrguide official documentation: About this document. (line 36) * verbatim environment: verbatim. (line 6) * verse environment: verse. (line 6) * xdvi command: Output files. (line 10) * xelatex command: TeX engines. 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