This is latex2e.info, produced by makeinfo version 6.5 from latex2e.texi. This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document preparation system, version of October 2018. This manual was originally translated from 'LATEX.HLP' v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The LaTeX 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using 'Hypertext Help with LaTeX', by Sheldon Green, and 'LaTeX Command Summary' (for LaTeX 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the TeX Users Group as 'TeXniques' number 10), as reference material. We also gratefully acknowledge additional material appearing in latex2e-reference by Martin Herbert Dietze. (From these references no text was directly copied.) Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 Karl Berry. Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore. Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. INFO-DIR-SECTION TeX START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * LaTeX2e: (latex2e). Unofficial LaTeX reference manual. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY  File: latex2e.info, Node: Top, Next: About this document, Up: (dir) LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual *************************************** This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October 2018) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. * Menu: * About this document:: Bug reporting, etc. * Overview:: What is LaTeX? * Document classes:: Some of the various classes available. * Fonts:: Italic, bold, typewriter, etc. * Layout:: Controlling the page layout. * Sectioning:: Parts, Chapters, Sections, etc. * Cross references:: Automatic referencing. * Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize. * Line breaking:: Influencing line breaks. * Page breaking:: Influencing page breaks. * Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes. * Definitions:: Define your own commands, etc. * Counters:: Internal counters used by LaTeX. * Lengths:: The length commands. * Making paragraphs:: Paragraph commands. * Math formulas:: How to create mathematical formulas. * Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes. * Page styles:: Various styles of page layout. * Spaces:: Horizontal and vertical space. * Boxes:: Making boxes. * Color:: Defining and using colors. * Graphics:: Importing graphics from outside LaTeX. * Special insertions:: Inserting reserved and special characters. * Splitting the input:: Dealing with big files by splitting. * Front/back matter:: Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. * Letters:: The 'letter' class. * Terminal input/output:: User interaction. * Command line:: System-independent command-line behavior. * Document templates:: Starter templates for various document classes. * Index:: General index.  File: latex2e.info, Node: About this document, Next: Overview, Prev: Top, Up: Top 1 About this document ********************* This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (*note Overview::). This document's home page is . There you can get the sources, subscribe to the mailing list or read its archives, see other infrastructure, and get the current output in various formats. In particular, the output comes in two web formats. Probably the most convenient one, shown at , has pages for each topic and so is good for a quick lookup; see also the note there about easy-to-remember links. The other, shown at , has all the information on single page. In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than 'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was frozen decades ago. LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to . This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions. Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation. Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math. The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX. Many other guides by many other people are also available, independent of LaTeX itself; one such is the next item: A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages. Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Overview, Next: Document classes, Prev: About this document, Up: Top 2 Overview of LaTeX ******************* LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics. A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the TeX engine. The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user. The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX". It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with '\LaTeX'. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'. * Menu: * Starting and ending:: The standard beginning and end of a document. * Output files:: Files produced. * TeX engines:: Programs that can compile TeX and LaTeX. * LaTeX command syntax:: General syntax of LaTeX commands. * Environment:: Area of the source giving distinct behavior. * CTAN:: Our repository.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Starting and ending, Next: Output files, Up: Overview 2.1 Starting and ending ======================= LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. This is a small example. \documentclass{article} \begin{document} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end{document} Every LaTeX document has a '\begin{document}' line and an '\end{document}' line. Here, the 'article' is the "document class". It is implemented in a file 'article.cls'. You can use any document class on your system. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. *Note Document classes::. You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and the '\begin{document}' commands. This area is called the "preamble". The '\begin{document}', '\end{document}' pair defines an "environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in all LaTeX documents (*note document::). LaTeX make available to you many environments that are documented here (*note Environments::). Many more are available to you from external packages, most importantly those available at CTAN (*note CTAN::). The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Output files, Next: TeX engines, Prev: Starting and ending, Up: Overview 2.2 Output files ================ LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two auxiliary files. The main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'. '.dvi' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'. You can view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (). '.pdf' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included. LaTeX also produces at least two additional files. '.log' This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors. '.aux' Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark '??'. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux' file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location. LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file used to make a table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended.  File: latex2e.info, Node: TeX engines, Next: LaTeX command syntax, Prev: Output files, Up: Overview 2.3 TeX engines =============== LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX implementation (*note Overview::). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs (see also *note Command line::). 'latex' 'pdflatex' In TeX Live (), if LaTeX is invoked via either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX engine is run (). When invoked as 'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main output is a '.pdf' file. pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original program (), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi'). In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be available in LaTeX. 'lualatex' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX engine is run (). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua () to interact with TeX's typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a '.pdf' file by default. There is also 'dvilualatex' to produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used. 'xelatex' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX engine is run (). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output. Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this process is automatic. The '.xdv' file is only useful for debugging. Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX, , ).  File: latex2e.info, Node: LaTeX command syntax, Next: Environment, Prev: TeX engines, Up: Overview 2.4 LaTeX command syntax ======================== In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash character, '\'. The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command). Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined. A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, '{...}'. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, '[...]'. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments. Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket {]}]'. Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make the first character of the following text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces. Some of LaTeX's commands are a "declaration". Such a command changes the value the meaning of some other command or parameter. For instance, the '\mainmatter' declaration changes the typesetting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic (*note \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter::). LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'. The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command. This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Environment, Next: CTAN, Prev: LaTeX command syntax, Up: Overview 2.5 Environment =============== Synopsis: \begin{ENVIRONMENT NAME} ... \end{ENVIRONMENT NAME} An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between '\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'. \begin{verse} There once was a man from Nantucket \\ ... \end{verse} *Note Environments:: for a list of environments. Particularly notable is that every LaTeX document must have a 'document' environment, a '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' pair. The ENVIRONMENT NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT NAME ends in a star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star. Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns). \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l} ... rows of table ... \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: CTAN, Prev: Environment, Up: Overview 2.6 CTAN: the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network =============================================== The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network, CTAN, is the TeX and LaTeX community's repository of free material. It is a set of Internet sites around the world that offer material related to LaTeX for download. Visit CTAN on the web at . This material is organized into packages, discrete bundles that typically offer some coherent functionality and are maintained by one person or a small number of people. For instance, many publishers have a package that allows authors to format papers to that publisher's specifications. In addition to the massive holdings, the web site offers features such as search by name or by functionality. CTAN is not a single site, but instead is a set of sites. One of the sites is the core. This site actively manages the material, for instance, by accepting uploads of new or updated packages. It is hosted by the German TeX group DANTE e.V. Other sites around the world help out by mirroring, that is, automatically syncing their collections with the core site and then in turn making their copies publicly available. This gives users close to their location better access and relieves the load on the core site. The list of mirrors is at .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document classes, Next: Fonts, Prev: Overview, Up: Top 3 Document classes ****************** The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file. \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.) 'article' For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use. 'book' Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (*note Front/back matter::). 'letter' Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::). 'report' For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters. 'slides' For slide presentations--rarely used today. In its place the 'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer template::). Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section. * Menu: * Document class options:: Global options. * Additional packages:: Bring in packages. * Class and package construction:: Create new classes and packages.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document class options, Next: Additional packages, Up: Document classes 3.1 Document class options ========================== You can specify "global options" or "class options" to the '\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma. \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} Here is the list of the standard class options. All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'): 10pt 11pt 12pt All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these show height by width): 'a4paper' 210 by 297mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches) 'a5paper' 148 by 210mm (about 5.8 by 8.3 inches) 'b5paper' 176 by 250mm (about 6.9 by 9.8 inches) 'executivepaper' 7.25 by 10.5 inches 'legalpaper' 8.5 by 14 inches 'letterpaper' 8.5 by 11 inches (the default) When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but you must also set the physical paper size. One way to do that is to put '\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your document's preamble. The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of setting the print area and physical page size. Miscellaneous other options: 'draft' 'final' Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is 'final'. 'fleqn' Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. 'landscape' Selects landscape format; default is portrait. 'leqno' Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. 'openbib' Use "open" bibliography format. 'titlepage' 'notitlepage' Specifies whether there is a separate page for the title information and for the abstract also, if there is one. The default for the 'report' class is 'titlepage', for the other classes it is 'notitlepage'. The following options are not available with the 'slides' class. 'onecolumn' 'twocolumn' Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'. 'oneside' 'twoside' Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'. For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin') parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. 'openright' 'openany' Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'. The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at the bottom of each note.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Additional packages, Next: Class and package construction, Prev: Document class options, Up: Document classes 3.2 Additional packages ======================= Load a package PKG, with the package options given in the comma-separated list OPTIONS, as here. \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}. To specify more than one package you can separate them with a comma, as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage' commands. Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown to the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with '\usepackage'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package construction, Prev: Additional packages, Up: Document classes 3.3 Class and package construction ================================== You can create new document classes and new packages. For instance, if your memos must satisfy some local requirements, such as a standard header for each page, then you could create a new class 'smcmemo.cls' and begin your documents with '\documentclass{smcmemo}'. What separates a package from a document class is that the commands in a package are useful across classes while those in a document class are specific to that class. Thus, a command to set page headers is for a package while a command to make the page headers say 'Memo from the SMC Math Department' is for a class. Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign '@' as a character in command names without having to surround the code containing that command with '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother'. *Note \makeatletter & \makeatother::. This allow you to create commands that users will not accidentally redefine. Another technique is to preface class- or package-specific commands with some string to prevent your class or package from interfering with others. For instance, the class 'smcmemo' might have commands '\smc@tolist', '\smc@fromlist', etc. * Menu: * Class and package structure:: Layout of the file. * Class and package commands:: List of commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package structure, Next: Class and package commands, Up: Class and package construction 3.3.1 Class and package structure --------------------------------- A class file or package file typically has four parts. 1. In the "identification part", the file says that it is a LaTeX package or class and describes itself, using the '\NeedsTeXFormat' and '\ProvidesClass' or '\ProvidesPackage' commands. 2. The "preliminary declarations part" declares some commands and can also load other files. Usually these commands will be those needed for the code used in the next part. For example, an 'smcmemo' class might be called with an option to read in a file with a list of people for the to-head, as '\documentclass[mathto]{smcmemo}', and therefore needs to define a command '\newcommand{\setto}[1]{\def\@tolist{#1}}' used in that file. 3. In the "handle options part" the class or package declares and processes its options. Class options allow a user to start their document as '\documentclass[OPTION LIST]{CLASS NAME}', to modify the behavior of the class. An example is when you declare '\documentclass[11pt]{article}' to set the default document font size. 4. Finally, in the "more declarations part" the class or package usually does most of its work: declaring new variables, commands and fonts, and loading other files. Here is a starting class file, which should be saved as 'stub.cls' where LaTeX can find it, for example in the same directory as the '.tex' file. \NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e} \ProvidesClass{stub}[2017/07/06 stub to start building classes from] \DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}} \ProcessOptions\relax \LoadClass{article} It identifies itself, handles the class options via the default of passing them all to the 'article' class, and then loads the 'article' class to provide the basis for this class's code. For more, see the official guide for class and package writers, the Class Guide, at (much of the descriptions here derive from this document), or the tutorial .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package commands, Prev: Class and package structure, Up: Class and package construction 3.3.2 Class and package commands -------------------------------- These are the commands designed to help writers of classes or packages. '\AtBeginDvi{specials}' Save in a box register things that are written to the '.dvi' file at the beginning of the shipout of the first page of the document. '\AtEndOfClass{CODE}' '\AtEndOfPackage{CODE}' Hook to insert CODE to be executed when LaTeX finishes processing the current class or package. You can use these hooks multiple times; the 'code' will be executed in the order that you called it. See also *note \AtBeginDocument::. '\CheckCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' '\CheckCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' Like '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but does not define CMD; instead it checks that the current definition of CMD is exactly as given by DEFINITION and is or is not "long" as expected. A long command is a command that accepts '\par' within an argument. The CMD command is expected to be long with the unstarred version of '\CheckCommand'. Raises an error when the check fails. This allows you to check before you start redefining 'cmd' yourself that no other package has already redefined this command. '\ClassError{CLASS NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}' '\PackageError{PACKAGE NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}' '\ClassWarning{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\PackageWarning{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\ClassWarningNoLine{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\PackageWarningNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\ClassInfo{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\PackageInfo{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\ClassInfoNoLine{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\PackageInfoNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}' Produce an error message, or warning or informational messages. For '\ClassError' and '\PackageError' the message is ERROR TEXT, followed by TeX's '?' error prompt. If the user then asks for help by typing 'h', they see the HELP TEXT. The four warning commands are similar except that they write WARNING TEXT on the screen with no error prompt. The four info commands write INFO TEXT only in the transcript file. The 'NoLine' versions do not show the number of the line generating the message, while the other versions do show that number. To format the messages, including the HELP TEXT: use '\protect' to stop a command from expanding, get a line break with '\MessageBreak', and get a space with '\space' when a space character does not allow it, like after a command. Note that LaTeX appends a period to the messages. '\CurrentOption' Expands to the name of the currently-being-processed option. Can only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or '\DeclareOption*'. '\DeclareOption{OPTION}{CODE}' '\DeclareOption*{CODE}' Make an option available to a user to invoke in their '\documentclass' command. For example, the 'smcmemo' class could have an option '\documentclass[logo]{smcmemo}' allowing users to put the institutional logo on the first page. The class file must contain '\DeclareOption{logo}{CODE}' (and later, '\ProcessOptions'). If you request an option that has not been declared, by default this will produce a warning like 'Unused global option(s): [badoption].' Change this behaviour with the starred version '\DeclareOption*{CODE}'. For example, many classes extend an existing class, using a declaration such as '\LoadClass{article}', and for passing extra options to the underlying class use code such as this. \DeclareOption*{% \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}% } Another example is that the class 'smcmemo' may allow users to keep lists of memo recipients in external files. Then the user could invoke '\documentclass[math]{smcmemo}' and it will read the file 'math.memo'. This code handles the file if it exists and otherwise passes the option to the 'article' class. \DeclareOption*{\InputIfFileExists{\CurrentOption.memo}{}{% \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}} '\DeclareRobustCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' '\DeclareRobustCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' Like '\newcommand' and '\newcommand*' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but these declare a robust command, even if some code within the DEFINITION is fragile. (For a discussion of robust and fragile commands *note \protect::.) Use this command to define new robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make them robust. Unlike '\newcommand' these do not give an error if macro CMD already exists; instead, a log message is put into the transcript file if a command is redefined. Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those defined using '\newcommand' so unless the command's data is fragile and the command is used within a moving argument, use '\newcommand'. The 'etoolbox' package offers the commands '\newrobustcmd', '\newrobustcmd*', as well as the commands '\renewrobustcmd', '\renewrobustcmd*', and the commands '\providerobustcmd', and '\providerobustcmd*'. These are similar to '\newcommand', '\newcommand*', '\renewcommand', '\renewcommand*', '\providecommand', and '\providecommand*', but define a robust CMD with two advantages as compared to '\DeclareRobustCommand': 1. They use the low-level e-TeX protection mechanism rather than the higher level LaTeX '\protect' mechanism, so they do not incur the slight loss of performance mentioned above, and 2. They make the same distinction between '\new...', '\renew...', and '\provide...', as the standard commands, so they do not just make a log message when you redefine CMD that already exists, in that case you need to use either '\renew...' or '\provide...' or you get an error. '\IfFileExists{FILE NAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}' '\InputIfFileExists{FILE NAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}' Execute TRUE CODE if LaTeX finds the file 'FILE NAME' or FALSE CODE otherwise. In the first case it executing TRUE CODE and then inputs the file. Thus the command \IfFileExists{img.pdf}{% \includegraphics{img.pdf}}{\typeout{!! img.pdf not found} will include the graphic 'img.pdf' if it is found and otherwise give a warning. This command looks for the file in all search paths that LaTeX uses, not only in the current directory. To look only in the current directory do something like '\IfFileExists{./filename}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}'. If you ask for a filename without a '.tex' extension then LaTeX will first look for the file by appending the '.tex'; for more on how LaTeX handles file extensions see *note \input::. '\LoadClass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\LoadClassWithOptions{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Load a class, as with '\documentclass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE INFO]'. An example is '\LoadClass[twoside]{article}'. The OPTIONS LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The RELEASE DATE is optional. If present it must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If you request a RELEASE DATE and the date of the package installed on your system is earlier, then you get a warning on the screen and in the log like this. You have requested, on input line 4, version `2038/01/19' of document class article, but only version `2014/09/29 v1.4h Standard LaTeX document class' is available. The command version '\LoadClassWithOptions' uses the list of options for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command that lets you build classes on existing ones, such as the standard 'article' class, without having to track which options were passed. '\ExecuteOptions{OPTIONS-LIST}' For each option OPTION in the OPTIONS-LIST, in order, this command executes the command '\ds@OPTION'. If this command is not defined then that option is silently ignored. It can be used to provide a default option list before '\ProcessOptions'. For example, if in a class file you want the default to be 11pt fonts then you could specify '\ExecuteOptions{11pt}\ProcessOptions\relax'. '\NeedsTeXFormat{FORMAT}[FORMAT DATE]' Specifies the format that this class must be run under. Often issued as the first line of a class file, and most often used as: '\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}'. When a document using that class is processed, the format name given here must match the format that is actually being run (including that the FORMAT string is case sensitive). If it does not match then execution stops with an error like 'This file needs format `LaTeX2e' but this is `xxx'.' To specify a version of the format that you know to have certain features, include the optional FORMAT DATE on which those features were implemented. If present it must be in the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. If the format version installed on your system is earlier than FORMAT DATE then you get a warning like this. You have requested release `2038/01/20' of LaTeX, but only release `2016/02/01' is available. '\OptionNotUsed' Adds the current option to the list of unused options. Can only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or '\DeclareOption*'. '\PassOptionsToClass{OPTION LIST}{CLASS NAME}' '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTION LIST}{PACKAGE NAME}' Adds the options in the comma-separated list OPTION LIST to the options used by any future '\RequirePackage' or '\usepackage' command for package PACKAGE NAME or the class CLASS NAME. The reason for these commands is: you may load a package any number of times with no options but if you want options then you may only supply them when you first load the package. Loading a package with options more than once will get you an error like 'Option clash for package foo.' (LaTeX throws an error even if there is no conflict between the options.) If your own code is bringing in a package twice then you can collapse that to once, for example replacing the two '\RequirePackage[landscape]{geometry}' and '\RequirePackage[margins=1in]{geometry}' with the single command '\RequirePackage[landscape,margins=1in]{geometry}'. However, imagine that you are loading 'firstpkg' and inside that package it loads 'secondpkg', and you need the second package to be loaded with option 'draft'. Then before doing the first package you must queue up the options for the second package, like this. \PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{secondpkg} \RequirePackage{firstpkg} (If 'firstpkg.sty' loads an option in conflict with what you want then you may have to alter its source.) These commands are useful for general users as well as class and package writers. For instance, suppose a user wants to load the 'graphicx' package with the option 'draft' and also wants to use a class 'foo' that loads the 'graphicx' package, but without that option. The user could start their LaTeX file with '\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\documentclass{foo}'. '\ProcessOptions' '\ProcessOptions*\@OPTIONS' Execute the code for each option that the user has invoked. Include it in the class file as '\ProcessOptions\relax' (because of the existence of the starred command). Options come in two types. "Local options" have been specified for this particular package in the OPTIONS argument of '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTIONS}', '\usepackage[OPTIONS]', or '\RequirePackage[OPTIONS]'. "Global options" are those given by the class user in '\documentclass[OPTIONS]' (If an option is specified both locally and globally then it is local.) When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a package 'pkg.sty', the following happens: 1. For each option OPTION so far declared with '\DeclareOption', it looks to see if that option is either a global or a local option for 'pkg'. If so then it executes the declared code. This is done in the order in which these options were given in 'pkg.sty'. 2. For each remaining local option, it executes the command '\ds@'OPTION if it has been defined somewhere (other than by a '\DeclareOption'); otherwise, it executes the default option code given in '\DeclareOption*'. If no default option code has been declared then it gives an error message. This is done in the order in which these options were specified. When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a class it works in the same way except that all options are local, and the default CODE for '\DeclareOption*' is '\OptionNotUsed' rather than an error. The starred version '\ProcessOptions*' executes the options in the order specified in the calling commands, rather than in the order of declaration in the class or package. For a package this means that the global options are processed first. '\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' '\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' '\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Identifies the class or package, printing a message to the screen and the log file. When you load a class or package, for example with '\documentclass{smcmemo}' or '\usepackage{test}', LaTeX inputs a file. If the name of the file does not match the class or package name declared in it then you get a warning. Thus, if you invoke '\documentclass{smcmemo}', and the file 'smcmemo.cls' has the statement '\ProvidesClass{xxx}' then you get a warning like 'You have requested document class `smcmemo', but the document class provides 'xxx'.' This warning does not prevent LaTeX from processing the rest of the class file normally. If you include the optional argument then you must include a date, before any spaces, of the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. The rest of the optional argument is free-form, although it traditionally identifies the class, and is written to the screen during compilation and to the log file. Thus, if your file 'smcmemo.cls' contains the line '\ProvidesClass{smcmemo}[2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class]' and your document's first line is '\documentclass{smcmemo}' then you will see 'Document Class: smcmemo 2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class'. The date in the optional argument allows class and package users to ask to be warned if the version of the class or package is earlier than RELEASE DATE. For instance, a user could enter '\documentclass{smcmemo}[2018/10/12]' or '\usepackage{foo}[[2017/07/07]]' to require a class or package with certain features by specifying that it must be released no earlier than the given date. (Although, in practice package users only rarely include a date, and class users almost never do.) '\ProvidesFile{FILE NAME}[ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' Declare a file other than the main class and package files, such as configuration files or font definition files. Put this command in that file and you get in the log a string like 'File: test.config 2017/10/12 config file for test.cls' for FILE NAME equal to 'test.config' and ADDITIONAL INFORMATION equal to '2017/10/12 config file for test.cls'. '\RequirePackage[OPTION LIST]{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\RequirePackageWithOptions{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Load a package, like the command '\usepackage' (*note Additional packages::). The LaTeX development team strongly recommends use of these commands over Plain TeX's '\input'; see the Class Guide. An example is '\RequirePackage[landscape,margin=1in]{geometry}'. The OPTION LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The RELEASE DATE, if present, must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If the release date of the package as installed on your system is earlier than RELEASE DATE then you get a warning like 'You have requested, on input line 9, version `2017/07/03' of package jhtest, but only version `2000/01/01' is available'. The '\RequirePackageWithOptions' version uses the list of options for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command to allow easily building classes on existing ones without having to track which options were passed. The difference between '\usepackage' and '\RequirePackage' is small. The '\usepackage' command is intended for the document file while '\RequirePackage' is intended for package and class files. Thus, using '\usepackage' before the '\documentclass' command causes LaTeX to give error like '\usepackage before \documentclass', but you can use '\RequirePackage' there.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Fonts, Next: Layout, Prev: Document classes, Up: Top 4 Fonts ******* Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. * Menu: * Font styles:: Select roman, italics, etc. * Font sizes:: Select point size. * Low-level font commands:: Select encoding, family, series, shape.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Font styles, Next: Font sizes, Up: Fonts 4.1 Font styles =============== The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. In the table below the listed commands, the '\text...' commands, is used with an argument, as in '\textit{TEXT}'. This is the preferred form. But shown after it, in parenthesis, is the corresponding declaration form, which is sometimes useful. This form takes no arguments, as in '{\itshape TEXT}'. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. In addition, each has an environment form such as '\begin{itshape}...\end{itshape}'. These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; for instance you can get bold sans serif by saying either of '\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily'. One advantage of these commands is that they automatically insert italic corrections if needed (*note \/::). Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument, such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'. '\textrm (\rmfamily)' Roman. '\textit (\itshape)' Italics. '\textmd (\mdseries)' Medium weight (default). '\textbf (\bfseries)' Boldface. '\textup (\upshape)' Upright (default). '\textsl (\slshape)' Slanted. '\textsf (\sffamily)' Sans serif. '\textsc (\scshape)' Small caps. '\texttt (\ttfamily)' Typewriter. '\textnormal (\normalfont)' Main document font. Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a substitute for '\textit'. For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics, but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman. LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. They are used as declarations: '{\CMD...}' instead of '\CMD{...}'. (The unconditional commands below are an older version of font switching. The earlier commands are an improvement in most circumstances. But sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely what you want.) '\bf' Switch to bold face. '\cal' Switch to calligraphic letters for math. '\it' Italics. '\rm' Roman. '\sc' Small caps. '\sf' Sans serif. '\sl' Slanted (oblique). '\tt' Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'. The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment. '\mathrm' Roman, for use in math mode. '\mathbf' Boldface, for use in math mode. '\mathsf' Sans serif, for use in math mode. '\mathtt' Typewriter, for use in math mode. '\mathit' '(\mit)' Italics, for use in math mode. '\mathnormal' For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration. '\mathcal' Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode. In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. '\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called "old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have the same height as uppercase letters. LaTeX's default fonts support this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: .  File: latex2e.info, Node: Font sizes, Next: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font styles, Up: Fonts 4.2 Font sizes ============== The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options, respectively (*note Document class options::). Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt' -------------------------------------------------------- '\tiny' 5 6 6 '\scriptsize' 7 8 8 '\footnotesize' 8 9 10 '\small' 9 10 10.95 '\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 '\large' 12 12 14.4 '\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 '\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 '\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 '\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 The commands are listed here in declaration forms. You use them by declaring them, as with this example. \begin{quotation} \small The Tao that can be named is not the eternal Tao. \end{quotation} The scope of the '\small' lasts until the end of the 'quotation' environment. It would also end at the next type style command or the end of the current group, so you could enclose it in extra curly braces '{\small We are here, we are here, we are here!}'. You can instead use the environment form of these commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font sizes, Up: Fonts 4.3 Low-level font commands =========================== These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. '\fontencoding{ENCODING}' Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a large number of valid encodings. The most common are 'OT1', Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and 'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the accented characters used by the most widespread European languages (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to hyphenate words containing accented letters. For more, see . '\fontfamily{FAMILY}' Select the font family. The web page provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are examples of some common families. 'pag' Avant Garde 'fvs' Bitstream Vera Sans 'pbk' Bookman 'bch' Charter 'ccr' Computer Concrete 'cmr' Computer Modern 'cmss' Computer Modern Sans Serif 'cmtt' Computer Modern Typewriter 'pcr' Courier 'phv' Helvetica 'fi4' Inconsolata 'lmr' Latin Modern 'lmss' Latin Modern Sans 'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter 'pnc' New Century Schoolbook 'ppl' Palatino 'ptm' Times 'uncl' Uncial 'put' Utopia 'pzc' Zapf Chancery '\fontseries{SERIES}' Select the font series. A "series" combines a "weight" and a "width". Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combined series values include: 'm' Medium (normal) 'b' Bold 'c' Condensed 'bc' Bold condensed 'bx' Bold extended The possible values for weight, individually, are: 'ul' Ultra light 'el' Extra light 'l' Light 'sl' Semi light 'm' Medium (normal) 'sb' Semi bold 'b' Bold 'eb' Extra bold 'ub' Ultra bold The possible values for width, individually, are (the meaning and relationship of these terms varies with individual typefaces): 'uc' Ultra condensed 'ec' Extra condensed 'c' Condensed 'sc' Semi condensed 'm' Medium 'sx' Semi expanded 'x' Expanded 'ex' Extra expanded 'ux' Ultra expanded When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the 'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m''). '\fontshape{SHAPE}' Select font shape. Valid shapes are: 'n' Upright (normal) 'it' Italic 'sl' Slanted (oblique) 'sc' Small caps 'ui' Upright italics 'ol' Outline The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps are often missing as well. '\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}' Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters defaults to points ('pt'). The line spacing is the nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'. The default '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the '\fontsize'. Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see '\baselinestretch', next. '\baselinestretch' LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the '\baselinestretch' parameter; the default factor is 1. A change takes effect when '\selectfont' (see below) is called. You can make a line skip change happen for the entire document, for instance doubling it, by doing '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}' in the preamble. However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the 'setspace' package. In addition to offering a number of spacing options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and figure captions. See the package documentation. '\linespread{FACTOR}' Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as just described. '\selectfont' The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until '\selectfont' is called, as in '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'. It is often useful to put this in a macro: '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). '\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}' The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries' and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by '\selectfont'. For example: \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Layout, Next: Sectioning, Prev: Fonts, Up: Top 5 Layout ******** Commands for controlling the general page layout. * Menu: * \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout. * \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout. * \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height. * \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height. * Page layout parameters:: '\headheight' '\footskip'. * Floats:: Figures, tables, etc.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \onecolumn, Next: \twocolumn, Up: Layout 5.1 '\onecolumn' ================ Synopsis: \onecolumn Start a new page and produce single-column output. If the document is given the class option 'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior (*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \twocolumn, Next: \flushbottom, Prev: \onecolumn, Up: Layout 5.2 '\twocolumn' ================ Synopses: \twocolumn \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT] Start a new page and produce two-column output. If the document is given the class option 'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: '\columnsep' The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}' You must change it before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good place. '\columnseprule' The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway between the two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column environment starts. '\columnwidth' The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to '\textwidth'. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width of each of the two columns to be half of '\textwidth' minus '\columnsep'. In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and 'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments 'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note table::). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page. The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output. '\dbltopfraction' The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not exceed '0.7\textheight' . If the height of your starred float environment exceeds this then you can take one of the following actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document: * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page. * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float. * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large number, to avoid going to float pages so soon. You can redefine it, as with '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'. '\dblfloatpagefraction' For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space. LaTeX's default is '0.5'. Change it with '\renewcommand'. '\dblfloatsep' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt' or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at '12pt'. '\dbltextfloatsep' This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. The default is '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. '\dbltopnumber' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX default is '2'. This example uses '\twocolumn''s optional argument of to create a title that spans the two-column article: \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}} \begin{document} \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text \centering \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em] \large Author One\authormark{1}, Author Two\authormark{2}, Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em] \normalsize \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}} \authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\ School one &School two \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part }] Two column text here.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \flushbottom, Next: \raggedbottom, Prev: \twocolumn, Up: Layout 5.3 '\flushbottom' ================== Make all pages in the documents after this declaration have the same height, by stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is most often used when making two-sided documents since the differences in facing pages can be glaring. If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'. If you get that, one option is to change to '\raggedbottom' (*note \raggedbottom::). Alternatively, you can adjust the 'textheight' to make compatible pages, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in '\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'. Your last option is to, in a final editing stage, adjust the height of individual pages (*note \enlargethispage::). The '\flushbottom' state is the default only if you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedbottom, Next: Page layout parameters, Prev: \flushbottom, Up: Layout 5.4 '\raggedbottom' =================== Make all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no rubber vertical lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided document the facing pages may be different heights. This command can go at any point in the document body. See *note \flushbottom::. This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page layout parameters, Next: Floats, Prev: \raggedbottom, Up: Layout 5.5 Page layout parameters ========================== '\columnsep' '\columnseprule' '\columnwidth' The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::). *Note \twocolumn::. '\headheight' Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type sizes. '\headsep' Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '25pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: if the document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt and 12pt it is '0.275in'. '\footskip' Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '30pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: when the type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'. '\linewidth' Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note list::). That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). '\marginparpush' '\marginsep' '\marginparwidth' The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of the notes. Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and '\normalmarginpar' changes it back). The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article' classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt. For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the default is '11pt'. For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode. For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth', while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance. '\oddsidemargin' '\evensidemargin' The '\oddsidemargin' is the extra distance between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when 'oneside' is in effect. When 'twoside' is in effect, on even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is 'evensidemargin'. LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. '\paperheight' The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area. Normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\paperwidth' The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area. Normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\textheight' The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or 'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is '41\baselineskip'. At a type size of 11pt the default is '38\baselineskip' for all document classes. At 12pt it is '36\baselineskip' for all classes. '\textwidth' The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an 'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is '390pt' at 12pt. For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt. In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column (*note \twocolumn::). In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists. Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the 'minipage' or '\parbox'. '\hsize' This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX documents. '\topmargin' Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in - \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided by two. '\topskip' Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Floats, Prev: Page layout parameters, Up: Layout 5.6 Floats ========== Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a later page. LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material. The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table' (*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package 'float'. Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it appears in the output after it. The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may end up being typeset far from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big may migrate to the end of the document. In which event, because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order, every following float in that class also appears at the end. In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its PLACEMENT argument. The possible values are a sequence of the letters below. The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and 'book' classes, is 'tbp'. 't' (Top)--at the top of a text page. 'b' (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. (However, 'b' is not allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix' package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: . 'h' (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment appears. However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is automatically added. To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at . 'p' (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page containing no text, only floats. '!' Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see above. Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'. All that PLACEMENT does is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that location. Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location except placing the float where it occurs in the source. To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'. This will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all outstanding floats. LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source (although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the PLACEMENT parameter. If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the top position on this page to moved to the next page. Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'): '\bottomfraction' The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default '.3'. '\floatpagefraction' The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default '.5'. '\textfraction' Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is '.2'. '\topfraction' Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default '.7'. Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with a command of the form '\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'): '\floatsep' Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt'. '\intextsep' Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents. '\textfloatsep' Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with a command of the form '\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'): 'bottomnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1. 'dbltopnumber' Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2. 'topnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2. 'totalnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3. The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats contains suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explanation of the float placement algorithm is in Frank Mittelbach's article "How to influence the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?" ().  File: latex2e.info, Node: Sectioning, Next: Cross references, Prev: Layout, Up: Top 6 Sectioning ************ Structure your text into divisions: parts, chapters, sections, etc. All sectioning commands have the same form, one of: SECTIONING-COMMAND{TITLE} SECTIONING-COMMAND*{TITLE} SECTIONING-COMMAND[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} For instance, declare the start of a subsection as with '\subsection{Motivation}'. The table has each SECTIONING-COMMAND in LaTeX. All are available in all of LaTeX's standard document classes 'book', 'report', and 'article', except that '\chapter' is not available in 'article'. Sectioning unit Command Level -------------------------------------------------------------------- Part '\part' -1 ('book', 'report'), 0 ('article') Chapter '\chapter' 0 Section '\section' 1 Subsection '\subsection' 2 Subsubsection '\subsubsection' 3 Paragraph '\paragraph' 4 Subparagraph '\subparagraph' 5 All these commands have a '*'-form that prints TITLE as usual but is not numbered and does not make an entry in the table of contents. An example of using this is for an appendix in an 'article' . The input '\appendix\section{Appendix}' gives the output 'A Appendix' (*note \appendix::). You can lose the numbering 'A' by instead entering '\section*{Appendix}' (articles often omit a table of contents and have simple page headers so the other differences from the '\section' command may not matter). The section title TITLE provides the heading in the main text, but it may also appear in the table of contents and in the running head or foot (*note Page styles::). You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. All of these commands have an optional argument TOC-TITLE for these other places. The level number in the table above determines which sectional units are numbered, and which appear in the table of contents. If the sectioning command's LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter 'secnumdepth' then the titles for this sectioning command will be numbered (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::). And, if LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter 'tocdepth' then the table of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit (*note Sectioning/tocdepth::). LaTeX expects that before you have a '\subsection' you will have a '\section' and, in a book, that before a '\section' you will have a '\chapter'. Otherwise you can get a something like a subsection numbered '3.0.1'. Two counters relate to the appearance of sectioning commands. 'secnumdepth' Controls which sectioning commands are numbered. Suppress numbering of sectioning at any depth greater than LEVEL '\setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL}' (*note \setcounter::). See the above table for the level numbers. For instance, if the 'secnumdepth' is 1 in an 'article' then a '\section{Introduction}' command will produce output like '1 Introduction' while '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like 'Discussion', without the number. LaTeX's default 'secnumdepth' is 3 in 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes. 'tocdepth' Controls which sectioning units are listed in the table of contents. The setting '\setcounter{tocdepth}{LEVEL}' makes the sectioning units at LEVEL be the smallest ones listed (*note \setcounter::). See the above table for the level numbers. For instance, if 'tocdepth' is 1 then the table of contents will list sections but not subsections. LaTeX's default 'secnumdepth' is 3 in 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes. * Menu: * \part:: Start a part. * \chapter:: Start a chapter. * \section:: Start a section. * \subsection:: Start a subsection. * \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph:: Lower divisions. * \appendix:: Start appendices. * \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter:: The three parts of a book. * \@startsection:: Layout of sectional units.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \part, Next: \chapter, Up: Sectioning 6.1 '\part' =========== Synopsis, one of: \part{TITLE} \part*{TITLE} \part[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a document part. The standard LaTeX classes 'book', 'report', and 'article', all have this command. This produces a document part, in a book. \part{VOLUME I \\ PERSONAL MEMOIRS OF U.\ S.\ GRANT} \chapter{ANCESTRY--BIRTH--BOYHOOD.} My family is American, and has been for generations, in all its branches, direct and collateral. In each standard class the '\part' command outputs a part number such as 'Part I', alone on its line, in boldface, and in large type. Then LaTeX outputs TITLE, also alone on its line, in bold and in even larger type. In class 'book', the LaTeX default puts each part alone on its own page. If the book is two-sided then LaTeX will skip a page if needed to have the new part on an odd-numbered page. In 'report' it is again alone on a page, but LaTeX won't force it onto an odd-numbered page. In an 'article' LaTeX does not put it on a fresh page, but instead outputs the part number and part title onto the main document page. The '*' form shows TITLE but it does not show the part number, does not increment the 'part' counter, and produces no table of contents entry. The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the part title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This example puts a line break in TITLE but leaves out the break in the table of contents. \part[Up from the bottom; my life]{Up from the bottom\\ my life} For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a part is -1 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). In the class 'article', if a paragraph immediately follows the part title then it is not indented. To get an indent you can use the package 'indentfirst'. One package to change the behavior of '\part' is 'titlesec'. See its documentation on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \chapter, Next: \section, Prev: \part, Up: Sectioning 6.2 '\chapter' ============== Synopsis, one of: \chapter{TITLE} \chapter*{TITLE} \chapter[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a chapter. The standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' have this command but 'article' does not. This produces a chapter. \chapter{Loomings} Call me Ishmael. Some years ago---never mind how long precisely---having little or no money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of the world. The LaTeX default starts each chapter on a fresh page, an odd-numbered page if the document is two-sided. It produces a chapter number such as 'Chapter 1' in large boldface type (the size is '\huge'). It then puts TITLE on a fresh line, in boldface type that is still larger (size '\Huge'). It also increments the 'chapter' counter, adds an entry to the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::), and sets the running header information (*note Page styles::). The '*' form shows TITLE on a fresh line, in boldface. But it does not show the chapter number, does not increment the 'chapter' counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does not affect the running header. (If you use the page style 'headings' in a two-sided document then the header will be from the prior chapter.) This example illustrates. \chapter*{Preamble} The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the chapter title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full name in the chapter title, \chapter[Weyl]{Hermann Klaus Hugo (Peter) Weyl (1885--1955)} but only 'Weyl' on the contents page. This puts a line break in the title but that doesn't work well with running headers so it omits the break in the contents \chapter[Given it all\\ my story]{Given it all\\ my story} For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a chapter is 0 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the chapter title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. To get an indent use the package 'indentfirst'. You can change what is shown for the chapter number. To change it to something like 'Lecture 1', put in the preamble either '\renewcommand{\chaptername}{Lecture}' or this (*note \makeatletter & \makeatother::). \makeatletter \renewcommand{\@chapapp}{Lecture} \makeatother To make this change because of the primary language for the document, see the package 'babel'. In a two-sided document LaTeX puts a chapter on odd-numbered page, if necessary leaving an even-numbered page that is blank except for any running headers. To make that page completely blank, see *note \clearpage & \cleardoublepage::. To change the behavior of the '\chapter' command, you can copy its definition from the LaTeX format file and make adjustments. But there are also many packages on CTAN that address this. One is 'titlesec'. See its documentation, but the example below gives a sense of what it can do. \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble \titleformat{\chapter} {\Huge\bfseries} % format of title {} % label, such as 1.2 for a subsection {0pt} % length of separation between label and title {} % before-code hook This omits the chapter number 'Chapter 1' from the page but unlike '\chapter*' it keeps the chapter in the table of contents and the running headers.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \section, Next: \subsection, Prev: \chapter, Up: Sectioning 6.3 '\section' ============== Synopsis, one of: \section{TITLE} \section*{TITLE} \section[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a section. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have this command. This produces a section. In this Part we tend to be more interested in the function, in the input-output behavior, than in the details of implementing that behavior. \section{Turing machines} Despite this desire to downplay implementation, we follow the approach of A~Turing that the first step toward defining the set of computable functions is to reflect on the details of what mechanisms can do. For the standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' the default output is like '1.2 TITLE' (for chapter 1, section 2), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the type size is '\Large'). The same holds in 'article' except that there are no chapters in that class so it looks like '2 TITLE'. The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not show the section number, does not increment the 'section' counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does not affect the running header. (If you use the page style 'headings' in a two-sided document then the header will be from the prior section.) The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the section title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full name in the title of the section, \section[Elizabeth~II]{Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.} but only 'Elizabeth II' on the contents page and in the headers. This has a line break in TITLE but that does not work with headers so it is omitted from the contents and headers. \section[Truth is, I cheated; my life story]{Truth is, I cheated\\my life story} For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a section is 1 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the section title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package 'indentfirst'. In general, to change the behavior of the '\section' command, there are a number of options. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation but the example below gives a sense of what they can do. \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble \titleformat{\section} {\normalfont\Large\bfseries} % format of title {\makebox[1pc][r]{\thesection\hspace{1pc}}} % label {0pt} % length of separation between label and title {} % before-code hook \titlespacing*{\section} {-1pc}{18pt}{10pt}[10pc] That puts the section number in the margin.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \subsection, Next: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph, Prev: \section, Up: Sectioning 6.4 '\subsection' ================= Synopsis, one of: \subsection{TITLE} \subsection*{TITLE} \subsection[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a subsection. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have this command. This produces a subsection. We will show that there are more functions than Turing machines and that therefore some functions have no associated machine. \subsection{Cardinality} We will begin with two paradoxes that dramatize the challenge to our intuition posed by comparing the sizes of infinite sets. For the standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' the default output is like '1.2.3 TITLE' (for chapter 1, section 2, subsection 3), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the type size is '\large'). The same holds in 'article' except that there are no chapters in that class so it looks like '2.3 TITLE'. The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not show the section number, does not increment the 'section' counter, and produces no table of contents entry. The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the section title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full name in the title of the section, \subsection[$\alpha,\beta,\gamma$ paper]{\textit{The Origin of Chemical Elements} by R.A.~Alpher, H.~Bethe, and G.~Gamow} but only 'U+03B1,U+03B2,U+03B3 paper' on the contents page. For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a subsection is 2 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the subsection title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package 'indentfirst'. There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the '\subsection' command. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation but the example below gives a sense of what they can do. \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble \titleformat{\subsection}[runin] {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries} % format of the title {\thesubsection} % label {0.6em} % space between label and title {} % before-code hook That puts the subsection number and TITLE in the first line of text.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph, Next: \appendix, Prev: \subsection, Up: Sectioning 6.5 '\subsubsection', '\paragraph', '\subparagraph' =================================================== Synopsis, one of: \subsubsection{TITLE} \subsubsection*{TITLE} \subsubsection[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} or one of: \paragraph{TITLE} \paragraph*{TITLE} \paragraph[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} or one of: \subparagraph{TITLE} \subparagraph*{TITLE} \subparagraph[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a subsubsection, paragraph, or subparagraph. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have these commands, although they are not commonly used. This produces a subsubsection. \subsubsection{Piston ring compressors: structural performance} Provide exterior/interior wall cladding assemblies capable of withstanding the effects of load and stresses from consumer-grade gasoline engine piston rings. The default output of each of the three does not change over the standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report'. For '\subsubsection' the TITLE is alone on its line, in boldface and normal size type. For '\paragraph' the TITLE is inline with the text, not indented, in boldface and normal size type. For '\subparagraph' the TITLE is inline with the text, with a paragraph indent, in boldface and normal size type (Because an 'article' has no chapters its subsubsections are numbered and so it looks like '1.2.3 TITLE', for section 1, subsection 2, and subsubsection 3. The other two divisions are not numbered.) The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not increment the associated counter and produces no table of contents entry (and does not show the number for '\subsubsection'). The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the division title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a subsubsection is 3, of a paragraph is 4, and of a subparagraph is 5 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the subsubsection title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package 'indentfirst'. There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the these commands. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \appendix, Next: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter, Prev: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph, Up: Sectioning 6.6 '\appendix' =============== Synopsis: \appendix This does not directly produce any output. But in a book or report it declares that subsequent '\chapter' commands start an appendix. In an article it does the same, for '\section' commands. It also resets the 'chapter' and 'section' counters to 0 in a book or report, and in an article resets the 'section' and 'subsection' counters. In this book \chapter{One} ... \chapter{Two} ... ... \appendix \chapter{Three} ... \chapter{Four} ... the first two will generate output numbered 'Chapter 1' and 'Chapter 2'. After the '\appendix' the numbering will be 'Appendix A' and 'Appendix B'. *Note Larger book template:: for another example. The 'appendix' package adds the command '\appendixpage' to put a separate 'Appendices' in the document body before the first appendix, and the command '\addappheadtotoc' to do the same in the table of contents. You can reset the name 'Appendix' with a command like '\renewcommand{\appendixname}{Specification}', as well as a number of other features. See the documentation on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter, Next: \@startsection, Prev: \appendix, Up: Sectioning 6.7 '\frontmatter', '\mainmatter', '\backmatter' ================================================ Synopsis, one of: \frontmatter \mainmatter \backmatter Format a 'book' class document differently according to which part of the document is being produced. All three commands are optional. Traditionally, a book's front matter contains such things as the title page, an abstract, a table of contents, a preface, a list of notations, a list of figures, and a list of tables. (Some of these front matter pages, such as the title page, are traditionally not numbered.) The back matter may contain such things as a glossary, notes, a bibliography, and an index. The '\frontmatter' declaration makes the pages numbered in lowercase roman, and makes chapters not numbered, although each chapter's title appears in the table of contents; if you use other sectioning commands here, use the '*'-version (*note Sectioning::). The '\mainmatter' changes the behavior back to the expected version, and resets the page number. The '\backmatter' leaves the page numbering alone but switches the chapters back to being not numbered. *Note Larger book template:: for an example using the three.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \@startsection, Prev: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter, Up: Sectioning 6.8 '\@startsection' ==================== Synopsis: \@startsection{NAME}{LEVEL}{INDENT}{BEFORESKIP}{AFTERSKIP}{STYLE} Used to help redefine the behavior of commands that start sectioning divisions such as '\section' or '\subsection'. Note that the 'titlesec' package makes manipulation of sectioning easier. Further, while most requirements for sectioning commands can be satisfied with '\@startsection', some cannot. For instance, in the standard LaTeX 'book' and 'report' classes the commands '\chapter' and '\report' are not constructed in this way. To make such a command you may want to use the '\secdef' command. Technically, '\@startsection' has the form \@startsection{NAME} {LEVEL} {INDENT} {BEFORESKIP} {AFTERSKIP} {STYLE}*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} so that issuing \renewcommand{\section}{\@startsection{NAME} {LEVEL} {INDENT} {BEFORESKIP} {AFTERSKIP} {STYLE}} redefines '\section' to have the form '\section*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}' (here too, the star '*' is optional). *Note Sectioning::. This implies that when you write a command like '\renewcommand{section}{...}', the '\@startsection{...}' must come last in the definition. See the examples below. NAME Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header. This counter must be defined separately. Most commonly this is either 'section', 'subsection', or 'paragraph'. Although in those cases the counter name is the same as the sectioning command itself, you don't have to use the same name. Then '\the'NAME displays the title number and '\'NAME'mark' is for the page headers. See the third example below. LEVEL An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command. *Note Sectioning:: for the list of standard level numbers. If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter 'secnumdepth' then titles for this sectioning command will be numbered (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::). For instance, if 'secnumdepth' is 1 in an 'article' then the command '\section{Introduction}' will produce output like "1 Introduction" while '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like "Discussion", without the number prefix. If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter TOCDEPTH then the table of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit (*note Sectioning/tocdepth::). For instance, in an 'article', if TOCDEPTH is 1 then the table of contents will list sections but not subsections. INDENT A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with respect to the left margin. To have the title flush with the margin use '0pt'. A negative indentation such as '-\parindent' will move the title into the left margin. BEFORESKIP The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space that is inserted before this sectioning unit's title. This space will be discarded if the sectioning unit happens to start at the top of a fresh page. If this number is negative then the first paragraph following the header is not indented, if it is non-negative then the first paragraph is indented. (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt'.) For example, if BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex' then to start the new sectioning unit, LaTeX will add about 3.5 times the height of a letter x in vertical space, and the first paragraph in the section will not be indented. Using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus', is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more flexibility in making up the page (*note Lengths::). The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the line prior to this sectioning unit's header and the baseline of the header is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the text font, the '\baselineskip' of the title font, and the absolute value of the BEFORESKIP. This space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page so that the vertical space is discarded then the baseline of the header text will be where LaTeX would put the baseline of the first text line on that page.) AFTERSKIP This is a length. If AFTERSKIP is non-negative then this is the vertical space inserted after the sectioning unit's title header. If it is negative then the title header becomes a run-in header, so that it becomes part of the next paragraph. In this case the absolute value of the length gives the horizontal space between the end of the title and the beginning of the following paragraph. (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt'.) As with BEFORESKIP, using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more flexibility in putting together the page. If 'afterskip' is non-negative then the full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the sectioning unit's header and the baseline of the first line of the following paragraph is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the title font, the '\baselineskip' of the text font, and the value of AFTER. That space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (Note that because the sign of 'afterskip' changes the sectioning unit header's from standalone to run-in, you cannot use a negative 'afterskip' to cancel part of the '\parskip'.) STYLE Controls the styling of the title. See the examples below. Typical commands to use here are '\centering', '\raggedright', '\normalfont', '\hrule', or '\newpage'. The last command in STYLE may be one that takes one argument, such as '\MakeUppercase' or '\fbox' that takes one argument. The section title will be supplied as the argument to this command. For instance, setting STYLE to '\bfseries\MakeUppercase' would produce titles that are bold and uppercase. These are LaTeX's defaults for the first three sectioning units that are defined with '\@startsection', for the 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes. For section, the LEVEL is 1, the INDENT is 0pt, the BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', the AFTERSKIP is '2.3ex plus 0.2ex', and the STYLE is '\normalfont\Large\bfseries'. For subsection, the LEVEL is 2, the INDENT is 0pt, the BEFORESKIP is '-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', the AFTERSKIP is '1.5ex plus 0.2ex', and the STYLE is '\normalfont\large\bfseries'. For subsubsection, the LEVEL is 3, the INDENT is 0pt, the BEFORESKIP is '-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', the AFTERSKIP is '1.5ex plus 0.2ex', and the STYLE is '\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries'. Here are examples. They go either in a package or class file or in the preamble of a LaTeX document. If you put them in the preamble they must go between a '\makeatletter' command and a '\makeatother'. (Probably the error message 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode.' means that you forgot this.) *Note \makeatletter & \makeatother::. This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered. It says '\renewcommand' because LaTeX's standard classes have already defined a '\section'. For the same reason it does not define a 'section' counter, or the commands '\thesection' and '\l@section'. \renewcommand\section{% \@startsection{section}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name. {1}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level. {0pt}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent. {-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -.2ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip. {2.3ex plus.2ex}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip. {\centering\normalfont\Large\bfseries}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style. } This will put 'subsection' titles in small caps type, inline with the paragraph. \renewcommand\subsection{% \@startsection{subsection}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name. {2}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level. {0em}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent. {-1ex plus 0.1ex minus -0.05ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip. {-1em plus 0.2em}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip. {\scshape}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style. } The prior examples redefined existing sectional unit title commands. This defines a new one, illustrating the needed counter and macros to display that counter. \setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}% show counters this far down \newcounter{subsubparagraph}[subparagraph]% counter for numbering \renewcommand{\thesubsubparagraph}% how to display {\thesubparagraph.\@arabic\c@subsubparagraph}% numbering \newcommand{\subsubparagraph}{\@startsection {subsubparagraph}% {6}% {0em}% {\baselineskip}% {0.5\baselineskip}% {\normalfont\normalsize}} \newcommand*\l@subsubparagraph{\@dottedtocline{6}{10em}{5em}}% for toc \newcommand{\subsubparagraphmark}[1]{}% for page headers  File: latex2e.info, Node: Cross references, Next: Environments, Prev: Sectioning, Up: Top 7 Cross references ****************** We often want something like 'See Theorem~31'. But by-hand typing the 31 is poor practice. Instead you should write a "label" such as '\label{eq:GreensThm}' and then "reference" it, as with 'See equation~\ref{eq:GreensThm}'. LaTeX will automatically work out the number, put it into the output, and will change that number later if needed. We will see this with Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm}. % forward reference ... \begin{theorem} \label{th:GreensThm} ... \end{theorem} ... See Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm} on page~\pageref{th:GreensThm}. LaTeX tracks cross reference information in a file having the extension '.aux' and with the same base name as the file containing the '\label'. So if '\label' is in 'calculus.tex' then the information is in 'calculus.aux'. LaTeX puts the information in that file every time it runs across a '\label'. The behavior described in the prior paragraph results in a quirk that happens when your document has a "forward reference", a '\ref' that appears before the associated '\label'. If this is the first time that you are compiling the document then you will get 'LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross references right' and in the output the forward reference will appear as two question marks '??', in boldface. A similar thing happens if you change some things so the references changes; you get the same warning and the output contains the old reference information. In both cases, resolve this by compiling the document a second time. The 'cleveref' package enhances LaTeX's cross referencing features. You can arrange that if you enter '\begin{thm}\label{th:Nerode}...\end{thm}' then '\cref{th:Nerode}' will output 'Theorem 3.21', without you having to enter the "Theorem." * Menu: * \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. * \pageref:: Refer to a page number. * \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \label, Next: \pageref, Up: Cross references 7.1 '\label' ============ Synopsis: \label{KEY} Assign a reference number to KEY. In ordinary text '\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of the current sectional unit. Inside an environment with numbering, such as a 'table' or 'theorem' environment, '\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of that environment. Retrieve the assigned number with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::). A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual. A common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Thus, '\label{fig:Post}' is a label for a figure with a portrait of Emil Post. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, and makes your source more readable. Some commonly-used prefixes: 'ch' for chapters 'sec' 'subsec' for lower-level sectioning commands 'fig' for figures 'tab' for tables 'eq' for equations In the auxiliary file the reference information is kept as the text of a command of the form '\newlabel{LABEL}{{CURRENTLABEL}{PAGENUMBER}}'. Here CURRENTLABEL is the current value of the macro '\@currentlabel' that is usually updated whenever you call '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'. Below, the key 'sec:test' will get the number of the current section and the key 'fig:test' will get the number of the figure. (Incidentally, put labels after captions in figures and tables.) \section{section name} \label{sec:test} This is Section~\ref{sec:test}. \begin{figure} ... \caption{caption text} \label{fig:test} \end{figure} See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pageref, Next: \ref, Prev: \label, Up: Cross references 7.2 '\pageref' ============== Synopsis: \pageref{KEY} Produce the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears. If there is no '\label{KEY}' then you get something like 'LaTeX Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on input line 11.' Below, the '\label{eq:main}' is used both for the formula number and for the page number. (Note that the two references are forward references so this document would need to be compiled twice to resolve those.) The main result is formula~\ref{eq:main} on page~\pageref{eq:main}. ... \begin{equation} \label{eq:main} \mathbf{P}=\mathbf{NP} \end{equation}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ref, Prev: \pageref, Up: Cross references 7.3 '\ref' ========== Synopsis: \ref{KEY} Produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command (*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word 'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself. If there is no '\label{KEY}' then you get something like 'LaTeX Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on input line 11.' In this example the '\ref{popular}' produces '2'. Note that it is a forward reference since it comes before '\label{popular}' so this document would have to be compiled twice. The most widely-used format is item number~\ref{popular}. \begin{enumerate} \item Plain \TeX \item \label{popular} \LaTeX \item Con\TeX t \end{enumerate} The 'cleveref' package includes text such as 'Theorem' in the reference. See the documentation on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Environments, Next: Line breaking, Prev: Cross references, Up: Top 8 Environments ************** LaTeX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior. An environment begins with '\begin' and ends with '\end', like this: \begin{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} ... \end{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} The ENVIRONMENT-NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. For instance, the input '\begin{table*}...\end{table}' will cause an error like: '! LaTeX Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by \end{table}.' Environments are executed within a group. * Menu: * abstract:: Produce an abstract. * array:: Math arrays. * center:: Centered lines. * description:: Labelled lists. * displaymath:: Formulas that appear on their own line. * document:: Enclose the whole document. * enumerate:: Numbered lists. * eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations. * equation:: Displayed equation. * figure:: Floating figures. * filecontents:: Writing multiple files from the source. * flushleft:: Flushed left lines. * flushright:: Flushed right lines. * itemize:: Bulleted lists. * letter:: Letters. * list:: Generic list environment. * math:: In-line math. * minipage:: Miniature page. * picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. * quotation & quote:: Include a quotation. * tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily. * table:: Floating tables. * tabular:: Align text in columns. * thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list. * theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc. * titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages. * verbatim:: Simulating typed input. * verse:: For poetry and other things.  File: latex2e.info, Node: abstract, Next: array, Up: Environments 8.1 'abstract' ============== Synopsis: \begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract} Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. This environment is only defined in the 'article' and 'report' document classes (*note Document classes::). Using the example below in the 'article' class produces a displayed paragraph. Document class option 'titlepage' causes the abstract to be on a separate page (*note Document class options::); this is the default only in the 'report' class. \begin{abstract} We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused. \end{abstract} The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column document (for a more flexible solution, use the package 'abstract'). \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} ... \begin{document} \title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach} \author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}} \twocolumn[ \begin{@twocolumnfalse} \maketitle \begin{abstract} Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat team. \end{abstract} \end{@twocolumnfalse} ] { % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}} \footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.} }  File: latex2e.info, Node: array, Next: center, Prev: abstract, Up: Environments 8.2 'array' =========== Synopsis: \begin{array}{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} or: \begin{array}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::). Inside of each row the column entries are separated by an ampersand, ('&'). Rows are terminated with double-backslashes (*note \\::). This example shows a three by three array. \begin{equation*} \chi(x) = \left| % vertical bar fence \begin{array}{ccc} x-a &-b &-c \\ -d &x-e &-f \\ -g &-h &x-i \end{array} \right| \end{equation*} The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. For instance, '\begin{array}{rcl}...\end{array}' gives three columns: the first flush right, the second centered, and the third flush left. See *note tabular:: for the complete description of COLS and of the other common features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument. There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'. The first is that 'array' entries are typeset in math mode, in textstyle (*note Modes::) except if the COLS definition specifies the column with 'p{...}', which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode. The second is that, instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's intercolumn space in an 'array' is governed by '\arraycolsep', which gives half the width between columns. The default for this is '5pt' so that between two columns comes 10pt of space. To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath' package. It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded by parentheses '(...)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square brackets '[...]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly braces '{...}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical bars '|...|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical bars '||...||', along with a number of other array constructs. The next example uses the 'amsmath' package. \usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble \begin{equation} \begin{vmatrix}{cc} % array with vert lines a &b \\ c &d \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc \end{equation} There are many packages concerning arrays. The 'array' package has many useful extensions, including more column types. The 'dcolumn' package adds a column type to center on a decimal point. For both see the documentation on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: center, Next: description, Prev: array, Up: Environments 8.3 'center' ============ Synopsis: \begin{center} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{center} Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are centered within the left and right margins. Use double-backslash, '\\', to get a line break (*note \\::). If some text is too long to fit on a line then LaTeX will insert line breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any interword space. This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See *note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure' environment. This example produces three centered lines. There is extra vertical space between the last two lines. \begin{center} A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\ of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex] the School of Environmental Engineering \end{center} In this example, depending on the page's line width, LaTeX may choose a line break for the part before the double backslash. If so, it will center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line. Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the ending. \begin{center} My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton \end{center} A double backslash after the final line is optional. If present it doesn't add any vertical space. In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the entire page. * Menu: * \centering:: Declaration form of the 'center' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \centering, Up: center 8.3.1 '\centering' ------------------ Synopsis: {\centering ... } or \begin{group} \centering ... \end{group} Center the material in its scope. It is most often used inside an environment such as 'figure', or in a 'parbox'. This example's '\centering' declaration causes the graphic to be horizontally centered. \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png} \caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion} \end{figure} The scope of this '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'. Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not add vertical space above and below the text. That's its advantage in the above example; there is not an excess of space. It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or 'table' that ends the paragraph unit. Thus, if '{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with 'zz' that is formatted as usual.  File: latex2e.info, Node: description, Next: displaymath, Prev: center, Up: Environments 8.4 'description' ================= Synopsis: \begin{description} \item[LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{description} Environment to make a list of labeled items. Each item's LABEL is typeset in bold and is flush left, so that long labels continue into the first line of the item text. There must be at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions. \begin{definition} \item[lama] A priest. \item[llama] A beast. \end{definition} The labels 'lama' and 'llama' are output in boldface, with the left edge on the left margin. Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). Use the optional labels, as in '\item[Main point]', because there is no sensible default. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it will come out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way around this, in this example to get non-bold typewriter, is to use declarative style: '\item[{\tt label text}]'. Similarly, get the standard roman font with '\item[{\rm label text}]'. For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize:: and *note enumerate::. Unlike those environments, nesting 'description' environments does not change the default label; it is boldface and flush left at all levels. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example changes the description labels to small caps. \renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{% {\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: displaymath, Next: document, Prev: description, Up: Environments 8.5 'displaymath' ================= Synopsis: \begin{displaymath} MATHEMATICAL TEXT \end{displaymath} Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::. In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation' environment (*note equation::). LaTeX will not break the MATH TEXT across lines. Note that the 'amsmath' package has significantly more extensive displayed equation facilities. For example, there are a number of ways in that package for having math text broken across lines. The construct '\[MATH TEXT\]' is essentially a synonym for '\begin{displaymath}MATH TEXT\end{displaymath}' but the latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will likely be unique. (The construct '$$MATH TEXT$$' from Plain TeX is sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'. It is not a synonym, because the 'displaymath' environment checks that it isn't started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching environment start, because the 'displaymath' environment has different vertical spacing, and because the 'displaymath' environment honors the 'fleqn' option.) The output from this example is centered and alone on its line. \begin{displaymath} \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \end{displaymath} Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces.  File: latex2e.info, Node: document, Next: enumerate, Prev: displaymath, Up: Environments 8.6 'document' ============== The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document. It is required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting and ending::. * Menu: * \AtBeginDocument:: Hook for commands at the start of the document. * \AtEndDocument:: Hook for commands at the end of the document.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \AtBeginDocument, Next: \AtEndDocument, Up: document 8.6.1 '\AtBeginDocument' ------------------------ Synopsis: \AtBeginDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the very end of the preamble. The code is executed after the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \AtEndDocument, Prev: \AtBeginDocument, Up: document 8.6.2 '\AtEndDocument' ---------------------- Synopsis: \AtEndDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically, it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.  File: latex2e.info, Node: enumerate, Next: eqnarray, Prev: document, Up: Environments 8.7 'enumerate' =============== Synopsis: \begin{enumerate} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{enumerate} Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see below. The default top-level numbering is '1.', '2.', etc. Each 'enumerate' list environment must have at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon. As a top-level list the labels would come out as '1.' and '2.'. \begin{enumerate} \item Johnny Hayes (USA) \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) \end{enumerate} Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in '\item[Interstitial label]', then the next item will continue the interrupted sequence (*note \item::). That is, you will get labels like '1.', then 'Interstitial label', then '2.'. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Enumerations may be nested within other 'enumerate' environments, or within any paragraph-making environment such as 'itemize' (*note itemize::), up to four levels deep. This gives LaTeX's default for the format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level, the outermost level. 1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ... 2. lowercase letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ... 3. lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ... 4. uppercase letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ... The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through '\enumiv' (*note Counters::). For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note description:: and *note itemize::. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through '\labelenumiv'. For instance, this first level list will be labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period. \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}} \begin{enumerate} \item Shows as boldface A \item Shows as boldface B \end{enumerate} For a list of counter-labeling commands see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: eqnarray, Next: equation, Prev: enumerate, Up: Environments 8.8 'eqnarray' ============== The 'eqnarray' environment is obsolete. It has infelicities, including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements. (See "Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen ). New documents should include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment. We include a description only for completeness and for working with old documents. Synopsis: \begin{eqnarray} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray} or \begin{eqnarray*} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray*} Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode. It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by double backslash '\\'). The starred form of line break ('\\*') can also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there (*note \\::). The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line (using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber' command. The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while otherwise being the same. The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side. \begin{eqnarray*} \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\ &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\ &= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n \end{eqnarray*}  File: latex2e.info, Node: equation, Next: figure, Prev: eqnarray, Up: Environments 8.9 'equation' ============== Synopsis: \begin{equation} MATHEMATICAL TEXT \end{equation} The same as a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) except that LaTeX puts an equation number flush to the right margin. The equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter. You should have no blank lines between '\begin{equation}' and '\begin{equation}', or LaTeX will tell you that there is a missing dollar sign. The package 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation facilities. New documents should include this package.  File: latex2e.info, Node: figure, Next: filecontents, Prev: equation, Up: Environments 8.10 'figure' ============= Synopsis: \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT] FIGURE BODY \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional \label{LABEL} % optional \end{figure} or: \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT] FIGURE BODY \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional \label{LABEL} % optional \end{figure*} Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text. An example is material that you cannot have split between two pages, such as a graphic. Because of this, LaTeX does not typeset figures in sequence with normal text but instead "floats" them to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page (*note Floats::). The FIGURE BODY can consist of imported graphics (*note Graphics::), or text, LaTeX commands, etc. It is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth'. The possible values of PLACEMENT are 'h' for 'here', 't' for 'top', 'b' for 'bottom', and 'p' for 'on a separate page of floats'. For the effect of these options on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::). It produces a figure that spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note Floats::. The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text for the figure. By default it is numbered. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Table of contents etc.::). This example makes a figure out of a graphic. LaTeX will place that graphic and its caption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page of floats. \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{figure}[t] \centering \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png} \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby} \end{figure}  File: latex2e.info, Node: filecontents, Next: flushleft, Prev: figure, Up: Environments 8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file =========================================== Synopsis: \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents} or \begin{filecontents*}{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents*} Create a file named FILENAME and fill it with TEXT. The unstarred version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the created file with a header; see the example below. The starred version 'filecontents*' does not include the header. This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often appears before the '\documentclass' command. It is typically used when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file. The environment will write that file to the directory containing the source and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to include 'bib' references in the file, again to make it self-contained. The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if so, does not do anything. There is a 'filecontents' package that redefines the 'filecontents' environment so that instead of doing nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file. For example, this document \documentclass{article} \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty} \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} \end{filecontents} \usepackage{JH} \begin{document} Article by \myname. \end{document} produces this file 'JH.sty'. %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty' %% generated by the `filecontents' environment %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12. %% \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}  File: latex2e.info, Node: flushleft, Next: flushright, Prev: filecontents, Up: Environments 8.12 'flushleft' ================ Synopsis: \begin{flushleft} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushleft} An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the left-hand margin, and ragged right. If you have lines that are too long then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking spaces. To force a new line use a double backslash, '\\'. For the declaration form see *note \raggedright::. This creates a box of text that is at most 3 inches wide, with the text flush left and ragged right. \noindent\begin{minipage}{3in} \begin{flushleft} A long sentence that will be broken by \LaTeX{} at a convenient spot. \\ And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash. \end{flushleft} \end{minipage} * Menu: * \raggedright:: Declaration form of the 'flushleft' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedright, Up: flushleft 8.12.1 '\raggedright' --------------------- Synopses: {\raggedright ... } or \begin{ENVIRONMENT} \raggedright ... \end{ENVIRONMENT} A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the left margin and ragged right. It can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. For the environment form see *note flushleft::. Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit. Here '\raggedright' in each second column keeps LaTeX from doing very awkward typesetting to fit the text into the narrow column. Note that '\raggedright' is inside the curly braces '{...}' to delimit its effect. \begin{tabular}{rp{2in}} Team alpha &{\raggedright This team does all the real work.} \\ Team beta &{\raggedright This team ensures that the water cooler is never empty.} \\ \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: flushright, Next: itemize, Prev: flushleft, Up: Environments 8.13 'flushright' ================= \begin{flushright} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushright} An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. If you have lines that are too long to fit the margins then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking spaces. To force a new line use a double backslash, '\\'. For the declaration form see *note \raggedleft::. For an example related to this environment, see *note flushleft::. * Menu: * \raggedleft:: Declaration form of the 'flushright' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedleft, Up: flushright 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' -------------------- Synopses: {\raggedleft ... } or \begin{ENVIRONMENT} \raggedleft ... \end{ENVIRONMENT} A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the right margin and ragged left. It can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. For the environment form see *note flushright::. Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit. For an example related to this environment, see *note \raggedright::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: itemize, Next: letter, Prev: flushright, Up: Environments 8.14 'itemize' ============== Synopsis: \begin{itemize} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{itemize} Produce a list that is unordered, sometimes called a bullet list. The environment must have at least one '\item'; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This gives a two-item list. \begin{itemize} \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra \item Rice portrait \end{itemize} As a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, *. The format of the labeling depends on the nesting level; see below. Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in '\item[Optional label]', then by default it will appear in bold and be flush right, so it could extend into the left margin. For labels that are flush left see the *note description:: environment. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Itemized lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::). The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through '\labelitemiv' to produce the default label (this also uses the convention of lowercase roman numerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting level). These are the default marks at each level. 1. * (bullet, from '\textbullet') 2. -- (bold en-dash, from '\normalfont\bfseries\textendash') 3. * (asterisk, from '\textasteriskcentered') 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period, from '\textperiodcentered') Change the labels with '\renewcommand'. For instance, this makes the first level use diamonds. \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the 'itemize' list is determined by the parameters '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi'. (Note the convention of using lowercase roman numerals a the end of the command name to denote the nesting level.) The defaults are: '2.5em' in level 1 ('2em' in two-column mode), '2.2em' in level 2, '1.87em' in level 3, and '1.7em' in level 4, with smaller values for more deeply nested levels. For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note description:: and *note enumerate::. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized lists. \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*' environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note \parindent & \parskip::): \newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: letter, Next: list, Prev: itemize, Up: Environments 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters ========================================== This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: list, Next: math, Prev: letter, Up: Environments 8.16 'list' =========== Synopsis: \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{list} An environment for constructing lists. Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document body. Most lists created by LaTeX authors are the ones that come standard: the 'description', 'enumerate', and 'itemize' environments (*note description::, *note enumerate::, and *note itemize::). Instead, the 'list' environment is most often used in macros. For example, many standard LaTeX environments that do not immediately appear to be lists are in fact constructed using 'list', including 'quotation', 'quote', and 'center' (*note quotation & quote::, *note center::). This uses the 'list' environment to define a new custom environment. \newcounter{namedlistcounter} % number the items \newenvironment{named} {\begin{list} {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling {\usecounter{namedlistcounter} % set counter \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing } {\end{list}} \begin{named} \item Shows as ``Item~I.'' \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.'' \item Shows as ``Item~II.'' \end{named} The mandatory first argument LABELING specifies the default labeling of list items. It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as above where it contains both 'Item' and '\Roman{...}'. LaTeX forms the label by putting the LABELING argument in a box of width '\labelwidth'. If the label is wider than that, the additional material extends to the right. When making an instance of a list you can override the default labeling by giving '\item' an optional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the above '\item[Special label.]'; *note \item::. The mandatory second argument SPACING has a list of commands. This list can be empty. A command that can go in here is '\usecounter{COUNTERNAME}' (*note \usecounter::). Use this to tell LaTeX to number the items using the given counter. The counter will be reset to zero each time LaTeX enters the environment, and the counter is incremented by one each time LaTeX encounters an '\item' that does not have an optional argument. Another command that can go in SPACING is '\makelabel', which constructs the label box. By default it puts the contents flush right. Its only argument is the label, which it typesets in LR mode (*note Modes::). One example of changing its definition is that to the above 'named' example, before the definition of the environment add '\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}', and between the '\setlength' command and the parenthesis that closes the SPACING argument also add '\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel'. Then the items will be typeset in small caps. Similarly, changing the second code line to '\let\makelabel\fbox' puts the labels inside a framed box. Another example of the '\makelabel' command is below, in the definition of the 'redlabel' environment. Also often in SPACING are commands to redefine the spacing for the list. Below are the spacing parameters with their default values. (Default values for derived environments such as 'itemize' can be different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows the list. Each is a length (*note Lengths::). The vertical spaces are normally rubber lengths, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, to give TeX flexibility in setting the page. Change each with a command such as '\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}'. For some effects these lengths should be zero or negative. '\itemindent' Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond 'leftmargin', of the first line each item. Its default value is '0pt'. '\itemsep' Vertical space between items, beyond the '\parsep'. The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 11 point are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and 'topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'). '\labelsep' Horizontal space between the label and text of an item. The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes is '0.5em'. '\labelwidth' Horizontal width. The box containing the label is nominally this wide. If '\makelabel' returns text that is wider than this then the first line of the item will be indented to make room for this extra material. If '\makelabel' returns text of width less than or equal to '\labelwidth' then LaTeX's default is that the label is typeset flush right in a box of this width. The left edge of the label box is '\leftmargin'+'\itemindent'-'\labelsep'-'\labelwidth' from the left margin of the enclosing environment. The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at the top level is '\leftmargini'-'\labelsep', (which is '2em' in one column mode and '1.5em' in two column mode). At the second level it is '\leftmarginii'-'\labelsep', and at the third level it is '\leftmarginiii'-'\labelsep'. These definitions make the label's left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing environment. '\leftmargin' Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing environment (or the left margin of the page if this is a top-level list), and the left margin of this list. It must be non-negative. In the standard LaTeX document classes, a top-level list has this set to the value of '\leftmargini', while a list that is nested inside a top-level list has this margin set to '\leftmarginii'. More deeply nested lists get the values of '\leftmarginiii' through '\leftmarginvi'. (Nesting greater than level five generates the error message 'Too deeply nested'.) The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes are: '\leftmargini' is '2.5em' (in two column mode, '2em'), '\leftmarginii' is '2.2em', and '\leftmarginiii' is '1.87em'. '\listparindent' Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond '\leftmargin', for second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item. A negative value makes this an "outdent". Its default value is '0pt'. '\parsep' Vertical space between paragraphs within an item. In the 'book' and 'article' classes The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 11 point size are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 12 point size are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. '\partopsep' Vertical space added, beyond '\topsep'+'\parskip', to the top and bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded by a blank line. (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the line following the list is blank does not matter.) The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '2pt plus1 minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 11 point are: '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point are: '3pt plus2pt minus3pt', '3pt plus2pt minus2pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. '\rightmargin' Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right margin of the enclosing environment. Its default value is '0pt'. It must be non-negative. '\topsep' Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition to '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '8pt plus2pt minus4pt', '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 11 point are: '9pt plus3pt minus5pt', '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 12 point are: '10pt plus4pt minus6pt', '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', and '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'. This shows the horizontal and vertical distances. [image src="latex2e-figures/list.png" text="....................................................................... ..............Surrounding environment, preceding material.............. - | v0 |---h0--|-h1-| | ..Label.. .....First item..................................... - ............................................................ ............................................................ - | v1 ........First item, second paragraph .................. - |-h2-| | v2 | ..Label.. .....Second item.................................... - ............................................................ ............................................................ - |-h3--|-h4-| |-h5-| |v3 | ..............Surrounding environment, following material.............. - ......................................................................."] The lengths shown are listed below. The key relationship is that the right edge of the bracket for H1 equals the right edge of the bracket for H4, so that the left edge of the label box is at H3+H4-(H0+H1). V0 '\topsep' + '\parskip' if the list environment does not start a new paragraph, and '\topsep'+'\parskip'+'\partopsep' if it does V1 '\parsep' V2 '\itemsep'+'\parsep' V3 Same as V0. (This space is affected by whether a blank line appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line appears in the source below the environment does not matter.) H0 '\labelwidth' H1 '\labelsep' H2 '\listparindent' H3 '\leftmargin' H4 '\itemindent' H5 '\rightmargin' The list's left and right margins, shown above as H3 and H5, are with respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or with respect to the page margins for a top-level list. The line width used for typesetting the list items is '\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). For instance, set the list's left margin to be one quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the enclosing environment with '\setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}'. Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three parameters below. For each, the LaTeX default is '-\@lowpenalty', that is, '-51'. Because it is negative, it somewhat encourages a page break at each spot. Change it with, e.g., '\@beginparpenalty=9999'; a value of 10000 prohibits a page break. '\@beginparpenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default '-51'). '\@itempenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default '-51'). '\@endparpenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default '-51'). The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example has the labels in red. They are numbered, and the left edge of the label lines up with the left edge of the item text. *Note \usecounter::. \usepackage{color} \newcounter{cnt} \newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}} \newenvironment{redlabel} {\begin{list} {\arabic{cnt}} {\usecounter{cnt} \setlength{\labelwidth}{0em} \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em} \setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em} \setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep \let\makelabel=\makeredlabel } } {\end{list} } * Menu: * \item:: An entry in a list. * trivlist:: A restricted form of 'list'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \item, Next: trivlist, Up: list 8.16.1 '\item': An entry in a list ---------------------------------- Synopsis: \item text of item or \item[OPTIONAL-LABEL] text of item An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the list type. Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets '[...]', if you have an item whose text starts with '[', you have to hide the bracket inside curly braces, as in: '\item {[} is an open square bracket'; otherwise, LaTeX will think it marks the start of an optional label. Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a close square bracket inside that label, you must hide it in the same way: '\item[Close square bracket, {]}]'. *Note LaTeX command syntax::. In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default label and one that uses the optional label. \begin{enumerate} \item Moe \item[sometimes] Shemp \item Larry \end{enumerate} The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled 'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.'. Because of the optional label in the second item, the third item is not labelled '3.'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: trivlist, Prev: \item, Up: list 8.16.2 'trivlist': A restricted form of 'list' ---------------------------------------------- Synopsis: \begin{trivlist} ... \end{trivlist} A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are not indented and an '\item' without an optional argument produces no text. It is most often used in macros, to define an environment where the '\item' command as part of the environment's definition. For instance, the 'center' environment is defined essentially like this: \newenvironment{center} {\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax} {\end{trivlist}} Using 'trivlist' in this way allows the macro to inherit some common code: combining vertical space of two adjacent environments; detecting whether the text following the environment should be considered a new paragraph or a continuation of the previous one; adjusting the left and right margins for possible nested list environments. Specifically, 'trivlist' uses the current values of the list parameters (*note list::), except that '\parsep' is set to the value of '\parskip', and '\leftmargin', '\labelwidth', and '\itemindent' are set to zero. This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by default) they have no paragraph indent and are vertically separated. \begin{trivlist} \item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old. \item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines. \end{trivlist}  File: latex2e.info, Node: math, Next: minipage, Prev: list, Up: Environments 8.17 'math' =========== Synopsis: \begin{math} MATH \end{math} The 'math' environment inserts given MATH material within the running text. '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: minipage, Next: picture, Prev: math, Up: Environments 8.18 'minipage' =============== Synopses: \begin{minipage}{WIDTH} CONTENTS \end{minipage} or \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH} CONTENTS \end{minipage} Put CONTENTS into a box that is WIDTH wide. This is like a small version of a page; it can contain its own footnotes, itemized lists, etc. (There are some restrictions, including that it cannot have floats.) This box will not be broken across pages. So 'minipage' is similar to '\parbox' (*note \parbox::) but here you can have paragraphs. This example will be 3 inches wide, and has two paragraphs. \begin{minipage}{3in} Stephen Kleene was a founder of the Theory of Computation. He was a student of Church, wrote three influential texts, was President of the Association for Symbolic Logic, and won the National Medal of Science. \end{minipage} See below for a discussion of the paragraph indent inside a 'minipage'. The required argument WIDTH is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It gives the width of the box into which CONTENTS are typeset. There are three optional arguments, POSITION, HEIGHT, and INNER-POS. You need not include all three. For example, get the default POSITION and set the HEIGHT with '\begin{minipage}[c][2.54cm] CONTENTS \end{minipage}'. (Get the natural height with an empty argument, '[]'.) The optional argument POSITION governs how the 'minipage' vertically aligns with the surrounding material. 'c' (synonym 'm') Default. Positions the 'minipage' so its vertical center lines up with the center of the adjacent text line (what Plain TeX calls '\vcenter'). 't' Match the top line in the 'minipage' with the baseline of the surrounding text (Plain TeX's '\vtop'. 'b' Match the bottom line in the 'minipage' with the baseline of the surrounding text (Plain TeX's '\vbox'. To see the effects of these, contrast running this ---\begin{minipage}[c]{0.25in} first\\ second\\ third \end{minipage} with the results of changing 'c' to 'b' or 't'. The optional argument HEIGHT is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It sets the height of the 'minipage'. You can enter any value larger than, or equal to, or smaller than the 'minipage''s natural height and LaTeX will not give an error or warning. You can also set it to a height of zero or a negative value. The final optional argument INNER-POS controls the placement of CONTENT inside the box. These are the possible values are (the default is the value of POSITION). 't' Place CONTENT at the top of the box. 'c' Place it in the vertical center. 'b' Place it at the box bottom. 's' Stretch CONTENTS out vertically; it must contain vertically stretchable space. The INNER-POS argument makes sense when the HEIGHT option is set to a value larger than the 'minipage''s natural height. To see the effect of the options, run this example with the various choices in place of 'b'. Text before \begin{center} ---\begin{minipage}[c][3in][b]{0.25\textwidth} first\\ second\\ third \end{minipage} \end{center} Text after By default paragraphs are not indented in a 'minipage'. Change that with a command such as '\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' at the start of CONTENTS. Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A '\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the '\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note Counters::). This puts the footnote at the bottom of the table, not the bottom of the page. \begin{center} % center the minipage on the line \begin{minipage}{2.5in} \begin{center} % center the table inside the minipage \begin{tabular}{ll} \textsc{Monarch} &\textsc{Reign} \\ \hline Elizabeth II &63 years\footnote{to date} \\ Victoria &63 years \\ George III &59 years \end{tabular} \end{center} \end{minipage} \end{center} If you nest minipages then there is an oddness when using footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the text ended by the next '\end{minipage}' which may not be their logical place. This puts a table containing data side by side with a map graphic. They are vertically centered. \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}} ... \begin{center} \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{nyc.png}} \hspace{0.1\textwidth} \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth} \begin{tabular}{r|l} \multicolumn{1}{r}{Borough} &Pop (million) \\ \hline The Bronx &$1.5$ \\ Brooklyn &$2.6$ \\ Manhattan &$1.6$ \\ Queens &$2.3$ \\ Staten Island &$0.5$ \end{tabular} \end{minipage} \end{center}  File: latex2e.info, Node: picture, Next: quotation & quote, Prev: minipage, Up: Environments 8.19 'picture' ============== Synopses: \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT) PICTURE COMMANDS \end{picture} or \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET) PICTURE COMMANDS \end{picture} An environment to create simple pictures containing lines, arrows, boxes, circles, and text. Note that while this environment is not obsolete, new documents typically use much more powerful graphics creation systems, such as 'TikZ', 'PSTricks', 'MetaPost', or 'Asymptote'. These are not covered in this document; see CTAN. This shows the parallelogram law for adding vectors. \setlength{\unitlength}{1cm} \begin{picture}(6,6) % picture box will be 6cm wide by 6cm tall \put(0,0){\vector(2,1){4}} % for every 2 over this vector goes 1 up \put(2,1){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ first leg}} \put(4,2){\vector(1,2){2}} \put(5,4){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ second leg}} \put(0,0){\line(1,1){6}} \put(3,3){\makebox(0,0)[r]{sum\ }} \end{picture} You can also use this environment to place arbitrary material at an exact location. \usepackage{color,graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \setlength{\unitlength}{\textwidth} \begin{picture}(1,1) % leave space, \textwidth wide and tall \put(0,0){\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{desertedisland.jpg}} \put(0.25,0.35){\textcolor{red}{X Treasure here}} \end{picture} \end{center} The red X will be precisely a quarter of the '\linewidth' from the left margin, and '0.35\linewidth' up from the bottom. Another example of this usage is to put similar code in the page header to get repeat material on each of a document's pages. The 'picture' environment has one required argument, a pair of numbers (WIDTH,HEIGHT). Multiply these by the value '\unitlength' to get the nominal size of the output, the space that LaTeX reserves on the output page. This nominal size need not be how large the picture really is; LaTeX will draw things from the picture outside the picture's box. This environment also has an optional argument (XOFFSET,YOFFSET). It is used to shift the origin. Unlike most optional arguments, this one is not contained in square brackets. As with the required argument, it consists of two real numbers. Multiply these by '\unitlength' to get the point at the lower-left corner of the picture. For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters. The picture's origin is the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner is there, and the upper-right corner is at (110mm,220mm). When you first draw a picture you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument. Each PICTURE COMMAND tells LaTeX where to put something by naming its position. A "position" is a pair such as '(2.4,-5)' giving the x- and y-coordinates. A "coordinate" is a not a length, it is a real number (it may have a decimal point or a minus sign). It specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if '\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. LaTeX's default for '\unitlength' is '1pt'. it is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). Change it with the '\setlength' command (*note \setlength::). Make this change only outside of a 'picture' environment. Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, as with '\put(1,2){...}', it is not enclosed in braces since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. Also, unlike in some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are further up the page. There are four ways to put things in a picture: '\put', '\multiput', '\qbezier', and '\graphpaper'. The most often used is '\put'. This \put(11.3,-0.3){...} places the object with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-0.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. The '\put' command creates an "LR box" (*note Modes::). Anything that can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) can go in the text argument of the '\put' command. The reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. In this picture \setlength{\unitlength}{1cm} ...\begin{picture}(1,1) \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}} \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}} \end{picture} the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed by the two lines. (Also, '\line(1,1){1}' does not call for a line of length one; rather the line has a change in the x coordinate of 1.) The '\multiput', 'qbezier', and 'graphpaper' commands are described below. This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using '\qbezier' for that curve. \begin{picture}(3,1.5) \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}} % x axis \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}} % y axis \put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}} % left side rectangle \put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}} % right side \qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25) \qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5) \thicklines % below here, lines are twice as thick \put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}} \put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}} \end{picture} * Menu: * \put:: Place an object at a specified place. * \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object. * \qbezier:: Draw a quadratic Bezier curve. * \graphpaper:: Draw graph paper. * \line:: Draw a straight line. * \linethickness:: Set thickness of horizontal and vertical lines. * \thinlines:: The default line thickness. * \thicklines:: A heavier line thickness. * \circle:: Draw a circle. * \oval:: Draw an oval. * \shortstack:: Make a stack of objects. * \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow. * \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size. * \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it. * \frame:: Draw a frame around an object. * \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \put, Next: \multiput, Up: picture 8.19.1 '\put' ------------- Synopsis: \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){CONTENT} Place CONTENT at the coordinate (XCOORD,YCOORD). See the discussion of coordinates and '\unitlength' in *note picture::. The CONTENT is processed in LR mode (*note Modes::) so it cannot contain line breaks. This includes the text into the 'picture'. \put(4.5,2.5){Apply the \textit{unpoke} move} The reference point, the location (4.5,2.5), is the lower left of the text, at the bottom left of the 'A'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \multiput, Next: \qbezier, Prev: \put, Up: picture 8.19.2 '\multiput' ------------------ Synopsis: \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){NUM-COPIES}{OBJ} Copy OBJ a total of NUM-COPIES times, with an increment of DELTA_X,DELTA_Y. The OBJ first appears at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta_x,y+\delta_y), and so on. This draws a simple grid with every fifth line in bold (see also *note \graphpaper::). \begin{picture}(10,10) \linethickness{0.05mm} \multiput(0,0)(1,0){10}{\line(0,1){10}} \multiput(0,0)(0,1){10}{\line(1,0){10}} \linethickness{0.5mm} \multiput(0,0)(5,0){3}{\line(0,1){10}} \multiput(0,0)(0,5){3}{\line(1,0){10}} \end{picture}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \qbezier, Next: \graphpaper, Prev: \multiput, Up: picture 8.19.3 '\qbezier' ----------------- Synopsis: \qbezier(X1,Y1)(X2,Y2)(X3,Y3) \qbezier[NUM](X1,Y1)(X2,Y2)(X3,Y3) Draw a quadratic Bezier curve whose control points are given by the three required arguments '(X1,Y1)', '(X2,Y2)', and '(X3,Y3)'. That is, the curve runs from (X1,Y1) to (X3,Y3), is quadratic, and is such that the tangent line at (X1,Y1) passes through (X2,Y2), as does the tangent line at (X3,Y3). This draws a curve from the coordinate (1,1) to (1,0). \qbezier(1,1)(1.25,0.75)(1,0) The curve's tangent line at (1,1) contains (1.25,0.75), as does the curve's tangent line at (1,0). The optional argument NUM gives the number of calculated intermediate points. The default is to draw a smooth curve whose maximum number of points is '\qbeziermax' (change this value with '\renewcommand').  File: latex2e.info, Node: \graphpaper, Next: \line, Prev: \qbezier, Up: picture 8.19.4 '\graphpaper' -------------------- Synopsis: \graphpaper(X_INIT,Y_INIT)(X_DIMEN,Y_DIMEN) \graphpaper[SPACING](X_INIT,Y_INIT)(X_DIMEN,Y_DIMEN) Draw a coordinate grid. Requires the 'graphpap' package. The grid's origin is '(X_INIT,Y_INIT)'. Grid lines come every SPACING units (the default is 10). The grid extends X_DIMEN units to the right and Y_DIMEN units up. All arguments must be positive integers. This make a grid with seven vertical lines and eleven horizontal lines. \usepackage{graphpap} % in preamble ... \begin{picture}(6,20) % in document body \graphpaper[2](0,0)(12,20) \end{picture} The lines are numbered every ten units.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \line, Next: \linethickness, Prev: \graphpaper, Up: picture 8.19.5 '\line' -------------- Synopsis: \line(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL} Draw a line. It slopes such that it vertically rises Y_RISE for every horizontal X_RUN. The TRAVEL is the total horizontal change -- it is not the length of the vector, it is the change in x. In the special case of vertical lines, where (X_RUN,Y_RISE)=(0,1), the TRAVEL gives the change in y. This draws a line starting at coordinates (1,3). \put(1,3){\line(2,5){4}} For every over 2, this line will go up 5. Because TRAVEL specifies that this goes over 4, it must go up 10. Thus its endpoint is (1,3)+(4,10)=(5,13). In particular, note that TRAVEL=4 is not the length of the line, it is the change in x. The arguments X_RUN and Y_RISE are integers that can be positive, negative, or zero. (If both are 0 then LaTeX treats the second as 1.) With '\put(X_INIT,Y_INIT){\line(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL}}', if X_RUN is negative then the line's ending point has a first coordinate that is less than X_INIT. If Y_RISE is negative then the line's ending point has a second coordinate that is less than Y_INIT. If TRAVEL is negative then you get 'LaTeX Error: Bad \line or \vector argument.' Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with a limited range of slopes because these lines are made by putting together line segments from pre-made fonts. The two numbers X_RUN and Y_RISE must have integer values from -6 through 6. Also, they must be relatively prime, so that (X_RUN,Y_RISE) can be (2,1) but not (4,2) (if you choose the latter then instead of lines you get sequences of arrowheads; the solution is to switch to the former). To get lines of arbitrary slope and plenty of other shapes in a system like 'picture', see the package 'pict2e' on CTAN. Another solution is to use a full-featured graphics system such as 'TikZ', or 'PSTricks', or 'MetaPost', or 'Asymptote'  File: latex2e.info, Node: \linethickness, Next: \thinlines, Prev: \line, Up: picture 8.19.6 '\linethickness' ----------------------- Synopsis: \linethickness{DIM} Declares the thickness of subsequent horizontal and vertical lines in a picture to be DIM, which must be a positive length (*note Lengths::). It differs from '\thinlines' and '\thicklines' in that it does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or ovals.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinlines, Next: \thicklines, Prev: \linethickness, Up: picture 8.19.7 '\thinlines' ------------------- Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals in a picture environment to be 0.4pt. This is the default thickness, so this command is unnecessary unless the thickness has been changed with either *note \linethickness:: or *note \thicklines::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thicklines, Next: \circle, Prev: \thinlines, Up: picture 8.19.8 '\thicklines' -------------------- Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals in a picture environment to be 0.8pt. See also *note \linethickness:: and *note \thinlines::. This command is illustrated in the Trapezoidal Rule example of *note picture::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \circle, Next: \oval, Prev: \thicklines, Up: picture 8.19.9 '\circle' ---------------- Synopsis: \circle{DIAMETER} \circle*{DIAMETER} Produces a circle with a diameter as close as possible to the specified one. The '*' form produces a filled-in circle. This draws a circle of radius 6, centered at '(5,7)'. \put(5,7){\circle{6}} The available radii for 'circle' are, in points, the even numbers from 2 to 20, inclusive. For 'circle*' they are all the integers from 1 to 15.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \oval, Next: \shortstack, Prev: \circle, Up: picture 8.19.10 '\oval' --------------- Synopsis: \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT) \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] Produce a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument PORTION allows you to produce only half or a quarter of the oval. For half an oval take PORTION to be one of these. 't' top half 'b' bottom half 'r' right half 'l' left half Produce only one quarter of the oval by setting PORTION to 'tr', 'br', 'bl', or 'tl'. This draws the top half of an oval that is 3 wide and 7 tall. \put(5,7){\oval(3,7)[t]} The (5,7) is the center of the entire oval, not just the center of the top half. These shapes are not ellipses. They are rectangles whose corners are made with quarter circles. These circles have a maximum radius of 20pt (*note \circle:: for the sizes). Thus large ovals are just boxes with a small amount of corner rounding.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \shortstack, Next: \vector, Prev: \oval, Up: picture 8.19.11 '\shortstack' --------------------- Synopsis: \shortstack[POSITION]{LINE 1 \\ ... } Produce a vertical stack of objects. This labels the y axis. \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){4}} % x axis \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){2}} % y \put(-0.25,2){\makebox[0][r]{\shortstack[r]{$y$\\ axis}}} For a short stack, the reference point is the lower left of the stack. In the above example the *note \mbox & \makebox:: puts the stack flush right in a zero width box so in total the short stack sits slightly to the left of the y axis. The valid positions are: 'r' Make objects flush right 'l' Make objects flush left 'c' Center objects (default) Separate objects into lines with '\\'. These stacks are short in that, unlike in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, here the rows are not spaced out to be of even heights. Thus, in '\shortstack{X\\o\\o\\X}' the first and last rows are taller than the middle two. You can adjust row heights either by putting in the usual interline spacing with '\shortstack{X\\ \strut o\\o\\X}', or by hand, via an explicit zero-width box '\shortstack{X \\ \rule{0pt}{12pt} o\\o\\X}' or by using '\\''s optional argument '\shortstack{X\\[2pt] o\\o\\X}'. The '\shortstack' command is also available outside the 'picture' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vector, Next: \makebox (picture), Prev: \shortstack, Up: picture 8.19.12 '\vector' ----------------- Synopsis: \vector(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL} Draw a line ending in an arrow. The slope of that line is: it vertically rises Y_RISE for every horizontal X_RUN. The TRAVEL is the total horizontal change -- it is not the length of the vector, it is the change in x. In the special case of vertical vectors, if (X_RUN,Y_RISE)=(0,1), then TRAVEL gives the change in y. For an example see *note picture::. For elaboration on X_RUN and Y_RISE see *note \line::. As there, the values of X_RUN and Y_RISE are limited. For '\vector' you must chooses integers between -4 and 4, inclusive. Also, the two you choose must be relatively prime. Thus, '\vector(2,1){4}' is acceptable but '\vector(4,2){4}' is not (if you use the latter then you get a sequence of arrowheads).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makebox (picture), Next: \framebox (picture), Prev: \vector, Up: picture 8.19.13 '\makebox' (picture) ---------------------------- Synopsis: \makebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT){TEXT} \makebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} Make a box to hold TEXT. This command fits with the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because REC-WIDTH and REC-HEIGHT are numbers specifying distances in terms of the '\unitlength' (*note picture::). This command is similar to the normal '\makebox' command (*note \mbox & \makebox::) except here that you must specify the width and height. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This makes a box of length 3.5 times '\unitlength' and height 4 times '\unitlength'. \put(1,2){\makebox(3.5,4){...}} The optional argument 'POSITION' specifies where in the box the TEXT appears. The default is to center it, both horizontally and vertically. To place it somewhere else, use a string with one or two of these letters. 't' Puts TEXT the top of the box. 'b' Put TEXT at the bottom. 'l' Put TEXT on the left. 'r' Put TEXT on the right.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \framebox (picture), Next: \frame, Prev: \makebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.14 '\framebox' (picture) ----------------------------- Synopsis: \framebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT){TEXT} \framebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} This is the same as *note \makebox (picture):: except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. This command fits with the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the '\unitlength' (*note picture::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This example creates a frame 2.5 inches by 3 inches and puts the text in the center. \setlength{\unitlength}{1in} \framebox(2.5,3){test text} The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width RECT-WIDTH units and height RECT-HEIGHT units. The optional argument POSITION specifies the position of TEXT; see *note \makebox (picture):: for the values that it can take. The rule has thickness '\fboxrule' and there is a blank space '\fboxsep' between the frame and the contents of the box. For this command, you must specify the WIDTH and HEIGHT. If you want to just put a frame around some contents whose dimension is determined in some other way then either use '\fbox' (*note \fbox & \framebox::) or '\frame' (*note \frame::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frame, Next: \dashbox, Prev: \framebox (picture), Up: picture 8.19.15 '\frame' ---------------- Synopsis: \frame{CONTENTS} Puts a rectangular frame around CONTENTS. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. In contrast to '\framebox' (*note \framebox (picture)::), this command puts no extra space is put between the frame and the object. It is fragile (*note \protect::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \dashbox, Prev: \frame, Up: picture 8.19.16 '\dashbox' ------------------ Synopsis: \dashbox{DASH-LEN}(RECT-WIDTH,RECT-HEIGHT){TEXT} \dashbox{DASH-LEN}(RECT-WIDTH,RECT-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} Create a dashed rectangle around TEXT. This command fits with the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the '\unitlength' (*note picture::). The required arguments are: dashes are DASH-LEN units long, with the same length gap, and the rectangle has overall width RECT-WIDTH units and height RECT-HEIGHT units. The optional argument POSITION specifies the position of TEXT; see *note \makebox (picture):: for the values that it can take. This shows that you can use non-integer value for DASH-LEN. \put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}} Each dash will be '0.1\unitlength' long, the box's width is '5\unitlength' and its height is '0.5\unitlength'. As in that example, a dashed box looks best when RECT-WIDTH and RECT-HEIGHT are multiples of the DASH-LEN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: quotation & quote, Next: tabbing, Prev: picture, Up: Environments 8.20 'quotation' & 'quote' ========================== Synopsis: \begin{quotation} TEXT \end{quotation} or \begin{quote} TEXT \end{quote} Include a quotation. Both environments indent margins on both sides by '\leftmargin' and the text is right-justified. They differ in how they treat paragraphs. In the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, '0pt plus 1pt'. In the 'quote' environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length '\parsep'). \begin{quotation} \small\it Four score and seven years ago ... shall not perish from the earth. \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln \end{quotation}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tabbing, Next: table, Prev: quotation & quote, Up: Environments 8.21 'tabbing' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabbing} ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 ... \\ ROW2COL1 \> ROW2COL2 ... \\ ... \end{tabbing} Align text in columns, by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on a typewriter. This is less often used than the environments 'tabular' (*note tabular::) or 'array' (*note array::) because in those the width of each column need not be constant and need not be known in advance. This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit widths, ended by a '\kill' command (which is described below): \begin{tabbing} \hspace{0.75in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \kill Ship \> Guns \> Year \\ \textit{Sophie} \> 14 \> 1800 \\ \textit{Polychrest} \> 24 \> 1803 \\ \textit{Lively} \> 38 \> 1804 \\ \textit{Surprise} \> 28 \> 1805 \\ \end{tabbing} Both the 'tabbing' environment and the more widely-used 'tabular' environment put text in columns. The most important distinction is that in 'tabular' the width of columns is determined automatically by LaTeX, while in 'tabbing' the user sets the tab stops. Another distinction is that 'tabular' generates a box, but 'tabbing' can be broken across pages. Finally, while 'tabular' can be used in any mode, 'tabbing' can be used only in paragraph mode and it starts a new paragraph. A 'tabbing' environment always starts a new paragraph, without indentation. Moreover, as shown in the example above, there is no need to use the starred form of the '\hspace' command at the beginning of a tabbed row. The right margin of the 'tabbing' environment is the end of line, so that the width of the environment is '\linewidth'. The 'tabbing' environment contains a sequence of "tabbed rows". The first tabbed row begins immediately after '\begin{tabbing}' and each row ends with '\\' or '\kill'. The last row may omit the '\\' and end with just '\end{tabbing}'. At any point the 'tabbing' environment has a current tab stop pattern, a sequence of N > 0 tab stops, numbered 0, 1, etc. These create N corresponding columns. Tab stop 0 is always the left margin, defined by the enclosing environment. Tab stop number I is set if it is assigned a horizontal position on the page. Tab stop number I can only be set if all the stops 0, ..., i-1 have already been set; normally later stops are to the right of earlier ones. By default any text typeset in a 'tabbing' environment is typeset ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is done in LR mode (*note Modes::). The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment. They are all fragile (*note \protect::). '\\ (tabbing)' End a tabbed line and typeset it. '\= (tabbing)' Sets a tab stop at the current position. '\> (tabbing)' Advances to the next tab stop. '\<' Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. '\+' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\-' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\' (tabbing)' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or '\kill' command, to the previous column and aligned to the right, flush against the current column's tab stop. '\` (tabbing)' Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line, to the right margin of the 'tabbing' environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the '\`' and the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line. '\a (tabbing)' In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, use the commands '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`'. '\kill' Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. Any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line remain in effect. '\poptabs' Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'. '\pushtabs' Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing' environment. '\tabbingsep' Distance of the text moved by '\'' to left of current tab stop. This example typesets a Pascal function: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n > 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing} The output looks like this. function fact(n : integer) : integer; begin if n > 1 then fact := n * fact(n-1); else fact := 1; end; This example is just for illustration of the environment. To actually typeset computer code in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment (*note verbatim::) would normally be best. For pretty-printed code, there are quite a few packages, including 'algorithm2e', 'fancyvrb', 'listings', and 'minted'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: table, Next: tabular, Prev: tabbing, Up: Environments 8.22 'table' ============ Synopsis: \begin{table}[PLACEMENT] TABLE BODY \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional \label{LABEL} % also optional \end{table} A class of floats (*note Floats::). They cannot be split across pages and so they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are floated to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page. This example 'table' environment contains a 'tabular' \begin{table} \centering\small \begin{tabular}{ll} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Author}} &\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Piece}} \\ \hline Bach &Cello Suite Number 1 \\ Beethoven &Cello Sonata Number 3 \\ Brahms &Cello Sonata Number 1 \end{tabular} \caption{Top cello pieces} \label{tab:cello} \end{table} but you can put many different kinds of content in a 'table', including text, LaTeX commands, etc. For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The table body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth'. It can contain text, commands, graphics, etc. The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross references::). The '\caption' command is also optional. It specifies caption text for the table. By default it is numbered. If its optional LOTTITLE is present then that text is used in the list of tables instead of TITLE (*note Table of contents etc.::). In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end. \begin{table}[b] \centering \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline One &The loneliest number \\ Two &Can be as sad as one. It's the loneliest number since the number one. \end{tabular} \caption{Cardinal virtues} \label{tab:CardinalVirtues} \end{table}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tabular, Next: thebibliography, Prev: table, Up: Environments 8.23 'tabular' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{tabular*} Produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features. \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\ \hline Hank Aaron &755 \\ Babe Ruth &714 \end{tabular} The output will have two left-aligned columns with a vertical bar between them. This is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'. Put the entries into different columns by separating them with an ampersand, '&'. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash, '\\'. Put a horizontal rule below a row, after a double backslash, with '\hline'. After the last row the '\\' is optional, unless an '\hline' command follows to put a rule below the table. The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of: POS Optional. Specifies the table's vertical position. The default is to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: 't' aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row. This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no difference. COLS Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumn material. 'l' A column of left-aligned items. 'r' A column of right-aligned items. 'c' A column of centered items. '|' A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. '@{TEXT OR SPACE}' Insert TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row. The TEXT OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (*note \protect::). If between two columns there is no @-expression then LaTeX's 'book', 'article', and 'report' classes will put on either side of each column a space of length '\tabcolsep', which by default is 6pt. That is, by default adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is misleadingly named since it is only half of the separation between tabular columns). In addition, a space of 6pt also comes before the first column and after the final column, unless you put a '@{...}' or '|' there. If you override the default and use an @-expression then LaTeX does not insert '\tabcolsep' so you must insert any desired space yourself, as in '@{\hspace{1em}}'. An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space. In particular, sometimes you want to eliminate the space before the first column or after the last one, as in the example below where the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin. \begin{flushleft} \begin{tabular}{@{}l} ... \end{tabular} \end{flushleft} The next example shows text, a decimal point between the columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on it. \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l} $3$ &$14$ \\ $9$ &$80665$ \end{tabular} An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another '\extracolsep'. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in the 'cols' argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide. \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l} Seven times down, eight times up \ldots &such is life! \end{tabular*} To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}' specifier. 'p{WD}' Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD, as if it were the argument of a '\parbox[t]{wd}{...}' command. A line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in the item, except inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft' declaration (when used in a 'p'-column element these declarations must appear inside braces, as with '{\centering .. \\ ..}'). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as ending the row. Instead, to get a line break in there use '\newline' (*note \newline::). '*{NUM}{COLS}' Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive integer and COLS is a list of specifiers. Thus the specifier '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to the specifier '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'. Note that COLS may contain another '*'-expression. WIDTH Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'. Specifies the width of the 'tabular*' environment. The space between columns should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment ...' warning. Parameters that control formatting: '\arrayrulewidth' A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|', '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments. The default is '.4pt'. Change it as in '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'. '\arraystretch' A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments is multiplied. The default is '1', for no scaling. Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'. '\doublerulesep' A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the '||' specifier. The default is '2pt'. '\tabcolsep' A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is '6pt'. Change it with '\setlength'. The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular' environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between lines: * Menu: * \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns. * \vline:: Draw a vertical line. * \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. * \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \multicolumn, Next: \vline, Up: tabular 8.23.1 '\multicolumn' --------------------- Synopsis: \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT} Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns. The first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span. The second argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right. The third argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry. In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the single heading 'Name'. \begin{tabular}{lccl} \textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline 978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick &55 \\ ... \end{tabular} What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the 'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part (except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'. So from '\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c', and 'p{1.5in}|'. The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the placement of vertical rules, and '@{...}' expressions. Thus if COLS is '|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior. \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|} \multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three &z % entry four \end{tabular} Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical rule; although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the second COLS does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn' leaves it out, and that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a vertical rule because of the default. The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1. Besides giving the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area specification, including the placement of vertical rules. In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'. Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with '\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page range en-dash. \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}} &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline Baroque &1600 &1760 \\ Classical &1730 &1820 \\ Romantic &1780 &1910 \\ Impressionistic &1875 &1925 \end{tabular} Although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a vertical rule between the first and second columns, no such vertical rule appears in the first row here. That's because there is no vertical bar in the COLS part of the first row's first '\multicolumn' command.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vline, Next: \cline, Prev: \multicolumn, Up: tabular 8.23.2 '\vline' --------------- Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the full height and depth of an entry's row. Can also be used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common. This command is rarely used in the body of a table; typically a table's vertical lines are specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overridden as needed with '\multicolumn' (*note tabular::). The example below illustrates some pitfalls. In the first row's second entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so between the first and second columns there are two vertical rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one produced by the '\vline\hfill'. In contrast, the first row's third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns. In the second row, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the '\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace. \begin{tabular}{c|cc} x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ % row 1 abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi % row 2 \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cline, Next: \hline, Prev: \vline, Up: tabular 8.23.3 '\cline' --------------- Synopsis: \cline{I-J} In an 'array' or 'tabular' environment, draw a horizontal rule beginning in column I and ending in column J. The dash, '-', must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single column use the number twice, as with '\cline{2-2}'. This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same height. \begin{tabular}{llrr} a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} e &f &g &h \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hline, Prev: \cline, Up: tabular 8.23.4 '\hline' --------------- Draw a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single rule spanning both columns. Because of the '\hline', the 'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required. \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline Baseball &Red Sox \\ Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline \end{tabular}  File: latex2e.info, Node: thebibliography, Next: theorem, Prev: tabular, Up: Environments 8.24 'thebibliography' ====================== Synopsis: \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} ... \end{thebibliography} Produce a bibliography or reference list. There are two ways to produce bibliographic lists. This environment is suitable when you have only a few references and can maintain the list by hand. *Note Using BibTeX:: for a more sophisticated approach. This shows the environment with two entries. This work is based on \cite{latexdps}. Together they are \cite{latexdps, texbook}. ... \begin{thebibliography}{9} \bibitem{latexdps} Leslie Lamport. \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993. \bibitem{texbook} Donald Ervin Knuth. \textit{The \TeX book}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983. \end{thebibliography} This styles the first reference as '[1] Leslie ...', and so that '\cite{latexdps}' produces the matching '... based on [1]'. The second '\cite' produces '[1, 2]'. You must compile the document twice to resolve these references. The mandatory argument WIDEST-LABEL is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. The tradition is to use '9' for bibliographies with less than 10 references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc. The bibliographic list is headed by a title such as 'Bibliography'. To change it there are two cases. In the 'book' and 'report' classes, where the top level sectioning is '\chapter' and the default title is 'Bibliography', that title is in the macro '\bibname'. For 'article', where the class's top level sectioning is '\section' and the default is 'References', the title is in macro '\refname'. Change it by redefining the command, as with '\renewcommand{\refname}{Cited references}' after '\begin{document}'. Language support packages such as 'babel' will automatically redefine '\refname' or '\bibname' to fit the selected language. * Menu: * \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item. * \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item. * \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography. * Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bibitem, Next: \cite, Up: thebibliography 8.24.1 '\bibitem' ----------------- Synopsis: \bibitem{CITE_KEY} or \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} Generate an entry labeled by LABEL. The default is for LaTeX to generates a number using the 'enumi' counter. The "citation key" CITE_KEY is a string of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols (but not comma). *Note thebibliography:: for an example. The optional LABEL changes the default label from an integer to the given string. With this \begin{thebibliography} \bibitem[Lamport 1993]{latexdps} Leslie Lamport. \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993. \bibitem{texbook} Donald Ervin Knuth. \textit{The \TeX book}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983. \end{thebibliography} the first entry will be styled as '[Lamport 1993] Leslie ...' (The amount of horizontal space that LaTeX leaves for the label depends on the WIDEST-LABEL argument of the 'thebibliography' environment; see *note thebibliography::.) Similarly, '... based on \cite{latexdps}' will produce '... based on [Lamport 1994]'. If you mix '\bibitem' entries having a LABEL with those that do not then LaTeX will number the unlabelled ones sequentially. In the example above the 'texbook' entry will appear as '[1] Donald ...', despite that it is the second entry. If you use the same CITE_KEY twice then you get 'LaTeX Warning: There were multiply-defined labels'. Under the hood, LaTeX remembers the CITE_KEY and LABEL information because '\bibitem' writes it to the auxiliary file 'FILENAME.aux'. For instance, the above example causes '\bibcite{latexdps}{Lamport, 1993}' and '\bibcite{texbook}{1}' to appear in that file. The '.aux' file is read by the '\begin{document}' command and then the information is available for '\cite' commands. This explains why you need to run LaTeX twice to resolve references: once to write it out and once to read it in. Because of this two-pass algorithm, when you add a '\bibitem' or change its CITE_KEY you may get 'LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross-references right'. Fix it by recompiling.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cite, Next: \nocite, Prev: \bibitem, Up: thebibliography 8.24.2 '\cite' -------------- Synopsis: \cite{KEYS} or \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS} Generate as output a citation to the references associated with KEYS. The mandatory KEYS is a citation key, or a comma-separated list of citation keys (*note \bibitem::). This The ultimate source is \cite{texbook}. ... \begin{thebibliography} \bibitem{texbook} Donald Ervin Knuth. \textit{The \TeX book}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983. \end{thebibliography} produces output like '... source is [1]'. (You can change the appearance of the citation with bibliography styles. More is in *note Using BibTeX::.) The optional argument SUBCITE is appended to the citation. For example, 'See 14.3 in \cite[p.~314]{texbook}' might produce 'See 14.3 in [1, p. 314]'. In addition to what appears in the output, '\cite' writes information to the auxiliary file 'FILENAME.aux'. For instance, '\cite{latexdps}' writes '\citation{latexdps}' to that file. This information is used by BibTeX to include in your reference list only those works that you have actually cited; see *note \nocite:: also. If KEYS is not in your bibliography information then you get 'LaTeX Warning: There were undefined references', and in the output the citation shows as a boldface question mark between square brackets. There are two possible causes. If you have mistyped something, as in '\cite{texbok}' then you need to correct the spelling. On the other hand, if you have just added or modified the bibliographic information and so changed the '.aux' file (*note \bibitem::) then the fix may be to run LaTeX again.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \nocite, Next: Using BibTeX, Prev: \cite, Up: thebibliography 8.24.3 '\nocite' ---------------- Synopsis: \nocite{KEYS} Produces no output but writes KEYS to the auxiliary file 'DOC-FILENAME.aux'. The mandatory argument KEYS is a comma-separated list of one or more citation keys (*note \bibitem::). This information is used by BibTeX to include these works in your reference list even though you have not cited them (*note \cite::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Using BibTeX, Prev: \nocite, Up: thebibliography 8.24.4 Using BibTeX ------------------- As described in 'thebibliography' (*note thebibliography::), a sophisticated approach to managing bibliographies is provided by the BibTeX program. This is only an introduction; see the full documentation on CTAN. With BibTeX, you don't use 'thebibliography' (*note thebibliography::). Instead, include these lines. \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} \bibliography{BIBFILE1, BIBFILE2, ...} The BIBSTYLE refers to a file 'BIBSTYLE.bst', which defines how your citations will look. The standard BIBSTYLE's distributed with BibTeX are: 'alpha' Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. The bibliographic items are sorted alphabetically. 'plain' Labels are integers. Sort the bibliographic items alphabetically. 'unsrt' Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation. 'abbrv' Like 'plain', but more compact labels. Many, many other BibTeX style files exist, tailored to the demands of various publications. See CTAN's listing . The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the bibliography. Its argument is a comma-separated list, referring to files named 'BIBFILE1.bib', 'BIBFILE2.bib', ... These contain your database in BibTeX format. This shows a typical couple of entries in that format. @book{texbook, title = {The {{\TeX}}book}, author = {D.E. Knuth}, isbn = {0201134489}, series = {Computers \& typesetting}, year = {1983}, publisher = {Addison-Wesley} } @book{sexbook, author = {W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson}, title = {Human Sexual Response}, year = {1966}, publisher = {Bantam Books} } Only the bibliographic entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in the document's bibliography. Thus you can keep all your sources together in one file, or a small number of files, and rely on BibTeX to include in this document only those that you used.  File: latex2e.info, Node: theorem, Next: titlepage, Prev: thebibliography, Up: Environments 8.25 'theorem' ============== Synopsis: \begin{theorem} THEOREM BODY \end{theorem} Produces 'Theorem N' in boldface followed by THEOREM BODY in italics. The numbering possibilities for N are described under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::). \newtheorem{lem}{Lemma} % in preamble \newtheorem{thm}{Theorem} ... \begin{lem} % in document body text of lemma \end{lem} The next result follows immediately. \begin{thm}[Gauss] % put `Gauss' in parens after theorem head text of theorem \end{thm} Most new documents use the packages 'amsthm' and 'amsmath' from the American Mathematical Society. Among other things these packages include a large number of options for theorem environments, such as styling options.  File: latex2e.info, Node: titlepage, Next: verbatim, Prev: theorem, Up: Environments 8.26 'titlepage' ================ Synopsis: \begin{titlepage} ... text and spacing ... \end{titlepage} Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading and with succeeding pages numbered starting with page one. In this example all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left to the author. \begin{titlepage} \vspace*{\stretch{1}} \begin{center} {\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex] title} \\[6.5ex] {\large\bfseries Author name} \\ \vspace{4ex} Thesis submitted to \\[5pt] \textit{University name} \\[2cm] in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm] \textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy} \\[2ex] \textsc{\large Mathematics} \\[12ex] \vfill Department of Mathematics \\ Address \\ \vfill \today \end{center} \vspace{\stretch{2}} \end{titlepage} To instead produce a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment, use '\maketitle' (*note \maketitle::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: verbatim, Next: verse, Prev: titlepage, Up: Environments 8.27 'verbatim' =============== Synopsis: \begin{verbatim} LITERAL-TEXT \end{verbatim} A paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces as output exactly what you type as input. For instance inside LITERAL-TEXT the backslash '\' character does not start commands, it produces a printed '\', and carriage returns and blanks are taken literally. The output appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt'). \begin{verbatim} Symbol swearing: %&$#?!. \end{verbatim} The only restriction on 'literal-text' is that it cannot include the string '\end{verbatim}'. You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros, for instance in the argument to a '\section'. This is not the same as commands being fragile (*note \protect::), instead it just cannot appear there. (But the 'cprotect' package can help with this.) One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code. There are packages that are an improvement the 'verbatim' environment. For instance, one improvement is to allow the verbatim inclusion of external files, or parts of those files. Such packages include 'listings', and 'minted'. A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments is 'fancyvrb'. Another is 'verbatimbox'. For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN. * Menu: * \verb:: The macro form of the 'verbatim' environment.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \verb, Up: verbatim 8.27.1 '\verb' -------------- Synopsis: \verb CHAR LITERAL-TEXT CHAR \verb* CHAR LITERAL-TEXT CHAR Typeset LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font. This example shows two different invocations of '\verb'. This is \verb!literally! the biggest pumpkin ever. And this is the best squash, \verb+literally!+ The first '\verb' has its LITERAL-TEXT surrounded with exclamation point, '!'. The second instead uses plus, '+', because the exclamation point is part of 'literal-text'. The single-character delimiter CHAR surrounds LITERAL-TEXT -- it must be the same character before and after. No spaces come between '\verb' or '\verb*' and CHAR, or between CHAR and LITERAL-TEXT, or between LITERAL-TEXT and the second occurrence of CHAR (the synopsis shows a space only to distinguish one component from the other). The delimiter must not appear in LITERAL-TEXT. The LITERAL-TEXT cannot include a line break. The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a visible space character. The output from this will include a character showing the spaces. The commands's first argument is \verb*!filename with extension! and ... For typesetting Internet addresses, urls, the package 'url' provides an option that is better than the '\verb' command, since it allows line breaks. For computer code there are many packages with advantages over '\verb'. One is 'listings', another is 'minted'. You cannot use '\verb' in the argument to a macro, for instance in the argument to a '\section'. It is not a question of '\verb' being fragile (*note \protect::), instead it just cannot appear there. (But the 'cprotect' package can help with this.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: verse, Prev: verbatim, Up: Environments 8.28 'verse' ============ Synopsis: \begin{verse} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{verse} An environment for poetry. Here are two lines from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Then plainly know my heart's dear love is set \\ On the fair daughter of rich Capulet. Separate the lines of each stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas. \begin{verse} \makebox[\linewidth][c]{\textit{Shut Not Your Doors} ---Walt Whitman} \\[1\baselineskip] Shut not your doors to me proud libraries, \\ For that which was lacking on all your well-fill'd shelves, \\ \qquad yet needed most, I bring, \\ Forth from the war emerging, a book I have made, \\ The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing, \\ A book separate, not link'd with the rest nor felt by the intellect, \\ But you ye untold latencies will thrill to every page. \end{verse} The output has margins indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not right-justified.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Line breaking, Next: Page breaking, Prev: Environments, Up: Top 9 Line breaking *************** The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in some environments you manually force line breaks. A common workflow is to get a final version of the document content before taking a final pass through and considering line breaks (and page breaks). This differs from word processing, where you are formatting text as you input it. Putting these off until the end prevents a lot of fiddling with breaks that will change anyway. * Menu: * \\:: Start a new line. * \obeycr & \restorecr:: Make each input line start a new output line. * \newline:: Break the line * \- (hyphenation):: Insert explicit hyphenation. * \discretionary:: Explicit control of the hyphen character. * \fussy & \sloppy:: Be more or less particular with line breaking. * \hyphenation:: Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word. * \linebreak & \nolinebreak:: Forcing & avoiding line breaks.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \\, Next: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking 9.1 '\\' ======== Synopsis, one of: \\ \\[MORESPACE] or one of: \\* \\*[MORESPACE] End the current line. The optional argument MORESPACE specifies extra vertical space to be inserted before the next line. This is a rubber length (*note Lengths::) and can be negative. The text before the line break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). The starred form, '\\*', tells LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a '\nobreak'. \title{My story: \\[0.25in] a tale of woe} Explicit line breaks in the main text body are unusual in LaTeX. In particular, don't start new paragraphs with '\\'. Instead leave a blank line between the two paragraphs. And don't put in a sequence of '\\''s to make vertical space. Instead use '\vspace{LENGTH}', or '\leavevmode\vspace{LENGTH}', or '\vspace*{LENGTH}' if you want the space to not be thrown out at the top of a new page (*note \vspace::). The '\\' command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment or in an equation environment. The '\\' command is a synonym for '\newline' (*note \newline::) under ordinary circumstances (an example of an exception is the 'p{...}' column in a 'tabular' environment; *note tabular::). The '\\' command is a macro, and its definition changes by context so that its definition in normal text, a 'center' environment, a 'flushleft' environment, and a 'tabular' are all different. In normal text when it forces a linebreak it is essentially a shorthand for '\newline'. It does not end horizontal mode or end the paragraph, it just inserts some glue and penalties so that when the paragraph does end a linebreak will occur at that point, with the short line padded with white space. You get 'LaTeX Error: There's no line here to end' if you use '\\' to ask for a new line, rather than to end the current line. An example is if you have '\begin{document}\\' or, more likely, something like this. \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth} \\ In that vertical space put your mark. \end{minipage} \end{center} Fix it by replacing the double backslash with something like '\vspace{\baselineskip}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \obeycr & \restorecr, Next: \newline, Prev: \\, Up: Line breaking 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' ============================ The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M', internally) the same as '\\', followed by '\relax'. So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. The '\restorecr' command restores normal line-breaking behavior. This is not the way to show verbatim text or computer code. *Note verbatim:: instead. With LaTeX's usual defaults, this aaa bbb \obeycr ccc ddd eee \restorecr fff ggg hhh iii produces output like this. aaa bbb ccc ddd eee fff ggg hhh iii The indents are paragraph indents.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newline, Next: \- (hyphenation), Prev: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking 9.3 '\newline' ============== In ordinary text, this ends a line in a way that does not right-justify the line, so the prior text is not stretched. That is, in paragraph mode (*note Modes::), the '\newline' command is equivalent to double-backslash (*note \\::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). However, the two commands are different inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment. In a column with a specifier producing a paragraph box such as typically 'p{...}', '\newline' will insert a line end inside of the column; that is, it does not break the entire tabular row. To break the entire row use '\\' or its equivalent '\tabularnewline'. This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell of the table. \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}} Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline \end{tabular} The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \- (hyphenation), Next: \discretionary, Prev: \newline, Up: Line breaking 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) =============================== Tell LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. This command is robust (*note \protect::). LaTeX is good at hyphenating and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The '\-' command is for exceptional cases. For example, LaTeX does not ordinarily hyphenate words containing a hyphen. Below, the long and hyphenated word means LaTeX has to put in unacceptably large spaces to set the narrow column. \begin{tabular}{rp{1.75in}} Isaac Asimov &The strain of anti-intellectualism % an\-ti-in\-tel\-lec\-tu\-al\-ism has been a constant thread winding its way through our political and cultural life, nurtured by the false notion that democracy means that `my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge'. \end{tabular} Commenting out the third line and uncommenting the fourth makes a much better fit. The '\-' command only allows LaTeX to break there, it does not require that it break there. You can insist on a split with something like 'Hef-\linebreak feron'. Of course, if you later change the text then this forced break may look very odd, so this approach requires care.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \discretionary, Next: \fussy & \sloppy, Prev: \- (hyphenation), Up: Line breaking 9.5 '\discretionary' (generalized hyphenation point) ==================================================== Synopsis: \discretionary{PRE-BREAK}{POST-BREAK}{NO-BREAK} Handle word changes around hyphens. This command is not often used in LaTeX documents. If a line break occurs at the point where '\discretionary' appears then TeX puts PRE-BREAK at the end of the current line and puts POST-BREAK at the start of the next line. If there is no line break here then TeX puts NO-BREAK In 'difficult' the three letters 'ffi' form a ligature. But TeX can nonetheless break between the two f's with this. di\discretionary{f-}{fi}{ffi}cult Note that users do not have to do this. It is typically handled automatically by TeX's hyphenation algorithm.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \fussy & \sloppy, Next: \hyphenation, Prev: \discretionary, Up: Line breaking 9.6 '\fussy' & '\sloppy' ======================== Declarations to make TeX more picky or less picky about line breaking. Declaring '\fussy' usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. Conversely, '\sloppy' avoids overfull boxes while suffering loose interword spacing. The default is '\fussy'. Line breaking in a paragraph is controlled by whichever declaration is current at the blank line, or '\par', or displayed equation ending that paragraph. So to affect the line breaks, include that paragraph-ending material in the scope of the command. * Menu: * sloppypar:: Environment version of \sloppy command.  File: latex2e.info, Node: sloppypar, Up: \fussy & \sloppy 9.6.1 'sloppypar' ----------------- Synopsis: \begin{sloppypar} ... paragraphs ... \end{sloppypar} Typeset the paragraphs with '\sloppy' in effect (*note \fussy & \sloppy::). Use this to locally adjust line breaking, to avoid 'Overfull box' or 'Underfull box' errors. The example is simple. \begin{sloppypar} Her plan for the morning thus settled, she sat quietly down to her book after breakfast, resolving to remain in the same place and the same employment till the clock struck one; and from habitude very little incommoded by the remarks and ejaculations of Mrs.\ Allen, whose vacancy of mind and incapacity for thinking were such, that as she never talked a great deal, so she could never be entirely silent; and, therefore, while she sat at her work, if she lost her needle or broke her thread, if she heard a carriage in the street, or saw a speck upon her gown, she must observe it aloud, whether there were anyone at leisure to answer her or not. \end{sloppypar}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hyphenation, Next: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \fussy & \sloppy, Up: Line breaking 9.7 '\hyphenation' ================== Synopsis: \hyphenation{WORD1 ...} Declares allowed hyphenation points within the words in the list. The words in that list are separated by spaces. Show permitted points for hyphenation with a dash character, '-'. Here is an example: \hyphenation{hat-er il-lit-e-ra-ti tru-th-i-ness} Use lowercase letters. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \hyphenation, Up: Line breaking 9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' ================================= Synopses, one of: \linebreak \linebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] or one of these. \nolinebreak \nolinebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] Encourage or discourage a line break. The optional ZERO-TO-FOUR is an integer that allows you to soften the instruction. The default is 4, so that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or prevent the break. But for instance, '\nolinebreak[1]' is a suggestion that another place may be better. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::). Here we tell LaTeX that a good place to put a linebreak is after the standard legal text. \boilerplatelegal{} \linebreak[2] We especially encourage applications from members of traditionally underrepresented groups. When you issue '\linebreak', the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin. *Note \\:: and *note \newline:: to have the spaces not stretched out.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page breaking, Next: Footnotes, Prev: Line breaking, Up: Top 10 Page breaking **************** Ordinarily LaTeX automatically takes care of breaking output into pages with its usual aplomb. But if you are writing commands, or tweaking the final version of a document, then you may need to understand how to influence its actions. LaTeX's algorithm for splitting a document into pages is more complex than just waiting until there is enough material to fill a page and outputting the result. Instead, LaTeX typesets more material than would fit on the page and then chooses a break that is optimal in some way (it has the smallest badness). An example of the advantage of this approach is that if the page has some vertical space that can be stretched or shrunk, such as with rubber lengths between paragraphs, then LaTeX can use that to avoid widow lines (where a new page starts with the last line of a paragraph; LaTeX can squeeze the extra line onto the first page) and orphans (where the first line of paragraph is at the end of a page; LaTeX can stretch the material of the first page so the extra line falls on the second page). Another example is where LaTeX uses available vertical shrinkage to fit on a page not just the header for a new section but also the first two lines of that section. But LaTeX does not optimize over the entire document's set of page breaks. So it can happen that the first page break is great but the second one is lousy; to break the current page LaTeX doesn't look as far ahead as the next page break. So occasionally you may want to influence page breaks while preparing a final version of a document. *Note Layout:: for more material that is relevant to page breaking. * Menu: * \clearpage & \cleardoublepage:: Start a new page; eject floats. * \newpage:: Start a new page. * \enlargethispage:: Enlarge the current page a bit. * \pagebreak & \nopagebreak:: Forcing & avoiding page breaks.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage, Next: \newpage, Up: Page breaking 10.1 '\clearpage' & '\cleardoublepage' ====================================== Synopsis: \clearpage or \cleardoublepage End the current page and output all of the pending floating figures and tables (*note Floats::). If there are too many floats to fit on the page then LaTeX will put in extra pages containing only floats. In two-sided printing, '\cleardoublepage' also makes the next page of content a right-hand page, an odd-numbered page, if necessary inserting a blank page. The '\clearpage' command is robust while '\cleardoublepage' is fragile (*note \protect::). LaTeX's page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside commands. The '\cleardoublepage' command will put in a blank page, but it will have the running headers and footers. To get a really blank page, use this command. \let\origdoublepage\cleardoublepage \newcommand{\clearemptydoublepage}{% \clearpage {\pagestyle{empty}\origdoublepage}% } If you want LaTeX's standard '\chapter' command to do this then add the line '\let\cleardoublepage\clearemptydoublepage'. The command '\newpage' (*note \newpage::) also ends the current page, but without clearing pending floats. And, if LaTeX is in two-column mode then '\newpage' ends the current column while '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' end the current page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newpage, Next: \enlargethispage, Prev: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage, Up: Page breaking 10.2 '\newpage' =============== Synopsis: \newpage End the current page. This command is robust (*note \protect::). LaTeX's page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside commands. While the commands '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' also end the current page, in addition they clear pending floats (*note \clearpage & \cleardoublepage::). And, if LaTeX is in two-column mode then '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' end the current page, possibly leaving an empty column, while '\newpage' only ends the current column. In contrast with '\pagebreak' (*note \pagebreak & \nopagebreak::), the '\newpage' command will cause the new page to start right where requested. This Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, \newpage \noindent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. makes a new page start after 'continent,' and the cut-off line is not right justified. In addition, '\newpage' does not vertically stretch out the page, as '\pagebreak' does.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \enlargethispage, Next: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \newpage, Up: Page breaking 10.3 '\enlargethispage' ======================= Synopsis, one of: \enlargethispage{size} \enlargethispage*{size} Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page. The required argument SIZE must be a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It may be positive or negative. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). A common strategy is to wait until you have the final text of a document, and then pass through it tweaking line and page breaks. This command allows you some page size leeway. This will allow one extra line on the current page. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} The starred form '\enlargesthispage*' tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible, for the common use case of getting one more line on the page. This is often used together with an explicit '\pagebreak'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \enlargethispage, Up: Page breaking 10.4 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' ================================== Synopses: \pagebreak \pagebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] or \nopagebreak \nopagebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] Encourage or discourage a page break. The optional ZERO-TO-FOUR is an integer that allows you to soften the request. The default is 4, so that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or prevent the break. But for instance '\nopagebreak[1]' suggests to LaTeX that another spot might be preferable. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::). LaTeX's page endings are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside commands. If you use these inside a paragraph, they apply to the point following the line in which they appear. So this Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, \pagebreak a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. does not give a page break at 'continent,' but instead at 'nation,' since that is where LaTeX breaks that line. In addition, with '\pagebreak' the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. This can look strange, and if '\flushbottom' is in effect this can cause you to get 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'. *Note \newpage:: for a command that does not have these effects.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes, Next: Definitions, Prev: Page breaking, Up: Top 11 Footnotes ************ Place a footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here. Noe"l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making love.\footnote{% I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.} You can put multiple footnotes on a page. If the footnote text becomes too long then it will flow to the next page. You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances. To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a bibliographic style with that behavior (*note Using BibTeX::). * Menu: * \footnote:: Insert a footnote. * \footnotemark:: Insert footnote mark only. * \footnotetext:: Insert footnote text only. * Footnotes in section headings:: Chapter or section titles. * Footnotes in a table:: Table footnotes. * Footnotes of footnotes:: Multiple classes of footnotes.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnote, Next: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes 11.1 '\footnote' ================ Synopsis, one of: \footnote{TEXT} \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place a footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page. There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{% After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained, ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''} The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the number of the footnote. If you use this then LaTeX does not increment the 'footnote' counter. By default, LaTeX uses arabic numbers as footnote markers. Change this with something like '\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with '\setcounter{footnote}{0}'. LaTeX determines the spacing of footnotes with two parameters. '\footnoterule' Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions in the standard document classes (except 'slides', where it does not appear) is: vertical thickness of '0.4pt', and horizontal size of '0.4\columnwidth' long. Change the rule with something like this. \renewcommand{\footnoterule}{% Kerns avoid vertical space \kern -3pt % This -3 is negative \hrule width \textwidth height 1pt % of the sum of this 1 \kern 2pt} % and this 2 '\footnotesep' The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote (*note \strut::). By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize' fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'. Change it as with '\setlength{\footnotesep}{11pt}'. The '\footnote' command is fragile (*note \protect::). LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a '\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer paragraph mode; *note Modes::). There are some workarounds; see following sections. In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the 'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are shown alphabetically. *Note minipage:: and *note Footnotes in a table::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotemark, Next: \footnotetext, Prev: \footnote, Up: Footnotes 11.2 '\footnotemark' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotemark \footnotemark[NUMBER] Put the current footnote mark in the text. To specify associated text for the footnote see *note \footnotetext::. The optional argument NUMBER causes the command to use that number to determine the footnote mark. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode (*note Modes::). If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then it does not. The next example produces several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote. The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.} and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] If there are intervening footnotes then you must remember the value of the common mark. This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version of 'footnote'), by-hand giving the number of the footnote. \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem} \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds} \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University} \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]} \begin{document} \maketitle This uses a counter to remember the footnote number. The third sentence is followed by the same footnote marker as the first. \newcounter{footnoteValueSaver} All babies are illogical.\footnote{% Lewis Carroll.}\setcounter{footnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.\footnote{% Captain Hook.} Illogical persons are despised.\footnotemark[\value{footnoteValueSaver}] Therefore, anyone who can manage a crocodile is not a baby. This example accomplishes the same by using the package 'cleveref'. \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % in preamble \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3} ... The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker, Evers, 1994.} The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers, Chance, 1990.} But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE} It will work with the package 'hyperref'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotetext, Next: Footnotes in section headings, Prev: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes 11.3 '\footnotetext' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotetext{TEXT} \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote. It pairs with '\footnotemark' (*note \footnotemark::) and can come anywhere after that command, but must appear in outer paragraph mode (*note Modes::). The optional argument NUMBER changes the number of the footnote mark. *Note \footnotemark:: and *note Footnotes in a table:: for usage examples.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes in section headings, Next: Footnotes in a table, Prev: \footnotetext, Up: Footnotes 11.4 Footnotes in section headings ================================== Putting a footnote in a section heading, as in: \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material due to ...}} causes the footnote to appear at the bottom of the page where the section starts, as usual, but also at the bottom of the table of contents, where it is not likely to be desired. The simplest way to have it not appear on the table of contents is to use the optional argument to '\section' \section[Please]{Please\footnote{% Don't footnote in chapter and section headers!}} No '\protect' is needed in front of '\footnote' here because what gets moved to the table of contents is the optional argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes in a table, Next: Footnotes of footnotes, Prev: Footnotes in section headings, Up: Footnotes 11.5 Footnotes in a table ========================= Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment the '\footnote' command does not work; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but the footnote text does not appear. The solution is to use a 'minipage' environment as here (*note minipage::). \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline \textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\ \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{% Starting with HMS Surprise.} \end{tabular} \end{minipage} \end{center} Inside a 'minipage', footnote marks are lowercase letters. Change that with something like '\renewcommand{\thempfootnote}{\arabic{mpfootnote}}' (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). The footnotes in the prior example appear at the bottom of the 'minipage'. To have them appear at the bottom of the main page, as part of the regular footnote sequence, use the '\footnotemark' and '\footnotetext' pair and make a new counter. \newcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver} \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \setcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Woman} &\textsc{Relationship} \\ \hline Mona &Attached\footnotemark \\ Diana Villiers &Eventual wife \\ Christine Hatherleigh Wood &Fiance\footnotemark \end{tabular} \end{minipage}% percent sign keeps footnote text close to minipage \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}% \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{% Little is known other than her death.}% \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}% \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{% Relationship is unresolved in XXI.} \end{center} For a floating 'table' environment (*note table::), use the 'tablefootnote' package. \usepackage{tablefootnote} % in preamble ... \begin{table} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline 1862 &Fort Donelson \\ 1863 &Vicksburg \\ 1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\tablefootnote{% Ending the war.} \end{tabular} \caption{Forces captured by US Grant} \end{table} The footnote appears at the page bottom and is numbered in sequence with other footnotes.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes of footnotes, Prev: Footnotes in a table, Up: Footnotes 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes =========================== Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package 'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example. \usepackage{bigfoot} % in preamble \DeclareNewFootnote{Default} \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{} ... The third theorem is a partial converse of the second.\footnotefrom{% First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Definitions, Next: Counters, Prev: Footnotes, Up: Top 12 Definitions ************** LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. * Menu: * \newcommand & \renewcommand:: (Re)define a new command. * \providecommand:: Define a new command, if name not used. * \makeatletter & \makeatother:: Change the status of the at-sign character. * \@ifstar:: Define your own commands with *-variants. * \newcounter:: Define a new counter. * \newlength:: Define a new length. * \newsavebox:: Define a new box. * \newenvironment & \renewenvironment:: Define a new environment. * \newtheorem:: Define a new theorem-like environment. * \newfont:: Define a new font name. * \protect:: Using tricky commands. * \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend:: Discard extra spaces.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Next: \providecommand, Up: Definitions 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' ==================================== Synopses, one of: \newcommand{\CMD}{DEFN} \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} or one of these. \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} Define or redefine a command. See also the discussion of '\DeclareRobustCommand' in *note Class and package commands::. The starred form of these two requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (in plain TeX terms that it not be '\long'). These are the parameters: CMD Required; the command name. It must begin with a backslash, '\', and must not begin with the four letter string '\end'. For '\newcommand', it must not be already defined. For '\renewcommand', this name must already be defined. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that the command takes, including any optional argument. Omitting this argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that the command has no arguments. If you redefine a command, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of '\CMD' is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then '\CMD' does not take an optional argument. That is, if '\CMD' is used with square brackets, as in '\CMD[OPTVAL]{...}...', then within DEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of OPTVAL. On the other hand, if '\CMD' is called without the square brackets then within DEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, the required arguments start with '#2'. Omitting '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former sets '#1' to the value of OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter sets '#1' to the empty string. DEFN Required; the text to be substituted for every occurrence of '\CMD'. The parameters '#1', '#2', ... '#NARGS' are replaced by the values that you supply when you call the command (or by the default value if there is an optional argument and you don't exercise the option). TeX ignores spaces in the source following an alphabetic control sequence, as in '\cmd '. If you actually want a space there, one solution is to type '{}' after the command ('\cmd{} ', and another solution is to use an explicit control space ('\cmd\ '). A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\RS}{Robin Smith}' results in '\RS' being replaced by the longer text. Redefining an existing command is similar: '\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}'. If you try to define a command and the name has already been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. If you try to redefine a command and the name has not yet been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: \hank undefined'. Here the first command definition has no arguments, and the second has one required argument. \newcommand{\student}{Ms~O'Leary} \newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}} Use the first as in 'I highly recommend \student{} to you'. The second has a variable, so that '\defref{def:basis}' expands to 'Definition~\ref{def:basis}', which ultimately expands to something like 'Definition~3.14'. Similarly, but with two required arguments: '\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'. This example has an optional argument. \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:} Then '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]' gives 'Dear John:'. And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'. This example has an optional argument and two required arguments. \newcommand{\lawyers}[3][company]{#2, #3, and~#1} I employ \lawyers[Howe]{Dewey}{Cheatem}. The output is 'I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and Howe'. The optional argument, the 'Howe', is associated with '#1', while 'Dewey' and 'Cheatem' are associated with '#2' and '#3'. Because of the optional argument, '\lawyers{Dewey}{Cheatem}' will give the output 'I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and company'. The braces around DEFN do not define a group, that is, they do not delimit the scope of the result of expanding DEFN. For example, with '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}', in this sentence, The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}. the words 'met the' would incorrectly be in italics. The solution is to put another pair of braces inside the definition: '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \providecommand, Next: \makeatletter & \makeatother, Prev: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Up: Definitions 12.2 '\providecommand' ====================== Synopses, one of: \providecommand{CMD}{DEFN} \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect as '\newcommand'. If a command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a file that may be loaded more than once, such as a style file. *Note \newcommand & \renewcommand:: for the description of the arguments. This example \providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College} \providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College} From \myaffiliation. outputs 'From Saint Michael's College'. Unlike '\newcommand', the repeated use of '\providecommand' does not give an error.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makeatletter & \makeatother, Next: \@ifstar, Prev: \providecommand, Up: Definitions 12.3 '\makeatletter' & '\makeatother' ===================================== Synopsis: \makeatletter ... definition of commands with @ in their name .. \makeatother Use this pair when you redefine LaTeX commands that are named with an at-sign character ''@''. The '\makeatletter' declaration makes the at-sign character have the category code of a letter, code 11. The '\makeatother' declaration sets the category code of the at-sign to code 12, its default value. As TeX reads characters, it assigns each one a category code, or "catcode". For instance, it assigns the backslash character ''\'' the catcode 0. Command names consist of a category 0 character, ordinarily backslash, followed by letters, category 11 characters (except that a command name can also consist of a category 0 character followed by a single non-letter symbol). LaTeX's source code has the convention that some commands use '@' in their name. These commands are mainly intended for package or class writers. The convention prevents authors who are just using a package or class from accidentally replacing such a command with one of their own, because by default the at-sign has catcode 12. The pair '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother' changes the default code and then changes it back. Use them inside a '.tex' file, in the preamble, when you are defining or redefining commands named with '@', by having them surround your definition. Don't use these inside '.sty' or '.cls' files since the '\usepackage' and '\documentclass' commands already arrange that the at-sign has the character code of a letter, catcode 11. For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see . In this example the class file has a command '\thesis@universityname' that the user wants to change. These three lines should go in the preamble, before the '\begin{document}'. \makeatletter \renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael's College} \makeatother  File: latex2e.info, Node: \@ifstar, Next: \newcounter, Prev: \makeatletter & \makeatother, Up: Definitions 12.4 '\@ifstar' =============== Synopsis: \newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}} \newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[NOSTAR-NUM-ARGS]{NOSTAR-BODY} \newcommand{\mycmd@star}[STAR-NUM-ARGS]{STAR-BODY} Many standard LaTeX environments or commands have a variant with the same name but ending with a star character '*', an asterisk. Examples are the 'table' and 'table*' environments and the '\section' and '\section*' commands. When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward because '\newenvironment' and '\renewenvironment' allow the environment name to contain a star. For commands the situation is more complex. As in the synopsis above, there will be a user-called command, given above as '\mycmd', which peeks ahead to see if it is followed by a star. For instance, LaTeX does not really have a '\section*' command; instead, the '\section' command peeks ahead. This command does not accept arguments but instead expands to one of two commands that do accept arguments. In the synopsis these two are '\mycmd@nostar' and '\mycmd@star'. They could take the same number of arguments or a different number, or no arguments at all. As always, in a LaTeX document a command using at-sign '@' must be enclosed inside a '\makeatletter ... \makeatother' block (*note \makeatletter & \makeatother::). This example of '\@ifstar' defines the command '\ciel' and a variant '\ciel*'. Both have one required argument. A call to '\ciel{night}' will return "starry night sky" while '\ciel*{blue}' will return "starry not blue sky". \newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{starry #1 sky} \newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry not #1 sky} \newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}} In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of arguments than the unstarred one. With this definition, Agent 007's '``My name is \agentsecret*{Bond}, \agentsecret{James}{Bond}.''' is equivalent to entering the commands '``My name is \textsc{Bond}, \textit{James} textsc{Bond}.''' \newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}} \newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}} \newcommand*{\agentsecret}{% \@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}} There are two sometimes more convenient ways to accomplish the work of '\@ifstar'. The 'suffix' package allows the construct '\newcommand\mycommand{UNSTARRED VERSION}' followed by '\WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{STARRED VERSION}'. And LaTeX3 has the 'xparse' package that allows this code. \NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1 {STARRED VERSION}% {UNSTARRED VERSION}% }  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcounter, Next: \newlength, Prev: \@ifstar, Up: Definitions 12.5 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter ======================================== Synopsis, one of: \newcounter{COUNTERNAME} \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER] Globally defines a new counter named COUNTERNAME and initialize it to zero (*note Counters::). The name COUNTERNAME must consist of letters only. It does not begin with a backslash. This name must not already be in use by another counter. When you use the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' then the counter COUNTERNAME will be reset to zero whenever SUPERCOUNTER is incremented. For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within 'section' so that any time you increment SECTION, either with '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::), then LaTeX will reset SUBSECTION to zero. This example \newcounter{asuper} \setcounter{asuper}{1} \newcounter{asub}[asuper] \setcounter{asub}{3} % Note `asuper' The value of asuper is \arabic{asuper} and of asub is \arabic{asub}. \stepcounter{asuper} Now asuper is \arabic{asuper} while asub is \arabic{asub}. produces 'The value of asuper is 1 and that of asub is 3' and 'Now asuper is 2 while asub is 0'. If the counter already exists, for instance by entering 'asuper' twice, then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \c@asuper already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual.'. If you use the optional argument then the super counter must already exist. Entering '\newcounter{jh}[lh]' when 'lh' is not a defined counter will get you 'LaTeX Error: No counter 'lh' defined.'  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newlength, Next: \newsavebox, Prev: \newcounter, Up: Definitions 12.6 '\newlength' ================= Synopsis: \newlength{ARG} Allocate a new length register (*note Lengths::). The required argument ARG must begin with a backslash, '\'. The new register holds rubber lengths such as '72.27pt' or '1in plus.2in minus.1in' (a LaTeX length register is what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register). The initial value is zero. The control sequence '\ARG' must not be already defined. An example: \newlength{\graphichgt} If you forget the backslash then you get 'Missing control sequence inserted'. If the command sequence already exists then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \graphichgt already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newsavebox, Next: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Prev: \newlength, Up: Definitions 12.7 '\newsavebox' ================== Synopsis: \newsavebox{\CMD} Define \CMD, the string consisting of a backslash followed by CMD, to refer to a new bin for storing material. These bins hold material that has been typeset, to use multiple times or to measure or manipulate (*note Boxes::). The bin name \CMD is required, must start with a backslash, \, and must not already be a defined command. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This allocates a bin and then puts typeset material into it. \newsavebox{\logobox} \savebox{\logobox}{LoGo} Our logo is \usebox{\logobox}. The output is 'Our logo is LoGo'. If there is an already defined bin then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \logobox already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. The allocation of a box is global.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Next: \newtheorem, Prev: \newsavebox, Up: Definitions 12.8 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' ============================================ Synopses, one of: \newenvironment{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment*{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} or one of these. \renewenvironment{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment*{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} Define or redefine the environment ENV, that is, create the construct '\begin{ENV} ... BODY ... \end{ENV}'. The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text. However, the body of these environments can contain multiple paragraphs. ENV Required; the environment name. It consists only of letters or the '*' character, and thus does not begin with backslash, '\'. It must not begin with the string 'end'. For '\newenvironment', the name ENV must not be the name of an already existing environment, and also the command '\ENV' must be undefined. For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an existing environment. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of that the environment takes. When you use the environment these arguments appear after the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1} ... {ARGN}'. Omitting this is equivalent to setting it to 0; the environment will have no arguments. When redefining an environment, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this is present then the first argument of the defined environment is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this is not in the definition then the environment does not take an optional argument. That is, when OPTARGDEFAULT is present in the definition of the environment then you can start the environment with square brackets, as in '\begin{ENV}[OPTVAL]{...} ... \end{ENV}'. In this case, within BEGDEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of OPTVAL. If you call '\begin{ENV}' without square brackets, then within BEGDEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of the default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments start with '#2'. Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different than having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1' expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to the empty string. BEGDEF Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'. Within BEGDEF, the parameters '#1', '#2', ... '#NARGS', are replaced by the values that you supply when you call the environment; see the examples below. ENDDEF Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'. This may not contain any parameters, that is, you cannot use '#1', '#2', etc., here (but see the final example below). All environments, that is to say the BEGDEF code, the environment body, and the ENDDEF code, are processed within a group. Thus, in the first example below, the effect of the '\small' is limited to the quote and does not extend to material following the environment. If you try to define an environment and the name has already been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. If you try to redefine an environment and the name has not yet been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Environment hank undefined.'. This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except that it will be set in smaller type. \newenvironment{smallquote}{% \small\begin{quotation} }{% \end{quotation} } This has an argument, which is set in boldface at the start of a paragraph. \newenvironment{point}[1]{% \noindent\textbf{#1} }{% } This one shows the use of a optional argument; it gives a quotation environment that cites the author. \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \begin{quotation} \noindent\textit{#1}: }{% \end{quotation} } The author's name is optional, and defaults to 'Shakespeare'. In the document, use the environment like this. \begin{citequote}[Lincoln] ... \end{citequote} The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in ENDDEF, in this case in a box (*note \sbox & \savebox::). \newsavebox{\quoteauthor} \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}% \begin{quotation} }{% \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor} \end{quotation} }  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newtheorem, Next: \newfont, Prev: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Up: Definitions 12.9 '\newtheorem' ================== Synopses: \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE} \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN] \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE} Define a new theorem-like environment. You can specify one of NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither, but not both. The first form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}', creates an environment that will be labelled with TITLE; see the first example below. The second form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]', creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter NUMBERED_WITHIN, so this counter will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is reset. See the second example below. The third form '\newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}', with optional argument between the two required arguments, creates an environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter NUMBERED_LIKE. See the third example. This command creates a counter named NAME. In addition, unless the optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, inside of the theorem-like environment the current '\ref' value will be that of '\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::). This declaration is global. It is fragile (*note \protect::). Arguments: NAME The name of the environment. It is a string of letters. It must not begin with a backslash, '\'. It must not be the name of an existing environment, and the command name '\NAME' must not already be defined. TITLE The text to be printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, 'Theorem'. NUMBERED_WITHIN Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'. When the NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's counter will also be reset. If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME' is set to '\arabic{NAME}'. NUMBERED_LIKE Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The new environment will be numbered in sequence with NUMBERED_LIKE. Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. The example below has a declaration in the preamble that results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} This example has the same document body as the prior one. But here '\newtheorem''s optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN is given as 'section', so the output is like 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same counter as 'defn'. It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1' and 'Definition 2.2'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{thm} First thm \end{thm} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newfont, Next: \protect, Prev: \newtheorem, Up: Definitions 12.10 '\newfont' ================ This command is obsolete. This description is here only to help with old documents. New documents should define fonts in families through the New Font Selection Scheme which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman (*note Fonts::). Synopsis: \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION} Define a command '\CMD' that will change the current font. The control sequence must not already be defined. It must begin with a backslash, '\'. The FONT DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at clause". LaTeX will look on your system for a file named 'FONTNAME.tfm'. The at clause can have the form either 'at DIMEN' or 'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of '1000' means no scaling. For LaTeX's purposes, all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font's design size, which is a value defined in the '.tfm' file. This defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each. \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt} \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100} \testfontat abc \testfontscaled abc  File: latex2e.info, Node: \protect, Next: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend, Prev: \newfont, Up: Definitions 12.11 '\protect' ================ All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust". A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain other commands. Commands that contain data that LaTeX writes to an auxiliary file and re-reads later are fragile. This includes material that goes into a table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, etc. Fragile commands also include line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more. To prevent such commands from breaking, one solution is to preceded them with the command '\protect'. For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument". A command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX code. Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the '\caption{...}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{...}' command (*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments (*note tabular::). If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try preceding it with '\protect'. Every fragile commands must be protected with their own '\protect'. Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command. Nor can a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or '\setcounter' command. In this example the '\caption' command gives a mysterious error about an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox' command with '\protect'. \begin{figure} ... \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}} \end{figure} In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the '.toc' file. You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to '\protect\(..\protect\)'. \begin{document} \tableofcontents ... \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)} ...  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend, Prev: \protect, Up: Definitions 12.12 '\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend' ============================================= Synopsis: \ignorespaces or \ignorespacesafterend Both commands cause LaTeX to ignore spaces after the end of the command up until the first non-space character. The first is a command from Plain TeX, and the second is LaTeX-specific. The 'ignorespaces' is often used when defining commands via '\newcommand', or '\newenvironment', or '\def'. The example below illustrates. It allows a user to show the points values for quiz questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as shown in the 'enumerate' list, users must not put any space between the command and the question text. \newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}} \begin{enumerate} \item\points{10}no extra space output here \item\points{15} extra space between the number and the `extra' \end{enumerate} The solution is to change to this. \newcommand{\points}[1]{% \makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces} A second example shows spaces being removed from the front of text. The commands below allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names. But, as given, if a title accidentally starts with a space then '\fullname' will reproduce that. \makeatletter \newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\@honorific{#1}} % remember title \newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\@honorific~#1} % put title before name \makeatother \begin{tabular}{|l|} \honorific{Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} \\ % no extra space here \honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} % extra space before title \end{tabular} To fix this, change to '\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\@honorific~#1}'. The '\ignorespaces' is also often used in a '\newenvironment' at the end of the BEGIN clause, that is, as part of the second argument, as in '\begin{newenvironment}{ENV NAME}{... \ignorespaces}{...}'. To strip spaces off the end of an environment use '\ignorespacesafterend'. An example is that this will show a much larger vertical space between the first and second environments than between the second and third. \newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}} \begin{eq} e=mc^2 \end{eq} \begin{equation} F=ma \end{equation} \begin{equation} E=IR \end{equation} Putting a comment character '%' immediately after the '\end{eq}' will make the vertical space disappear, but that is inconvenient. The solution is to change to '\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Counters, Next: Lengths, Prev: Definitions, Up: Top 13 Counters *********** Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or command associated with the number, except that the counter's name has no backslash '\'. Thus, associated with the '\chapter' command is the 'chapter' counter that keeps track of the chapter number. Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering. part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of a minipage (*note minipage::). The counters 'enumi' through 'enumiv' are used in the 'enumerate' environment, for up to four levels of nesting (*note enumerate::). Counters can have any integer value but they are typically positive. New counters are created with '\newcounter'. *Note \newcounter::. * Menu: * \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter. * \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment. * \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression. * \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter. * \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter. * \refstepcounter:: Add to a counter. * \stepcounter:: Add to a counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \day & \month & \year:: Numeric date values.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Next: \usecounter, Up: Counters 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters ===================================================================== Print the value of a counter, in a specified style. For instance, if the counter COUNTER has the value 1 then a '\alph{COUNTER}' in your source will result in a lowercase letter a appearing in the output. All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, '\alph{enumi}'. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. '\alph{COUNTER}' Print the value of COUNTER in lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large.' '\Alph{COUNTER}' Print in uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large.' '\arabic{COUNTER}' Print in Arabic numbers such as '5' or '-2'. '\roman{COUNTER}' Print in lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but LaTeX does not print anything in the output. '\Roman{COUNTER}' Print in uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but LaTeX does not print anything in the output. '\fnsymbol{COUNTER}' Prints the value of COUNTER using a sequence of nine symbols that are traditionally used for labeling footnotes. The value of COUNTER should be between 1 and 9, inclusive. If the counter's value is less than 0 or more than 9 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large', while if it is 0 then you get no error or warning but LaTeX does not output anything. Here are the symbols: Number Name Command Symbol ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 asterisk '\ast' * 2 dagger '\dagger' U+2020 3 ddagger '\ddagger' U+2021 4 section-sign '\S' U+00A7 5 paragraph-sign '\P' U+00B6 6 double-vert '\parallel' U+2016 7 double-asterisk '\ast\ast' ** 8 double-dagger '\dagger\dagger' U+2020U+2020 9 double-ddagger '\ddagger\ddagger' U+2021U+2021  File: latex2e.info, Node: \usecounter, Next: \value, Prev: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Up: Counters 13.2 '\usecounter' ================== Synopsis: \usecounter{COUNTER} Used in the second argument of the 'list' environment (*note list::), this declares that list items will be numbered by COUNTER. It initializes COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called without its optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by '\refstepcounter', making its value be the current 'ref' value (*note \ref::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). Put in the document preamble, this example makes a new list environment enumerated with TESTCOUNTER: \newcounter{testcounter} \newenvironment{test}{% \begin{list}{}{% \usecounter{testcounter} } }{% \end{list} }  File: latex2e.info, Node: \value, Next: \setcounter, Prev: \usecounter, Up: Counters 13.3 '\value' ============= Synopsis: \value{COUNTER} Expands to the value of the counter COUNTER. (Note that the name of a counter does not begin with a backslash.) This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'. \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5} \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}} \addtocounter{test}{1} Test counter is \arabic{test}. Other counter is \arabic{other}. The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the counter. For that, see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::. It is often used in '\setcounter' or '\addtocounter' but '\value' can be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number, such as in '\hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}'. It must not be preceded by '\protect' (*note \protect::). This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'. \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1} \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \setcounter, Next: \addtocounter, Prev: \value, Up: Counters 13.4 '\setcounter' ================== Synopsis: \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE} Globally set the counter COUNTER to have the value of the VALUE argument, which must be an integer. Thus, you can set a counter's value as '\setcounter{section}{5}'. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. In this example if the counter 'theorem' has value 12 then the second line will print 'XII'. \setcounter{exercise}{\value{theorem}} Here it is in Roman: \Roman{exercise}.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtocounter, Next: \refstepcounter, Prev: \setcounter, Up: Counters 13.5 '\addtocounter' ==================== Synopsis: \addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE Globally increment COUNTER by the amount specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative. In this example the section value appears as 'VII'. \setcounter{section}{5} \addtocounter{section}{2} Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \refstepcounter, Next: \stepcounter, Prev: \addtocounter, Up: Counters 13.6 '\refstepcounter' ====================== Synopsis: \refstepcounter{COUNTER} Globally increments the value of COUNTER by one, as does '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::). The difference is that this command resets the value of any counter numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter'. While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set locally, i.e., inside the current group.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \stepcounter, Next: \day & \month & \year, Prev: \refstepcounter, Up: Counters 13.7 '\stepcounter' =================== Synopsis: \stepcounter{COUNTER} Globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all counters numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) This command differs from '\refstepcounter' in that this one does not influence references -- it does not define the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter' (*note \refstepcounter::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \day & \month & \year, Prev: \stepcounter, Up: Counters 13.8 '\day' & '\month' & '\year' ================================ LaTeX defines the counter '\day' for the day of the month (nominally with value between 1 and 31), '\month' for the month of the year (nominally with value between 1 and 12), and year '\year'. When TeX starts up, they are set from the current values on the system. The related command '\today' produces a string representing the current day (*note \today::). They counters are not updated as the job progresses so in principle they could be incorrect by the end. In addition, TeX does no sanity check: \day=-2 \month=13 \year=-4 \today gives no error or warning and results in the output '-2, -4' (the bogus month value produces no output).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Lengths, Next: Making paragraphs, Prev: Counters, Up: Top 14 Lengths ********** A "length" is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument. Lengths come in two types. A "rigid length" such as '10pt' does not contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component. (Plain TeX calls this a "dimen".) A "rubber length" (what Plain TeX calls a "skip") such as as with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm' can contain either or both of those components. In that rubber length, the '1cm' is the "natural length" while the other two, the 'plus' and 'minus' components, allow TeX to stretch or shrink the length to optimize placement. The illustrations below use these two commands. % make a black bar 10pt tall and #1 wide \newcommand{\blackbar}[1]{\rule{#1}{10pt}} % Make a box around #2 that is #1 wide (excluding the border) \newcommand{\showhbox}[2]{% \fboxsep=0pt\fbox{\hbox to #1{#2}}} This example uses those commands to show a black bar 100 points long between 'XXX' and 'YYY'. This length is rigid. XXX\showhbox{100pt}{\blackbar{100pt}}YYY As for rubber lengths, shrinking is simpler one: with '1cm minus 0.05cm', the natural length is 1cm but TeX can shrink it down as far as 0.95cm. Beyond that, TeX refuses to shrink any more. Thus, below the first one works fine, producing a space of 98 points between the two bars. XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{101pt}\hspace{100pt minus 2pt}\blackbar{101pt}}YYY XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{105pt}\hspace{100pt minus 1pt}\blackbar{105pt}}YYY But the second one gets a warning like 'Overfull \hbox (1.0pt too wide) detected at line 17'. In the output the first 'Y' is overwritten by the end of the black bar, because the box's material is wider than the 300pt allocated, as TeX has refused to shrink the total to less than 309 points. Stretching is like shrinking except that if TeX is asked to stretch beyond the given amount, it will do it. Here the first line is fine, producing a space of 110 points between the bars. XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 10pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 1pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY In the second line TeX needs a stretch of 10 points and only 1 point was specified. TeX stretches the space to the required length but it gives you a warning like 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) detected at line 22'. (We won't discuss badness.) You can put both stretch and shrink in the same length, as in '1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.02ex'. If TeX is setting two or more rubber lengths then it allocates the stretch or shrink in proportion. XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{100pt}% left \hspace{0pt plus 50pt}\blackbar{80pt}\hspace{0pt plus 10pt}% middle \blackbar{100pt}}YYY % right The left and right bars take up 100 points, so the middle needs another 100. The middle bar is 80 points so the two '\hspace''s must stretch 20 points. Because the two are 'plus 50pt' and 'plus 10pt', TeX gets 5/6 of the stretch from the first space and 1/6 from the second. The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a "fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'. This gives the length infinite stretchability or shrinkability so that TeX could set it to any distance. Here the two figures will be equal-spaced across the page. \begin{minipage}{\linewidth} \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{godel.png}% \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{einstein.png}% \hspace{0pt plus 1fill} \end{minipage} TeX actually has three levels of infinity for glue components: 'fil', 'fill', and 'filll'. The later ones are more infinite than the earlier ones. Ordinarily document authors only use the middle one (*note \hfill:: and *note \vfill::). Multiplying a rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and '\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'. * Menu: * Units of length:: The units that LaTeX knows. * \setlength:: Set the value of a length. * \addtolength:: Add a quantity to a length. * \settodepth:: Set a length to the depth of something. * \settoheight:: Set a length to the height of something. * \settowidth:: Set a length to the width of something.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Units of length, Next: \setlength, Up: Lengths 14.1 Units of length ==================== TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode. 'pt' Point, 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two decimal places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm. 'pc' Pica, 12 pt 'in' Inch, 72.27 pt 'bp' Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript and many desktop publishing systems. 'cm' Centimeter 'mm' Millimeter 'dd' Didot point, 1.07 pt 'cc' Cicero, 12 dd 'sp' Scaled point, 1/65536 pt Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of the font. The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the height of the lowercase letter x, is often used for vertical lengths. Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is '0.5em'). Use of these can help make a definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition of the vertical space between list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}' is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition given in points. In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. *Note Spacing in math mode::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \setlength, Next: \addtolength, Prev: Units of length, Up: Lengths 14.2 '\setlength' ================= Synopsis: \setlength{LEN}{AMOUNT} Set the length LEN to AMOUNT. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. The 'amount' can be a rubber length (*note Lengths::). It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in any units that LaTeX understands (*note Units of length::). Below, with LaTeX's defaults the first paragraph will be indented while the second will not. I told the doctor I broke my leg in two places. \setlength{\parindent}{0em} He said stop going to those places. If you did not declare LEN with '\newlength', for example if you mistype the above as '\newlength{\specparindent}\setlength{\sepcparindent}{...}', then you get an error like 'Undefined control sequence. \sepcindent'. If you omit the backslash at the start of the length name then you get an error like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \relax l.19 \setlength{specparindent}{0.6\parindent}'  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtolength, Next: \settodepth, Prev: \setlength, Up: Lengths 14.3 '\addtolength' =================== Synopsis: \addtolength{LEN}{AMOUNT} Increment the length LEN by AMOUNT. The length name LEN begins with a backslash, '\'. The 'amount' is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in any units that LaTeX understands (*note Units of length::). Below, if '\parskip' starts with the value '0pt plus 1pt' Doctor: how is the boy who swallowed the silver dollar? \addtolength{\parskip}{1pt} Nurse: no change. then it has the value '1pt plus 1pt' for the second paragraph. If you did not declare the length LEN with '\newlength', if for example you mistype the above as '\addtolength{\specparindent}{0.6\praindent}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \praindent'. If you leave off the backslash at the start of LEN, as in '\addtolength{parindent}{1pt}', then you get something like 'You can't use `the letter p' after \advance'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settodepth, Next: \settoheight, Prev: \addtolength, Up: Lengths 14.4 '\settodepth' ================== Synopsis: \settodepth{LEN}{TEXT} Set the length LEN to the depth of box that LaTeX gets on typesetting the TEXT argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. This will show how low the character descenders go. \newlength{\alphabetdepth} \settodepth{\alphabetdepth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \the\alphabetdepth If you did not set aside the length LEN, if for example you mistype the above as '\settodepth{\aplhabetdepth}{abc...}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \aplhabetdepth'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in '\settodepth{alphabetdepth}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \setbox'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settoheight, Next: \settowidth, Prev: \settodepth, Up: Lengths 14.5 '\settoheight' =================== Synopsis: \settoheight{LEN}{text} Sets the length LEN to the height of box that LaTeX gets on typesetting the 'text' argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. This will show how high the characters go. \newlength{\alphabetheight} \settoheight{\alphabetheight}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \the\alphabetheight If no such length LEN has been declared with '\newlength', if for example you mistype as '\settoheight{\aplhabetheight}{abc...}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \alphabetheight'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in '\settoheight{alphabetheight}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \setbox'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \settowidth, Prev: \settoheight, Up: Lengths 14.6 '\settowidth' ================== Synopsis: \settowidth{LEN}{TEXT} Set the length LEN to the width of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting the TEXT argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. This measures the width of the lowercase ASCII alphabet. \newlength{\alphabetwidth} \settowidth{\alphabetwidth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \the\alphabetwidth If no such length LEN has been set aside, if for example you mistype the above as '\settowidth{\aplhabetwidth}{abc...}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \aplhabetwidth'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in '\settoheight{alphabetwidth}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \setbox'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Making paragraphs, Next: Math formulas, Prev: Lengths, Up: Top 15 Making paragraphs ******************** To start a paragraph, just type some text. To end the current paragraph, put an empty line. This is three paragraphs, separated by two empty lines. It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters. ``My dear Mr. Bennet,'' said his lady to him one day, ``have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?'' The separator lines must be empty, including not containing a comment character, '%'. Once LaTeX has gathered all of a paragraph's contents it divides that content into lines in a way that is optimized over the entire paragraph (*note Line breaking::). There are places where a new paragraph is not permitted. Don't put a blank line in math mode (*note Modes::); here the line before the '\end{equation}' \begin{equation} 2^{|S|} > |S| \end{equation} will get you the error 'Missing $ inserted'. Similarly, the blank line in this 'section' argument \section{aaa bbb} gets 'Runaway argument? {aaa ! Paragraph ended before \@sect was complete'. * Menu: * \par:: End the current paragraph. * \indent & \noindent:: Go into horizontal mode, possibly with an indent. * \parindent & \parskip:: Space added before paragraphs. * Marginal notes:: Put remarks in the margin.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \par, Next: \indent & \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.1 '\par' =========== Synopsis (note that while reading the input TeX converts two consecutive newlines to a '\par'): \par End the current paragraph. The usual way to separate paragraphs is with a blank line but the '\par' command is entirely equivalent. This command is robust (*note \protect::). This example uses '\par' rather than a blank line simply for readability. \newcommand{\syllabusLegalese}{% \whatCheatingIs\par\whatHappensWhenICatchYou} In LR mode or a vertical mode the '\par' command does nothing but it terminates paragraph mode, switching LaTeX to vertical mode (*note Modes::). You cannot use the '\par' command in a math mode. You also cannot use it in the argument of many commands, such as the '\section' command (*note Making paragraphs:: and *note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). The '\par' command is not the same as the '\paragraph' command. The latter is, like '\section' or '\subsection', a sectioning unit used by the standard LaTeX documents (*note \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph::). The '\par' command is not the same as '\newline' or the line break double backslash, '\\'. The difference is that '\par' ends the paragraph, not just the line, and also triggers the addition of the between-paragraph vertical space '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). The output from this example xyz \setlength{\parindent}{3in} \setlength{\parskip}{5in} \noindent test\indent test1\par test2 is: after 'xyz' there is a vertical skip of 5 inches and then 'test' appears, aligned with the left margin. On the same line, there is an empty horizontal space of 3 inches and then 'test1' appears. Finally. there is a vertical space of 5 inches, followed by a fresh paragraph with a paragraph indent of 3 inches, and then LaTeX puts the text 'test2'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \indent & \noindent, Next: \parindent & \parskip, Prev: \par, Up: Making paragraphs 15.2 '\indent' & '\noindent' ============================ Synopsis: \indent or \noindent Go into horizontal mode (*note Modes::). The '\indent' command first outputs an empty box whose width is '\parindent'. These commands are robust (*note \protect::). Ordinarily you create a new paragraph by putting in a blank line. *Note \par:: for the difference between this command and '\par'. To start a paragraph without an indent, or to continue an interrupted paragraph, use '\noindent'. In the middle of a paragraph the '\noindent' command has no effect, because LaTeX is already in horizontal mode there. The '\indent' command's only effect is to output a space. This example starts a fresh paragraph. ... end of the prior paragraph. \noindent This paragraph is not indented. and this continues an interrupted paragraph. The data \begin{center} \begin{tabular}{rl} ... \end{tabular} \end{center} \noindent shows this clearly. To omit indentation in the entire document put '\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble. If you do that, you may want to also set the length of spaces between paragraphs, '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). Default LaTeX styles have the first paragraph after a section that is not indented, as is traditional typesetting in English. To change that, look on CTAN for the package 'indentfirst'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \parindent & \parskip, Next: Marginal notes, Prev: \indent & \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs 15.3 '\parindent' & '\parskip' ============================== Synopsis: \setlength{\parskip}{HORIZONTAL LEN} \setlength{\parinden}{VERTICAL LEN} Both are a rubber lengths (*note Lengths::). They give the indentation of ordinary paragraphs, not paragraphs inside minipages (*note minipage::), and the vertical space between paragraphs. This, put in the preamble, \setlength{\parindent}{0em} \setlength{\parskip}{1ex} arranges that the document will have paragraphs that are not indented, but instead are vertically separated by about the height of a lowercase 'x'. In standard LaTeX documents, the default value for '\parindent' in one-column documents is '15pt' when the default text size is '10pt' , '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em' for '12pt'. In two-column documents it is '1em'. The default value for '\parskip' in LaTeX's standard document styles is '0pt plus1pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Marginal notes, Prev: \parindent & \parskip, Up: Making paragraphs 15.4 Marginal notes =================== Synopsis, one of: \marginpar{RIGHT} \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} Create a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the '\marginpar' occurs. The margin that LaTeX uses for the note depends on the current layout (*note Document class options::) and also on '\reversemarginpar' (see below). If you are using one-sided layout (document option 'oneside') then it goes in the right margin. If you are using two-sided layout (document option 'twoside') then it goes in the outside margin. If you are in two-column layout (document option 'twocolumn') then it goes in the nearest margin. If you declare '\reversemarginpar' then LaTeX will place subsequent marginal notes in the opposite margin to that given in the prior paragraph. Revert that to the default position with '\normalmarginpar'. When you specify the optional argument LEFT then it is used for a note in the left margin, while the mandatory argument RIGHT is used for a note in the right margin. Normally, a note's first word will not be hyphenated. You can enable hyphenation there by beginning LEFT or RIGHT with '\hspace{0pt}'. These parameters affect the formatting of the note: '\marginparpush' Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt' documents, '5pt' else. '\marginparsep' Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt' for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else. '\marginparwidth' Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is '48pt'. The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math formulas, Next: Modes, Prev: Making paragraphs, Up: Top 16 Math formulas **************** Produce mathematical text by putting LaTeX into math mode or display math mode (*note Modes::). This example shows both. The wave equation for \( u \) is \begin{displaymath} \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial t^2} = c^2\nabla^2u \end{displaymath} where \( \nabla^2 \) is the spatial Laplacian and \( c \) is constant. Math mode is for inline mathematics. In the above example it is invoked by the starting '\(' and finished by the matching ending '\)'. Display math mode is for displayed equations and here is invoked by the 'displaymath' environment. Note that any mathematical text whatever, including mathematical text consisting of just one character, is handled in math mode. When in math mode or display math mode, LaTeX handles many aspects of your input text differently than in other text modes. For example, contrast x+y with \( x+y \) in math mode the letters are in italics and the spacing around the plus sign is different. There are three ways to make inline formulas, to put LaTeX in math mode. \( MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \) $ MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL $ \begin{math} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{math} The first form is preferred and the second is quite common, but the third form is rarely used. You can sometimes use one and sometimes another, as in '\(x\) and $y$'. You can use these in paragraph mode or in LR mode (*note Modes::). To make displayed formulas, put LaTeX into display math mode with either: \begin{displaymath} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{displaymath} or \begin{equation} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{equation} (*note displaymath::, *note equation::). The only difference is that with the 'equation' environment, LaTeX puts a formula number alongside the formula. The construct '\[ MATH \]' is equivalent to '\begin{displaymath} MATH \end{displaymath}'. These environments can only be used in paragraph mode (*note Modes::). The two mathematics modes are similar, but there are some differences. One involves the placement of subscripts and superscripts; in display math mode they are further apart and in inline math mode they are closer together. Sometimes you want the display math typographical treatment to happen in the inline math mode. For this, the '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of 'displaymath'. Thus '\(\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n\)' will have the limits above and below the summation sign, not next to it. Another example is that \begin{tabular}{r|cc} \textsc{Name} &\textsc{Series} &\textsc{Sum} \\ \hline Arithmetic &\( a+(a+b)+(a+2b)+\cdots+(a+(n-1)b) \) &\( na+(n-1)n\cdot\frac{b}{2}\) \\ Geometric &\( a+ab+ab^2+\cdots+ab^{n-1} \) &\(\displaystyle a\cdot\frac{1-b^n}{1-b}\) \\ \end{tabular} because it has no '\displaystyle', the 'Arithmetic' line's fraction will be scrunched. But, because of its '\displaystyle', the 'Geometric' line's fraction will be easy to read, with characters the same size as in the rest of the line. The American Mathematical Society has made freely available a set of packages that greatly expand your options for writing mathematics, 'amsmath' and 'amssymb' (also be aware of the 'mathtools' package that is an extension to, and loads, 'amsmath'). New documents that will have mathematical text should use these packages. Descriptions of these packages is outside the scope of this document; see their documentation on CTAN. * Menu: * Subscripts & superscripts:: Also known as exponent or index. * Math symbols:: Various mathematical squiggles. * Math functions:: Math function names like sin and exp. * Math accents:: Accents in math. * Over- and Underlining:: Things over or under formulas. * Spacing in math mode:: Thick, medium, thin, and negative spaces. * Math miscellany:: Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Subscripts & superscripts, Next: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts ============================== Synopsis (in math mode or display math mode), one of: BASE^EXP BASE^{EXP} or, one of: BASE_EXP BASE_{EXP} Make EXP appear as a superscript of BASE (with the caret character, '^') or a subscript (with underscore, '_'). In this example the '0''s and '1''s are subscripts while the '2''s are superscripts. \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \leq (x_0)^2+(x_1)^2 \) To have the subscript or superscript contain more than one character, surround the expression with curly braces, as in 'e^{-2x}'. This example's fourth line shows curly braces used to group an expression for the exponent. \begin{displaymath} (3^3)^3=27^3=19\,683 \qquad 3^{(3^3)}=3^{27}=7\,625\,597\,484\,987 \end{displaymath} LaTeX knows how to handle a superscript on a superscript, or a subscript on a subscript, or supers on subs, or subs on supers. So, expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{i_0}' give correct output. Note the use in those expressions of curly braces to give the BASE a determined EXP. If you enter '\(3^3^3\)' then you get 'Double superscript'. LaTeX does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. In this example the integral has both. They come out in the correct place without any author intervention. \begin{displaymath} \int_{x=a}^b f'(x)\,dx = f(b)-f(a) \end{displaymath} Note the parentheses around 'x=a' to make the entire expression a subscript. To put a superscript or subscript before a symbol, use a construct like '{}_t K^2'. The empty curly braces '{}' give the subscript something to attach to and keeps it from accidentally attaching to a prior symbols. Using the subscript or superscript command outside of math mode or display math mode, as in 'the expression x^2', will get you the error 'Missing $ inserted'. A common reason to want subscripts outside of a mathematics mode is to typeset chemical formulas. There are packages for that such as 'mhchem'; see CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math symbols, Next: Math functions, Prev: Subscripts & superscripts, Up: Math formulas 16.2 Math symbols ================= LaTeX provides almost any mathematical or technical symbol that anyone uses. For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi symbol U+03C0. See the 'Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List' at . Here is a list of commonly-used symbols. It is by no means exhaustive. Each symbol is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class, which determines the spacing around it, is given in parenthesis. Unless said otherwise, the commands for these symbols can be used only in math mode. To redefine a command so that it can be used whatever the current mode, see *note \ensuremath::. '\|' U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\parallel'. '\aleph' U+2135 Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary). '\alpha' U+03B1 Lowercase Greek letter alpha (ordinary). '\amalg' U+2A3F Disjoint union (binary) '\angle' U+2220 Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign '<' and angle bracket '\langle'. '\approx' U+2248 Almost equal to (relation). '\ast' U+2217 Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary). Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes reserved for cross-correlation. '\asymp' U+224D Asymptotically equivalent (relation). '\backslash' \ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus '\setminus', and '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode. '\beta' U+03B2 Lowercase Greek letter beta (ordinary). '\bigcap' U+22C2 Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar: binary intersection '\cap'. '\bigcirc' U+26AA Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function composition '\circ'. '\bigcup' U+22C3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary union '\cup'. '\bigodot' U+2A00 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator). '\bigoplus' U+2A01 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator). '\bigotimes' U+2A02 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator). '\bigtriangledown' U+25BD Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator). '\bigtriangleup' U+25B3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator). '\bigsqcup' U+2A06 Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator). '\biguplus' U+2A04 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.) '\bigvee' U+22C1 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator). '\bigwedge' U+22C0 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator). '\bot' U+22A5 Up tack, bottom, least element of a partially ordered set, or a contradiction (ordinary). See also '\top'. '\bowtie' U+22C8 Natural join of two relations (relation). '\Box' U+25A1 Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\bullet' U+2022 Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'. '\cap' U+2229 Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcap'. '\cdot' U+22C5 Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'. '\chi' U+03C7 Lowercase Greek chi (ordinary). '\circ' U+2218 Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'. '\clubsuit' U+2663 Club card suit (ordinary). '\complement' U+2201 Set complement, used as a superscript as in '$S^\complement$' (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. Also used: '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'. '\cong' U+2245 Congruent (relation). '\coprod' U+2210 Coproduct (operator). '\cup' U+222A Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcup'. '\dagger' U+2020 Dagger relation (binary). '\dashv' U+22A3 Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar: turnstile '\vdash'. '\ddagger' U+2021 Double dagger relation (binary). '\Delta' U+0394 Greek uppercase delta, used for increment (ordinary). '\delta' U+03B4 Greek lowercase delta (ordinary). '\Diamond' U+25C7 Large diamond operator (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\diamond' U+22C4 Diamond operator (binary). Similar: large diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'. '\diamondsuit' U+2662 Diamond card suit (ordinary). '\div' U+00F7 Division sign (binary). '\doteq' U+2250 Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal to '\Doteq'. '\downarrow' U+2193 Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: '\Downarrow' double line down arrow. '\Downarrow' U+21D3 Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: '\downarrow' single line down arrow. '\ell' U+2113 Lowercase cursive letter l (ordinary). '\emptyset' U+2205 Empty set symbol (ordinary). The variant form is '\varnothing'. '\epsilon' U+03F5 Lowercase lunate epsilon (ordinary). Similar to Greek text letter. More widely used in mathematics is the script small letter epsilon '\varepsilon' U+03B5. Related: the set membership relation '\in' U+2208. '\equiv' U+2261 Equivalence (relation). '\eta' U+03B7 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\exists' U+2203 Existential quantifier (ordinary). '\flat' U+266D Musical flat (ordinary). '\forall' U+2200 Universal quantifier (ordinary). '\frown' U+2322 Downward curving arc (ordinary). '\Gamma' U+0393 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\gamma' U+03B3 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\ge' U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\geq'. '\geq' U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\ge'. '\gets' U+2190 Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: '\leftarrow'. '\gg' U+226B Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less than '\ll'. '\hbar' U+210F Planck constant over two pi (ordinary). '\heartsuit' U+2661 Heart card suit (ordinary). '\hookleftarrow' U+21A9 Hooked left arrow (relation). '\hookrightarrow' U+21AA Hooked right arrow (relation). '\iff' U+27F7 If and only if (relation). It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with a '\thickmuskip' on either side. '\Im' U+2111 Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part '\Re'. '\imath' Dotless i; used when you are putting an accent on an i (*note Math accents::). '\in' U+2208 Set element (relation). See also: lowercase lunate epsilon '\epsilon'U+03F5 and small letter script epsilon '\varepsilon'. '\infty' U+221E Infinity (ordinary). '\int' U+222B Integral (operator). '\iota' U+03B9 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\Join' U+2A1D Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TeX. '\jmath' Dotless j; used when you are putting an accent on a j (*note Math accents::). '\kappa' U+03BA Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\Lambda' U+039B uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\lambda' U+03BB Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\land' U+2227 Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for '\wedge'. See also logical or '\lor'. '\langle' U+27E8 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar: less-than '<'. Matches '\rangle'. '\lbrace' U+007B Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: '\{'. Matches '\rbrace'. '\lbrack' U+005B Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: '['. Matches '\rbrack'. '\lceil' U+2308 Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom shaved off (opening). Matches '\rceil'. '\le' U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\leq'. '\leadsto' U+21DD Squiggly right arrow (relation). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and then use '\Leadsto' instead. '\Leftarrow' U+21D0 Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar: single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'. '\leftarrow' U+2190 Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: '\gets'. Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'. '\leftharpoondown' U+21BD Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation). '\leftharpoonup' U+21BC Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation). '\Leftrightarrow' U+21D4 Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'. '\leftrightarrow' U+2194 Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'. '\leq' U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\le'. '\lfloor' U+230A Left floor bracket (opening). Matches: '\floor'. '\lhd' U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\ll' U+226A Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater than '\gg'. '\lnot' U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\neg'. '\longleftarrow' U+27F5 Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'. '\longleftrightarrow' U+27F7 Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'. '\longmapsto' U+27FC Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'. '\longrightarrow' U+27F6 Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'. '\lor' U+2228 Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge '\wedge'. '\mapsto' U+21A6 Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'. '\mho' U+2127 Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\mid' U+2223 Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'. Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'. '\models' U+22A8 Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash (relation). Similar: long double dash '\vDash'. '\mp' U+2213 Minus or plus (relation). '\mu' U+03BC Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\nabla' U+2207 Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary). '\natural' U+266E Musical natural notation (ordinary). '\ne' U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\neq'. '\nearrow' U+2197 North-east arrow (relation). '\neg' U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\lnot'. Sometimes instead used for negation: '\sim'. '\neq' U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\ne'. '\ni' U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\owns'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\not' U+0020 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation). Many negated operators are available that don't require '\not', particularly with the 'amssymb' package. For example, '\notin' is typographically preferable to '\not\in'. '\notin' U+2209 Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset of '\nsubseteq'. '\nu' U+03BD Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\nwarrow' U+2196 North-west arrow (relation). '\odot' U+2299 Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigodot'. '\oint' U+222E Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator). '\Omega' U+03A9 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\omega' U+03C9 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\ominus' U+2296 Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary). '\oplus' U+2295 Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigoplus'. '\oslash' U+2298 Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary). '\otimes' U+2297 Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'. '\owns' U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\ni'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\parallel' U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\|'. '\partial' U+2202 Partial differential (ordinary). '\perp' U+27C2 Perpendicular (relation). Similar: '\bot' uses the same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class ordinary. '\phi' U+03D5 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varphi' U+03C6. '\Pi' U+03A0 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\pi' U+03C0 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varpi' U+03D6. '\pm' U+00B1 Plus or minus (binary). '\prec' U+227A Precedes (relation). Similar: less than '<'. '\preceq' U+2AAF Precedes or equals (relation). Similar: less than or equals '\leq'. '\prime' U+2032 Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically used as a superscript: '$f^\prime$'; '$f^\prime$' and '$f'$' produce the same result. An advantage of the second is that '$f'''$' produces the desired symbol, that is, the same result as '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses rather less typing. You can only use '\prime' in math mode. Using the right single quote ''' in text mode produces a different character (apostrophe). '\prod' U+220F Product (operator). '\propto' U+221D Is proportional to (relation) '\Psi' U+03A8 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\psi' U+03C8 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\rangle' U+27E9 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater than '>'. Matches:'\langle'. '\rbrace' U+007D Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: '\}'. Matches '\lbrace'. '\rbrack' U+005D Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: ']'. Matches '\lbrack'. '\rceil' U+2309 Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches '\lceil'. '\Re' U+211C Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access this, load the 'amsfonts' package. '\restriction' U+21BE Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym: '\upharpoonright'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\revemptyset' U+29B0 Reversed empty set symbol (ordinary). Related: '\varnothing'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'stix' package. '\rfloor' U+230B Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut off (closing). Matches '\lfloor'. '\rhd' U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\rho' U+03C1 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varrho' U+03F1. '\Rightarrow' U+21D2 Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'. '\rightarrow' U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\to'. Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'. '\rightharpoondown' U+21C1 Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation). '\rightharpoonup' U+21C0 Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation). '\rightleftharpoons' U+21CC Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation). '\searrow' U+2198 Arrow pointing southeast (relation). '\setminus' U+29F5 Set difference, reverse solidus or reverse slash, like \ (binary). Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also '\textbackslash' outside of math mode. '\sharp' U+266F Musical sharp (ordinary). '\Sigma' U+03A3 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\sigma' U+03C3 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varsigma' U+03C2. '\sim' U+223C Similar, in a relation (relation). '\simeq' U+2243 Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation). '\smallint' U+222B Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator). '\smile' U+2323 Upward curving arc, smile (ordinary). '\spadesuit' U+2660 Spade card suit (ordinary). '\sqcap' U+2293 Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar: intersection 'cap'. '\sqcup' U+2294 Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union 'cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'. '\sqsubset' U+228F Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset '\subset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsubseteq' U+2291 Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or equal to '\subseteq'. '\sqsupset' U+2290 Square superset symbol (relation). Similar: superset '\supset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsupseteq' U+2292 Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset or equal '\supseteq'. '\star' U+22C6 Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript, as with the Kleene star. '\subset' U+2282 Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation). '\subseteq' U+2286 Subset or equal to (relation). '\succ' U+227B Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less than '>'. '\succeq' U+2AB0 Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or equal to '\leq'. '\sum' U+2211 Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital sigma '\Sigma'. '\supset' U+2283 Superset (relation). '\supseteq' U+2287 Superset or equal to (relation). '\surd' U+221A Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command '\sqrt{...}' typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends to cover the argument. '\swarrow' U+2199 Southwest-pointing arrow (relation). '\tau' U+03C4 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\theta' U+03B8 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\vartheta' U+03D1. '\times' U+00D7 Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See also '\cdot'. '\to' U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\rightarrow'. '\top' U+22A4 Top, greatest element of a partially ordered set (ordinary). See also '\bot'. '\triangle' U+25B3 Triangle (ordinary). '\triangleleft' U+25C1 Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary). Similar: '\lhd'. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\triangleright' U+25B7 Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unlhd' U+22B4 Left-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unrhd' U+22B5 Right-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\Uparrow' U+21D1 Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'. '\uparrow' U+2191 Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'. '\Updownarrow' U+21D5 Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\updownarrow'. '\updownarrow' U+2195 Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\Updownarrow'. '\upharpoonright' U+21BE Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation). Synonym: '\restriction'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\uplus' U+228E Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle (binary). Similar: union '\cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\biguplus'. '\Upsilon' U+03A5 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\upsilon' U+03C5 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\varepsilon' U+03B5 Small letter script epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in mathematics than the non-variant lunate epsilon form '\epsilon' U+03F5. Related: set membership '\in'. '\vanothing' U+2205 Empty set symbol. Similar: '\emptyset'. Related: '\revemptyset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\varphi' U+03C6 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\phi' U+03D5. '\varpi' U+03D6 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\pi' U+03C0. '\varrho' U+03F1 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\rho' U+03C1. '\varsigma' U+03C2 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\sigma' U+03C3. '\vartheta' U+03D1 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\theta' U+03B8. '\vdash' U+22A2 Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'. '\vee' U+2228 Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical and '\wedge'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'. '\Vert' U+2016 Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single bar '\vert'. For a norm symbol, you can use the 'mathtools' package and put in your preamble '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}'. This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version '$\norm*{M^\perp}$' then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with '\norm{M^\perp}' the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and '\norm[SIZE COMMAND]{M^\perp}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'. '\vert' U+007C Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line vertical bar '\Vert'. For such that, as in the definition of a set, use '\mid' because it is a relation. For absolute value you can use the 'mathtools' package and in your preamble put '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}'. This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version '$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$' then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}' the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and '\abs[SIZE COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'. '\wedge' U+2227 Logical and (binary). Synonym: '\land'. See also logical or '\vee'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'. '\wp' U+2118 Weierstrass p (ordinary). '\wr' U+2240 Wreath product (binary). '\Xi' U+039E uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\xi' U+03BE Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\zeta' U+03B6 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The following symbols are most often used in plain text but LaTeX provides versions to use in mathematical text. '\mathdollar' Dollar sign in math mode: $. '\mathparagraph' Paragraph sign (pilcrow) in math mode, U+00B6. '\mathsection' Section sign in math mode U+00A7. '\mathsterling' Sterling sign in math mode: #. '\mathunderscore' Underscore in math mode: _. * Menu: * Blackboard bold:: Doublestruck characters. * Calligraphic:: Cursive characters. * \boldmath & \unboldmath:: Symbols in boldface. * Dots:: Ellipses, etc.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Blackboard bold, Next: Calligraphic, Up: Math symbols 16.2.1 Blackboard bold ---------------------- Synopsis: \usepackage{amssymb} % in preamble ... \mathbb{UPPERCASE-LETTER} Provide blackboard bold symbols, sometimes also known as doublestruck letters, used to denote number sets such as the natural numbers, the integers, etc. Here \( \forall n \in \mathbb{N}, n^2 \geq 0 \) the '\mathbb{N}' gives blackboard bold symbol U+2115 representing the natural numbers. If you use other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an error but you get strange results, including unexpected characters. There are packages that give access to symbols other than just the capital letters; look on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Calligraphic, Next: \boldmath & \unboldmath, Prev: Blackboard bold, Up: Math symbols 16.2.2 Calligraphic ------------------- Synopsis: \mathcal{UPPERCASE-LETTERS} Use a script-like font. In this example the graph identifier is output in a cursive font. Let the graph be \( \mathcal{G} \). If you use something other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an error. Instead you get unexpected output. For instance, '\mathcal{g}' outputs a close curly brace symbol, while '\mathcal{+}' outputs a plus sign.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \boldmath & \unboldmath, Next: Dots, Prev: Calligraphic, Up: Math symbols 16.2.3 '\boldmath' & '\unboldmath' ---------------------------------- Synopsis (used in paragraph mode or LR mode): \boldmath \( MATH \) or \unboldmath \( MATH \) Declarations to change the letters and symbols in MATH to be in a bold font, or to countermand that and bring back the regular (non-bold) default. They must be used when not in math mode or display math mode (*note Modes::). Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::). In this example each '\boldmath' command takes place inside an '\mbox', we have $\mbox{\boldmath \( v \)} = 5\cdot\mbox{\boldmath \( u \)$}$ which means '\boldmath' is only called in a text mode, here LR mode, and explains why LaTeX must switch to math mode to set 'v' and 'u'. If you use either command inside math mode, as with 'Trouble: \( \boldmath x \)', then you get something like 'LaTeX Font Warning: Command \boldmath invalid in math mode on input line 11' and 'LaTeX Font Warning: Command \mathversion invalid in math mode on input line 11'. There are many issues with '\boldmath'. New documents should use the 'bm' package provided by the LaTeX Project team. A complete description is outside the scope of this document (see the full documentation on CTAN) but even this small example \usepackage{bm} % in preamble ... we have $\bm{v} = 5\cdot\bm{u}$ shows that it is an improvement over '\boldmath'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Dots, Prev: \boldmath & \unboldmath, Up: Math symbols 16.2.4 Dots, horizontal or vertical ----------------------------------- Ellipses are the three dots (usually three) indicating that a pattern continues. \begin{array}{cccc} a_{0,0} &a_{0,1} &a_{0,2} &\ldots \\ a_{1,0} &\ddots \\ \vdots \end{array} LaTeX provides these. '\cdots' Horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line, as in U+22EF. Used as: '\( a_0\cdot a_1\cdots a_{n-1} \)'. '\ddots' Diagonal ellipsis, U+22F1. See the above array example for a usage. '\ldots' Ellipsis on the baseline, U+2026. Used as: '\( x_0,\ldots x_{n-1} \)'. Another example is the above array example. A synonym is '\mathellipsis'. A synonym from the 'amsmath' package is '\hdots'. You can also use this command outside of mathematical text, as in 'The gears, brakes, \ldots{} are all broken'. (In a paragraph mode or LR mode a synonym for '\ldots' is '\dots'.) '\vdots' Vertical ellipsis, U+22EE. See the above array example for a usage. The 'amsmath' package has the command '\dots' to semantically mark up ellipses. This example produces two different-looking outputs for the first two uses of the '\dots' command. \usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble ... Suppose that \( p_0, p_1, \dots, p_{n-1} \) lists all of the primes. Observe that \( p_0\cdot p_1 \dots \cdot p_{n-1} +1 \) is not a multiple of any \( p_i \). Conclusion: there are infinitely many primes \( p_0, p_1, \dotsc \). In the first line LaTeX looks to the comma following '\dots' to determine that it should output an ellipsis on the baseline. The second line has a '\cdot' following '\dots' so LaTeX outputs an ellipsis that is on the math axis, vertically centered. However, the third usage has no follow-on character so you have to tell LaTeX what to do. You can use one of the commands: '\dotsc' if you need the ellipsis appropriate for a comma following, '\dotsb' if you need the ellipses that fits when the dots are followed by a binary operator or relation symbol, '\dotsi' for dots with integrals, or '\dotso' for others.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math functions, Next: Math accents, Prev: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas 16.3 Math functions =================== These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing. '\arccos' Inverse cosine '\arcsin' Inverse sine '\arctan' Inverse tangent '\arg' Angle between the real axis and a point in the complex plane '\bmod' Binary modulo operator, used as in '\( 5\bmod 3=2 \)' '\cos' Cosine '\cosh' Hyperbolic cosine '\cot' Cotangent '\coth' Hyperbolic cotangent '\csc' Cosecant '\deg' Degrees '\det' Determinant '\dim' Dimension '\exp' Exponential '\gcd' Greatest common divisor '\hom' Homomorphism '\inf' Infinum '\ker' Kernel '\lg' Base 2 logarithm '\lim' Limit '\liminf' Limit inferior '\limsup' Limit superior '\ln' Natural logarithm '\log' Logarithm '\max' Maximum '\min' Minimum '\pmod' Parenthesized modulus, as used in '\( 5\equiv 2\pmod 3 \)' '\Pr' Probability '\sec' Secant '\sin' Sine '\sinh' Hyperbolic sine '\sup' sup '\tan' Tangent '\tanh' Hyperbolic tangent The 'amsmath' package adds improvements on some of these, and also allows you to define your own. The full documentation is on CTAN, but briefly, you can define an identity operator with '\DeclareMathOperator{\identity}{id}' that is like the ones above but prints as 'id'. The starred form '\DeclareMathOperator*{\op}{op}' sets any limits above and below, as is traditional with '\lim', '\sup', or '\max'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math accents, Next: Over- and Underlining, Prev: Math functions, Up: Math formulas 16.4 Math accents ================= LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note Accents::). '\acute' Math acute accent '\bar' Math bar-over accent '\breve' Math breve accent '\check' Math ha'c1/2}+ \underbrace{1/5+1/6+1/7+1/8}_{>1/2}+\cdots \end{displaymath} The superscript appears on top of the expression, and so can look unconnected to the underbrace. '\overbrace{MATH}' Put a brace over MATH, as with '\overbrace{x+x+\cdots+x}^{\mbox{\(k\) times}}'. See also '\underbrace'. The package 'mathtools' adds an over- and underbrace, as well as some improvements on the braces. See the documentation on CTAN.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Spacing in math mode, Next: Math miscellany, Prev: Over- and Underlining, Up: Math formulas 16.6 Spacing in math mode ========================= When typesetting mathematics, LaTeX puts in spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If you enter 'y=m x' then LaTeX ignores the space and in the output the m is next to the x, as y=mx. But LaTeX's rules sometimes need tweaking. For example, in an integral the tradition is to put a small extra space between the 'f(x)' and the 'dx', here done with the '\,' command. \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx LaTeX provides the commands that follow for use in math mode. Many of these spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit "mu". It is defined as 1/18em, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family (*note Units of length::). Thus, a '\thickspace' is something like 5/18 times the width of a 'M'. '\;' Synonym: '\thickspace'. Normally '5.0mu plus 5.0mu'. Math mode only. '\:' '\>' Synonym: '\medspace'. Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'. Math mode only. '\,' Synonym: '\thinspace'. Normally '3mu', which is 1/6em. Can be used in both math mode and text mode (*note \thinspace & \negthinspace::). This space is widely used, for instance between the function and the infinitesimal in an integral '\int f(x)\,dx' and, if an author does this, before punctuation in a displayed equation. The antiderivative is \begin{equation} 3x^{-1/2}+3^{1/2}\,. \end{equation} '\!' A negative thin space. Normally '-3mu'. The '\!' command is math mode only but the '\negthinspace' command is available for text mode (*note \thinspace & \negthinspace::). '\quad' This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment. It is available in both text and math mode. '\qquad' A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both text and math mode. * Menu: * \smash:: Eliminate height or depth of a subformula. * \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom:: Make empty box with the same size as the argument.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \smash, Next: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom, Up: Spacing in math mode 16.6.1 '\smash' --------------- Synopsis: \smash{SUBFORMULA} Typeset SUBFORMULA as if its height and depth were zero. In this example the exponential is so tall that without the '\smash' command LaTeX would separate its line from the line above it, and the uneven line spacing might be unsightly. To compute the tetration $\smash{2^{2^{2^2}}}$, evaluate from the top down, as $2^{2^4}=2^{16}=65536$. (Because of the '\smash' the printed expression could run into the line above so you may want to wait until the final version of the document to make such adjustments.) This pictures the effect of '\smash' by using '\fbox' to surround the box that LaTeX will put on the line. The '\blackbar' command makes a bar extending from 10 points below the baseline to 20 points above. \newcommand{\blackbar}{\rule[-10pt]{5pt}{30pt}} \fbox{\blackbar} \fbox{\smash{\blackbar}} The first box that LaTeX places is 20 points high and 10 points deep. But the second box is treated by LaTeX as having zero height and zero depth, despite that the ink printed on the page still extends well above and below the line. The '\smash' command appears often in mathematics to adjust the size of an element that surrounds a subformula. Here the first radical extends below the baseline while the second lies just on the baseline. \begin{equation} \sqrt{\sum_{0\leq k< n} f(k)} \sqrt{\vphantom{\sum}\smash{\sum_{0\leq k< n}} f(k)} \end{equation} Note the use of '\vphantom' to give the '\sqrt' command an argument with the height of the '\sum' (*note \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom::). While most often used in mathematics, the '\smash' command can appear in other contexts. However, it doesn't change into horizontal mode. So if it starts a paragraph then you should first put a '\leavevmode', as in the bottom line below. xxx xxx xxx \smash{yyy} % no paragraph indent \leavevmode\smash{zzz} % usual paragraph indent The package 'mathtools' has operators that provide even finer control over smashing a subformula box.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom, Prev: \smash, Up: Spacing in math mode 16.6.2 '\phantom' & '\vphantom' & '\hphantom' --------------------------------------------- Synopsis: \phantom{SUBFORMULA} or \vphantom{SUBFORMULA} or \hphantom{SUBFORMULA} The '\phantom' command creates a box with the same height, depth, and width as SUBFORMULA, but empty. That is, this command causes LaTeX to typeset the box but not its ink. The '\vphantom' variant also produces an invisible box with the same height and depth as SUBFORMULA, but it has width zero. And '\hphantom' makes a box with the same width as SUBFORMULA but with height and depth zero. Without the '\vphantom' in this example, the top bars of the two square roots would be at different heights. \( \sqrt{\vphantom{a^3}a}\cdot\sqrt{a^3} \) The '\vphantom{a^3}' causes the first '\sqrt' to have inside it a box of the same height as the second '\sqrt', so LaTeX makes the bars align. These commands often are combined with '\smash'. *Note \smash:: for another example of the use of '\vphantom'. The three phantom commands appear often but note that LaTeX provides a suite of other commands to work with box sizes that may be more convenient, including '\makebox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) as well as '\settodepth' (*note \settodepth::), '\settoheight' (*note \settoheight::), and '\settowidth' (*note \settowidth::). In addition, the 'mathtools' package has many commands that offer fine-grained control over spacing. All three commands produce an ordinary box, without any special mathematics status. So to do something like attaching a superscript you should give it such a status, for example with the '\operatorname' command from the package 'amsmath'. While most often used in mathematics, these three can appear in other contexts. However, they don't cause LaTeX to change into horizontal mode. So if one of these starts a paragraph then you should prefix it with '\leavevmode'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Math miscellany, Prev: Spacing in math mode, Up: Math formulas 16.7 Math miscellany ==================== LaTeX contains a wide variety of mathematics facilities. Here are some that don't fit into other categories. * Menu: * Colon character & \colon:: Colon. * \*:: Discretionary multiplication. * \frac:: Fraction. * \left & \right:: Paired delimiters. * \sqrt:: Radicals. * \stackrel:: Text over a relation.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colon character & \colon, Next: \*, Up: Math miscellany 16.7.1 Colon character ':' & '\colon' ------------------------------------- Synopsis, one of: : \colon In mathematics, the colon character, ':', is a relation. With side ratios \( 3:4 \) and \( 4:5 \), the triangle is right. Ordinary LaTeX defines '\colon' to produce the colon character with the spacing appropriate for punctuation, as in set-builder notation '\{x\colon 0\leq x<1\}'. But the widely-used 'amsmath' package defines '\colon' for use in the definition of functions 'f\colon D\to C'. So if you want the colon character as a punctuation then use '\mathpunct{:}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \*, Next: \frac, Prev: Colon character & \colon, Up: Math miscellany 16.7.2 '\*' ----------- Synopsis: \* A multiplication symbol that allows a line break. If there is a break then LaTeX puts a '\times' symbol, U+00D7, before that break. In '\( A_1\* A_2\* A_3\* A_4 \)', if there is no line break then LaTeX outputs it as though it were '\( A_1 A_2 A_3 A_4 \)'. If a line break does happen, for example between the two middle ones, then LaTeX sets it like '\( A_1 A_2 \times \)', followed by the break, followed by '\( A_3 A_4 \)'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frac, Next: \left & \right, Prev: \*, Up: Math miscellany 16.7.3 '\frac' -------------- Synopsis: \frac{NUMERATOR}{DENOMINATOR} Produces the fraction. Used as: '\begin{displaymath} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma}} \end{displaymath}'. In inline math mode it comes out small; see the discussion of '\displaystyle' (*note Math formulas::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \left & \right, Next: \sqrt, Prev: \frac, Up: Math miscellany 16.7.4 '\left' & '\right' ------------------------- Synopsis: \left DELIMITER1 ... \right DELIMITER2 Make matching parentheses, braces, or other delimiters. The delimiters are sized according to the math they enclose. This makes a unit vector surrounded by appropriate-height parentheses. \begin{equation} \left(\begin{array}{c} 1 \\ 0 \\ \end{array}\right) Every '\left' must have a matching '\right'. Leaving out the '\left(' in the above gets 'Extra \right'. Leaving off the '\right)' gets 'You can't use `\eqno' in math mode'. However, the two delimiters DELIMITER1 and DELIMITER2 need not match. A common case is that you want an unmatched brace, as below. Use a period, '.', as a null delimiter. \begin{equation} f(n)=\left\{\begin{array}{ll} 1 &\mbox{--if \(n=0\)} \\ f(n-1)+3n^2 &\mbox{--else} \end{array}\right. \end{equation} Note that to get a curly brace as a delimiter you must prefix it with a backslash, '\{'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \sqrt, Next: \stackrel, Prev: \left & \right, Up: Math miscellany 16.7.5 '\sqrt' -------------- Synopsis, one of: \sqrt{ARG} \sqrt[ROOT-NUMBER]{ARG} The square root, or optionally other roots, of ARG. The optional argument ROOT-NUMBER gives the root, i.e., enter the cube root of 'x+y' as '\sqrt[3]{x+y}'. The radical grows with the size of ARG (as the height of the radical grows, the angle on the leftmost part gets steeper, until for a large enough 'arg', it is vertical). LaTeX has a separate '\surd' character (*note Math symbols::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \stackrel, Prev: \sqrt, Up: Math miscellany 16.7.6 '\stackrel' ------------------ Synopsis, one of: \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION} Put TEXT above RELATION. To put a function name above an arrow enter '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Modes, Next: Page styles, Prev: Math formulas, Up: Top 17 Modes ******** As LaTeX processes your document, at any point it is in one of six modes. They fall into three categories of two each, the horizontal modes, the math modes, and the vertical modes. Some commands only work in one mode or another (in particular, many commands only work in one of the math modes), and error messages will refer to these. * "Paragraph mode" is what LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. It breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. This is the mode LaTeX is in most of the time. "LR mode" (for left-to-right mode; in plain TeX this is called "restricted horizontal mode") is in effect when LaTeX starts making a box with an '\mbox' command. As in paragraph mode, LaTeX's output is a string of words with spaces between them. Unlike in paragraph mode, in LR mode LaTeX never starts a new line, it just keeps going from left to right. (Although LaTeX will not complain that the LR box is too long, when it is finished and next tries to put that box into a line, it could very well complain that the finished LR box won't fit there.) * "Math mode" is when LaTeX is generating an inline mathematical formula. "Display math mode" is when LaTeX is generating a displayed mathematical formula. (Displayed formulas differ somewhat from inline ones. One example is that the placement of the subscript on '\int' differs in the two situations.) * "Vertical mode" is when LaTeX is building the list of lines and other material making the output page. This is the mode LaTeX is in when it starts a document. "Internal vertical mode" is in effect when LaTeX starts making a '\vbox'. This is the vertical analogue of LR mode. For instance, if you begin a LaTeX article with 'Let \( x \) be ...' then these are the modes: first LaTeX starts every document in vertical mode, then it reads the 'L' and switches to paragraph mode, then the next switch happens at the '\(' where LaTeX changes to math mode, and then when it leaves the formula it pops back to paragraph mode. Paragraph mode has two subcases. If you use a '\parbox' command or a 'minipage' then LaTeX is put into paragraph mode. But it will not put a page break here. Inside one of these boxes, called a "parbox", LaTeX is in "inner paragraph mode". Its more usual situation, where it can put page breaks, is "outer paragraph mode" (*note Page breaking::). * Menu: * \ensuremath:: Ensure that math mode is active.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ensuremath, Up: Modes 17.1 '\ensuremath' ================== Synopsis: \ensuremath{FORMULA} Ensure that FORMULA is typeset in math mode. For instance, you can redefine commands that ordinarily can be used only in math mode, so that they can be used both in math and in plain text. \newcommand{\dx}{\ensuremath{dx}} In $\int f(x)\, \dx$, the \dx{} is an infinitesimal. Caution: the '\ensuremath' command is useful but not a panacea. \newcommand{\alf}{\ensuremath{\alpha}} You get an alpha in text mode: \alf. But compare the correct spacing in $\alf+\alf$ with that in \alf+\alf. Best is to typeset math things in a math mode.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Page styles, Next: Spaces, Prev: Modes, Up: Top 18 Page styles ************** The style of a page determines where LaTeX places the components of that page, such as headers and footers, and the text body. This includes pages in the main part of the document but also includes special pages such as the title page of a book, a page from an index, or the first page of an article. The package 'fancyhdr' is very helpful for constructing page styles. See its documentation on CTAN. * Menu: * \maketitle:: Generate a title page. * \pagenumbering:: Set the style used for page numbers. * \pagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style. * \thispagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style for this page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \maketitle, Next: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles 18.1 '\maketitle' ================= Synopsis: \maketitle Generate a title. In the standard classes the title appears on a separate page, except in the 'article' class where it is at the top of the first page. (*Note Document class options:: for information about the 'titlepage' document class option.) This example shows '\maketitle' appearing in its usual place, immediately after '\begin{document}'. \documentclass{article} \title{Constructing a Nuclear Reactor Using Only Coconuts} \author{Jonas Grumby\thanks{% With the support of a Ginger Grant from the Roy Hinkley Society.} \\ Skipper, \textit{Minnow} \and Willy Gilligan\thanks{% Thanks to the Mary Ann Summers foundation and to Thurston and Lovey Howell.} \\ Mate, \textit{Minnow} } \date{1964-Sep-26} \begin{document} \maketitle Just sit right back and you'll hear a tale, a tale of a fateful trip. That started from this tropic port, aboard this tiny ship. The mate was a mighty sailin' man, the Skipper brave and sure. Five passengers set sail that day for a three hour tour. A three hour tour. ... You tell LaTeX the information used to produce the title by making the following declarations. These must come before the '\maketitle', either in the preamble or in the document body. '\author{NAME1 \and NAME2 \and ...}' Required. Declare the document author or authors. The argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. To separate lines within a single author's entry, for instance to give the author's institution or address, use a double backslash, '\\'. If you omit the '\author' declaration then you get 'LaTeX Warning: No \author given'. '\date{TEXT}' Optional. Declare TEXT to be the document's date. The TEXT doesn't need to be in a date format; it can be any text at all. If you omit '\date' then LaTeX uses the current date (*note \today::). To have no date, instead use '\date{}'. '\thanks{TEXT}' Optional. Produce a footnote. You can use it in the author information for acknowledgements as illustrated above, but you can also use it in the title, or any place a footnote makes sense. It can be any text at all so you can use it for any purpose, such as to print an email address. '\title{TEXT}' Required. Declare TEXT to be the title of the document. Get line breaks inside TEXT with a double backslash, '\\'. If you omit the '\title' declaration then you get 'LaTeX Error: No \title given'. To make your own title page, see *note titlepage::. You can either create this as a one-off or you can include it as part of a renewed '\maketitle' command. (Many publishers will provide a class to use in place of 'article' that formats the title according to their house requirements.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagenumbering, Next: \pagestyle, Prev: \maketitle, Up: Page styles 18.2 '\pagenumbering' ===================== Synopsis: \pagenumbering{NUMBER-STYLE} Specifies the style of page numbers, and resets the page number. The numbering style is reflected on the page, and also in the table of contents and other page references. This declaration has global scope so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments. In this example, before the Main section the pages are numbered 'a', etc. Starting on the page containing that section, the pages are numbered '1', etc. \begin{document}\pagenumbering{alph} ... \section{Main}\pagenumbering{arabic} ... The argument NUMBER-STYLE is one of the following (see also *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). 'arabic' Arabic numerals: 1, 2, ... 'roman' lowercase Roman numerals: i, ii, ... 'Roman' uppercase Roman numerals: I, II, ... 'alph' lowercase letters: a, b, ... If you have more than 26 pages then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large'. 'Alph' uppercase letters: A, B, ... If you have more than 26 pages then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large'. 'gobble' LaTeX does not output a page number, although it does get reset. References to that page also are blank. (This does not work with the popular package 'hyperref' so to have the page number not appear you may want to instead use '\pagestyle{empty}' or '\thispagestyle{empty}'.) Traditionally, if a document has front matter--preface, table of contents, etc.--then it is numbered with lowercase Roman numerals. The main matter of a document uses arabic. *Note \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter::. If you want to address where the page number appears on the page, see *note \pagestyle::. If you want to change the value of page number then you will manipulate the 'page' counter (*note Counters::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagestyle, Next: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles 18.3 '\pagestyle' ================= Synopsis: \pagestyle{STYLE} Declaration that specifies how the page headers and footers are typeset, from the current page onwards. A discussion with an example is below. Note first that the package 'fancyhdr' is now the standard way to manipulate headers and footers. New documents that need to do anything other than one of the standard options below should use this package. See its documentation on CTAN. Values for STYLE: 'plain' The header is empty. The footer contains only a page number, centered. 'empty' The header and footer is empty. 'headings' Put running headers and footers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in there; see the discussion below. 'myheadings' Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright' commands. Some discussion of the motivation for LaTeX's mechanism will help you work with the options 'headings' or 'myheadings'. The document source below produces an article, two-sided, with the pagestyle 'headings'. On this document's left hand pages, LaTeX wants (in addition to the page number) the title of the current section. On its right hand pages LaTeX wants the title of the current subsection. When it makes up a page, LaTeX gets this information from the commands '\leftmark' and '\rightmark'. So it is up to '\section' and '\subsection' to store that information there. \documentclass[twoside]{article} \pagestyle{headings} \begin{document} ... \section{Section 1} ... \subsection{Subsection 1.1} ... \section{Section 2} ... \subsection{Subsection 2.1} ... \subsection{Subsection 2.2} ... Suppose that the second section falls on a left page. Although when the page starts it is in the first section, LaTeX will put 'Section 2' in the left page header. As to the right header, if no subsection starts before the end of the right page then LaTeX blanks the right hand header. If a subsection does appear before the right page finishes then there are two cases. If at least one subsection starts on the right hand page then LaTeX will put in the right header the title of the first subsection starting on that right page. If at least one of 2.1, 2.2, ..., starts on the left page but none starts on the right then LaTeX puts in the right hand header the title of the last subsection to start, that is, the one in effect during the right hand page. To accomplish this, in a two-sided article, LaTeX has '\section' issue a command '\markboth', setting '\leftmark' to 'Section 2' and setting '\rightmark' to blank. And, LaTeX has '\subsection' issue a command '\markright', setting '\rightmark' to 'Subsection 2.1', etc. Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright': '\markboth{LEFT-HEAD}{RIGHT-HEAD}' Sets both the right hand and left hand heading information for either a page style of 'headings' or 'myheadings'. A left hand page heading LEFT-HEAD is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end of the page. A right hand page heading RIGHT-HEAD is generated by the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one that came before that page. '\markright{RIGHT}' Sets the right hand page heading, leaving the left unchanged.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagestyle, Up: Page styles 18.4 '\thispagestyle' ===================== Synopsis: \thispagestyle{STYLE} Works in the same way as the '\pagestyle' (*note \pagestyle::), except that it changes to STYLE for the current page only. This declaration has global scope, so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments. Often the first page of a chapter or section has a different style. For example, this LaTeX book document has the first page of the first chapter in 'plain' style, as is the default (*note Page styles::). \documentclass{book} \pagestyle{headings} \begin{document} \chapter{First chapter} ... \chapter{Second chapter}\thispagestyle{empty} ... The 'plain' style has a page number on it, centered in the footer. To make the page entirely empty, the command '\thispagestyle{empty}' immediately follows the second '\chapter'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Spaces, Next: Boxes, Prev: Page styles, Up: Top 19 Spaces ********* LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Some of these are best suited to mathematical text; see *note Spacing in math mode::. Some spacing commands are suitable for both regular text and mathematical text; versions of some of these commands are in this chapter. * Menu: Horizontal space * \enspace & \quad & \qquad:: Traditional horizontal spaces. * \hspace:: Any horizontal space. * \hfill:: Stretchable horizontal space. * \hss:: Infinitely stretchable/shrinkable horizontal space. * \spacefactor:: Stretchability of following space * \(SPACE):: Backslash-space; and explicit space. * ~:: Tie, an unbreakable space. * \thinspace & \negthinspace:: One-sixth of an em, and negative one-sixth. * \/:: Italic correction. * \hrulefill & \dotfill:: Stretchable horizontal rule or dots. Vertical space * \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip:: Inter-paragraph vertical spaces. * \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak:: Inter-paragraph space and page breaks. * \strut:: Ensure height of a line. * \vspace:: Vertical space. * \vfill:: Stretchable vertical space. * \addvspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space if needed.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \enspace & \quad & \qquad, Next: \hspace, Up: Spaces 19.1 '\enspace' & '\quad' & '\qquad' ==================================== Synopsis, one of: \enspace \quad \qquad Insert a horizontal space of 1/2em, 1em, or 2em. The em is a length defined by a font designer, often thought of as being the width of a capital M. One advantage of describing space in ems is that it can be more portable across documents than an absolute measurement such as points (*note Lengths/em::). This puts a suitable gap between two graphics. \begin{center} \includegraphics{womensmile.png}% \qquad\includegraphics{mensmile.png} \end{center} *Note Spacing in math mode:: for '\quad' and '\qquad'. These are lengths from centuries of typesetting and so may be a better choice in many circumstances than arbitrary lengths, such as you get with '\hspace'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hspace, Next: \hfill, Prev: \enspace & \quad & \qquad, Up: Spaces 19.2 '\hspace' ============== Synopsis, one of: \hspace{LENGTH} \hspace*{LENGTH} Insert the horizontal space LENGTH. The LENGTH can be positive, negative, or zero; adding negative space is like backspacing. It is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, or both (*note Lengths::). Because the space is stretchable and shrinkable, it is sometimes called "glue". This makes a line with 'Name:' an inch from the right margin. \noindent\makebox[\linewidth][r]{Name:\hspace{1in}} The '*'-version inserts horizontal space that non-discardable. More precisely, when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines any white space--glues and kerns--that come at a line break are discarded. The '*'-version avoids that (technically, it adds a non-discardable invisible item in front of the space). In this example \parbox{0.8\linewidth}{% Fill in each blank: Four \hspace*{1in} and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new \hspace*{1in}, conceived in \hspace*{1in}, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created \hspace*{1in}.} the 1 inch blank following 'conceived in' falls at the start of a line. If you erase the '*' then LaTeX discards the blank. Here, the '\hspace' separates the three graphics. \begin{center} \includegraphics{lion.png}% comment keeps out extra space \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{tiger.png}% \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{bear.png} \end{center} Because the argument to each '\hspace' has 'minus 0.25cm', each can shrink a little if the three figures are too wide. But each space won't shrink more than 0.25cm (*note Lengths::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hfill, Next: \hss, Prev: \hspace, Up: Spaces 19.3 '\hfill' ============= Synopsis: \hfill Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but that can stretch horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::). This creates a one-line paragraph with 'Name:' on the left side of the page and 'Quiz One' on the right. \noindent Name:\hfill Quiz One The '\hfill' command is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}' and so the space can be discarded at line breaks. To avoid that instead use '\hspace*{\fill}' (*note \hspace::). Here the graphs are evenly spaced in the middle of the figure. \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}} ... \begin{figure} \hspace*{\fill}% \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph0.png}}% \hfill\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph1.png}}% \hspace*{\fill}% \caption{Comparison of two graphs} \label{fig:twographs} \end{figure} Note the '\hspace*''s where the space could otherwise be dropped.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hss, Next: \spacefactor, Prev: \hfill, Up: Spaces 19.4 '\hss' =========== Synopsis: \hss Produce a horizontal space that is infinitely shrinkable as well as infinitely stretchable (this command is a TeX primitive). LaTeX authors should reach first for the '\makebox' command to get the effects of '\hss' (*note \mbox & \makebox::). Here, the first line's '\hss' makes the Z stick out to the right, overwriting the Y. In the second line the Z sticks out to the left, overwriting the X. X\hbox to 0pt{Z\hss}Y X\hbox to 0pt{\hss Z}Y Without the '\hss' you get something like 'Overfull \hbox (6.11111pt too wide) detected at line 20'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \spacefactor, Next: \(SPACE), Prev: \hss, Up: Spaces 19.5 '\spacefactor' =================== Synopsis: \spacefactor=INTEGER Influence LaTeX's glue stretch and shrink behavior. Most user-level documents do not use this command. While LaTeX is laying out the material, it may stretch or shrink the gaps between words. (This space is not a character; it is called the "interword glue"; *note \hspace::). The '\spacefactor' command (from Plain TeX) allows you to, for instance, have the space after a period stretch more than the space after a word-ending letter. After LaTeX places each character, or rule or other box, it sets a parameter called the "space factor". If the next thing in the input is a space then this parameter affects how much stretching or shrinking can happen. A space factor that is larger than the normal value means that the glue can stretch more and shrink less. Normally, the space factor is 1000. This value is in effect following most characters, and any non-character box or math formula. But it is 3000 after a period, exclamation mark, or question mark, it is 2000 after a colon, 1500 after a semicolon, 1250 after a comma, and 0 after a right parenthesis or bracket, or closing double quote or single quote. Finally, it is 999 after a capital letter. If the space factor F is 1000 then the glue gap will be the font's normal space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is 3.3333 points). Otherwise, if the space factor F is greater than 2000 then TeX adds the font's extra space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is 1.11111 points), and then the font's normal stretch value is multiplied by f /1000 and the normal shrink value is multiplied by 1000/f (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point these are 1.66666 and 1.11111 points). For example, consider the period ending 'A man's best friend is his dog.' After it, TeX puts in a fixed extra space, and also allows the glue to stretch 3 times as much and shrink 1/3 as much, as the glue after 'friend', which does not end in a period. The rules for space factors are even more complex because they play additional roles. In practice, there are two consequences. First, if a period or other punctuation is followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote then the spacing effect of that period carries through those characters (that is, the following glue will have increased stretch and shrink). Second, if punctuation comes after a capital letter then its effect is not in place so you get an ordinary space. This second case also affects abbreviations that do not end in a capital letter (*note \@::). You can only use '\spacefactor' in paragraph mode or LR mode (*note Modes::). You can see the current value with '\the\spacefactor' or '\showthe\spacefactor'. (Comment, not really related to '\spacefactor': if you get errors like 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode', or 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in math mode.', or 'Improper \spacefactor' then you have probably tried to redefine an internal command. *Note \makeatletter & \makeatother::.) * Menu: * \@:: Distinguish sentence-ending periods from abbreviations. * \frenchspacing:: Equal interword and inter-sentence space. * \normalsfcodes:: Restore space factor settings to the default.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \@, Next: \frenchspacing, Up: \spacefactor 19.5.1 '\@' ----------- Synopsis: CAPITAL-LETTER\@. Treat a period as sentence-ending, where LaTeX would otherwise think it is part of an abbreviation. LaTeX thinks that a period ends an abbreviation if the period comes after a capital letter, and otherwise thinks the period ends the sentence. By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than it adjusts the space between words (*note \spacefactor::). This example shows the two cases to remember. The songs \textit{Red Guitar}, etc.\ are by Loudon Wainwright~III\@. The second period ends the sentence, despite that it is preceded by a capital. We tell LaTeX that it ends the sentence by putting '\@' before it. The first period ends the abbreviation 'etc.' but not the sentence. The backslash-space, '\ ', produces a mid-sentence space. So: if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the sentence, then put '\@' before the period. This holds even if there is an intervening right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote, because the spacing effect of that period carries through those characters. For example, this Use the \textit{Instructional Practices Guide}, (a book by the MAA)\@. will have correct inter-sentence spacing after the period. The '\@' command is only for a text mode. If you use it outside of a text mode then you get 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode' (*note Modes::). Comment: the converse case is a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the sentence. For that case follow the period with a backslash-space, ('\ '), or a tie, ('~'), or '\@'. Examples are 'Nat.\ Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and '(manure, etc.\@) for sale' (note in the last one that the '\@' comes before the closing parenthesis).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \frenchspacing, Next: \normalsfcodes, Prev: \@, Up: \spacefactor 19.5.2 '\frenchspacing' ----------------------- Synopsis, one of: \frenchspacing \nonfrenchspacing The first declaration causes LaTeX to treat spacing between sentences in the same way as spacing between words in the middle of a sentence. The second causes spacing between sentences to stretch or shrink more (*note \spacefactor::); this is the default. Some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or spaces following a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words that are in the middle of a sentence. Declaring '\frenchspacing' (the command is from Plain TeX) switches to the tradition that all spaces are treated equally.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \normalsfcodes, Prev: \frenchspacing, Up: \spacefactor 19.5.3 '\normalsfcodes' ----------------------- Synopsis: \normalsfcodes Reset the LaTeX space factor values to the default (*note \spacefactor::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \(SPACE), Next: ~, Prev: \spacefactor, Up: Spaces 19.6 Backslash-space, '\ ' ========================== This section refers to the command consisting of two characters, a backslash followed by a space. Synopsis: \ Produce a space. By default it produces white space of length 3.33333pt plus 1.66666pt minus 1.11111pt. When you type one or more blanks between words, LaTeX produces white space. But that is different than an explicit space. This illustrates. \begin{tabular}{l} One blank: makes some space \\ Three blanks: in a row \\ Three spaces:\ \ \ in a row \\ \end{tabular} On the first line LaTeX puts some space after the colon. On the second line LaTeX collapses the three blanks to output one whitespace, so you end with the same space after the colon as in the first line. LaTeX would similarly collapse a blank followed by a tab, or a blank and a newline and a blank. However, the bottom line asks for three spaces so the white area is wider. That is, the backslash-space command creates a fixed amount of horizontal space. (Note that you can define a horizontal space of any width at all with '\hspace'; see *note \hspace::.) The backslash-space command has two main uses. It is often used after control sequences to keep them from gobbling the space that follows, as in '\TeX\ is nice'. (But using curly parentheses, as in '\TeX{} is best', has the advantage of still working if the next character is a period.) The other common use is that it marks a period as ending an abbreviation instead of ending a sentence, as in 'So says Prof.\ Smith' (*note \@::). Under normal circumstances, '\' and '\' are equivalent to backslash-space, '\ '.  File: latex2e.info, Node: ~, Next: \thinspace & \negthinspace, Prev: \(SPACE), Up: Spaces 19.7 '~' ======== Synopsis: BEFORE~AFTER The tie character, '~', produces a space between BEFORE and AFTER at which the line will not be broken. By default the white space has length 3.33333pt plus 1.66666pt minus 1.11111pt (*note Lengths::). Here LaTeX will not break the line between the final two words. Thanks to Prof.~Lerman. In addition, despite the period, LaTeX does not use the end-of-sentence spacing (*note \@::). Ties prevent the end of line separation of things where that could cause confusion. But they also reduce LaTeX's options when it breaks lines into paragraphs, so you can use too many. They are also matters of taste, sometimes alarmingly dogmatic taste, among readers. Nevertheless, here are some usage models, many of them from the TeXbook. * Between an enumerator and its item, such as in references: 'Chapter~12', or 'Theorem~\ref{th:Wilsons}', or 'Figure~\ref{fig:KGraph}'. When cases are enumerated inline: '(b)~Show that $f(x)$ is (1)~continuous, and (2)~bounded'. * Between a number and its unit: '$745.7.8$~watts' (the 'siunitx' package has a special facility for this) or '144~eggs'. This includes between a month and a date: 'October~12' or '12~Oct'. In general, in any expressions where numbers and abbreviations or symbols are separated by a space: 'AD~565', or '2:50~pm', or 'Boeing~747', or '268~Plains Road', or '\$$1.4$~billion'. * When mathematical phrases are rendered in words: 'equals~$n$', or 'less than~$\epsilon$', or 'given~$X$', or 'modulo~$p^e$ for all large~$n$' (but compare 'is~$15$' with 'is $15$~times the height'). Between mathematical symbols in apposition with nouns: 'dimension~$d$' or 'function~$f(x)$' (but compare 'with length $l$~or more'). When a symbol is a tightly bound object of a preposition: 'of~$x$', or 'from $0$ to~$1$', or 'in common with~$m$'. * Between symbols in series: '$1$,~$2$, or~$3$' or '$1$,~$2$, \ldots,~$n$'. * Between a person's forenames and between multiple surnames: 'Donald~E. Knuth', or 'Luis~I. Trabb~Pardo', or 'Charles~XII' (but you must give TeX places to break the line so you may do 'Charles Louis Xavier~Joseph de~la Vall\'ee~Poussin'). * Before a dash: 'pages 12~--14' or 'it is~--- it must be said~--- plausible'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinspace & \negthinspace, Next: \/, Prev: ~, Up: Spaces 19.8 '\thinspace' & '\negthinspace' =================================== Synopsis, one of: \thinspace \negthinspace Produce an unbreakable and unstretchable space of 1/6em and -1/6em. These are the text mode equivalents of '\,' and '\!' (*note Spacing in math mode/\thinspace::). You can use '\,' as a synonym for '\thinspace' in text mode. The '\negthinspace' command is used in text mode mostly for fiddling with spaces. One common use of '\thinspace' is as the space between nested quotes. Killick replied, ``I heard the Captain say, `Ahoy there.'\thinspace'' Another use is that some style guides call for a '\thinspace' between an ellipsis and a sentence ending period (other style guides, though, think the three dots are quite enough already). Still another use is between initials, as in 'D.\thinspace E.\ Knuth'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \/, Next: \hrulefill & \dotfill, Prev: \thinspace & \negthinspace, Up: Spaces 19.9 '\/' ========= Synopsis: BEFORE-CHARACTER\/AFTER-CHARACTER Insert an "italic correction", a small space defined by the font designer for each character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. When you use '\/', LaTeX takes the correction from the font metric file, scales it by any scaling that has been applied to the font, and then inserts that much horizontal space. Here, were it not for the '\/', the BEFORE-CHARACTER italic f would hit the AFTER-CHARACTER roman H \newcommand{\companylogo}{{\it f}\/H} because the italic letter leans far to the right. If AFTER-CHARACTER is a period or comma then don't insert an italic correction since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons as well as with normal letters, the italic correction can help. When you use commands such as '\textit' or '\itshape' to change fonts, LaTeX will automatically insert any needed italic correction (*note Font styles::). Roman characters can also have an italic correction. An example is in the name 'pdf\/\TeX'. There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \hrulefill & \dotfill, Next: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip, Prev: \/, Up: Spaces 19.10 '\hrulefill' & '\dotfill' =============================== Synopsis, one of: \hrulefill \dotfill Produce an infinite horizontal rubber length (*note Lengths::) that LaTeX fills with a rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of white space. This outputs a line 2 inches long. Name:~\makebox[2in]{\hrulefill} This example, when placed between blank lines, creates a paragraph that is left and right justified and where the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots. \noindent John Aubrey, RN \dotfill{} Melbury Lodge To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the start or end. To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as here \renewcommand{\hrulefill}{% \leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@} which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with \renewcommand{\dotfill}{% \leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@} which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em. This example produces a line for a signature. \begin{minipage}{4cm} \centering \hrulefill\\ Signed \end{minipage} The line is 4cm long.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip, Next: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak, Prev: \hrulefill & \dotfill, Up: Spaces 19.11 '\bigskip' & '\medskip' & '\smallskip' ============================================ Synopsis, one of: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip Produce an amount of vertical space, large or medium-sized or small. These commands are fragile (*note \protect::). Here the skip suggests the passage of time (from The Golden Ocean by O'Brian). Mr Saumarez would have something rude to say to him, no doubt: he was at home again, and it was delightful. \bigskip ``A hundred and fifty-seven miles and one third, in twenty-four hours,'' said Peter. Each command is associated with a length defined in the document class file. '\bigskip' The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt'. '\medskip' The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt'. '\smallskip' The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt'. Because each command is a '\vspace', if you use on in mid-paragraph then it will insert its vertical space between the line in which you use it and the next line, not necessarily at the place that you use it. So these are best between paragraphs. The commands '\bigbreak', '\medbreak', and '\smallbreak' are similar but also suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to put a page break (*note \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak, Next: \strut, Prev: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip, Up: Spaces 19.12 '\bigbreak' & '\medbreak' & '\smallbreak' =============================================== Synopsis, one of: \bigbreak \medbreak \smallbreak Produce a vertical space that is big or medium-sized or small, and suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to break the page. (The associated penalties are -200, -100, and -50.) *Note \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip::, for more. These commands produce the same vertical space but differ in that they also remove a preceding vertical space if it is less than what they would insert (as with '\addvspace'). In addition, they terminate a paragraph where they are used: this example abc\bigbreak def ghi jkl mno pqr will output three paragraphs, the first ending in 'abc' and the second starting, after an extra vertical space and a paragraph indent, with 'def'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \strut, Next: \vspace, Prev: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak, Up: Spaces 19.13 '\strut' ============== Synopsis: \strut Ensure that the current line has height at least '0.7\baselineskip' and depth at least '0.3\baselineskip'. Essentially, LaTeX inserts into the line a rectangle having zero width, '\rule[-0.3\baselineskip]{0pt}{\baselineskip}' (*note \rule::). The '\baselineskip' changes with the current font and fontsize. In this example the '\strut' keeps the box inside the frame from having zero height. \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[2in]{\strut} This example has four lists. In the first there is a much bigger gap between items 2 and 3 than there is between items 1 and 2. The second list fixes that with a '\strut' at the end of its first item's second line. \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt} \noindent\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test} \item test \item test \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut} \item test \item test \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}} \item \fbox{test} \item \fbox{test} \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}} \item \fbox{test} \item \fbox{test} \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% The final two lists use '\fbox' to show what's happening. The third list's '\parbox' goes only to the bottom of its second 'test', which happens not have any characters that descend below the baseline. The fourth list adds the strut that gives the needed extra below-baseline space. The '\strut' command is often useful in graphics, such as in 'TikZ' or 'Asymptote'. For instance, you may have a command such as '\graphnode{NODE-NAME}' that fits a circle around NODE-NAME. However, unless you are careful the NODE-NAME's 'x' and 'y' will produce different-diameter circles because the characters are different sizes. A careful '\graphnode' might insert a '\strut', then NODE-NAME, and then draw the circle. The general approach of using a zero width '\rule' is useful in many circumstances. In this table, the zero-width rule keeps the top of the first integral from hitting the '\hline'. Similarly, the second rule keeps the second integral from hitting the first. \begin{tabular}{rl} \textsc{Integral} &\textsc{Value} \\ \hline $\int_0^x t\, dt$ &$x^2/2$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \\ $\int_0^x t^2\, dt$ &$x^3/3$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \end{tabular} (Although the line-ending double backslash command has an available optional argument to put in more vertical room, that won't work here. Changing the first double backslash to something like '\\[2.5ex]' will put the room between the header line and the '\hline', and the integral would still hit the line.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vspace, Next: \vfill, Prev: \strut, Up: Spaces 19.14 '\vspace' =============== Synopsis, one of: \vspace{LENGTH} \vspace*{LENGTH} Add the vertical space LENGTH. The LENGTH can be positive, negative, or zero. It is a rubber length--it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component (*note Lengths::). This puts space between the two paragraphs. And I slept. \vspace{1ex plus 0.5ex} The new day dawned cold. (*Note \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip:: for common inter-paragraph spaces.) The '*'-version inserts vertical space that non-discardable. More precisely, LaTeX discards vertical space at a page break and the '*'-version causes the space to stay. This example leaves space between the two questions. Question: Find the integral of \( 5x^4+5 \). \vspace*{2cm plus 0.5cm} Question: Find the derivative of \( x^5+5x+9 \). That space will be present even if the page break happens to fall between the questions. If you use '\vspace' in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in horizontal mode) then the space is inserted after the line containing the '\vspace' command; it does not start a new paragraph at the '\vspace' command. In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with at least one inch of space below each. \begin{document} 1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} 2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \vfill, Next: \addvspace, Prev: \vspace, Up: Spaces 19.15 '\vfill' ============== Synopsis: \vfill End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed (*note Lengths::). It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that '\vfill' ends the current paragraph whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the infinite vertical space below its line, irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary; to circumvent this see the starred option in *note \vspace::. In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the second 'Lost Dog!' is exactly halfway between them. \begin{document} Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! % perfectly in the middle \vfill Lost Dog! \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \addvspace, Prev: \vfill, Up: Spaces 19.16 '\addvspace' ================== Synopsis: \addvspace{VERT-LENGTH} Add a vertical space of VERT-LENGTH. However, if there are two or more '\addvspace''s in a sequence then together they only add the space needed to make the natural length equal to the maximum of the VERT-LENGTH's in that sequence. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). The VERT-LENGTH is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). This example illustrates. The 'picture' draws a scale. In a standard LaTeX article the length '\baselineskip' is 12pt. The two rules here are 22pt apart: the sum of the '\baselineskip' and the 10pt from the first 'addvspace'. \documentclass{article} \usepackage{color} \begin{document} \setlength{\unitlength}{2pt}% \noindent\begin{picture}(0,0)% \multiput(0,0)(0,-1){25}{{\color{blue}\line(1,0){1}}} \multiput(0,0)(0,-5){6}{{\color{red}\line(1,0){2}}} \end{picture}% \rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}% \par\addvspace{10pt}% \addvspace{20pt}% \par\noindent\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}% \end{document} Now uncomment the second '\addvspace'. It does not make the gap 20pt longer; instead the gap is the sum of '\baselineskip' and 20pt. So '\addvspace' in a sense does the opposite of its name -- it makes sure that multiple vertical spaces do not accumulate, but instead that only the largest one is used. LaTeX uses this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an environment that starts a new paragraph. For instance, a 'theorem' environment begins and ends with '\addvspace' so that two consecutive 'theorem''s are separated by one vertical space, not two. A error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' pointing to an '\addvspace' means that you were not in vertical mode when you hit this command. One way to change that is to precede '\addvspace' with a '\par' command (*note \par::), as in the above example.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Boxes, Next: Color, Prev: Spaces, Up: Top 20 Boxes ******** At its core, LaTeX puts things in boxes and then puts the boxes on a page. So these commands are central. There are many packages on CTAN that are useful for manipulating boxes. One useful adjunct to the commands here is 'adjustbox'. * Menu: * \mbox & \makebox:: Horizontal boxes. * \fbox & \framebox:: Put a frame around a box. * \parbox:: Box with text in paragraph mode. * \raisebox:: Raise or lower text. * \sbox & \savebox:: Like '\makebox' but save the text for later. * lrbox:: Environment version of '\sbox'. * \usebox:: Print saved text.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \mbox & \makebox, Next: \fbox & \framebox, Up: Boxes 20.1 '\mbox' & '\makebox' ========================= Synopsis, one of: \mbox{TEXT} \makebox{TEXT} \makebox[WIDTH]{TEXT} \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} Create a box, a container for material. The TEXT is typeset in LR mode (*note Modes::) so it is not broken into lines. The '\mbox' command is robust, while '\makebox' is fragile (*note \protect::). Because 'text' is not broken into lines, you can use '\mbox' to prevent hyphenation. In this example, LaTeX will not hyphenate the table name, 'T-4'. See Table~\mbox{T-4} The first two command versions, '\mbox' and '\makebox', are roughly equivalent. They create a box just wide enough to contain the TEXT. (They are like plain TeX's '\hbox'.) In the third version the optional argument WIDTH specifies the width of the box. Note that the space occupied by the text need not equal the width of the box. For one thing, TEXT can be too small; this creates a full-line box \makebox[\linewidth]{Chapter Exam} with 'Chapter Exam' centered. But TEXT can also be too wide for WIDTH. See the example below of zero-width boxes. In the WIDTH argument you can use the following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting TEXT: '\depth', '\height', '\width', '\totalheight' (this is the box's height plus its depth). For example, to make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size you can say this. \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} For the fourth command version the optional argument POSITION gives position of the text within the box. It may take the following values: 'c' The TEXT is centered (default). 'l' The TEXT is flush left. 'r' Flush right. 's' Stretch the interword space in TEXT across the entire WIDTH. The TEXT must contain stretchable space for this to work. For instance, this could head a press release: '\noindent\makebox[\textwidth][s]{\large\hfil IMMEDIATE\hfil RELEASE\hfil}' A common use of '\makebox' is to make zero-width text boxes. This puts the value of the quiz questions to the left of those questions. \newcommand{\pts}[1]{\makebox[0em][r]{#1 points\hspace*{1em}}} \pts{10}What is the air-speed velocity of an unladen swallow? \pts{90}An African or European swallow? The right edge of the output '10 points ' (note the ending space) will be just before the 'What' (note the space after 'points'). You can use '\makebox' similarly when making graphics, such as in 'TikZ' or 'Asymptote', where you put the edge of the text at a known location, regardless of the length of that text. For boxes with frames see *note \fbox & \framebox::. For colors see *note Colored boxes::. There is a related version of '\makebox' that is used within the 'picture' environment, where the length is given in terms of '\unitlength' (*note \makebox (picture)::). If you put a double-backslash into TEXT then LaTeX will not give you a new line; for instance '\makebox{abc def \\ ghi}' outputs 'abc defghi' while '\makebox{abc def \par ghi}' outputs 'abc def ghi', but neither go to a second line. To get multiple lines see *note \parbox:: and *note minipage::.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \fbox & \framebox, Next: \parbox, Prev: \mbox & \makebox, Up: Boxes 20.2 '\fbox' & '\framebox' ========================== Synopses, one of: \fbox{TEXT} \framebox{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH]{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} Create a box with an enclosing frame, four lines surrounding the space. These commands are the same as '\mbox' and '\makebox' except for the frame (*note \mbox & \makebox::). The '\fbox' command is robust, the '\framebox' command is fragile (*note \protect::). \fbox{Warning! No work shown, no credit given.} LaTeX puts the text into a box that cannot be split or hyphenated. Around that box, separated from it by a small gap, are four lines making a frame. The first two command invocations, '\fbox{...}' and '\framebox{...}', are roughly the same. As to the third and fourth invocations, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box width as WIDTH and the position of the text inside that box as POSITION. *Note \mbox & \makebox:: for the full description but here is an example creating an empty box that is 1/4in wide. \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[0.25in]{\strut}} The '\strut' inserts a vertical height of '\baselineskip' (*note \strut::). These parameters determine the frame layout. '\fboxrule' The thickness of the lines around the enclosed box. The default is 0.2pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}' (*note \setlength::). '\fboxsep' The distance from the frame to the enclosed box. The default is 3pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}' (*note \setlength::). Setting it to 0pt is useful sometimes: this will put a frame around the picture with no white border. {\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt} \framebox{% \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{prudence.jpg}}} The extra curly braces keep the effect of the '\setlength' local. As with '\mbox' and '\makebox', LaTeX will not break lines in TEXT. But this example has LaTeX break lines to make a paragraph, and then frame the result. \framebox{% \begin{minipage}{0.6\linewidth} My dear, here we must run as fast as we can, just to stay in place. And if you wish to go anywhere you must run twice as fast as that. \end{minipage}} *Note Colored boxes:: for colors other than black and white. The 'picture' environment has a version of this command where the units depend on 'picture''s '\unitlength' (*note \framebox (picture)::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \parbox, Next: \raisebox, Prev: \fbox & \framebox, Up: Boxes 20.3 '\parbox' ============== Synopses, one of: \parbox{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} \parbox[POSITION]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} Produce a box of text that is WIDTH wide. Use this command to make a box of small pieces of text, of a single paragraph. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). \begin{picture}(0,0) ... \put(1,2){\parbox{1.75in}{\raggedright Because the graph is a line on this semilog paper, the relationship is exponential.}} \end{picture} The CONTENTS are processed in a text mode (*note Modes::) so LaTeX will break lines to make a paragraph. But it won't make multiple paragraphs; for that, use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::). The options for '\parbox' (except for CONTENTS) are the same as those for 'minipage'. For convenience a summary of the options is here but see *note minipage:: for a complete description. There are two required arguments. The WIDTH is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It sets the width of the box into which LaTeX typesets CONTENTS. The CONTENTS is the text that is placed in that box. It should not have any paragraph-making components. There are three optional arguments, POSITION, HEIGHT, and INNER-POS. The POSITION gives the vertical alignment of the 'parbox' with respect to the surrounding material. The possible values are 'c' or 'm' to make the vertical center of the 'parbox' lines up with the center of the adjacent line (this is the default), or 't' to match the top line of the 'parbox' with the baseline of the surrounding material, or 'b' to match the bottom line. The optional argument HEIGHT overrides the natural height of the box. The optional argument INNER-POS controls the placement of CONTENT inside the 'parbox'. Its default is the value of POSITION. Its possible values are: 't' to put the CONTENT at the top of the box, 'c' to put it in the vertical center, 'b' to put it at the bottom of the box, and 's' to stretch it out vertically (for this, the text must contain vertically stretchable space).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \raisebox, Next: \sbox & \savebox, Prev: \parbox, Up: Boxes 20.4 '\raisebox' ================ Synopsis, one of: \raisebox{DISTANCE}{TEXT} \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT]{TEXT} \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{TEXT} Raise or lower TEXT. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This example makes a command for the restriction of a function by lowering the vertical bar symbol. \newcommand\restricted[1]{\raisebox{-.5ex}{$|$}_{#1}} $f\restricted{A}$ The first mandatory argument DISTANCE specifies how far to raise the second mandatory argument TEXT. This is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). If it is negative then it lowers TEXT. The TEXT is processed in LR mode so it cannot contain line breaks (*note Modes::). The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are specified, they override the natural height and depth of the box LaTeX gets by typesetting TEXT. In the arguments DISTANCE, HEIGHT, and DEPTH you can use the following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting TEXT: '\depth', '\height', '\width', '\totalheight' (this is the box's height plus its depth). This will align two graphics on their top (*note Graphics::). \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{calc} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \raisebox{1ex-\height}{% \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{lion.png}} \qquad \raisebox{1ex-\height}{% \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{meta.png}} \end{center} The first '\height' is the height of 'lion.png' while the second is the height of 'meta.png'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \sbox & \savebox, Next: lrbox, Prev: \raisebox, Up: Boxes 20.5 '\sbox' & '\savebox' ========================= Synopsis, one of: \sbox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT} \savebox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT} \savebox{BOX-CMD}[WIDTH]{TEXT} \savebox{BOX-CMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} Typeset TEXT just as with '\makebox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) except that LaTeX does not output it but instead saves it in a storage bin named BOX-CMD. The bin name BOX-CMD begins with a backslash, '\'. You must have previously allocated the bin BOX-CMD with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).The '\sbox' command is robust while '\savebox' is fragile (*note \protect::). This creates and uses a bin. \newsavebox{\fullname} \sbox{\fullname}{John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt} ... \usebox{\fullname}! His name is my name, too! Whenever we go out, the people always shout! There goes \\usebox{\fullname}! Ya da da da da da da. One advantage of using and reusing a bin over a '\newcommand' is efficiency, that LaTeX need not repeatedly retypeset the contents. See the example below. The first two command invocations, '\sbox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}' and '\savebox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}', are roughly equivalent. As to the third and fourth, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box width as WIDTH, and the position of the text inside that box as POSITION. *Note \mbox & \makebox:: for the full description. In the '\sbox' and '\savebox' commands the TEXT is typeset in LR mode so it does not have line breaks (*note Modes::). If you use these then LaTeX doesn't give you an error but it ignores what you want: if you enter '\sbox{\newbin}{test \\ test}' and '\usebox{\newbin}' then you get 'testtest', while if you enter '\sbox{\newbin}{test \par test}' and '\usebox{\newbin}' then you get 'test test', but no error or warning. To fix this use a '\parbox' or 'minipage' as here. \savebox{\abin}{% \begin{minipage}{\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item First item \item Second item \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}} ... \usebox{\abin} As an example of the efficiency of reusing a bin's contents, this puts the same picture on each page of the document by putting it in the header. LaTeX only typesets it once. \usepackage{graphicx} % all this in the preamble \newsavebox{\sealbin} \savebox{\sealbin}{% \setlength{\unitlength}{1in}% \begin{picture}(0,0)% \put(1.5,-2.5){% \begin{tabular}{c} \includegraphics[height=2in]{companylogo.png} \\ Office of the President \end{tabular}} \end{picture}% } \markright{\usebox{\sealbin}} \pagestyle{headings} The 'picture' environment is good for fine-tuning the placement. If the bin has not already been defined then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \nobin'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: lrbox, Next: \usebox, Prev: \sbox & \savebox, Up: Boxes 20.6 'lrbox' ============ Synopsis: \begin{lrbox}{BOX-CMD} TEXT \end{lrbox} The TEXT inside the environment is saved in the bin 'BOX-CMD'. The BOX-CMD must begin with a backslash. You must create this bin in advance with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). This is the environment form of the '\sbox' and '\savebox' commands, and is equivalent to them. *Note \sbox & \savebox:: for the full information. In this example the environment is convenient for entering the 'tabular'. \newsavebox{\jhbin} \begin{lrbox}{\jhbin} \begin{tabular}{c} \includegraphics[height=1in]{jh.png} \\ Jim Hef{}feron \end{tabular} \end{lrbox} ... \usebox{\jhbin}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \usebox, Prev: lrbox, Up: Boxes 20.7 '\usebox' ============== Synopsis: \usebox{BOX-CMD} Produce the box most recently saved in the bin BOX-CMD by the commands '\sbox' or '\savebox', or the 'lrbox' environment. *Note \sbox & \savebox:: for more information and examples. (Note that BOX-CMD starts with a backslash.) This command is robust (*note \protect::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Color, Next: Graphics, Prev: Boxes, Up: Top 21 Color ******** You can add color to text, rules, etc. You can also have color in a box or on an entire page and write text on top of it. Color support comes as an additional package. So put '\usepackage{color}' in your document preamble to use the commands described here. Many other packages also supplement LaTeX's color abilities. Particularly worth mentioning is 'xcolor', which is widely used and significantly extends the capabilities described here, including adding 'HTML' and 'Hsb' color models. * Menu: * Color package options:: Options when you load the standard package. * Color models:: How colors are represented. * Commands for color:: The available commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Color package options, Next: Color models, Up: Color 21.1 'color' package options ============================ Synopsis (must be in the document preamble): \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{color} When you load the 'color' package there are two kinds of available options. The first specifies the "printer driver". LaTeX doesn't contain information about different output systems but instead depends on information stored in a file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completeness we include a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex', 'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex' (and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). The second kind of options, beyond the drivers, are below. 'monochrome' Disable the color commands, so that they do not generate errors but do not generate color either. 'dvipsnames' Make available a list of 68 color names that are often used, particularly in legacy documents. These color names were originally provided by the 'dvips' driver, giving the option name. 'nodvipsnames' Do not load that list of color names, saving LaTeX a tiny amount of memory space.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Color models, Next: Commands for color, Prev: Color package options, Up: Color 21.2 Color models ================= A "color model" is a way of representing colors. LaTeX's capabilities depend on the printer driver. However, the 'pdftex', 'xetex', and 'luatex' printer drivers are today by far the most commonly used. The models below work for those drivers. All but one of these is also supported by essentially all other printer drivers used today. Note that color combination can be additive or subtractive. Additive mixes colors of light, so that for instance combining full intensities of red, green, and blue produces white. Subtractive mixes pigments, such as with inks, so that combining full intensity of cyan, magenta, and yellow makes black. 'cmyk' A comma-separated list with four real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. The first number is the intensity of cyan, the second is magenta, and the others are yellow and black. A number value of 0 means minimal intensity, while a 1 is for full intensity. This model is often used in color printing. It is a subtractive model. 'gray' A single real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. The colors are shades of grey. The number 0 produces black while 1 gives white. 'rgb' A comma-separated list with three real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. The first number is the intensity of the red component, the second is green, and the third the blue. A number value of 0 means that none of that component is added in, while a 1 means full intensity. This is an additive model. 'RGB' ('pdftex', 'xetex', 'luatex' drivers) A comma-separated list with three integers between 0 and 255, inclusive. This model is a convenience for using 'rgb' since outside of LaTeX colors are often described in a red-green-blue model using numbers in this range. The values entered here are converted to the 'rgb' model by dividing by 255. 'named' Colors are accessed by name, such as 'PrussianBlue'. The list of names depends on the driver, but all support the names 'black', 'blue', 'cyan', 'green', 'magenta', 'red', 'white', and 'yellow' (See the 'dvipsnames' option in *note Color package options::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: Commands for color, Prev: Color models, Up: Color 21.3 Commands for color ======================= These are the commands available with the 'color' package. * Menu: * Define colors:: Give a color a name. * Colored text:: Text or rules in color. * Colored boxes:: A box of color, to write over. * Colored pages:: A whole page colored.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Define colors, Next: Colored text, Up: Commands for color 21.3.1 Define colors -------------------- Synopsis: \definecolor{NAME}{MODEL}{SPECIFICATION} Give the name NAME to the color. For example, after this \definecolor{silver}{rgb}{0.75,0.75,0.74} you can use that color name with 'Hi ho, \textcolor{silver}{Silver}!'. This example gives the color a more abstract name, so it could change and not be misleading. \definecolor{logocolor}{RGB}{145,92,131} % RGB needs pdflatex \newcommand{\logo}{\textcolor{logocolor}{Bob's Big Bagels}} Often a document's colors are defined in the preamble, or in the class or style, rather than in the document body.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored text, Next: Colored boxes, Prev: Define colors, Up: Commands for color 21.3.2 Colored text ------------------- Synopses: \textcolor{NAME}{...} \textcolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION}{...} or \color{NAME} \color[COLOR MODEL]{SPECIFICATION} The affected text gets the color. This line \textcolor{magenta}{My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:} Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! causes the first half to be in magenta while the rest is in black. You can use a color declared with '\definecolor' in exactly the same way that we just used the builtin color 'magenta'. \definecolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{rgb}{1.0,0.11,0.0} I'm thinking about getting a \textcolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{sports car}. The two '\textcolor' and '\color' differ in that the first is a command form, enclosing the text to be colored as an argument. Often this form is more convenient, or at least more explicit. The second form is a declaration, as in 'The moon is made of {\color{green} green} cheese', so it is in effect until the end of the current group or environment. This is sometimes useful when writing macros or as below where it colors everything inside the 'center' environment, including the vertical and horizontal lines. \begin{center} \color{blue} \begin{tabular}{l|r} UL &UR \\ \hline LL &LR \end{tabular} \end{center} You can use color in equations. A document might have this definition in the preamble \definecolor{highlightcolor}{RGB}{225,15,0} and then contain this equation. \begin{equation} \int_a^b \textcolor{highlightcolor}{f'(x)}\,dx=f(b)-f(a) \end{equation} Typically the colors used in a document are declared in a class or style but sometimes you want a one-off. Those are the second forms in the synopses. Colors of \textcolor[rgb]{0.33,0.14,0.47}{Purple} and {\color[rgb]{0.72,0.60,0.37} Gold} for the team. The format of COLOR SPECIFICATION depends on the color model (*note Color models::). For instance, while 'rgb' takes three numbers, 'gray' takes only one. The selection was \textcolor[gray]{0.5}{grayed out}. Colors inside colors do not combine. Thus \textcolor{green}{kind of \textcolor{blue}{blue}} has a final word that is blue, not a combination of blue and green.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored boxes, Next: Colored pages, Prev: Colored text, Up: Commands for color 21.3.3 Colored boxes -------------------- Synopses: \colorbox{NAME}{...} \colorbox[MODEL NAME]{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} or \fcolorbox{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} \fcolorbox[MODEL NAME]{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} Make a box with the stated background color. The '\fcolorbox' command puts a frame around the box. For instance this Name:~\colorbox{cyan}{\makebox[5cm][l]{\strut}} makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its depth and height from the '\strut' (so the depth is '-.3\baselineskip' and the height is '\baselineskip'). This puts white text on a blue background. \colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}} The '\fcolorbox' commands use the same parameters as '\fbox' (*note \fbox & \framebox::), '\fboxrule' and '\fboxsep', to set the thickness of the rule and the boundary between the box interior and the surrounding rule. LaTeX's defaults are '0.4pt' and '3pt', respectively. This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points. Note that it is surrounded by curly braces so that the change ends at the end of the second line. {\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt} \fcolorbox{black}{red}{Under no circumstances turn this knob.}}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored pages, Prev: Colored boxes, Up: Commands for color 21.3.4 Colored pages -------------------- Synopses: \pagecolor{NAME} \pagecolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION} \nopagecolor The first two set the background of the page, and all subsequent pages, to the color. For an explanation of the specification in the second form *note Colored text::. The third returns the background to normal, which is a transparent background. (If that is not supported use '\pagecolor{white}', although that will make a white background rather than the default transparent background.) ... \pagecolor{cyan} ... \nopagecolor  File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics, Next: Special insertions, Prev: Color, Up: Top 22 Graphics *********** You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LaTeX document. You need an additional package, which comes standard with LaTeX. This example is the short how-to. \include{graphicx} % goes in the preamble ... \includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf} To use the commands described here your document preamble must contain either '\usepackage{graphicx}' or '\usepackage{graphics}'. Most of the time, 'graphicx' is the better choice. Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector. LaTeX can use both. In raster graphics the file contains an entry for each location in an array, describing what color it is. An example is a photograph, in JPG format. In vector graphics, the file contains a list of instructions such as 'draw a circle with this radius and that center'. An example is a line drawing produced by the Asymptote program, in PDF format. Generally vector graphics are more useful because you can rescale their size without pixelation or other problems, and because they often have a smaller size. There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a LaTeX document. For example, these allow you to use the same fonts as in your document. LaTeX comes with a 'picture' environment (*note picture::) that has simple capabilities. Besides that, there are other ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document. Two such systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages. There are also systems external to LaTeX, that generate a graphic that you include using the commands of this chapter. Two that use a programming language are Asymptote and MetaPost. One that uses a graphical interface is Xfig. Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document; see their documentation on CTAN. * Menu: * Graphics package options:: Options when you load the package. * Graphics package configuration:: Where to look for files, which file types. * Commands for graphics:: The available commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics package options, Next: Graphics package configuration, Up: Graphics 22.1 'graphics' package options =============================== Synopsis (must be in the document preamble): \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphics} or \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphicx} The 'graphicx' package has a format for optional arguments to the '\includegraphics' command that is convenient (it is the key-value format), so it is the better choice for new documents. When you load the 'graphics' or 'graphicx' package with '\usepackage' there are two kinds of available options. The first is that LaTeX does not contain information about different output systems but instead depends on information stored in a "printer driver" file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completeness here is a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex', 'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex' (and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). These are stored in files with a '.def' extension, such as 'pdftex.def'. The second kind of options are below. 'demo' Instead of an image file, LaTeX puts in a 150 pt by 100 pt rectangle (unless another size is specified in the '\includegraphics' command). 'draft' For each graphic file, it is not shown but instead the file name is printed in a box of the correct size. In order to determine the size, the file must be present. 'final' (Default) Override any previous 'draft' option, so that the document shows the contents of the graphic files. 'hiderotate' Do not show rotated text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer does not have the capability to rotate text.) 'hidescale' Do not show scaled text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer does not have the capability to scale.) 'hiresbb' In a PS or EPS file the graphic size may be specified in two ways. The '%%BoundingBox' lines describe the graphic size using integer multiples of a PostScript point, that is, integer multiples of 1/72 inch. A later addition to the PostScript language allows decimal multiples, such as 1.23, in '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines. This option has LaTeX to read the size from the latter.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics package configuration, Next: Commands for graphics, Prev: Graphics package options, Up: Graphics 22.2 'graphics' package configuration ===================================== These commands configure the way LaTeX searches the file system for the graphic. The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform dependent. In this document we cover GNU/Linux, Macintosh, and Windows, as those systems are typically configured. For other situations consult the documentation in 'grfguide.pdf', or the LaTeX source, or your TeX distribution's documentation. * Menu: * \graphicspath:: Directories to search. * \DeclareGraphicsExtensions:: File types, such as JPG or EPS. * \DeclareGraphicsRule:: How to handle file types.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \graphicspath, Next: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Up: Graphics package configuration 22.2.1 '\graphicspath' ---------------------- Synopsis: \graphicspath{LIST OF DIR NAMES INSIDE CURLY BRACKETS} Declare a list of directories to search for graphics files. This allows you to later say something like '\includegraphics{lion.png}' instead of having to give its path. LaTeX always looks for graphic files first in the current directory. The declaration below tells the system to then look in the subdirectory 'pix', and then '../pix'. \usepackage{graphicx} % or graphics; put in preamble ... \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} } The '\graphicspath' declaration is optional. If you don't include it then LaTeX's default is to search all of the places that it usually looks for a file (it uses LaTeX's '\input@path'). In particular, in this case one of the places it looks is the current directory. Enclose each directory name in curly braces; for example, above it says ''{pix}''. Do this even if there is only one directory. Each directory name must end in a forward slash, '/'. This is true even on Windows, where good practice is to use forward slashes for all the directory separators since it makes the document portable to other platforms. If you have spaces in your directory name then use double quotes, as with '{"my docs/"}'. Getting one of these rules wrong will cause LaTeX to report 'Error: File `FILENAME' not found'. Basically, the algorithm is that with this example, after looking in the current directory, \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} } ... \usepackage{lion.png} for each of the listed directories, LaTeX concatenates it with the file name and searches for the result, checking for 'pix/lion.png' and then '../pix/lion.png'. This algorithm means that the '\graphicspath' command does not recursively search subdirectories: if you issue '\graphicspath{{a/}}' and the graphic is in 'a/b/lion.png' then LaTeX will not find it. It also means that you can use absolute paths such as '\graphicspath{{/home/jim/logos/}}' or '\graphicspath{{C:/Users/Albert/Pictures/}}'. However, using these means that the document is not portable. (You could preserve portability by adjusting your TeX system settings configuration file parameter 'TEXINPUTS'; see the documentation of your system.) You can use '\graphicspath' anywhere in the document. You can use it more than once. Show its value with '\makeatletter\typeout{\Ginput@path}\makeatother'. The directories are taken with respect to the base file. That is, suppose that you are working on a document based on 'book/book.tex' and it contains '\include{chapters/chap1}'. If in 'chap1.tex' you put '\graphicspath{{plots/}}' then LaTeX will not search for graphics in 'book/chapters/plots', but instead in 'book/plots'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Next: \DeclareGraphicsRule, Prev: \graphicspath, Up: Graphics package configuration 22.2.2 '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' ----------------------------------- Synopses: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{COMMA-SEPARATED LIST OF FILE EXTENSIONS} Declare the filename extensions to try. This allows you to specify the order in which to choose graphic formats when you include graphic files by giving the filename without the extension, as in '\includegraphics{functionplot}'. In this example, LaTeX will find files in the PNG format before PDF files. \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.png,PNG,.pdf,.PDF} ... \includegraphics{lion} % will find lion.png before lion.pdf Because the file name 'lion' does not have a period, LaTeX uses the extension list. For each directory in the graphics path (*note \graphicspath::), LaTeX will try the extensions in the order given. If it does not find such a file after trying all the directories and extensions then it reports '! LaTeX Error: File `'lion'' not found'. Note that you must include the periods at the start of the extensions. Because GNU/Linux and Macintosh filenames are case sensitive, the list of file extensions is case sensitive on those platforms. The Windows platform is not case sensitive. You are not required to include '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' in your document; the printer driver has a sensible default. For example, the most recent 'pdftex.def' has this extension list. .png,.pdf,.jpg,.mps,.jpeg,.jbig2,.jb2,.PNG,.PDF,.JPG,.JPEG,.JBIG2,.JB2 You can use this command anywhere in the document. You can use it more than once. Show its value with '\makeatletter\typeout{\Gin@extensions}\makeatother'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \DeclareGraphicsRule, Prev: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Up: Graphics package configuration 22.2.3 '\DeclareGraphicsRule' ----------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareGraphicsRule{EXTENSION}{TYPE}{SIZE-FILE EXTENSION}{COMMAND} Declare how to handle graphic files whose names end in EXTENSION. This example declares that all files with names have the form 'filename-without-dot.mps' will be treated as output from MetaPost, meaning that the printer driver will use its MetaPost-handling code to input the file. \DeclareGraphicsRule{.mps}{mps}{.mps}{} This \DeclareGraphicsRule{*}{mps}{*}{} tells LaTeX that it should handle as MetaPost output any file with an extension not covered by another rule, so it covers 'filename.1', 'filename.2', etc. This describes the four arguments. EXTENSION The file extension to which this rule applies. The extension is anything after and including the first dot in the filename. Use the Kleene star, '*', to denote the default behaviour for all undeclared extensions. TYPE The type of file involved. This type is a string that must be defined in the printer driver. For instance, files with extensions '.ps', '.eps', or '.ps.gz' may all be classed as type 'eps'. All files of the same type will be input with the same internal command by the printer driver. For example, the file types that 'pdftex' recognizes are: 'jpg', 'jbig2', 'mps', 'pdf', 'png', 'tif'. SIZE-FILE EXTENSION The extension of the file to be read to determine the size of the graphic, if there is such a file. It may be the same as EXTENSION but it may be different. As an example, consider a PostScript graphic. To make it smaller, it might be compressed into a '.ps.gz' file. Compressed files are not easily read by LaTeX so you can put the bounding box information in a separate file. If SIZE-FILE EXTENSION is empty then you must specify size information in the arguments of '\includegraphics'. If the driver file has a procedure for reading size files for 'type' then that will be used, otherwise it will use the procedure for reading '.eps' files. (Thus you may specify the size of bitmap files in a file with a PostScript style '%%BoundingBox' line if no other format is available.) COMMAND A command that will be applied to the file. This is very often left blank. This command must start with a single backward quote. Thus, '\DeclareGraphicsRule{.eps.gz}{eps}{.eps.bb}{`gunzip -c #1}' specifies that any file with the extension '.eps.gz' should be treated as an 'eps' file, with the BoundingBox information stored in the file with extension '.eps.bb', and that the command 'gunzip -c' will run on your platform to decompresses the file. Such a command is specific to your platform. In addition, your TeX system must allow you to run external commands; as a security measure modern systems restrict running commands unless you explicitly allow it. See the documentation for your TeX distribution.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Commands for graphics, Prev: Graphics package configuration, Up: Graphics 22.3 Commands for graphics ========================== These are the commands available with the 'graphics' and 'graphicx' packages. * Menu: * \includegraphics:: Using a graphic in your document. * \rotatebox:: Rotating boxes, including graphics. * \scalebox:: Scaling boxes, including graphics. * \resizebox:: Scaling boxes, including graphics, to a set size.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \includegraphics, Next: \rotatebox, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.1 '\includegraphics' ------------------------- Synopses for 'graphics' package: \includegraphics{FILENAME} \includegraphics[URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME} Synopses for 'graphicx' package: \includegraphics{FILENAME} \includegraphics[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME} Include a graphics file. The starred form '\includegraphics*' will clip the graphic to the size specified, while for the unstarred form any part of the graphic that is outside the box of the specified size will over-print the surrounding area. This \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \includegraphics{plot.pdf} \end{center} will incorporate into the document the graphic in 'plot.pdf', centered and at its nominal size. You can also give a path to the file, as with '\includegraphics{graphics/plot.pdf}'. To specify a list of locations to search for the file, *note \graphicspath::. If your filename includes spaces then put it in double quotes. An example is '\includegraphics{"sister picture.jpg"}'. The '\includegraphics{FILENAME}' command decides on the type of graphic by splitting FILENAME on the first dot. You can use FILENAME with no dot, as in '\includegraphics{turing}' and then LaTeX tries a sequence of extensions such as '.png' and '.pdf' until it finds a file with that extension (*note \DeclareGraphicsExtensions::). If your file name contains dots before the extension then you can hide them with curly braces, as in '\includegraphics{{plot.2018.03.12.a}.pdf}'. Or, if you use the 'graphicx' package then you can use the options 'type' and 'ext'; see below. This and other filename issues are also handled with the package 'grffile'. This example puts a graphic in a figure environment so LaTeX can move it to the next page if fitting it on the current page is awkward (*note figure::). \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=3cm]{lungxray.jpg} \caption{The evidence is overwhelming: don't smoke.} \label{fig:xray} \end{figure} This places a graphic that will not float, so it is sure to appear at this point in the document even if makes LaTeX stretch the text or resort to blank areas on the page. It will be centered and will have a caption. \usepackage{caption} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \includegraphics{pix/nix.png} \captionof{figure}{The spirit of the night} \label{pix:nix} % optional \end{center} This example puts a box with a graphic side by side with one having text, with the two vertically centered. \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}} ... \begin{center} \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{plot}} \hspace{1em} \vcenteredhbox{\begin{minipage}{0.4\textwidth} \begin{displaymath} f(x)=x\cdot \sin (1/x) \end{displaymath} \end{minipage}} \end{center} If you use the 'graphics' package then the only options involve the size of the graphic (but see *note \rotatebox:: and *note \scalebox::). When one optional argument is present then it is '[URX,URY]' and it gives the coordinates of the top right corner of the image, as a pair of TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::). If the units are omitted they default to 'bp'. In this case, the lower left corner of the image is assumed to be at (0,0). If two optional arguments are present then the leading one is '[LLX,LLY]', specifying the coordinates of the image's lower left. Thus, '\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...}' calls for the graphic to be placed so it is 1 inch wide and 0.618 inches tall and so its origin is at (0,0). The 'graphicx' package gives you many more options. Specify them in a key-value form, as here. \begin{center} \includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion} \hspace{2em} \includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion} \end{center} The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made one inch wide and then rotated, while the second is rotated and then made one inch wide. Thus, unless the graphic is perfectly square, the two will end with different widths and heights. There are many options. The primary ones are listed first. Note that a graphic is placed by LaTeX into a box, which is traditionally referred to as its bounding box (distinct from the PostScript BoundingBox described below). The graphic's printed area may go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LaTeX makes up a page it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the graphic. 'width' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width. An example is '\includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}'. You can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::) and also convenient is '\linewidth', or in a two-column document, '\columnwidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). An example is that by using the 'calc' package you can make the graphic be 1 cm narrow than the width of the text with '\includegraphics[width=\linewidth-1.0cm]{hefferon.jpg}'. 'height' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height. You can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::), and also convenient are '\pageheight' and '\textheight' (*note Page layout parameters::). For instance, the command '\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel}' will make the graphic a quarter of the height of the text area. 'totalheight' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus depth. This differs from the height if the graphic was rotated. For instance, if it has been rotated by -90 then it will have zero height but a large depth. 'keepaspectratio' If set to 'true', or just specified as here \includegraphics[...,keepaspectratio,...]{...} and you give as options both 'width' and 'height' (or 'totalheight'), then LaTeX will make the graphic is as large as possible without distortion. That is, LaTeX will ensure that neither is the graphic wider than 'width' nor taller than 'height' (or 'totalheight'). 'scale' Factor by which to scale the graphic. To make a graphic twice its nominal size, enter '\includegraphics[scale=2.0]{...}'. This number may be any value; a number between 1 and 0 will shrink the graphic and a negative number will reflect it. 'angle' Rotate the graphic. The angle is taken in degrees and counterclockwise. The graphic is rotated about its 'origin'; see that option. For a complete description of how rotated material is typeset, *note \rotatebox::. 'origin' The point of the graphic about which the rotation happens. Possible values are any string containing one or two of: 'l' for left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top, and 'B' for baseline. Thus, entering the command '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon}' will turn the picture upside down about that picture's center, while the command '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau}' will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc', but gives the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc'.) The default is 'lB'. To rotate about an arbitrary point, *note \rotatebox::. These are lesser-used options. 'viewport' Pick out a subregion of the graphic to show. Takes four arguments, separated by spaces and given in TeX dimensions, as with '\includegraphics[.., viewport=0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. The dimensions default to big points, 'bp'. They are taken relative to the origin specified by the bounding box. See also the 'trim' option. 'trim' Gives parts of the graphic to not show. Takes four arguments, separated by spaces, that are given in TeX dimensions, as with '\includegraphics[.., trim= 0in 0.1in 0.2in 0.3in, ...]{...}'. These give the amounts of the graphic not to show, that is, LaTeX will crop the picture by 0 inches on the left, 0.1 inches on the bottom, 0.2 inches on the right, and 0.3 inches on the top. See also the 'viewport' option. 'clip' If set to 'true', or just specified as here \includegraphics[...,clip,...]{...} then the graphic is cropped to the bounding box. This is the same as using the starred form of the command, '\includegraphics*[...]{...}'. 'page' Give the page number of a multi-page PDF file. The default is 'page=1'. 'pagebox' Specifies which bounding box to use for PDF files from among 'mediabox', 'cropbox', 'bleedbox', 'trimbox', or 'artbox'. PDF files do not have the BoundingBox that PostScript files have, but may specify up to four predefined rectangles. The MediaBox gives the boundaries of the physical medium. The CropBox is the region to which the contents of the page are to be clipped when displayed. The BleedBox is the region to which the contents of the page should be clipped in production. The TrimBox is the intended dimensions of the finished page. The ArtBox is the extent of the page's meaningful content. The driver will set the image size based on CropBox if present, otherwise it will not use one of the others, with a driver-defined order of preference. MediaBox is always present. 'interpolate' Enable or disable interpolation of raster images by the viewer. Can be set with 'interpolate=true' or just specified as here. \includegraphics[...,interpolate,...]{...} 'quiet' Do not write information to the log. You can set it with 'quiet=true' or just specified it with '\includegraphics[...,quite,...]{...}', 'draft' If you set it with 'draft=true' or just specify it with \includegraphics[...,draft,...]{...} then the graphic will not appear in the document, possibly saving color printer ink. Instead, LaTeX will put an empty box of the correct size with the filename printed in it. These options address the bounding box for Encapsulated PostScript graphic files, which have a size specified with a line '%%BoundingBox' that appears in the file. It has four values, giving the lower x coordinate, lower y coordinate, upper x coordinate, and upper y coordinate. The units are PostScript points, equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch. For example, if an '.eps' file has the line '%%BoundingBox 10 20 40 80' then its natural size is 30/72 inch wide by 60/72 inch tall. 'bb' Specify the bounding box of the displayed region. The argument is four dimensions separated by spaces, as with '\includegraphics[.., bb= 0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. Usually '\includegraphics' reads the BoundingBox numbers from the EPS file automatically, so this option is only useful if the bounding box is missing from that file or if you want to change it. 'bbllx, bblly, bburx, bbury' Set the bounding box. These four are obsolete, but are retained for compatibility with old packages. 'natwidth, natheight' An alternative for 'bb'. Setting \includegraphics[...,natwidth=1in,natheight=0.618in,...]{...} is the same as setting 'bb=0 0 1in 0.618in'. 'hiresbb' If set to 'true', or just specified as with \includegraphics[...,hiresbb,...]{...} then LaTeX will look for '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines instead of '%%BoundingBox' lines. (The 'BoundingBox' lines use only natural numbers while the 'HiResBoundingBox' lines use decimals; both use units equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch.) To override a prior setting of 'true', you can set it to 'false'. These following options allow a user to override LaTeX's method of choosing the graphic type based on the filename extension. An example is that '\includegraphics[type=png,ext=.xxx,read=.xxx]{lion}' will read the file 'lion.xxx' as though it were 'lion.png'. For more on these, *note \DeclareGraphicsRule::. 'type' Specify the graphics type. 'ext' Specify the graphics extension. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. 'read' Specify the file extension of the read file. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. 'command' Specify a command to be applied to this file. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. *Note Command line options:: for a discussion of enabling the '\write18' functionality to run external commands.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \rotatebox, Next: \scalebox, Prev: \includegraphics, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.2 '\rotatebox' ------------------- Synopsis if you use the 'graphics' package: \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} Synopses if you use the 'graphicx' package: \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} \rotatebox[KEY-VALUE LIST]{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} Put MATERIAL in a box and rotate it ANGLE degrees counterclockwise. This example rotates the table column heads forty five degrees. \begin{tabular}{ll} \rotatebox{45}{Character} &\rotatebox{45}{NATO phonetic} \\ A &AL-FAH \\ B &BRAH-VOH \end{tabular} The MATERIAL can be anything that goes in a box, including a graphic. \rotatebox[origin=c]{45}{\includegraphics[width=1in]{lion}} To place the rotated material, the first step is that LaTeX sets MATERIAL in a box, with a reference point on the left baseline. The second step is the rotation, by default about the reference point. The third step is that LaTeX computes a box to bound the rotated material. Fourth, LaTeX moves this box horizontally so that the left edge of this new bounding box coincides with the left edge of the box from the first step (they need not coincide vertically). This new bounding box, in its new position, is what LaTeX uses as the box when typesetting this material. If you use the 'graphics' package then the rotation is about the reference point of the box. If you use the 'graphicx' package then these are the options that can go in the KEY-VALUE LIST, but note that you can get the same effect without needing this package, except for the 'x' and 'y' options (*note \includegraphics::). 'origin' The point of the MATERIAL's box about which the rotation happens. Possible value is any string containing one or two of: 'l' for left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top, and 'B' for baseline. Thus, the first line here \rotatebox[origin=c]{180}{moon} \rotatebox[origin=lB]{180}{LeBateau} will turn the picture upside down from the center while the second will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc' but gives the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc', and gives both in 'c'.) The default is 'lB'. 'x, y' Specify an arbitrary point of rotation with '\rotatebox[x=TeX DIMENSION,y=TeX DIMENSION]{...}' (*note Units of length::). These give the offset from the box's reference point. 'units' This key allows you to change the default of degrees counterclockwise. Setting 'units=-360' changes the direction to degrees clockwise and setting 'units=6.283185' changes to radians counterclockwise.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \scalebox, Next: \resizebox, Prev: \rotatebox, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.3 '\scalebox' ------------------ Synopses: \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}{MATERIAL} \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}[VERTICAL FACTOR]{MATERIAL} \reflectbox{MATERIAL} Scale the MATERIAL. This example halves the size, both horizontally and vertically, of the first text and doubles the size of the second. \scalebox{0.5}{DRINK ME} and \scalebox{2.0}{Eat Me} If you do not specify the optional VERTICAL FACTOR then it defaults to the same value as the HORIZONTAL FACTOR. You can use this command to resize a graphic, as here. \scalebox{0.5}{\includegraphics{lion}} If you use the 'graphicx' package then you can accomplish the same thing with optional arguments to '\includegraphics' (*note \includegraphics::). The '\reflectbox' command abbreviates '\scalebox{-1}[1]{MATERIAL}'. Thus, 'Able was I\reflectbox{Able was I}' will show the phrase 'Able was I' immediately followed by its mirror reflection.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \resizebox, Prev: \scalebox, Up: Commands for graphics 22.3.4 '\resizebox' ------------------- Synopses: \resizebox{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL} \resizebox*{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL} Given a size, such as '3cm', transform MATERIAL to make it that size. If either HORIZONTAL LENGTH or VERTICAL LENGTH is an exclamation point '!' then the other argument is used to determine a scale factor for both directions. This example makes the graphic be a half inch wide and scales it vertically by the same factor to keep it from being distorted. \resizebox{0.5in}{!}{\includegraphics{lion}} The unstarred form '\resizebox' takes VERTICAL LENGTH to be the box's height while the starred form '\resizebox*' takes it to be height+depth. For instance, make the text have a height+depth of a quarter inch with '\resizebox*{!}{0.25in}{\parbox{1in}{This box has both height and depth.}}'. You can use '\depth', '\height', '\totalheight', and '\width' to refer to the original size of the box. Thus, make the text two inches wide but keep the original height with '\resizebox{2in}{\height}{Two inches}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Special insertions, Next: Splitting the input, Prev: Graphics, Up: Top 23 Special insertions ********************* LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. * Menu: * Reserved characters:: Inserting '# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \' * Upper and lower case:: Make text upper or lower case. * Symbols by font position:: Inserting font symbols by number. * Text symbols:: Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. * Accents:: Inserting accents. * Additional Latin letters:: Inserting other non-English characters. * \rule:: Inserting lines and rectangles. * \today:: Inserting today's date.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Reserved characters, Next: Upper and lower case, Up: Special insertions 23.1 Reserved characters ======================== LaTeX sets aside the following characters for special purposes. For example, the percent sign '%' is for comments. They are called "reserved characters" or "special characters". # $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \ If you want a reserved character to be printed as itself, in the text body font, for all but the final three characters in that list simply put a backslash '\' in front of the character. Thus, typing '\$1.23' will produce '$1.23' in your output. As to the last three characters, to get a tilde in the text body font use '\~{}' (omitting the curly braces would result in the next character receiving a tilde accent). Similarly, to get a get a text body font circumflex use '\^{}'. To get a backslash in the font of the text body, enter '\textbackslash{}'. To produce the reserved characters in a typewriter font use '\verb!!' as below (the double backslash '\\' is only there to split the lines). \begin{center} \# \$ \% \& \{ \} \_ \~{} \^{} \textbackslash \\ \verb!# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \! \end{center}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Upper and lower case, Next: Symbols by font position, Prev: Reserved characters, Up: Special insertions 23.2 Upper and lower case ========================= Synopsis: \uppercase{TEXT} \lowercase{TEXT} \MakeUppercase{TEXT} \MakeLowercase{TEXT} Change the case of characters. The TeX primitives commands '\uppercase' and '\lowercase' only work for American characters. The LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' commands also change characters accessed by commands such as '\ae' or '\aa'. The commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' are robust but they have moving arguments (*note \protect::). These commands do not change the case of letters used in the name of a command within TEXT. But they do change the case of every other Latin letter inside the argument TEXT. Thus, '\MakeUppercase{Let $y=f(x)$'} produces 'LET Y=F(X)'. Another example is that the name of an environment will be changed, so that '\MakeUppercase{\begin{tabular} ... \end{tabular}}' will produce an error because the first half is changed to '\begin{TABULAR}'. LaTeX uses the same fixed table for changing case throughout a document, The table used is designed for the font encoding T1; this works well with the standard TeX fonts for all Latin alphabets but will cause problems when using other alphabets. To change the case of text that results from a macro inside TEXT you need to do expansion. Here the '\Schoolname' produces 'COLLEGE OF MATHEMATICS'. \newcommand{\schoolname}{College of Mathematics} \newcommand{\Schoolname}{\expandafter\MakeUppercase \expandafter{\schoolname}} The 'textcase' package brings some of the missing feature of the standard LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowerCase'. To uppercase only the first letter of words, you can use the package 'mfirstuc'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Symbols by font position, Next: Text symbols, Prev: Upper and lower case, Up: Special insertions 23.3 Symbols by font position ============================= You can access any character of the current font using its number with the '\symbol' command. For example, the visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'. You can also specify numbers in octal (base 8) by using a ''' prefix, or hexadecimal (base 16) with a '"' prefix, so the previous example could also be written as '\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Text symbols, Next: Accents, Prev: Symbols by font position, Up: Special insertions 23.4 Text symbols ================= LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1. Unless you are using XeLaTeX or LuaLaTeX then you may need to load the 'textcomp' package. '\copyright' '\textcopyright' (C) The copyright symbol. '\dag' U+2020 The dagger symbol (in text). '\ddag' U+2021 The double dagger symbol (in text). '\LaTeX' The LaTeX logo. '\LaTeXe' The LaTeX2e logo. '\guillemotleft (<<)' '\guillemotright (>>)' '\guilsinglleft (<)' '\guilsinglright (>)' <<, >>, <, > Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French. '\ldots' '\dots' '\textellipsis' ... An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '\ldots' and '\dots' also work in math mode. '\lq' ' Left (opening) quote. '\P' '\textparagraph' U+00B6 Paragraph sign (pilcrow). '\pounds' '\textsterling' # English pounds sterling. '\quotedblbase (,,)' '\quotesinglbase (,)' ,, and , Double and single quotation marks on the baseline. '\rq' ' Right (closing) quote. '\S' '\textsection' U+00A7 Section sign. '\TeX' The TeX logo. '\textasciicircum' ^ ASCII circumflex. '\textasciitilde' ~ ASCII tilde. '\textasteriskcentered' * Centered asterisk. '\textbackslash' \ Backslash. '\textbar' | Vertical bar. '\textbardbl' U+23F8 Double vertical bar. '\textbigcircle' U+25EF Big circle symbol. '\textbraceleft' { Left brace. '\textbraceright' } Right brace. '\textbullet' * Bullet. '\textcircled{LETTER}' U+24B6 Circle around LETTER. '\textcompwordmark' '\textcapitalcompwordmark' '\textascendercompwordmark' Used to separate letters that would normally ligature. For example, 'f\textcompwordmark i' produces 'fi' without a ligature. This is most useful in non-English languages. The '\textcapitalcompwordmark' form has the cap height of the font while the '\textascendercompwordmark' form has the ascender height. '\textdagger' U+2020 Dagger. '\textdaggerdbl' U+2021 Double dagger. '\textdollar (or '\$')' $ Dollar sign. '\textemdash (or '---')' -- Em-dash (used for punctuation, as in 'The playoffs --- if you are fortunate enough to make the playoffs --- is more like a sprint.'). '\textendash (or '--')' - En-dash (used for ranges, as in 'See pages 12--14'). '\texteuro' The Euro symbol: Euro. For an alternative glyph design, try the 'eurosym' package; also, most fonts nowadays come with their own Euro symbol (Unicode U+20AC). '\textexclamdown (or '!`')' ! Upside down exclamation point. '\textgreater' > Greater than symbol. '\textless' < Less than symbol. '\textleftarrow' U+2190 Left arrow. '\textordfeminine' '\textordmasculine' a, o Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols. '\textperiodcentered' U+00B7 Centered period. '\textquestiondown (or '?`')' ? Upside down question mark. '\textquotedblleft (or '``')' " Double left quote. '\textquotedblright (or '''')' " Double right quote. '\textquoteleft (or '`')' ' Single left quote. '\textquoteright (or ''')' ' Single right quote. '\textquotesingle' U+0027 Straight single quote. (From TS1 encoding.) '\textquotestraightbase' '\textquotestraightdblbase' Single and double straight quotes on the baseline. '\textregistered' (R) Registered symbol. '\textrightarrow' U+2192 Right arrow. '\textthreequartersemdash' U+FE58 "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\texttrademark' U+2122 Trademark symbol. '\texttwelveudash' U+FE58 "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\textunderscore' _ Underscore. '\textvisiblespace' U+2423 Visible space symbol.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Accents, Next: Additional Latin letters, Prev: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions 23.5 Accents ============ LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, through the 'babel' package and related support if you are using pdfLaTeX, or 'polyglossia' if you are using XeLaTeX or LuaLaTeX. This section does not cover that support. It only lists the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters. The '\capital...' commands shown here produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1. Below, to make them easier to find, the accents are all illustrated with lowercase 'o'. Note that '\i' produces a dotless i, and '\j' produces a dotless j. These are often used in place of their dotted counterparts when they are accented. '\"' '\capitaldieresis' o" Umlaut (dieresis). '\'' '\capitalacute' o' Acute accent. '\.' o. Dot accent. '\=' '\capitalmacron' o= Macron (overbar) accent. '\^' '\capitalcircumflex' o^ Circumflex (hat) accent. '\`' '\capitalgrave' o` Grave accent. '\~' '\capitaltilde' n~ Tilde accent. '\b' o_ Bar accent underneath. Related to this, '\underbar{TEXT}' produces a bar under TEXT. The argument is always processed in LR mode (*note Modes::). The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::. '\c' '\capitalcedilla' c, Cedilla accent underneath. '\d' '\capitaldotaccent' .o Dot accent underneath. '\H' '\capitalhungarumlaut' o'' Long Hungarian umlaut accent. '\k' '\capitalogonek' o; Ogonek. Not available in the OT1 encoding. '\r' '\capitalring' o* Ring accent. '\t' '\capitaltie' '\newtie' '\capitalnewtie' oo[ Tie-after accent. The '\newtie' form is centered in its box. '\u' '\capitalbreve' o( Breve accent. '\v' '\capitalcaron' o< Ha'c1 \) is prime if and only if the factorial of \( n-1 \) is congruent to \( -1 \) modulo~\( n \). ... \printindex ... The '\usepackage{makeidx}' and '\makeindex' in the preamble bring in the relevant commands. Producing an index is a three stage process. First, in the document body you declare index entries with the '\index' command (*note \index::). When you run LaTeX, the '\index' writes its information to an auxiliary file 'ROOT-NAME.idx'. Next, to alphabetize and to do other manipulations you run an external command, typically 'makeindex' or 'xindy' (*note makeindex::). These output a file 'ROOT-NAME.ind'. Finally, you bring the information back into your document and typeset it with the '\printindex' command (*note \printindex::). There are many packages that apply to indexing commands. The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index. The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic, . * Menu: * \index:: Declare an index entry. * makeindex:: Alphabetize index entries. * \printindex:: Put the index here.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \index, Next: makeindex, Up: Indexes 25.2.1 '\index' --------------- Synopsis: \index{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING} Declare an entry in the index. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). For example, as described in *note Indexes::, one way to get an index from what's below is to compile the document with 'pdflatex test', then process the index entries with 'makeindex test', and then compile again with 'pdflatex test'. W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann} ... Ackermann function\index{Ackermann!function} ... rate of growth\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate} All three index entries will get a page number, such as 'Ackermann, 22'. LaTeX will format the second as a subitem of the first, on the line below it and indented, and the third as a subitem of the second. Three levels deep is as far as you can nest subentries. (If you add '\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate!comparison}' then 'makeindex' says 'Scanning input file test.idx....done (4 entries accepted, 1 rejected)' and nothing appears in the index). If you enter a second '\index' with the same INDEX-ENTRY-STRING then you will get a single index entry with two page numbers (unless they happen to fall on the same page). Thus, adding 'as for Ackermann.\index{Ackermann}' later in the same document as above will give an index entry like 'Ackermann, 22, 151'. Also, you can enter the index entries in any order, so for instance '\index{Ackermann!function}' could come before '\index{Ackermann}'. Get a page range in the output, like 'Hilbert, 23--27', as here. W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann} ... D~Hilbert (1862--1943)\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\(} ... disapproved of his marriage.\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\)} If the beginning and ending of the page range are equal then the system just gives a single page entry, not a range. If you index subentries but not a main entry, as with '\index{Jones!program}' and '\index{Jones!results}', then the output is the item 'Jones' with no comma or page number, followed by two subitems, like 'program, 50' and 'results, 51'. Generate a index entry that says 'See' by using a vertical bar character: '\index{Ackermann!function|see{P\'eter's function}}'. You can instead get 'See also' with 'seealso'. (The text 'See' is defined by '\seename', and 'See also' by '\alsoname'. You can redefine these either by using an internationalization package such as 'babel' or 'polyglossia', or directly as with '\renewcommand{\alsoname}[1]{Also see #1}'.) The 'See' feature is part of a more general functionality. After the vertical bar you can put the name of a one-input command, as in '\index{group|textit}' (note the missing backslash on the '\textit' command) and the system will apply that command to the page number, here giving something like '\textit{7}'. You can define your own one-input commands, such as '\newcommand{\definedpage}[1]{{\color{blue}#1}}' and then '\index{Ackermann!function|definedpage}' will give a blue page number (*note Color::). Another, less practical, example is this, \newcommand\indexownpage[1]{#1, \thepage} ... Epimenides.\index{self-reference|indexownpage} which creates an entry citing the page number of its own index listing. The two functions just described combine, as here \index{Ackermann!function|(definedpage} ... \index{Ackermann!function|)} which outputs an index entry like 'function, 23--27' where the page number range is in blue. Consider an index entry such as 'U+03B1-ring'. Entering it as '$\alpha$-ring' will cause it to be alphabetized according to the dollar sign. You can instead enter it using an at-sign, as '\index{alpha-ring@$\alpha$-ring}'. If you specify an entry with an at-sign separating two strings, 'POS@TEXT', then POS gives the alphabetical position of the entry while TEXT produces the text of the entry. Another example is that '\index{Saint Michael's College@SMC}' produces an index entry 'SMC' alphabetized into a different location than its spelling would naturally give it. To put a '!', or '@', or '|' character in an index entry, preceding it with a double quote, '"'. (The double quote gets deleted before alphabetization.) A number of packages on CTAN have additional functionality beyond that provided by 'makeidx'. One is 'index', which allows for multiple indices and contains a command '\index*{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}' that prints the INDEX-ENTRY-STRING as well as indexing it. The '\index' command writes the indexing information to the file 'ROOT-NAME.idx' file. Specifically, it writes text of the command '\indexentry{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}{PAGE-NUM}', where PAGE-NUM is the value of the '\thepage' counter. On occasion, when the '\printindex' command is confused, you have to delete this file to start with a fresh slate. If you omit the closing brace of an '\index' command then you get a message like this. Runaway argument? {Ackermann!function ! Paragraph ended before \@wrindex was complete.  File: latex2e.info, Node: makeindex, Next: \printindex, Prev: \index, Up: Indexes 25.2.2 'makeindex' ------------------ Synopsis, one of: makeindex FILENAME makeindex -s STYLE-FILE FILENAME makeindex OPTIONS FILENAME0 ... Sort, and otherwise process, the index information in the auxiliary file FILENAME. This is a command line program. It takes one or more raw index files, 'FILENAME.idx' files, and produces the actual index file, the 'FILENAME.ind' file that is input by '\printindex' (*note \printindex::). The first form of the command suffices for many uses. The second allows you to format the index by using an "index style file", a '.isty' file. The third form is the most general; see the full documentation on CTAN. This is a simple '.isty' file. % book.isty % $ makeindex -s book.isty -p odd book.idx % creates the index as book.ind, starting on an odd page. preamble "\\pagestyle{empty} \\small \\begin{theindex} \\thispagestyle{empty}" postamble "\n \\end{theindex}" The description here covers only some of the index formatting possibilities in STYLE-FILE. For a full list see the documentation on CTAN. A style file consists of a list of pairs: SPECIFIER and ATTRIBUTE. These can appear in the file in any order. All of the ATTRIBUTES are strings, except where noted. Strings are surrounded with double quotes, '"', and the maximum length of a string is 144 characters. The '\n' is for a newline and '\t' is for a tab. Backslashes are escaped with another backslash, '\\'. If a line begins with a percent sign, '%', then it is a comment. 'preamble' Preamble of the output file. Defines the context in which the index is formatted. Default: '"\\begin{theindex}\n"'. 'postamble' Postamble of the output file. Default: '"\n\n\\end{theindex}\n"'. 'group_skip' Traditionally index items are broken into groups, typically a group for entries starting with 'a', etc. This specifier gives what is inserted when a new group begins. Default: '"\n\n \\indexspace\n"' ('\indexspace' is a rubber length with default value '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'). 'lethead_flag' An integer. It governs what is inserted for a new group or letter. If it is 0 (which is the default) then other than 'group_skip' nothing will be inserted before the group. If it is positive then at a new letter the 'lethead_prefix' and 'lethead_suffix' will be inserted, with that letter in uppercase between them. If it is negative then what will be inserted is the letter in lowercase. The default is 0. 'lethead_prefix' If a new group begins with a different letter then this is the prefix inserted before the new letter header. Default: '""' 'lethead_suffix' If a group begins with a different letter then this is the suffix inserted after the new letter header. Default: '""'. 'item_0' What is put between two level 0 items. Default: '"\n \\item "'. 'item_1' Put between two level 1 items. Default: '"\n \\subitem "'. 'item_2' put between two level 2 items. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'. 'item_01' What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item. Default: '"\n \\subitem "'. 'item_x1' What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item in the case that the level 0 item doesn't have any page numbers (as in '\index{aaa|see{bbb}}'). Default: '"\n \\subitem "'. 'item_12' What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'. 'item_x2' What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item, if the level 1 item doesn't have page numbers. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'. 'delim_0' Delimiter put between a level 0 key and its first page number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_1' Delimiter put between a level 1 key and its first page number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_2' Delimiter between a level 2 key and its first page number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_n' Delimiter between two page numbers for the same key (at any level). Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_r' What is put between the starting and ending page numbers of a range. Default: '"--"'. 'line_max' An integer. Maximum length of an index entry's line in the output, beyond which the line wraps. Default: '72'. 'indent_space' What is inserted at the start of a wrapped line. Default: '"\t\t"'. 'indent_length' A number. The length of the wrapped line indentation. The default 'indent_space' is two tabs and each tab is eight spaces so the default here is '16'. 'page_precedence' A document may have pages numbered in different ways. For example, a book may have front matter pages numbered in lowercase roman while main matter pages are in arabic. This string specifies the order in which they will appear in the index. The 'makeindex' command supports five different types of numerals: lowercase roman 'r', and numeric or arabic 'n', and lowercase alphabetic 'a', and uppercase roman 'R', and uppercase alphabetic 'A'. Default: '"rnaRA"'. There are a number of other programs that do the job 'makeindex' does. One is 'xindy', which does internationalization and can process indexes for documents marked up using LaTeX and a number of other languages. It is highly configurable, both in markup terms and in terms of the collating order of the text, as described in its documentation.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \printindex, Prev: makeindex, Up: Indexes 25.2.3 '\printindex' -------------------- Synopsis: \printindex Place the index into the output. To get an index you must first include '\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex' in the document preamble and compile the document, then run the system command 'makeindex', and then compile the document again. *Note Indexes:: for further discussion and an example of the use of '\printindex'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Glossaries, Prev: Indexes, Up: Front/back matter 25.3 Glossaries =============== Synopsis: \usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries ... \newglossaryentry{LABEL}{SETTINGS} ... \gls{LABEL}. ... \printglossaries The 'glossaries' package allows you to make glossaries, including multiple glossaries, as well as lists of acronyms. To get the output from this example, compile the document (for instance with 'pdflatex filename'), then run the command line command 'makeglossaries filename', and then compile the document again. \documentclass{...} \usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries \newglossaryentry{tm}{% name={Turing machine}, description={A model of a machine that computes. The model is simple but can compute anything any existing device can compute. It is the standard model used in Computer Science.}, } \begin{document} Everything begins with the definition of a \gls{tm}. ... \printglossaries \end{document} That gives two things. In the main text it outputs '... definition of a Turing machine'. In addition, in a separate sectional unit headed 'Glossary' there appears a description list. In boldface it says 'Turing machine' and the rest of the item says in normal type 'A model of a machine ... Computer Science'. The command '\makeglossary' opens the file that will contain the entry information, 'ROOT-FILE.glo'. Put the '\printglossaries' command where you want the glossaries to appear in your document. The 'glossaries' package is very powerful. For instance, besides the commands '\newglossaryentry' and '\gls', there are similar commands for a list of acronyms. See the package documentations on CTAN. * Menu: * \newglossaryentry:: Declare the content of a glossary entry. * \gls:: Give a page reference for a glossary entry.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \newglossaryentry, Next: \gls, Up: Glossaries 25.3.1 '\newglossaryentry' -------------------------- Synopsis, one of: \newglossaryentry{LABEL} { name={NAME}, description={DESCRIPTION}, OTHER OPTIONS, ... } or \longnewglossaryentry{LABEL} { name={NAME}, OTHER OPTIONS ..., } {DESCRIPTION} Declare a new entry for a glossary. The LABEL must be unique for the document. The settings associated with the label are pairs: 'KEY=VALUE'. This puts the blackboard bold symbol for the real numbers U+211D in the glossary. \newglossaryentry{R} { name={\ensuremath{\mathbb{R}}}, description={the real numbers}, } Use the second command form if the DESCRIPTION spans more than one paragraph. For a full list of KEYs see the package documentation on CTAN but here are a few. 'name' (Required.) The word, phrase, or symbol that you are defining. 'description' (Required.) The description that will appear in the glossary. If this has more than one paragraph then you must use the second command form given in the synopsis. 'plural' The plural form of NAME. Refer to the plural form using '\glspl' or '\Glspl' (*note \gls::). 'sort' How to place this entry in the list of entries that the glossary holds. 'symbol' A symbol, such as a mathematical symbol, besides the name.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \gls, Prev: \newglossaryentry, Up: Glossaries 25.3.2 '\gls' ------------- Synopsis, one of: \gls{LABEL} \glspl{LABEL} \Gls{LABEL} \Glspl{LABEL} Refer to a glossary entry. The entries are declared with '\newglossaryentry' (*note \newglossaryentry::). This \newglossaryentry{N}{% name={the natural numbers}, description={The numbers $0$, $1$, $2$, $\ldots$\@}, symbol={\ensuremath{\mathbb{N}}}, } ... Consider \gls{N}. gives the output 'Consider the natural numbers'. The second command form '\glspl{LABEL}' produces the plural of NAME (by default it tries adding an 's'). The third form capitalizes the first letter of NAME, as does the fourth form, which also takes the plural.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Letters, Next: Terminal input/output, Prev: Front/back matter, Up: Top 26 Letters ********** Synopsis: \documentclass{letter} \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} % return address \signature{SENDER NAME} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS} \opening{SALUTATION} LETTER BODY \closing{CLOSING TEXT} \end{letter} ... \end{document} Produce one or more letters. Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double backslash, ('\\'). For example, you might have: \begin{letter}{Ninon de l'Enclos \\ l'h\^otel Sagonne} ... \end{letter} The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1, and the footnote number to 1 also. The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines separated by a double backslash ('\\'). LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature. Each 'letter' environment body begins with a required '\opening' command such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'. The LETTER BODY text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each 'letter' environment body typically ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'. Additional material may come after the '\closing'. You can say who is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}'. There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'. LaTeX's default is to indent the sender name and the closing above it by a length of '\longindentation'. By default this is '0.5\textwidth'. To make them flush left, put '\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your preamble. To set a fixed date use something like '\renewcommand{\today}{1958-Oct-12}'. If put in your preamble then it will apply to all the letters. This example shows only one 'letter' environment. The three lines marked as optional are typically omitted. \documentclass{letter} \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town} \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title} % optional: \location{Mailbox 13} % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address} \opening{Sir:} % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage} I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you. \closing{Your most humble, etc.,} \end{letter} \end{document} These commands are used with the 'letter' class. * Menu: * \address:: Sender's return address. * \cc:: Carbon copy list. * \closing:: Saying goodbye. * \encl:: List of enclosed material. * \location:: Sender's organizational location. * \makelabels:: Make address labels. * \name:: Sender's name, for the return address. * \opening:: Saying hello. * \ps:: Adding a postscript. * \signature:: Sender's signature. * \telephone:: Sender's phone number.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \address, Next: \cc, Up: Letters 26.1 '\address' =============== Synopsis: \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} Specify the return address, as it appears on the letter and on the envelope. Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double backslash, '\\'. Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an individual 'letter' environment. This command is optional: if you do not use it then the letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed letterhead paper. If you do use the '\address' declaration then it is formatted as a personal letter. Here is an example. \address{Stephen Maturin \\ The Grapes of the Savoy}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \cc, Next: \closing, Prev: \address, Up: Letters 26.2 '\cc' ========== Synopsis: \cc{NAME0 \\ ... } Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after '\closing'. Put the names on different lines by separating them with a double backslash, '\\', as in: \cc{President \\ Vice President}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \closing, Next: \encl, Prev: \cc, Up: Letters 26.3 '\closing' =============== Synopsis: \closing{TEXT} Produce the letter's closing. This is optional, but usual. It appears at the end of a letter, above a handwritten signature. For example: \closing{Regards,}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \encl, Next: \location, Prev: \closing, Up: Letters 26.4 '\encl' ============ Synopsis: \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\ ... } Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, '\\'. \encl{License \\ Passport}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \location, Next: \makelabels, Prev: \encl, Up: Letters 26.5 '\location' ================ Synopsis: \location{TEXT} The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the page. It only appears if the page style is 'firstpage'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \makelabels, Next: \name, Prev: \location, Up: Letters 26.6 '\makelabels' ================== Synopsis: \makelabels % in preamble Optional, for a document that contains 'letter' environments. If you just put '\makelabels' in the preamble then at the end of the document you will get a sheet with labels for all the recipients, one for each letter environment, that you can copy to a sheet of peel-off address labels. Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels', '\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' (and perhaps '\name') in the preamble. The command '\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed. The command '\mlabel{RETURN ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the RETURN ADDRESS) for each letter environment. The first argument, RETURN ADDRESS, is the value returned by the macro '\returnaddress'. The second argument, RECIPIENT ADDRESS, is the value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment. By default '\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the RETURN ADDRESS, causing the default behavior described in the prior paragraph. This illustrates customization. Its output includes a page with two columns having two labels each. \documentclass{letter} \renewcommand*{\returnaddress}{Fred McGuilicuddy \\ Oshkosh, Mineola 12305} \newcommand*\originalMlabel{} \let\originalMlabel\mlabel \def\mlabel#1#2{\originalMlabel{}{#1}\originalMlabel{}{#2}} \makelabels ... \begin{document} \begin{letter}{A Einstein \\ 112 Mercer Street \\ Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540} ... \end{letter} \begin{letter}{K G\"odel \\ 145 Linden Lane \\ Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540} ... \end{letter} \end{document} The first column contains the return address twice. The second column contains the address for each recipient. The package 'envlab' makes formatting the labels easier, with standard sizes already provided. The preamble lines '\usepackage[personalenvelope]{envlab}' and '\makelabels' are all that you need to print envelopes.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \name, Next: \opening, Prev: \makelabels, Up: Letters 26.7 '\name' ============ Synopsis: \name{NAME} Optional. Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \opening, Next: \ps, Prev: \name, Up: Letters 26.8 '\opening' =============== Synopsis: \opening{SALUTATION} Required. Follows the '\begin{letter}{...}'. The argument SALUTATION is mandatory. For instance: \opening{Dear John:}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \ps, Next: \signature, Prev: \opening, Up: Letters 26.9 '\ps' ========== Synopsis: \ps{TEXT} Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after '\closing'. \ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}  File: latex2e.info, Node: \signature, Next: \telephone, Prev: \ps, Up: Letters 26.10 '\signature' ================== Synopsis: \signature{FIRST LINE \\ ... } The sender's name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual. The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing. LaTeX leaves some vertical space for a handwritten signature. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, '\\'. For example: \signature{J Fred Muggs \\ White House} LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times '\medskipamount' (where '\medskipamount' is equal to a '\parskip', which in turn is defined by default here to 0.7em). This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a 'letter' environment and before the '\closing'. You can include a graphic in the signature as here. \signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My name} For this you must put '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble (*note Graphics::).  File: latex2e.info, Node: \telephone, Prev: \signature, Up: Letters 26.11 '\telephone' ================== Synopsis: \telephone{NUMBER} The sender's telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where it applies to all letters. This only appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the page.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Terminal input/output, Next: Command line, Prev: Letters, Up: Top 27 Terminal input/output ************************ * Menu: * \typein:: Read text from the terminal. * \typeout:: Write text to the terminal.  File: latex2e.info, Node: \typein, Next: \typeout, Up: Terminal input/output 27.1 '\typein' ============== Synopsis, one of: \typein{PROMPT-MSG} \typein[CMD]{PROMPT-MSG} Print PROMPT-MSG on the terminal and cause LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a line of input. This line of input ends when you hit the return key. For example, this As long as I live I shall never forget \typein{Enter student name:} coupled with this command line interaction Enter student name: \@typein=Aphra Behn gives the output '... never forget Aphra Behn'. The first command version, '\typein{PROMPT-MSG}', causes the input you typed to be processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command. In the second command version the optional argument 'CMD' argument must be a command name -- it must begin with a backslash, \. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the input that you typed. For example, this \typein[\student]{Enter student name:} \typeout{Recommendation for \student .} gives this output on the command line, Enter student name: \student=John Dee Recommendation for John Dee. where the user has entered 'John Dee.'  File: latex2e.info, Node: \typeout, Prev: \typein, Up: Terminal input/output 27.2 '\typeout' =============== Synopsis: \typeout{MSG} Print 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file. This \newcommand{\student}{John Dee} \typeout{Recommendation for \student .} outputs 'Recommendation for John Dee'. Like what happens here with '\student', commands that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. As above, use the command '\space' to get a single space, independent of surrounding spaces. Use '^^J' to get a newline. Get a percent character with '\csname @percentchar\endcsname'. This command can be useful for simple debugging, as here: \newlength{\jhlength} \setlength{\jhlength}{5pt} \typeout{The length is \the\jhlength.} produces on the command line 'The length is 5.0pt'.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line, Next: Document templates, Prev: Terminal input/output, Up: Top 28 Command line *************** Synopsis (from a terminal command line): pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT Run LaTeX on ARGUMENT. In place of 'pdflatex' you can also use 'xelatex', or 'lualatex', or 'dviluatex', or 'latex'. For example, this will run LaTeX on the file 'thesis.tex', creating the output 'thesis.pdf'. pdflatex thesis Note that '.tex' is the default file extension. pdfTeX is a development of the original TeX program, as are XeTeX and LuaTeX (*note TeX engines::). They are completely backward compatible. But the original program had a custom output format, DVI, while the newer ones can output directly to PDF. This allows them to take advantage of the extra features in PDF such as hyperlinks, support for modern image formats such as JPG and PNG, and ubiquitous viewing programs. In short, if you run 'pdflatex' or 'xelatex' or 'lualatex' then you will by default get PDF and have access to all its modern features. If you run 'latex', or 'dvilualatex', then you will get DVI. The description here assumes pdfLaTeX. *Note Command line options::, for a selection of the most useful command line options. As to ARGUMENT, the usual case is that it does not begin with a backslash, so the system takes it to be the name of a file and it compiles that file. If ARGUMENT begins with a backslash then the system will interpret it as a line of LaTeX input, which can be used for special effects (*note Command line input::). If you gave no arguments or options then 'pdflatex' prompts for input from the terminal. You can escape from this by entering '-D'. If LaTeX finds an error in your document then by default it stops and asks you about it. *Note Recovering from errors:: for an outline of what to do. * Menu: * Command line options:: Read text from the terminal. * Command line input:: Write text to the terminal. * Recovering from errors:: When something goes wrong.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line options, Next: Command line input, Up: Command line 28.1 Command line options ========================= These are the command-line options relevant to ordinary document authoring. For a full list, try running 'latex --help' from the command line. With many implementations you can specify command line options by prefixing them with '-' or '--'. This is the case for both TeX Live (and MacTeX) and MiKTeX. We will use both conventions interchangeably. '-version' Show the current version, like 'pdfTeX 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.16 (TeX Live 2015/Debian)' along with a small amount of additional information, and exit. '-help' Give a brief usage message that is useful as a prompt and exit. '-interaction=MODE' TeX compiles a document in one of four interaction modes: 'batchmode', 'nonstopmode', 'scrollmode', 'errorstopmode'. In "errorstop mode" (the default), TeX stops at each error and asks for user intervention. In "batch mode" it prints nothing on the terminal, errors are scrolled as if the user hit '' at every error, and missing files cause the job to abort. In "nonstop mode", diagnostic message appear on the terminal but as in batch mode there is no user interaction. In "scroll mode", TeX only stops for missing files or keyboard input. For instance, starting LaTeX with this command line pdflatex -interaction=batchmode FILENAME eliminates most terminal output. '-jobname=STRING' Set the value of TeX's 'jobname' to the string. The log file and output file will then be named 'STRING.log' and 'STRING.pdf'. When you run 'pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT', if ARGUMENT does not start with a backslash then TeX considers it the name of a file to input. Otherwise it waits for the first '\input' instruction and the name of the input file will be the job name. This is used to name the log file the output file. The 'jobname' option overrides that process and directly specifies the name. *Note Command line input:: for an example of its use. '-output-directory=DIRECTORY' Write files in the directory DIRECTORY. It must already exist. '--shell-escape' '--no-shell-escape' '--enable-write18' '--disable-write18' Enable or disable '\write18{SHELL COMMAND}'. The first two options are for with TeX Live or MacTeX while the second two are for MiKTeX. Sometimes you want to run external system commands from inside a LaTeX file. For instance the package 'sagetex' allows you to have the mathematics software system Sage do calculations or draw graphs and then incorporate that output in your document. For this TeX provides the '\write18' command. But with this functionality enabled, security issues could happen if you compiled a LaTeX file from the Internet. By default '\write18' is disabled. (More precisely, by default TeX Live, MacTeX, and MiKTeX only allow the execution of a limited number of TeX-related programs, which they distribute.) If you invoke LaTeX with the option 'no-shell-escape', and in your document you call '\write18{ls -l}', then you do not get an error but the log file says 'runsystem(ls -l)...disabled'. '-halt-on-error' Stop processing at the first error. '-file-line-error' '-no-file-line-error' Enable or disable 'FILENAME:LINENO:ERROR'-style error messages. These are only available with TeX Live or MacTeX.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line input, Next: Recovering from errors, Prev: Command line options, Up: Command line 28.2 Command line input ======================= As part of the command line invocation 'pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT' you can specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting ARGUMENT with a backslash. This allows you to do some special effects. For example, this file (which uses the 'hyperref' package for hyperlinks) can produce two kinds of output, one for paper and one for a PDF. \ifdefined\paperversion % in preamble \newcommand{\urlcolor}{black} \else \newcommand{\urlcolor}{blue} \fi \usepackage[colorlinks=true,urlcolor=\urlcolor]{hyperref} ... \href{https://www.ctan.org}{CTAN} % in body ... Compiling this document 'book.tex' with the command line 'pdflatex book' will give the 'CTAN' link in blue. But compiling it with 'pdflatex "\def\paperversion{}\input book.tex"' has the link in black. (Note the use of double quotes to prevent interpretation of the symbols by the command line shell; your system may do this differently.) In a similar way, from the single file 'main.tex' you can compile two different versions. pdflatex -jobname=students "\def\student{}\input{main}" pdflatex -jobname=teachers "\def\teachers{}\input{main}" The 'jobname' option is there because otherwise both files would be called 'main.pdf' and the second would overwrite the first. A final example. This loads the package 'graphicx' with the option 'draft' pdflatex -jobname=aa "\RequirePackage[draft]{graphicx}\input{aa.tex}" so the graphic files are read for their size information but not incorporated into the PDF. (The 'jobname' option is there because otherwise the output file would be 'graphicx.pdf', as '\RequirePackage' does an '\input' of its own.)  File: latex2e.info, Node: Recovering from errors, Prev: Command line input, Up: Command line 28.3 Recovering from errors =========================== If LaTeX finds an error in your document then it gives you an error message and prompts you with a question mark, '?'. For instance, running LaTeX on this file \newcommand{\NP}{\ensuremath{\textbf{NP}}} The \PN{} problem is a million dollar one. causes it show this, and wait for input. ! Undefined control sequence. l.5 The \PN {} problem is a million dollar one. ? The simplest thing is to enter 'x' and '' and fix the typo. You could instead enter '?' and '' to see other options. There are two other error scenarios. The first is that you forgot to include the '\end{document}' or misspelled it. In this case LaTeX gives you a '*' prompt. You can get back to the command line by typing '\stop' and ''. The last scenario is that you mistyped the file name. For instance, instead of 'pdflatex test' you might type 'pdflatex tste'. ! I can't find file `tste'. <*> tste (Press Enter to retry, or Control-D to exit) Please type another input file name: The simplest thing is to enter '' and 'd' (holding them down at the same time), and then retype the correct command line.  File: latex2e.info, Node: Document templates, Next: Index, Prev: Command line, Up: Top Appendix A Document templates ***************************** Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at . * Menu: * beamer template:: * article template:: * book template:: * Larger book template:: * tugboat template::  File: latex2e.info, Node: beamer template, Next: article template, Up: Document templates A.1 'beamer' template ===================== The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template: \documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2007} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document} One web resource for this: .  File: latex2e.info, Node: article template, Next: book template, Prev: beamer template, Up: Document templates A.2 'article' template ====================== \documentclass{article} \title{Article Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \section{First section} Some text. \subsection{First section, first subsection} Additional text. \section{Second section} Some more text. \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: book template, Next: Larger book template, Prev: article template, Up: Document templates A.3 'book' template =================== This is a straightforward template for a book. See *Note Larger book template:: for a more elaborate one. \documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Larger book template, Next: tugboat template, Prev: book template, Up: Document templates A.4 Larger 'book' template ========================== This is a more elaborate template for a book. It has '\frontmatter', '\mainmatter', and '\backmatter' to control the typography of the three main areas of a book (*note \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter::). The book has a bibliography and an index. Notable is that it uses '\include' and '\includeonly' (*note Splitting the input::). While you are working on a chapter you can comment out all the other chapter entries from the argument to '\includeonly'. That will speed up compilation without losing any information such as cross-references. (Material that does not need to come on a new page is brought in with '\input' instead of '\include'. You don't get the cross-reference benefit this way.) \documentclass[titlepage]{book} \usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \includeonly{% frontcover, preface, chap1, ... } \begin{document} \frontmatter \include{frontcover} % maybe comment out while drafting: \maketitle \input{dedication} \input{copyright} \tableofcontents \include{preface} \mainmatter \include{chap1} ... \appendix \include{appena} ... \backmatter \bibliographystyle{apalike} \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Bibliography} \bibliography \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Index} \printindex \include{backcover} \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: tugboat template, Prev: Larger book template, Up: Document templates A.5 'tugboat' template ====================== 'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group, . \documentclass{ltugboat} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{ifpdf} \ifpdf \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref} \else \usepackage{url} \fi %%% Start of metadata %%% \title{Example \TUB\ article} % repeat info for each author. \author{First Last} \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} \netaddress{user (at) example dot org} \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} %%% End of metadata %%% \begin{document} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This is an example article for \TUB{}. Please write an abstract. \end{abstract} \section{Introduction} This is an example article for \TUB, linked from \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the \texttt{hyperref} package if active urls are desired (in the \acro{PDF} output). Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively. The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations (and many more): % verbatim blocks are often better in \small \begin{verbatim}[\small] \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe \mf \MFB \plain \POBox \PS \SGML \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG \tug \UNIX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE \, \bull \Dash \dash \hyph \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use! \cs{fred} -> \fred \meta{fred} -> \nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 \booktitle{Book of Fred} \end{verbatim} For references to other \TUB\ issue, please use the format \textsl{volno:issno}, e.g., ``\TUB\ 32:1'' for our \nth{100} issue. This file is just a template. The \TUB\ style documentation is the \texttt{ltubguid} document at \url{http://ctan.org/pkg/tugboat}. (For \CTAN\ references, where sensible we recommend that form of url, using \texttt{/pkg/}; or, if you need to refer to a specific file location, \texttt{http://mirror.ctan.org/\textsl{path}}.) Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. \bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style \nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty \bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX \makesignature \end{document}  File: latex2e.info, Node: Index, Prev: Document templates, Up: Top Index ***** [index] * Menu: * &: tabular. (line 32) * * prompt: Recovering from errors. (line 23) * *-form of environment commands: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 27) * *-form of sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 31) * *-form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 25) * --disable-write18 command-line option: Command line options. (line 54) * --enable-write18 command-line option: Command line options. (line 54) * --file-line-error command-line option: Command line options. (line 81) * --halt-on-error command-line option: Command line options. (line 78) * --help command-line option: Command line options. (line 19) * --interaction command-line option: Command line options. (line 22) * --jobname command-line option: Command line options. (line 39) * --no-file-line-error command-line option: Command line options. (line 81) * --no-shell-escape command-line option: Command line options. (line 54) * --output-directory command-line option: Command line options. (line 51) * --shell-escape command-line option: Command line options. (line 54) * --version command-line option: Command line options. (line 14) * .aux file: Output files. (line 33) * .dvi file: Output files. (line 10) * .glo file: Glossaries. (line 43) * .idx file: Indexes. (line 6) * .idx file <1>: makeindex. (line 6) * .ind file: makeindex. (line 6) * .isty file: makeindex. (line 18) * .lof file: Output files. (line 43) * .lof file <1>: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * .log file: Output files. (line 28) * .lot file: Output files. (line 43) * .lot file <1>: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * .pdf file: Output files. (line 20) * .tex, default extension: Command line. (line 18) * .toc file: Output files. (line 43) * .toc file <1>: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * .xdv file: TeX engines. (line 39) * 10pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * 11pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * 12pt option: Document class options. (line 14) * :: Colon character & \colon. (line 6) * : <1>: Colon character & \colon. (line 6) * [...] for optional arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * \ character starting commands: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * \!: Spacing in math mode. (line 46) * \" (umlaut accent): Accents. (line 23) * \#: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \$: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \%: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \&: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \' (acute accent): Accents. (line 27) * \' (tabbing): tabbing. (line 87) * \*: \*. (line 6) * \+: tabbing. (line 79) * \,: Spacing in math mode. (line 32) * \-: tabbing. (line 83) * \- (hyphenation): \- (hyphenation). (line 6) * \. (dot-over accent): Accents. (line 30) * \/: \/. (line 6) * \:: Spacing in math mode. (line 28) * \;: Spacing in math mode. (line 23) * \<: tabbing. (line 75) * \= (macron accent): Accents. (line 34) * \= (tabbing): tabbing. (line 69) * \>: tabbing. (line 73) * \> <1>: Spacing in math mode. (line 28) * \> (tabbing): tabbing. (line 72) * \@: \@. (line 6) * \@beginparpenalty: list. (line 241) * \@endparpenalty: list. (line 249) * \@fnsymbol: \footnote. (line 24) * \@ifstar: \@ifstar. (line 6) * \@itempenalty: list. (line 245) * \@startsection: \@startsection. (line 6) * \a (tabbing): tabbing. (line 102) * \a' (acute accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 103) * \a= (macron accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 103) * \aa (aa): Additional Latin letters. (line 12) * \AA (AA): Additional Latin letters. (line 12) * \acute: Math accents. (line 10) * \addcontentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 6) * \address: \address. (line 6) * \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: \addtocontents. (line 6) * \addtocounter: \addtocounter. (line 6) * \addtolength: \addtolength. (line 6) * \addvspace: \addvspace. (line 6) * \ae (ae): Additional Latin letters. (line 16) * \AE (AE): Additional Latin letters. (line 16) * \aleph: Math symbols. (line 21) * \Alph example: enumerate. (line 61) * \alpha: Math symbols. (line 24) * \alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 14) * \Alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 19) * \alsoname: \index. (line 56) * \amalg: Math symbols. (line 27) * \and for \author: \maketitle. (line 43) * \angle: Math symbols. (line 30) * \appendix: \appendix. (line 6) * \approx: Math symbols. (line 35) * \arabic{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 24) * \arccos: Math functions. (line 9) * \arcsin: Math functions. (line 12) * \arctan: Math functions. (line 15) * \arg: Math functions. (line 18) * \arraycolsep: array. (line 51) * \arrayrulewidth: tabular. (line 157) * \arraystretch: tabular. (line 163) * \ast: Math symbols. (line 38) * \asymp: Math symbols. (line 47) * \AtBeginDocument: \AtBeginDocument. (line 6) * \AtBeginDvi: Class and package commands. (line 9) * \AtEndDocument: \AtEndDocument. (line 6) * \AtEndOfClass: Class and package commands. (line 14) * \AtEndOfPackage: Class and package commands. (line 14) * \author{NAME1 \and NAME2 \and ...}: \maketitle. (line 42) * \a` (grave accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 103) * \b (bar-under accent): Accents. (line 49) * \backmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * \backslash: Math symbols. (line 50) * \bar: Math accents. (line 13) * \baselineskip: Low-level font commands. (line 101) * \baselinestretch: Low-level font commands. (line 111) * \begin: Environments. (line 6) * \beta: Math symbols. (line 54) * \bf: Font styles. (line 74) * \bfseries: Font styles. (line 39) * \bibitem: \bibitem. (line 6) * \bibliography: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * \bibliographystyle: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * \bigcap: Math symbols. (line 57) * \bigcirc: Math symbols. (line 61) * \bigcup: Math symbols. (line 65) * \bigodot: Math symbols. (line 69) * \bigoplus: Math symbols. (line 72) * \bigotimes: Math symbols. (line 75) * \bigskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 28) * \bigskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 29) * \bigsqcup: Math symbols. (line 86) * \bigtriangledown: Math symbols. (line 78) * \bigtriangleup: Math symbols. (line 82) * \biguplus: Math symbols. (line 89) * \bigvee: Math symbols. (line 93) * \bigwedge: Math symbols. (line 96) * \bmod: Math functions. (line 21) * \boldmath: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 6) * \boldmath <1>: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 14) * \bot: Math symbols. (line 99) * \bottomfraction: Floats. (line 94) * \bottomfraction <1>: Floats. (line 95) * \bowtie: Math symbols. (line 104) * \Box: Math symbols. (line 107) * \breve: Math accents. (line 16) * \bullet: Math symbols. (line 112) * \c (cedilla accent): Accents. (line 59) * \cal: Font styles. (line 77) * \cap: Math symbols. (line 115) * \capitalacute: Accents. (line 27) * \capitalbreve: Accents. (line 85) * \capitalcaron: Accents. (line 89) * \capitalcedilla: Accents. (line 59) * \capitalcircumflex: Accents. (line 38) * \capitaldieresis: Accents. (line 23) * \capitaldotaccent: Accents. (line 63) * \capitalgrave: Accents. (line 42) * \capitalhungarumlaut: Accents. (line 67) * \capitalmacron: Accents. (line 34) * \capitalnewtie: Accents. (line 81) * \capitalogonek: Accents. (line 71) * \capitalring: Accents. (line 75) * \capitaltie: Accents. (line 81) * \capitaltilde: Accents. (line 46) * \caption: figure. (line 44) * \caption <1>: table. (line 44) * \cc: \cc. (line 6) * \cdot: Math symbols. (line 120) * \cdots: Dots. (line 17) * \centering: \centering. (line 6) * \chapter: Sectioning. (line 6) * \chapter <1>: \chapter. (line 6) * \check: Math accents. (line 19) * \CheckCommand: Class and package commands. (line 21) * \CheckCommand*: Class and package commands. (line 21) * \chi: Math symbols. (line 123) * \circ: Math symbols. (line 126) * \circle: \circle. (line 6) * \cite: \cite. (line 6) * \ClassError: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassInfo: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassInfoNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassWarning: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \ClassWarningNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \cleardoublepage: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * \clearpage: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * \cline: \cline. (line 6) * \closing: \closing. (line 6) * \clubsuit: Math symbols. (line 131) * \colon: Colon character & \colon. (line 6) * \columnsep: \twocolumn. (line 20) * \columnsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * \columnsep <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 9) * \columnseprule: \twocolumn. (line 26) * \columnseprule <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 7) * \columnseprule <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 9) * \columnwidth: \twocolumn. (line 33) * \columnwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 8) * \columnwidth <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 9) * \complement: Math symbols. (line 134) * \cong: Math symbols. (line 140) * \contentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 10) * \coprod: Math symbols. (line 143) * \copyright: Text symbols. (line 11) * \cos: Math functions. (line 24) * \cosh: Math functions. (line 27) * \cot: Math functions. (line 30) * \coth: Math functions. (line 33) * \csc: Math functions. (line 36) * \cup: Math symbols. (line 146) * \CurrentOption: Class and package commands. (line 60) * \d (dot-under accent): Accents. (line 63) * \dag: Text symbols. (line 15) * \dagger: Math symbols. (line 151) * \dashbox: \dashbox. (line 6) * \dashv: Math symbols. (line 154) * \date{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 50) * \day: \day & \month & \year. (line 6) * \dblfloatpagefraction: \twocolumn. (line 66) * \dblfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 72) * \dbltextfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 79) * \dbltopfraction: \twocolumn. (line 45) * \dbltopnumber: \twocolumn. (line 84) * \ddag: Text symbols. (line 18) * \ddagger: Math symbols. (line 158) * \ddot: Math accents. (line 22) * \ddots: Dots. (line 21) * \DeclareGraphicsExtensions: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions. (line 6) * \DeclareGraphicsRule: \DeclareGraphicsRule. (line 6) * \DeclareOption: Class and package commands. (line 66) * \DeclareOption*: Class and package commands. (line 66) * \DeclareRobustCommand: Class and package commands. (line 96) * \DeclareRobustCommand*: Class and package commands. (line 96) * \deg: Math functions. (line 39) * \Delta: Math symbols. (line 161) * \delta: Math symbols. (line 164) * \det: Math functions. (line 42) * \dh (d): Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * \DH (D): Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * \Diamond: Math symbols. (line 167) * \diamond: Math symbols. (line 171) * \diamondsuit: Math symbols. (line 175) * \dim: Math functions. (line 45) * \displaystyle: Math formulas. (line 61) * \div: Math symbols. (line 178) * \dj: Additional Latin letters. (line 26) * \DJ: Additional Latin letters. (line 26) * \documentclass: Document classes. (line 6) * \dot: Math accents. (line 25) * \doteq: Math symbols. (line 181) * \dotfill: \hrulefill & \dotfill. (line 6) * \dots: Text symbols. (line 35) * \doublerulesep: tabular. (line 168) * \downarrow: Math symbols. (line 185) * \Downarrow: Math symbols. (line 189) * \ell: Math symbols. (line 193) * \emph: Font styles. (line 59) * \emptyset: Math symbols. (line 196) * \encl: \encl. (line 6) * \end: Environments. (line 6) * \endinput: \endinput. (line 6) * \enlargethispage: \enlargethispage. (line 6) * \enspace: \enspace & \quad & \qquad. (line 6) * \enumi: enumerate. (line 47) * \enumii: enumerate. (line 47) * \enumiii: enumerate. (line 47) * \enumiv: enumerate. (line 47) * \epsilon: Math symbols. (line 200) * \equiv: Math symbols. (line 206) * \eta: Math symbols. (line 209) * \evensidemargin: Document class options. (line 84) * \evensidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 67) * \evensidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 68) * \ExecuteOptions: Class and package commands. (line 172) * \exists: Math symbols. (line 212) * \exp: Math functions. (line 48) * \extracolsep: tabular. (line 108) * \fbox: \fbox & \framebox. (line 6) * \fboxrule: \framebox (picture). (line 31) * \fboxrule <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 39) * \fboxrule <2>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 38) * \fboxsep: \framebox (picture). (line 31) * \fboxsep <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 44) * \fboxsep <2>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 43) * \fill: \hfill. (line 18) * \flat: Math symbols. (line 215) * \floatpagefraction: Floats. (line 98) * \floatpagefraction <1>: Floats. (line 99) * \floatsep: Floats. (line 114) * \floatsep <1>: Floats. (line 115) * \flushbottom: \flushbottom. (line 6) * \fnsymbol, and footnotes: \footnote. (line 24) * \fnsymbol{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 37) * \fontencoding: Low-level font commands. (line 11) * \fontfamily: Low-level font commands. (line 21) * \fontseries: Low-level font commands. (line 48) * \fontshape: Low-level font commands. (line 88) * \fontsize: Low-level font commands. (line 101) * \footnote: \footnote. (line 6) * \footnotemark: \footnotemark. (line 6) * \footnoterule: \footnote. (line 34) * \footnotesep: \footnote. (line 46) * \footnotesize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \footnotetext: \footnotetext. (line 6) * \footskip: Page layout parameters. (line 26) * \footskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 27) * \forall: Math symbols. (line 218) * \frac: \frac. (line 6) * \frame: \frame. (line 6) * \framebox: \framebox (picture). (line 6) * \framebox <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 6) * \frenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 6) * \frontmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * \frown: Math symbols. (line 221) * \fussy: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6) * \Gamma: Math symbols. (line 224) * \gamma: Math symbols. (line 227) * \gcd: Math functions. (line 51) * \ge: Math symbols. (line 230) * \geq: Math symbols. (line 234) * \gets: Math symbols. (line 238) * \gg: Math symbols. (line 241) * \gls: \gls. (line 6) * \graphicspath: \graphicspath. (line 6) * \graphpaper: \graphpaper. (line 6) * \grave: Math accents. (line 28) * \guillemotleft (<<): Text symbols. (line 27) * \guillemotright (>>): Text symbols. (line 28) * \guilsinglleft (<): Text symbols. (line 29) * \guilsinglright (>): Text symbols. (line 30) * \H (Hungarian umlaut accent): Accents. (line 67) * \hat: Math accents. (line 31) * \hbar: Math symbols. (line 245) * \headheight: Page layout parameters. (line 14) * \headheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 15) * \headsep: Page layout parameters. (line 19) * \headsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 20) * \heartsuit: Math symbols. (line 248) * \hfill: \hfill. (line 6) * \hline: \hline. (line 6) * \hom: Math functions. (line 54) * \hookleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 251) * \hookrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 254) * \hrulefill: \hrulefill & \dotfill. (line 6) * \hsize: Page layout parameters. (line 119) * \hsize <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 119) * \hspace: \hspace. (line 6) * \hss: \hss. (line 6) * \huge: Font sizes. (line 11) * \Huge: Font sizes. (line 11) * \hyphenation: \hyphenation. (line 6) * \i (dotless i): Accents. (line 17) * \iff: Math symbols. (line 257) * \IfFileExists: Class and package commands. (line 128) * \ignorespaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * \ignorespacesafterend: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * \ij (ij): Additional Latin letters. (line 32) * \IJ (IJ): Additional Latin letters. (line 32) * \Im: Math symbols. (line 261) * \imath: Math symbols. (line 264) * \in: Math symbols. (line 268) * \include: \include & \includeonly. (line 6) * \includegraphics: \includegraphics. (line 6) * \includeonly: \include & \includeonly. (line 6) * \indent: \indent & \noindent. (line 6) * \index: Indexes. (line 6) * \index <1>: \index. (line 6) * \indexentry: \index. (line 106) * \indexspace: makeindex. (line 58) * \inf: Math functions. (line 57) * \infty: Math symbols. (line 273) * \input: \input. (line 6) * \InputIfFileExists: Class and package commands. (line 128) * \int: Math symbols. (line 276) * \intextsep: Floats. (line 118) * \intextsep <1>: Floats. (line 119) * \iota: Math symbols. (line 279) * \it: Font styles. (line 80) * \item: description. (line 31) * \item <1>: enumerate. (line 29) * \item <2>: itemize. (line 6) * \item <3>: itemize. (line 28) * \itemindent: list. (line 83) * \itemsep: list. (line 87) * \itshape: Font styles. (line 33) * \j (dotless j): Accents. (line 17) * \jmath: Math symbols. (line 286) * \Join: Math symbols. (line 282) * \k (ogonek): Accents. (line 71) * \kappa: Math symbols. (line 290) * \ker: Math functions. (line 60) * \kill: tabbing. (line 107) * \l (/l): Additional Latin letters. (line 36) * \L (/L): Additional Latin letters. (line 36) * \label: \label. (line 6) * \labelenumi: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelenumii: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelenumiii: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelenumiv: enumerate. (line 56) * \labelitemi: itemize. (line 35) * \labelitemii: itemize. (line 35) * \labelitemiii: itemize. (line 35) * \labelitemiv: itemize. (line 35) * \labelsep: list. (line 99) * \labelwidth: list. (line 104) * \Lambda: Math symbols. (line 293) * \lambda: Math symbols. (line 296) * \land: Math symbols. (line 299) * \langle: Math symbols. (line 304) * \large: Font sizes. (line 11) * \Large: Font sizes. (line 11) * \LARGE: Font sizes. (line 11) * \LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 21) * \LaTeXe: Text symbols. (line 24) * \lbrace: Math symbols. (line 309) * \lbrack: Math symbols. (line 313) * \lceil: Math symbols. (line 317) * \ldots: Dots. (line 25) * \ldots <1>: Text symbols. (line 34) * \le: Math symbols. (line 321) * \leadsto: Math symbols. (line 325) * \left: \left & \right. (line 6) * \Leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 332) * \leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 337) * \lefteqn: eqnarray. (line 46) * \leftharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 341) * \leftharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 344) * \leftmargin: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmargin <1>: list. (line 124) * \leftmargini: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginii: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginiii: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginiv: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginv: itemize. (line 54) * \leftmarginvi: itemize. (line 54) * \Leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 347) * \leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 352) * \leq: Math symbols. (line 357) * \lfloor: Math symbols. (line 361) * \lg: Math functions. (line 63) * \lhd: Math symbols. (line 364) * \lim: Math functions. (line 66) * \liminf: Math functions. (line 69) * \limsup: Math functions. (line 72) * \line: \line. (line 6) * \linebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * \linespread: Low-level font commands. (line 125) * \linethickness: \linethickness. (line 6) * \linewidth: Page layout parameters. (line 33) * \linewidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 34) * \listoffigures: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * \listoftables: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * \listparindent: list. (line 141) * \ll: Math symbols. (line 372) * \ln: Math functions. (line 75) * \lnot: Math symbols. (line 376) * \LoadClass: Class and package commands. (line 148) * \LoadClassWithOptions: Class and package commands. (line 148) * \location: \location. (line 6) * \log: Math functions. (line 78) * \longleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 379) * \longleftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 384) * \longmapsto: Math symbols. (line 388) * \longrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 393) * \lor: Math symbols. (line 398) * \lq: Text symbols. (line 40) * \mainmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * \makebox: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6) * \makebox (for picture): \makebox (picture). (line 6) * \makeglossary: Glossaries. (line 6) * \makeglossary <1>: Glossaries. (line 43) * \makeindex: Indexes. (line 6) * \makelabel: list. (line 60) * \makelabels: \makelabels. (line 6) * \maketitle: \maketitle. (line 6) * \mapsto: Math symbols. (line 401) * \marginpar: Marginal notes. (line 6) * \marginparpush: Page layout parameters. (line 40) * \marginparpush <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 43) * \marginparpush <2>: Marginal notes. (line 35) * \marginparsep: Marginal notes. (line 39) * \marginparwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 42) * \marginparwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 43) * \marginparwidth <2>: Marginal notes. (line 43) * \marginsep: Page layout parameters. (line 41) * \marginsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 43) * \markboth{LEFT-HEAD}{RIGHT-HEAD}: \pagestyle. (line 75) * \markright{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 84) * \mathbf: Font styles. (line 110) * \mathcal: Font styles. (line 126) * \mathdollar: Math symbols. (line 910) * \mathnormal: Font styles. (line 123) * \mathparagraph: Math symbols. (line 913) * \mathring: Math accents. (line 34) * \mathrm: Font styles. (line 107) * \mathsection: Math symbols. (line 916) * \mathsf: Font styles. (line 113) * \mathsterling: Math symbols. (line 919) * \mathtt: Font styles. (line 116) * \mathunderscore: Math symbols. (line 922) * \mathversion: Font styles. (line 128) * \max: Math functions. (line 81) * \mbox: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6) * \mdseries: Font styles. (line 36) * \medskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 33) * \medskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 34) * \medspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 28) * \mho: Math symbols. (line 405) * \mid: Math symbols. (line 410) * \min: Math functions. (line 84) * \models: Math symbols. (line 420) * \month: \day & \month & \year. (line 6) * \mp: Math symbols. (line 425) * \mu: Math symbols. (line 428) * \multicolumn: \multicolumn. (line 6) * \multiput: \multiput. (line 6) * \nabla: Math symbols. (line 431) * \name: \name. (line 6) * \natural: Math symbols. (line 434) * \ne: Math symbols. (line 437) * \nearrow: Math symbols. (line 440) * \NeedsTeXFormat: Class and package commands. (line 182) * \neg: Math symbols. (line 443) * \negthinspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 46) * \negthinspace <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 6) * \neq: Math symbols. (line 447) * \newcommand: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * \newcounter: \newcounter. (line 6) * \newenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * \newfont: \newfont. (line 6) * \newglossaryentry: \newglossaryentry. (line 6) * \newlength: \newlength. (line 6) * \newline: \newline. (line 6) * \NEWLINE: \(SPACE). (line 6) * \newpage: \newpage. (line 6) * \newsavebox: \newsavebox. (line 6) * \newtheorem: \newtheorem. (line 6) * \newtie: Accents. (line 81) * \ng: Additional Latin letters. (line 40) * \NG: Additional Latin letters. (line 40) * \ni: Math symbols. (line 450) * \nocite: \nocite. (line 6) * \nocorr: Font styles. (line 21) * \nocorrlist: Font styles. (line 21) * \nofiles: \nofiles. (line 6) * \noindent: \indent & \noindent. (line 6) * \nolinebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * \nonfrenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 6) * \nonumber: eqnarray. (line 41) * \nopagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * \normalfont: Font styles. (line 57) * \normalmarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 22) * \normalsfcodes: \normalsfcodes. (line 6) * \normalsize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \not: Math symbols. (line 455) * \notin: Math symbols. (line 463) * \nu: Math symbols. (line 467) * \nwarrow: Math symbols. (line 470) * \o (/o): Additional Latin letters. (line 44) * \O (/O): Additional Latin letters. (line 44) * \obeycr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * \oddsidemargin: Document class options. (line 84) * \oddsidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 66) * \oddsidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 68) * \odot: Math symbols. (line 473) * \oe (oe): Additional Latin letters. (line 48) * \OE (OE): Additional Latin letters. (line 48) * \oint: Math symbols. (line 478) * \oldstylenums: Font styles. (line 132) * \Omega: Math symbols. (line 482) * \omega: Math symbols. (line 485) * \ominus: Math symbols. (line 488) * \onecolumn: \onecolumn. (line 6) * \opening: \opening. (line 6) * \oplus: Math symbols. (line 491) * \OptionNotUsed: Class and package commands. (line 200) * \oslash: Math symbols. (line 495) * \otimes: Math symbols. (line 498) * \oval: \oval. (line 6) * \overbrace{MATH}: Over- and Underlining. (line 40) * \overline{TEXT}: Over- and Underlining. (line 21) * \owns: Math symbols. (line 503) * \P: Text symbols. (line 43) * \PackageError: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageInfo: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageInfoNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageWarning: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \PackageWarningNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 41) * \pagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * \pagenumbering: \pagenumbering. (line 6) * \pageref: \pageref. (line 6) * \pagestyle: \pagestyle. (line 6) * \paperheight: Page layout parameters. (line 79) * \paperheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 80) * \paperwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 85) * \paperwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 86) * \par: \par. (line 6) * \paragraph: Sectioning. (line 6) * \paragraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 6) * \parallel: Math symbols. (line 508) * \parbox: \parbox. (line 6) * \parindent: minipage. (line 103) * \parindent <1>: \indent & \noindent. (line 6) * \parindent <2>: \parindent & \parskip. (line 6) * \parsep: list. (line 147) * \parskip: \parindent & \parskip. (line 6) * \parskip example: itemize. (line 73) * \part: Sectioning. (line 6) * \part <1>: \part. (line 6) * \partial: Math symbols. (line 511) * \partopsep: list. (line 156) * \PassOptionsToClass: Class and package commands. (line 206) * \PassOptionsToPackage: Class and package commands. (line 206) * \pdfpageheight: Document class options. (line 40) * \pdfpagewidth: Document class options. (line 40) * \perp: Math symbols. (line 514) * \phi: Math symbols. (line 519) * \Pi: Math symbols. (line 523) * \pi: Math symbols. (line 526) * \pm: Math symbols. (line 530) * \pmod: Math functions. (line 87) * \poptabs: tabbing. (line 113) * \poptabs <1>: tabbing. (line 114) * \pounds: Text symbols. (line 47) * \Pr: Math functions. (line 90) * \prec: Math symbols. (line 533) * \preceq: Math symbols. (line 536) * \prime: Math symbols. (line 541) * \printglossaries: Glossaries. (line 6) * \printglossaries <1>: Glossaries. (line 43) * \printindex: \printindex. (line 6) * \printindex <1>: \printindex. (line 10) * \ProcessOptions: Class and package commands. (line 243) * \ProcessOptions*: Class and package commands. (line 243) * \prod: Math symbols. (line 550) * \propto: Math symbols. (line 553) * \protect: \protect. (line 6) * \providecommand: \providecommand. (line 6) * \ProvidesClass: Class and package commands. (line 281) * \ProvidesFile: Class and package commands. (line 314) * \ProvidesPackage: Class and package commands. (line 281) * \ps: \ps. (line 6) * \Psi: Math symbols. (line 556) * \psi: Math symbols. (line 559) * \pushtabs: tabbing. (line 116) * \put: \put. (line 6) * \qbezier: \qbezier. (line 6) * \qquad: Spacing in math mode. (line 57) * \qquad <1>: \enspace & \quad & \qquad. (line 6) * \quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 51) * \quad <1>: \enspace & \quad & \qquad. (line 6) * \quotedblbase (,,): Text symbols. (line 51) * \quotesinglbase (,): Text symbols. (line 52) * \r (ring accent): Accents. (line 75) * \raggedbottom: \raggedbottom. (line 6) * \raggedleft: \raggedleft. (line 6) * \raggedright: \raggedright. (line 6) * \raisebox: \raisebox. (line 6) * \rangle: Math symbols. (line 562) * \rbrace: Math symbols. (line 567) * \rbrack: Math symbols. (line 571) * \rceil: Math symbols. (line 575) * \Re: Math symbols. (line 578) * \ref: \ref. (line 6) * \reflectbox: \scalebox. (line 6) * \refstepcounter: \refstepcounter. (line 6) * \renewenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * \RequirePackage: Class and package commands. (line 323) * \RequirePackageWithOptions: Class and package commands. (line 323) * \resizebox: \resizebox. (line 6) * \restorecr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * \restriction: Math symbols. (line 583) * \revemptyset: Math symbols. (line 588) * \reversemarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 22) * \rfloor: Math symbols. (line 593) * \rhd: Math symbols. (line 597) * \rho: Math symbols. (line 604) * \right: \left & \right. (line 6) * \Rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 608) * \rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 613) * \rightharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 617) * \rightharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 620) * \rightleftharpoons: Math symbols. (line 623) * \rightmargin: list. (line 171) * \rm: Font styles. (line 83) * \rmfamily: Font styles. (line 30) * \roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 27) * \Roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 32) * \rotatebox: \rotatebox. (line 6) * \rq: Text symbols. (line 55) * \rule: \rule. (line 6) * \S: Text symbols. (line 58) * \savebox: \sbox & \savebox. (line 6) * \sbox: \sbox & \savebox. (line 6) * \sc: Font styles. (line 86) * \scalebox: \scalebox. (line 6) * \scriptsize: Font sizes. (line 11) * \scshape: Font styles. (line 51) * \searrow: Math symbols. (line 626) * \sec: Math functions. (line 93) * \section: Sectioning. (line 6) * \section <1>: \section. (line 6) * \seename: \index. (line 56) * \selectfont: Low-level font commands. (line 131) * \setcounter: \setcounter. (line 6) * \setlength: \setlength. (line 6) * \setminus: Math symbols. (line 629) * \settodepth: \settodepth. (line 6) * \settoheight: \settoheight. (line 6) * \settowidth: \settowidth. (line 6) * \sf: Font styles. (line 89) * \sffamily: Font styles. (line 48) * \sharp: Math symbols. (line 635) * \shortstack: \shortstack. (line 6) * \Sigma: Math symbols. (line 638) * \sigma: Math symbols. (line 641) * \signature: \signature. (line 11) * \sim: Math symbols. (line 645) * \simeq: Math symbols. (line 648) * \sin: Math functions. (line 96) * \sinh: Math functions. (line 99) * \sl: Font styles. (line 92) * \sloppy: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6) * \slshape: Font styles. (line 45) * \small: Font sizes. (line 11) * \smallint: Math symbols. (line 651) * \smallskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 38) * \smallskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 39) * \smile: Math symbols. (line 655) * \SPACE: \(SPACE). (line 6) * \spacefactor: \spacefactor. (line 10) * \spadesuit: Math symbols. (line 658) * \sqcap: Math symbols. (line 661) * \sqcup: Math symbols. (line 665) * \sqrt: \sqrt. (line 6) * \sqsubset: Math symbols. (line 669) * \sqsubseteq: Math symbols. (line 674) * \sqsupset: Math symbols. (line 679) * \sqsupseteq: Math symbols. (line 684) * \ss (ss): Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * \SS (SS): Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * \stackrel: \stackrel. (line 6) * \star: Math symbols. (line 689) * \stepcounter: \stepcounter. (line 6) * \stop: Recovering from errors. (line 23) * \strut: \strut. (line 6) * \subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 6) * \subparagraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 6) * \subsection: Sectioning. (line 6) * \subsection <1>: \subsection. (line 6) * \subset: Math symbols. (line 697) * \subseteq: Math symbols. (line 700) * \subsubsection: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 6) * \succ: Math symbols. (line 703) * \succeq: Math symbols. (line 707) * \sum: Math symbols. (line 712) * \sup: Math functions. (line 102) * \suppressfloats: Floats. (line 87) * \supset: Math symbols. (line 716) * \supseteq: Math symbols. (line 719) * \surd: Math symbols. (line 722) * \swarrow: Math symbols. (line 727) * \symbol: Symbols by font position. (line 6) * \t (tie-after accent): Accents. (line 81) * \TAB: \(SPACE). (line 6) * \tabbingsep: tabbing. (line 121) * \tabcolsep: tabular. (line 172) * \tableofcontents: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * \tan: Math functions. (line 105) * \tanh: Math functions. (line 108) * \tau: Math symbols. (line 730) * \telephone: \telephone. (line 6) * \TeX: Text symbols. (line 62) * \textascendercompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 100) * \textasciicircum: Text symbols. (line 65) * \textasciitilde: Text symbols. (line 68) * \textasteriskcentered: Text symbols. (line 71) * \textbackslash: Reserved characters. (line 20) * \textbackslash <1>: Text symbols. (line 74) * \textbar: Text symbols. (line 77) * \textbardbl: Text symbols. (line 80) * \textbf: Font styles. (line 39) * \textbigcircle: Text symbols. (line 83) * \textbraceleft: Text symbols. (line 86) * \textbraceright: Text symbols. (line 89) * \textbullet: Text symbols. (line 92) * \textcapitalcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 99) * \textcircled{LETTER}: Text symbols. (line 95) * \textcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 98) * \textcopyright: Text symbols. (line 12) * \textdagger: Text symbols. (line 107) * \textdaggerdbl: Text symbols. (line 110) * \textdollar (or \$): Text symbols. (line 113) * \textellipsis: Text symbols. (line 36) * \textemdash (or ---): Text symbols. (line 116) * \textendash (or --): Text symbols. (line 121) * \texteuro: Text symbols. (line 124) * \textexclamdown (or !`): Text symbols. (line 130) * \textfloatsep: Floats. (line 123) * \textfloatsep <1>: Floats. (line 124) * \textfraction: Floats. (line 102) * \textfraction <1>: Floats. (line 103) * \textgreater: Text symbols. (line 133) * \textheight: Page layout parameters. (line 91) * \textheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 92) * \textit: Font styles. (line 33) * \textleftarrow: Text symbols. (line 139) * \textless: Text symbols. (line 136) * \textmd: Font styles. (line 36) * \textnormal: Font styles. (line 57) * \textordfeminine: Text symbols. (line 142) * \textordmasculine: Text symbols. (line 143) * \textparagraph: Text symbols. (line 44) * \textperiodcentered: Text symbols. (line 146) * \textquestiondown (or ?`): Text symbols. (line 149) * \textquotedblleft (or ``): Text symbols. (line 152) * \textquotedblright (or ''): Text symbols. (line 155) * \textquoteleft (or `): Text symbols. (line 158) * \textquoteright (or '): Text symbols. (line 161) * \textquotesingle: Text symbols. (line 164) * \textquotestraightbase: Text symbols. (line 167) * \textquotestraightdblbase: Text symbols. (line 168) * \textregistered: Text symbols. (line 171) * \textrightarrow: Text symbols. (line 174) * \textrm: Font styles. (line 30) * \textsc: Font styles. (line 51) * \textsection: Text symbols. (line 59) * \textsf: Font styles. (line 48) * \textsl: Font styles. (line 45) * \textsterling: Text symbols. (line 48) * \textthreequartersemdash: Text symbols. (line 177) * \texttrademark: Text symbols. (line 180) * \texttt: Font styles. (line 54) * \texttwelveudash: Text symbols. (line 183) * \textunderscore: Text symbols. (line 186) * \textup: Font styles. (line 42) * \textvisiblespace: Text symbols. (line 189) * \textwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 99) * \textwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 100) * \th (th): Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * \TH (TH): Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * \thanks{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 56) * \theta: Math symbols. (line 733) * \thicklines: \thicklines. (line 6) * \thickspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 23) * \thinlines: \thinlines. (line 6) * \thinspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 32) * \thinspace <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 6) * \thispagestyle: \thispagestyle. (line 6) * \tilde: Math accents. (line 37) * \times: Math symbols. (line 737) * \tiny: Font sizes. (line 11) * \title{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 63) * \to: Math symbols. (line 741) * \today: \today. (line 6) * \top: Math symbols. (line 745) * \topfraction: Floats. (line 107) * \topfraction <1>: Floats. (line 108) * \topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 124) * \topsep: list. (line 176) * \topskip: Page layout parameters. (line 131) * \topskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 132) * \triangle: Math symbols. (line 750) * \triangleleft: Math symbols. (line 753) * \triangleright: Math symbols. (line 759) * \tt: Font styles. (line 95) * \ttfamily: Font styles. (line 54) * \twocolumn: \twocolumn. (line 6) * \typein: \typein. (line 6) * \typeout: \typeout. (line 6) * \u (breve accent): Accents. (line 85) * \unboldmath: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 6) * \unboldmath <1>: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 14) * \underbar: Accents. (line 51) * \underbrace{MATH}: Over- and Underlining. (line 26) * \underline{TEXT}: Over- and Underlining. (line 9) * \unitlength: picture. (line 25) * \unlhd: Math symbols. (line 765) * \unrhd: Math symbols. (line 772) * \Uparrow: Math symbols. (line 779) * \uparrow: Math symbols. (line 783) * \Updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 787) * \updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 792) * \upharpoonright: Math symbols. (line 797) * \uplus: Math symbols. (line 802) * \upshape: Font styles. (line 42) * \Upsilon: Math symbols. (line 809) * \upsilon: Math symbols. (line 812) * \usebox: \usebox. (line 6) * \usecounter: \usecounter. (line 6) * \usefont: Low-level font commands. (line 139) * \usepackage: Additional packages. (line 6) * \v (breve accent): Accents. (line 89) * \value: \value. (line 6) * \vanothing: Math symbols. (line 820) * \varepsilon: Math symbols. (line 815) * \varphi: Math symbols. (line 825) * \varpi: Math symbols. (line 829) * \varrho: Math symbols. (line 833) * \varsigma: Math symbols. (line 837) * \vartheta: Math symbols. (line 841) * \vdash: Math symbols. (line 845) * \vdots: Dots. (line 34) * \vec: Math accents. (line 40) * \vector: \vector. (line 6) * \vee: Math symbols. (line 849) * \verb: \verb. (line 6) * \Vert: Math symbols. (line 854) * \vert: Math symbols. (line 870) * \vfill: \vfill. (line 6) * \vline: \vline. (line 6) * \vspace: \vspace. (line 6) * \wedge: Math symbols. (line 888) * \widehat: Math accents. (line 43) * \widetilde: Math accents. (line 46) * \wp: Math symbols. (line 892) * \wr: Math symbols. (line 895) * \Xi: Math symbols. (line 898) * \xi: Math symbols. (line 901) * \year: \day & \month & \year. (line 6) * \zeta: Math symbols. (line 904) * \\ (for center): center. (line 16) * \\ (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 29) * \\ (for flushright): flushright. (line 12) * \\ (for \shortstack objects): \shortstack. (line 32) * \\ (tabbing): tabbing. (line 66) * \\ for flushleft: flushleft. (line 14) * \\ for letters: Letters. (line 49) * \\ for tabular: tabular. (line 35) * \\ for verse: verse. (line 21) * \\ for \author: \maketitle. (line 43) * \\ for \title: \maketitle. (line 64) * \\ force line break: \\. (line 6) * \\* (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 37) * \^: Reserved characters. (line 20) * \^ (circumflex accent): Accents. (line 38) * \_: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \` (grave accent): Accents. (line 42) * \` (tabbing): tabbing. (line 93) * \{: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \|: Math symbols. (line 18) * \}: Reserved characters. (line 13) * \~: Reserved characters. (line 20) * \~ (tilde accent): Accents. (line 46) * ^: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * _: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * 'see' and 'see also' index entries: \index. (line 56) * {...} for required arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * ~: ~. (line 6) * a4paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * a5paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * abstract environment: abstract. (line 6) * abstracts: abstract. (line 6) * accents: Accents. (line 6) * accents, mathematical: Math accents. (line 6) * accessing any character of a font: Symbols by font position. (line 6) * acronyms, list of: Glossaries. (line 6) * acute accent: Accents. (line 27) * acute accent, math: Math accents. (line 11) * additional packages, loading: Additional packages. (line 6) * ae ligature: Additional Latin letters. (line 16) * algorithm2e package: tabbing. (line 146) * align environment, from amsmath: eqnarray. (line 6) * aligning equations: eqnarray. (line 6) * alignment via tabbing: tabbing. (line 6) * amsfonts package: Math formulas. (line 86) * amsmath package: array. (line 55) * amsmath package <1>: array. (line 66) * amsmath package <2>: displaymath. (line 22) * amsmath package <3>: equation. (line 20) * amsmath package <4>: theorem. (line 28) * amsmath package <5>: Math formulas. (line 86) * amsmath package <6>: Dots. (line 37) * amsmath package <7>: Math functions. (line 111) * amsmath package <8>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 44) * amsmath package <9>: Colon character & \colon. (line 15) * amsmath package <10>: Colon character & \colon. (line 19) * amsmath package, replacing eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 6) * amsthm package: theorem. (line 28) * amsthm package <1>: \rule. (line 18) * appendices: \appendix. (line 6) * appendix: \appendix. (line 6) * appendix package: \appendix. (line 29) * aring: Additional Latin letters. (line 12) * array (package) package: array. (line 77) * array environment: array. (line 6) * arrays, math: array. (line 6) * arrow, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 140) * arrow, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 175) * article class: Document classes. (line 11) * ascender height: Text symbols. (line 101) * ASCII circumflex, in text: Text symbols. (line 66) * ASCII tilde, in text: Text symbols. (line 69) * asterisk, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 72) * Asymptote package: \line. (line 36) * Asymptote package <1>: \strut. (line 62) * Asymptote package <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 73) * at clause, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 19) * at-sign: \@. (line 6) * author, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 43) * auxiliary file: Output files. (line 33) * b5paper option: Document class options. (line 19) * babel package: \chapter. (line 71) * babel package <1>: thebibliography. (line 53) * babel package <2>: Accents. (line 6) * babel package <3>: \today. (line 13) * babel package <4>: Table of contents etc.. (line 80) * babel package <5>: \index. (line 56) * background, colored: Colored pages. (line 6) * backslash, in text: Text symbols. (line 75) * bar, double vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 81) * bar, vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 78) * bar-over accent: Accents. (line 34) * bar-over accent, math: Math accents. (line 14) * bar-under accent: Accents. (line 49) * basics of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6) * beamer template and class: beamer template. (line 6) * beginning of document hook: \AtBeginDocument. (line 6) * bibliography format, open: Document class options. (line 67) * bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX. (line 6) * bibliography, creating (manually): thebibliography. (line 6) * bibTeX, using: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * big circle symbols, in text: Text symbols. (line 84) * Big point: Units of length. (line 20) * bigfoot package: Footnotes of footnotes. (line 6) * black boxes, omitting: Document class options. (line 53) * blackboard bold: Blackboard bold. (line 6) * bm package: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 32) * bold font: Font styles. (line 75) * bold math: Font styles. (line 128) * bold typewriter, avoiding: description. (line 36) * boldface mathematics: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 6) * book class: Document classes. (line 11) * book, back matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * book, end matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * book, front matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * book, main matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 6) * bottomnumber: Floats. (line 130) * bottomnumber <1>: Floats. (line 131) * box: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6) * box, allocating new: \newsavebox. (line 6) * box, colored: Colored boxes. (line 6) * box, save: \sbox & \savebox. (line 6) * box, use saved box: \usebox. (line 6) * boxes: Boxes. (line 6) * bp: Units of length. (line 20) * brace, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 87) * brace, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 90) * breaking lines: Line breaking. (line 6) * breaking pages: Page breaking. (line 6) * breaks, multiplication discretionary: \*. (line 6) * breve accent: Accents. (line 85) * breve accent, math: Math accents. (line 17) * bug reporting: About this document. (line 29) * bullet lists: itemize. (line 6) * bullet symbol: Math symbols. (line 113) * bullet, in text: Text symbols. (line 93) * bulleted lists: itemize. (line 6) * calligraphic fonts: Calligraphic. (line 6) * calligraphic letters for math: Font styles. (line 78) * cap height: Text symbols. (line 101) * caron accent: Accents. (line 89) * catcode: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 19) * category code, character: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 19) * cc: Units of length. (line 33) * cc list, in letters: \cc. (line 6) * cedilla accent: Accents. (line 59) * center environment: center. (line 6) * centered asterisk, in text: Text symbols. (line 72) * centered equations: Document class options. (line 57) * centered period, in text: Text symbols. (line 147) * centering text, declaration for: \centering. (line 6) * centering text, environment for: center. (line 6) * Centimeter: Units of length. (line 24) * chapter: Sectioning. (line 6) * chapter <1>: \chapter. (line 6) * character category code: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 19) * character, invisible: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 6) * characters, accented: Accents. (line 6) * characters, case of: Upper and lower case. (line 6) * characters, non-English: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * characters, reserved: Reserved characters. (line 6) * characters, special: Reserved characters. (line 6) * check accent: Accents. (line 89) * check accent, math: Math accents. (line 20) * Cicero: Units of length. (line 33) * circle symbol, big, in text: Text symbols. (line 84) * circled letter, in text: Text symbols. (line 96) * circumflex accent: Accents. (line 38) * circumflex accent, math: Math accents. (line 32) * circumflex, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 66) * citation key: \bibitem. (line 15) * class and package commands: Class and package commands. (line 6) * class and package difference: Class and package construction. (line 15) * class and package structure: Class and package structure. (line 6) * class file example: Class and package structure. (line 39) * class file layout: Class and package structure. (line 6) * class options: Document class options. (line 6) * class options <1>: Class and package structure. (line 6) * class options <2>: Class and package commands. (line 66) * classes of documents: Document classes. (line 6) * cleveref package: Cross references. (line 38) * cleveref package <1>: \ref. (line 29) * cleveref package <2>: \footnotemark. (line 48) * clock option to slides class: Document class options. (line 99) * closing letters: \closing. (line 6) * closing quote: Text symbols. (line 56) * cm: Units of length. (line 24) * code, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6) * colon character: Colon character & \colon. (line 6) * color: Color. (line 6) * color <1>: Define colors. (line 6) * color <2>: Colored text. (line 6) * color <3>: Colored boxes. (line 6) * color <4>: Colored pages. (line 6) * color models: Color models. (line 6) * color package commands: Commands for color. (line 6) * color package options: Color package options. (line 6) * color, define: Define colors. (line 6) * colored boxes: Colored boxes. (line 6) * colored page: Colored pages. (line 6) * colored text: Colored text. (line 6) * command line: Command line. (line 6) * command syntax: LaTeX command syntax. (line 6) * commands, class and package: Class and package commands. (line 6) * commands, defining new ones: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * commands, defining new ones <1>: \providecommand. (line 6) * commands, document class: Class and package construction. (line 6) * commands, graphics package: Commands for graphics. (line 6) * commands, ignore spaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * commands, redefining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * commands, star-variants: \@ifstar. (line 6) * composite word mark, in text: Text symbols. (line 101) * computer programs, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6) * configuration, graphics package: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * contents file: Output files. (line 43) * copyright symbol: Text symbols. (line 13) * counters, a list of: Counters. (line 6) * counters, defining new: \newcounter. (line 6) * counters, getting value of: \value. (line 6) * counters, printing: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 6) * counters, setting: \setcounter. (line 6) * cprotect package: verbatim. (line 26) * cprotect package <1>: \verb. (line 45) * creating pictures: picture. (line 6) * creating tables: table. (line 6) * credit footnote: \maketitle. (line 57) * cross references: Cross references. (line 6) * cross references, resolving: Output files. (line 33) * cross referencing with page number: \pageref. (line 6) * cross referencing, symbolic: \ref. (line 6) * CTAN: CTAN. (line 6) * currency, dollar: Text symbols. (line 114) * currency, euro: Text symbols. (line 125) * dagger, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 111) * dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 16) * dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 108) * DANTE e.V.: CTAN. (line 20) * date, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 51) * date, today's: \today. (line 6) * datetime package: \today. (line 27) * dbltopnumber: Floats. (line 134) * dbltopnumber <1>: Floats. (line 135) * dcolumn package: array. (line 77) * dd: Units of length. (line 30) * define color: Define colors. (line 6) * defining a new command: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * defining a new command <1>: \providecommand. (line 6) * defining new environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * defining new fonts: \newfont. (line 6) * defining new theorems: \newtheorem. (line 6) * definitions: Definitions. (line 6) * delimiters, paired: \left & \right. (line 6) * delim_0: makeindex. (line 110) * delim_1: makeindex. (line 114) * delim_2: makeindex. (line 118) * delim_n: makeindex. (line 122) * delim_r: makeindex. (line 126) * description: \newglossaryentry. (line 46) * description environment: description. (line 6) * description lists, creating: description. (line 6) * design size, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 19) * Didot point: Units of length. (line 30) * dieresis accent: Accents. (line 23) * difference between class and package: Class and package construction. (line 15) * discretionary breaks, multiplication: \*. (line 6) * discretionary hyphenation: \discretionary. (line 6) * display math mode: Modes. (line 29) * displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation & quote. (line 6) * displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quotation & quote. (line 6) * displaymath environment: displaymath. (line 6) * displaymath environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * document class commands: Class and package construction. (line 6) * document class options: Document class options. (line 6) * document class, defined: Starting and ending. (line 17) * document classes: Document classes. (line 6) * document environment: document. (line 6) * document templates: Document templates. (line 6) * dollar sign: Text symbols. (line 114) * dot accent: Accents. (line 30) * dot over accent, math: Math accents. (line 26) * dot-over accent: Accents. (line 30) * dot-under accent: Accents. (line 63) * dotless i: Accents. (line 17) * dotless i, math: Math symbols. (line 265) * dotless j: Accents. (line 17) * dotless j, math: Math symbols. (line 287) * dots: Dots. (line 6) * double angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31) * double dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 19) * double dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 111) * double dot accent, math: Math accents. (line 23) * double guillemets: Text symbols. (line 31) * double left quote: Text symbols. (line 153) * double low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 53) * double quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 169) * double right quote: Text symbols. (line 156) * double spacing: Low-level font commands. (line 118) * double vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 81) * doublestruck: Blackboard bold. (line 6) * draft option: Document class options. (line 49) * dvipdfmx command: Output files. (line 10) * dvips command: Output files. (line 10) * dvitype command: Output files. (line 10) * e-dash: Text symbols. (line 122) * e-TeX: TeX engines. (line 13) * ellipses: Dots. (line 6) * ellipsis: Text symbols. (line 37) * em: Units of length. (line 38) * em <1>: Units of length. (line 38) * em-dash: Text symbols. (line 117) * em-dash, three-quarters: Text symbols. (line 178) * em-dash, two-thirds: Text symbols. (line 184) * emphasis: Font styles. (line 59) * enclosure list: \encl. (line 6) * end of document hook: \AtEndDocument. (line 6) * ending and starting: Starting and ending. (line 6) * engines, TeX: TeX engines. (line 6) * enlarge current page: \enlargethispage. (line 6) * enumerate environment: enumerate. (line 6) * enumitem package: list. (line 253) * environment: Starting and ending. (line 25) * environment, abstract: abstract. (line 6) * environment, array: array. (line 6) * environment, center: center. (line 6) * environment, description: description. (line 6) * environment, displaymath: displaymath. (line 6) * environment, displaymath <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * environment, document: document. (line 6) * environment, enumerate: enumerate. (line 6) * environment, eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 6) * environment, equation: equation. (line 6) * environment, equation <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * environment, figure: figure. (line 6) * environment, filecontents: filecontents. (line 6) * environment, filecontents*: filecontents. (line 6) * environment, flushleft: flushleft. (line 6) * environment, flushright: flushright. (line 6) * environment, itemize: itemize. (line 6) * environment, letter: letter. (line 6) * environment, list: list. (line 6) * environment, math: math. (line 6) * environment, math <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * environment, minipage: minipage. (line 6) * environment, picture: picture. (line 6) * environment, quotation: quotation & quote. (line 6) * environment, quote: quotation & quote. (line 6) * environment, tabbing: tabbing. (line 6) * environment, table: table. (line 6) * environment, tabular: tabular. (line 6) * environment, thebibliography: thebibliography. (line 6) * environment, theorem: theorem. (line 6) * environment, theorem-like: \newtheorem. (line 6) * environment, titlepage: titlepage. (line 6) * environment, verbatim: verbatim. (line 6) * environment, verse: verse. (line 6) * environments: Environments. (line 6) * environments, defining: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * envlab package: \makelabels. (line 55) * EPS files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * EPS files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * eqnarray environment: eqnarray. (line 6) * equation environment: equation. (line 6) * equation environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * equation number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * equation numbers, left vs. right: Document class options. (line 63) * equation numbers, omitting: eqnarray. (line 41) * equations, aligning: eqnarray. (line 6) * equations, environment for: equation. (line 6) * equations, flush left vs. centered: Document class options. (line 57) * es-zet German letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * etex command: TeX engines. (line 13) * eth, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * etoolbox package: Class and package commands. (line 110) * euro symbol: Text symbols. (line 125) * eurosym package: Text symbols. (line 125) * ex: Units of length. (line 38) * ex <1>: Units of length. (line 38) * exclamation point, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 131) * executivepaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * exponent: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * extended Latin: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * external files, writing: filecontents. (line 6) * families, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 21) * fancyhdr package: Page styles. (line 12) * fancyhdr package <1>: \pagestyle. (line 13) * fancyvrb package: tabbing. (line 146) * fancyvrb package <1>: verbatim. (line 37) * feminine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 144) * figure environment: figure. (line 6) * figure number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * figures, footnotes in: minipage. (line 107) * figures, inserting: figure. (line 6) * file, root: Splitting the input. (line 10) * filecontents environment: filecontents. (line 6) * filecontents* environment: filecontents. (line 6) * final option: Document class options. (line 49) * first-latex-doc document: About this document. (line 41) * fixed-width font: Font styles. (line 96) * flafter package: Floats. (line 82) * fleqn option: Document class options. (line 49) * float package: Floats. (line 52) * float page: Floats. (line 58) * flush left equations: Document class options. (line 57) * flushing floats and starting a page: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * flushleft environment: flushleft. (line 6) * flushright environment: flushright. (line 6) * font catalogue: Low-level font commands. (line 21) * font commands, low-level: Low-level font commands. (line 6) * font size: Low-level font commands. (line 101) * font sizes: Font sizes. (line 6) * font styles: Font styles. (line 6) * font symbols, by number: Symbols by font position. (line 6) * fonts: Fonts. (line 6) * fonts, new commands for: \newfont. (line 6) * fonts, script: Calligraphic. (line 6) * footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6) * footer, parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * footnote number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * footnote parameters: \footnote. (line 34) * footnote, in a table: Footnotes in a table. (line 6) * footnote, in section headings: Footnotes in section headings. (line 6) * footnote, of a footnote: Footnotes of footnotes. (line 6) * footnotes in figures: minipage. (line 107) * footnotes, creating: Footnotes. (line 6) * Footnotes, in a minipage: \footnote. (line 62) * footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: \footnote. (line 24) * formulas, environment for: equation. (line 6) * formulas, math: Math formulas. (line 6) * forward reference: Cross references. (line 27) * forward references, resolving: Output files. (line 33) * fraction: \frac. (line 6) * fragile commands: \protect. (line 6) * frame rule width: \fbox & \framebox. (line 39) * frame, line width: \fbox & \framebox. (line 39) * frame, separation from contents: \fbox & \framebox. (line 44) * French quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31) * functions, math: Math functions. (line 6) * geometry package: Document class options. (line 40) * geometry package <1>: Document class options. (line 44) * global options: Document class options. (line 6) * global options <1>: Additional packages. (line 15) * glossaries: Glossaries. (line 6) * glossary: Glossaries. (line 6) * glossary, entries: \newglossaryentry. (line 6) * glossary, entry reference: \gls. (line 6) * glue register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 6) * graphics: Graphics. (line 6) * graphics <1>: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * graphics <2>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * graphics package: Graphics. (line 6) * graphics package <1>: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * graphics package <2>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * graphics package commands: Commands for graphics. (line 6) * graphics package options: Graphics package options. (line 6) * graphics packages: \line. (line 36) * graphics, resizing: \scalebox. (line 6) * graphics, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * graphics, scaling: \scalebox. (line 6) * graphics, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * grave accent: Accents. (line 42) * grave accent, math: Math accents. (line 29) * greater than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 134) * greek letters: Math symbols. (line 6) * group, and environments: Environments. (line 18) * group_skip: makeindex. (line 57) * ha'c: \footnotemark. (line 57) * hyperref package <2>: \pagenumbering. (line 45) * hyperref package <3>: Command line input. (line 10) * hyphenation, defining: \hyphenation. (line 6) * hyphenation, discretionary: \discretionary. (line 6) * hyphenation, forcing: \- (hyphenation). (line 6) * hyphenation, preventing: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6) * Icelandic eth: Additional Latin letters. (line 20) * Icelandic thorn: Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * idx file: \index. (line 106) * ij letter, Dutch: Additional Latin letters. (line 32) * implementations of TeX: TeX engines. (line 6) * importing graphics: \includegraphics. (line 6) * in: Units of length. (line 17) * in-line formulas: math. (line 6) * inch: Units of length. (line 17) * including graphics: \includegraphics. (line 6) * indent, forcing: \indent & \noindent. (line 6) * indentation of paragraphs, in minipage: minipage. (line 103) * indentfirst package: \part. (line 50) * indentfirst package <1>: \chapter. (line 58) * indentfirst package <2>: \section. (line 60) * indentfirst package <3>: \subsection. (line 48) * indentfirst package <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 61) * indentfirst package <5>: \indent & \noindent. (line 48) * indent_length: makeindex. (line 138) * indent_space: makeindex. (line 134) * index entries, 'see' and 'see also': \index. (line 56) * index entry: \index. (line 6) * index package: \index. (line 101) * index, page range: \index. (line 40) * index, printing: \printindex. (line 6) * index, processing: makeindex. (line 6) * index, style file: makeindex. (line 18) * indexes: Indexes. (line 6) * infinite horizontal stretch: \hfill. (line 6) * infinite vertical stretch: \vfill. (line 6) * inner paragraph mode: Modes. (line 47) * input file: Splitting the input. (line 6) * input, on command line: Command line input. (line 6) * input/output, to terminal: Terminal input/output. (line 6) * inserting figures: figure. (line 6) * insertions of special characters: Special insertions. (line 6) * internal vertical mode: Modes. (line 38) * invisible character: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 6) * italic correction: \/. (line 6) * italic font: Font styles. (line 81) * itemize environment: itemize. (line 6) * item_0: makeindex. (line 81) * item_01: makeindex. (line 90) * item_1: makeindex. (line 84) * item_12: makeindex. (line 100) * item_2: makeindex. (line 87) * item_x1: makeindex. (line 94) * item_x2: makeindex. (line 104) * JPEG files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * JPEG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * JPG files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * JPG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * justification, ragged left: \raggedleft. (line 6) * justification, ragged right: \raggedright. (line 6) * Knuth, Donald E.: Overview. (line 6) * label: Cross references. (line 6) * labelled lists, creating: description. (line 6) * Lamport TeX: Overview. (line 24) * Lamport, Leslie: Overview. (line 6) * landscape option: Document class options. (line 49) * landscape orientation: Document class options. (line 60) * latex command: Output files. (line 10) * LaTeX logo: Text symbols. (line 22) * LaTeX overview: Overview. (line 6) * LaTeX Project team: About this document. (line 25) * LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e: About this document. (line 21) * latex-doc-ptr document: About this document. (line 38) * LaTeX2e logo: Text symbols. (line 25) * email address: About this document. (line 25) * Latin letters, additional: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * layout commands: Layout. (line 6) * layout, page parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * left angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31) * left arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 140) * left brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 87) * left quote: Text symbols. (line 41) * left quote, double: Text symbols. (line 153) * left quote, single: Text symbols. (line 159) * left-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 63) * left-justifying text: \raggedright. (line 6) * left-justifying text, environment for: flushleft. (line 6) * left-to-right mode: Modes. (line 16) * legalpaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * lengths, adding to: \addtolength. (line 6) * lengths, allocating new: \newlength. (line 6) * lengths, defining and using: Lengths. (line 6) * lengths, setting: \setlength. (line 6) * leqno option: Document class options. (line 49) * less than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 137) * lethead_flag: makeindex. (line 64) * lethead_prefix: makeindex. (line 73) * lethead_suffix: makeindex. (line 77) * letter class: Document classes. (line 11) * letter environment: letter. (line 6) * letterpaper option: Document class options. (line 19) * letters, accented: Accents. (line 6) * letters, additional Latin: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * letters, ending: \closing. (line 6) * letters, starting: \opening. (line 6) * letters, writing: Letters. (line 6) * line break, forcing: \\. (line 6) * line breaking: Line breaking. (line 6) * line breaks, changing: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6) * line breaks, forcing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * line breaks, multiplication discretionary: \*. (line 6) * line breaks, preventing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6) * lines in tables: tabular. (line 6) * line_max: makeindex. (line 130) * lining numerals: Font styles. (line 132) * lining text up in tables: tabular. (line 6) * lining text up using tab stops: tabbing. (line 6) * list environment: list. (line 6) * list items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 6) * list of figures file: Output files. (line 43) * list of tables file: Output files. (line 43) * listings package: tabbing. (line 146) * listings package <1>: verbatim. (line 31) * listings package <2>: \verb. (line 42) * lists of items: itemize. (line 6) * lists of items, generic: list. (line 6) * lists of items, numbered: enumerate. (line 6) * loading additional packages: Additional packages. (line 6) * log file: Output files. (line 28) * logo, LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 22) * logo, LaTeX2e: Text symbols. (line 25) * logo, TeX: Text symbols. (line 63) * long command: Class and package commands. (line 23) * low-9 quotation marks, single and double: Text symbols. (line 53) * low-level font commands: Low-level font commands. (line 6) * lowercase: Upper and lower case. (line 6) * LR box: picture. (line 103) * LR mode: Modes. (line 16) * lrbox: lrbox. (line 6) * lshort document: About this document. (line 49) * ltugboat class: tugboat template. (line 6) * lualatex command: TeX engines. (line 30) * LuaTeX: TeX engines. (line 30) * m-width: Units of length. (line 38) * macro package, LaTeX as: Overview. (line 11) * macron accent: Accents. (line 34) * macron accent, math: Math accents. (line 14) * macros2e package: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 43) * Madsen, Lars: eqnarray. (line 6) * make a box: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6) * makeindex: makeindex. (line 6) * makeindex program: makeindex. (line 6) * makeindex, style file: makeindex. (line 18) * making a title page: titlepage. (line 6) * making paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 6) * marginal notes: Marginal notes. (line 6) * masculine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 144) * matching brackets: \left & \right. (line 6) * matching parentheses: \left & \right. (line 6) * math accents: Math accents. (line 6) * math environment: math. (line 6) * math environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6) * math formulas: Math formulas. (line 6) * math functions: Math functions. (line 6) * math miscellany: Math miscellany. (line 6) * math mode: Modes. (line 26) * math mode, entering: Math formulas. (line 6) * math mode, spacing: Spacing in math mode. (line 6) * math mode, spacing <1>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 6) * math mode, vertical space: \smash. (line 6) * math symbols: Math symbols. (line 6) * math, bold: Font styles. (line 128) * mathtools package: Math formulas. (line 86) * mathtools package <1>: Over- and Underlining. (line 45) * mathtools package <2>: \smash. (line 61) * mathtools package <3>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 36) * MetaPost package: \line. (line 36) * mfirstuc package: Upper and lower case. (line 45) * mhchem package: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 62) * Millimeter: Units of length. (line 27) * minipage environment: minipage. (line 6) * minipage, creating a: minipage. (line 6) * minted package: tabbing. (line 146) * minted package <1>: verbatim. (line 31) * minted package <2>: \verb. (line 42) * mirrors of CTAN: CTAN. (line 20) * mm: Units of length. (line 27) * modes: Modes. (line 6) * monospace font: Font styles. (line 96) * moving arguments: \protect. (line 19) * mpfootnote counter: \footnote. (line 62) * mu: Units of length. (line 49) * mu, math unit: Units of length. (line 49) * multicolumn text: \twocolumn. (line 6) * multilingual support: Accents. (line 6) * multind package: Indexes. (line 32) * multiplication, discretionary: \*. (line 6) * name: \newglossaryentry. (line 43) * NBSP: ~. (line 6) * nested \include, not allowed: \include & \includeonly. (line 104) * new class commands: Class and package construction. (line 6) * new command, check: Class and package commands. (line 21) * new command, definition: Class and package commands. (line 96) * new commands, defining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 6) * new commands, defining <1>: \providecommand. (line 6) * new line, output as input: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6) * new line, starting: \\. (line 6) * new line, starting (paragraph mode): \newline. (line 6) * new page, starting: \newpage. (line 6) * non-English characters: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * notes in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 6) * notitlepage option: Document class options. (line 49) * null delimiter: \left & \right. (line 6) * numbered items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 6) * numerals, old-style: Font styles. (line 132) * oblique font: Font styles. (line 93) * oe ligature: Additional Latin letters. (line 48) * ogonek: Accents. (line 71) * old-style numerals: Font styles. (line 132) * one-column output: \onecolumn. (line 6) * onecolumn option: Document class options. (line 78) * oneside option: Document class options. (line 78) * openany option: Document class options. (line 78) * openbib option: Document class options. (line 49) * opening quote: Text symbols. (line 41) * openright option: Document class options. (line 78) * OpenType fonts: TeX engines. (line 6) * options, class: Class and package commands. (line 66) * options, color package: Color package options. (line 6) * options, command line: Command line options. (line 6) * options, document class: Document class options. (line 6) * options, document class <1>: Class and package structure. (line 6) * options, global: Additional packages. (line 15) * options, graphics package: Graphics package options. (line 6) * options, package: Class and package structure. (line 6) * options, package <1>: Class and package commands. (line 66) * ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 144) * oslash: Additional Latin letters. (line 44) * outer paragraph mode: Modes. (line 47) * overbar accent: Accents. (line 34) * overdot accent, math: Math accents. (line 26) * overlining: Over- and Underlining. (line 6) * overview of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6) * package file layout: Class and package structure. (line 6) * package options: Class and package structure. (line 6) * package options <1>: Class and package commands. (line 66) * package, algorithm2e: tabbing. (line 146) * package, amsfonts: Math formulas. (line 86) * package, amsmath: array. (line 55) * package, amsmath <1>: array. (line 66) * package, amsmath <2>: displaymath. (line 22) * package, amsmath <3>: equation. (line 20) * package, amsmath <4>: theorem. (line 28) * package, amsmath <5>: Math formulas. (line 86) * package, amsmath <6>: Dots. (line 37) * package, amsmath <7>: Math functions. (line 111) * package, amsmath <8>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 44) * package, amsmath <9>: Colon character & \colon. (line 15) * package, amsmath <10>: Colon character & \colon. (line 19) * package, amsthm: theorem. (line 28) * package, amsthm <1>: \rule. (line 18) * package, appendix: \appendix. (line 29) * package, array (package): array. (line 77) * package, Asymptote: \line. (line 36) * package, Asymptote <1>: \strut. (line 62) * package, Asymptote <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 73) * package, babel: \chapter. (line 71) * package, babel <1>: thebibliography. (line 53) * package, babel <2>: Accents. (line 6) * package, babel <3>: \today. (line 13) * package, babel <4>: Table of contents etc.. (line 80) * package, babel <5>: \index. (line 56) * package, bigfoot: Footnotes of footnotes. (line 6) * package, bm: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 32) * package, cleveref: Cross references. (line 38) * package, cleveref <1>: \ref. (line 29) * package, cleveref <2>: \footnotemark. (line 48) * package, cprotect: verbatim. (line 26) * package, cprotect <1>: \verb. (line 45) * package, datetime: \today. (line 27) * package, dcolumn: array. (line 77) * package, enumitem: list. (line 253) * package, envlab: \makelabels. (line 55) * package, etoolbox: Class and package commands. (line 110) * package, eurosym: Text symbols. (line 125) * package, fancyhdr: Page styles. (line 12) * package, fancyhdr <1>: \pagestyle. (line 13) * package, fancyvrb: tabbing. (line 146) * package, fancyvrb <1>: verbatim. (line 37) * package, flafter: Floats. (line 82) * package, float: Floats. (line 52) * package, geometry: Document class options. (line 40) * package, geometry <1>: Document class options. (line 44) * package, hyperref: \footnotemark. (line 48) * package, hyperref <1>: \footnotemark. (line 57) * package, hyperref <2>: \pagenumbering. (line 45) * package, hyperref <3>: Command line input. (line 10) * package, indentfirst: \part. (line 50) * package, indentfirst <1>: \chapter. (line 58) * package, indentfirst <2>: \section. (line 60) * package, indentfirst <3>: \subsection. (line 48) * package, indentfirst <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 61) * package, indentfirst <5>: \indent & \noindent. (line 48) * package, index: \index. (line 101) * package, listings: tabbing. (line 146) * package, listings <1>: verbatim. (line 31) * package, listings <2>: \verb. (line 42) * package, macros2e: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 43) * package, mathtools: Math formulas. (line 86) * package, mathtools <1>: Over- and Underlining. (line 45) * package, mathtools <2>: \smash. (line 61) * package, mathtools <3>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 36) * package, MetaPost: \line. (line 36) * package, mfirstuc: Upper and lower case. (line 45) * package, mhchem: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 62) * package, minted: tabbing. (line 146) * package, minted <1>: verbatim. (line 31) * package, minted <2>: \verb. (line 42) * package, multind: Indexes. (line 32) * package, pict2e: \line. (line 36) * package, polyglossia: Accents. (line 6) * package, polyglossia <1>: \today. (line 13) * package, polyglossia <2>: Table of contents etc.. (line 80) * package, polyglossia <3>: \index. (line 56) * package, PSTricks: \line. (line 36) * package, sagetex: Command line options. (line 62) * package, setspace: Low-level font commands. (line 118) * package, showidx: Indexes. (line 32) * package, siunitx: ~. (line 32) * package, symbols: Math symbols. (line 6) * package, textcase: Upper and lower case. (line 42) * package, textcomp: Font styles. (line 132) * package, TikZ: \line. (line 36) * package, TikZ <1>: \strut. (line 62) * package, TikZ <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 72) * package, titlesec: \part. (line 54) * package, titlesec <1>: \chapter. (line 79) * package, titlesec <2>: \section. (line 64) * package, titlesec <3>: \subsection. (line 52) * package, titlesec <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 65) * package, tocbibbind: Table of contents etc.. (line 91) * package, tocloft: Table of contents etc.. (line 91) * package, ulem: Over- and Underlining. (line 15) * package, url: \verb. (line 38) * package, verbatimbox: verbatim. (line 37) * packages, loading additional: Additional packages. (line 6) * page break, forcing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * page break, preventing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6) * page breaking: Page breaking. (line 6) * page layout parameters: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * page number, cross referencing: \pageref. (line 6) * page numbering style: \pagenumbering. (line 6) * page style, this page: \thispagestyle. (line 6) * page styles: Page styles. (line 6) * page, colored: Colored pages. (line 6) * page_precedence: makeindex. (line 143) * paired delimiters: \left & \right. (line 6) * paragraph: Sectioning. (line 6) * paragraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 6) * paragraph indentation: \parindent & \parskip. (line 6) * paragraph indentation, in minipage: minipage. (line 103) * paragraph indentations in quoted text: quotation & quote. (line 6) * paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: quotation & quote. (line 6) * paragraph mode: Modes. (line 12) * paragraph mode <1>: \parbox. (line 6) * paragraph symbol: Text symbols. (line 45) * paragraph, ending: \par. (line 6) * paragraph, in a box: \parbox. (line 6) * paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 6) * parameters, for footnotes: \footnote. (line 34) * parameters, page layout: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * part: Sectioning. (line 6) * part <1>: \part. (line 6) * pc: Units of length. (line 14) * PDF graphic files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * PDF graphic files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * pdflatex command: Output files. (line 20) * pdfTeX: Output files. (line 20) * pdfTeX engine: TeX engines. (line 13) * period, abbreviation-ending: \@. (line 6) * period, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 147) * period, sentence-ending: \@. (line 6) * period, spacing after: \@. (line 6) * pica: Units of length. (line 14) * pict2e package: \line. (line 36) * pict2e package <1>: \line. (line 36) * picture environment: picture. (line 6) * pictures, creating: picture. (line 6) * pilcrow: Text symbols. (line 45) * placement of floats: Floats. (line 31) * plural: \newglossaryentry. (line 51) * PNG files: Graphics package configuration. (line 6) * PNG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6) * poetry, an environment for: verse. (line 6) * Point: Units of length. (line 10) * polish l: Additional Latin letters. (line 36) * polyglossia package: Accents. (line 6) * polyglossia package <1>: \today. (line 13) * polyglossia package <2>: Table of contents etc.. (line 80) * polyglossia package <3>: \index. (line 56) * portrait orientation: Document class options. (line 60) * position, in picture: picture. (line 77) * positional parameter: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 52) * postamble: makeindex. (line 54) * postscript, in letters: \ps. (line 6) * pounds symbol: Text symbols. (line 49) * preamble: makeindex. (line 50) * preamble, defined: Starting and ending. (line 22) * prompt, *: Recovering from errors. (line 23) * pronunciation: Overview. (line 24) * PSTricks package: \line. (line 36) * pt: Units of length. (line 10) * quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 51) * question mark, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 150) * quotation environment: quotation & quote. (line 6) * quotation marks, French: Text symbols. (line 31) * quote environment: quotation & quote. (line 6) * quote, single straight: Text symbols. (line 165) * quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 169) * quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation & quote. (line 6) * quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation & quote. (line 6) * radical: \sqrt. (line 6) * ragged left text: \raggedleft. (line 6) * ragged left text, environment for: flushright. (line 6) * ragged right text: \raggedright. (line 6) * ragged right text, environment for: flushleft. (line 6) * redefining environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 6) * reference, forward: Cross references. (line 27) * references, resolving forward: Output files. (line 33) * registered symbol: Text symbols. (line 172) * relation, text above: \stackrel. (line 6) * remarks in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 6) * report class: Document classes. (line 11) * reporting bugs: About this document. (line 29) * reserved characters: Reserved characters. (line 6) * resizing: \scalebox. (line 6) * resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * right angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31) * right arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 175) * right brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 90) * right quote: Text symbols. (line 56) * right quote, double: Text symbols. (line 156) * right quote, single: Text symbols. (line 162) * right-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 63) * right-justifying text: \raggedleft. (line 6) * right-justifying text, environment for: flushright. (line 6) * ring accent: Accents. (line 75) * ring accent, math: Math accents. (line 35) * robust commands: \protect. (line 6) * roman font: Font styles. (line 84) * root file: Splitting the input. (line 10) * roots: \sqrt. (line 6) * rotating graphics: \rotatebox. (line 6) * rotating text: \rotatebox. (line 6) * rotation: \rotatebox. (line 6) * row, tabbing: tabbing. (line 46) * rubber lengths, defining new: \newlength. (line 6) * running header and footer: Page layout parameters. (line 6) * running header and footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6) * sagetex package: Command line options. (line 62) * sans serif font: Font styles. (line 90) * Scaled point: Units of length. (line 36) * scaling: \scalebox. (line 6) * scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * script fonts: Calligraphic. (line 6) * script letters for math: Font styles. (line 78) * secnumdepth: Sectioning. (line 62) * secnumdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 63) * section: Sectioning. (line 6) * section <1>: \section. (line 6) * section number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6) * section numbers, printing: Sectioning. (line 63) * section symbol: Text symbols. (line 60) * section, redefining: \@startsection. (line 6) * sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 6) * sectioning, part: \part. (line 6) * series, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 48) * setspace package: Low-level font commands. (line 118) * setting counters: \setcounter. (line 6) * shapes, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 88) * sharp S letters: Additional Latin letters. (line 52) * showidx package: Indexes. (line 32) * simulating typed text: verbatim. (line 6) * single angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31) * single guillemets: Text symbols. (line 31) * single left quote: Text symbols. (line 159) * single low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 53) * single quote, straight: Text symbols. (line 165) * single right quote: Text symbols. (line 162) * siunitx package: ~. (line 32) * sizes of text: Font sizes. (line 6) * skip register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 6) * slanted font: Font styles. (line 93) * slides class: Document classes. (line 11) * sloppypar: sloppypar. (line 6) * sloppypar environment: sloppypar. (line 6) * small caps font: Font styles. (line 87) * sort: \newglossaryentry. (line 55) * sp: Units of length. (line 36) * space, hard: ~. (line 6) * space, inserting horizontal: \hss. (line 6) * space, inserting vertical: \addvspace. (line 6) * space, negative thin: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 6) * space, thin: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 6) * space, unbreakable: ~. (line 6) * space, vertical: \vspace. (line 6) * spaces: Spaces. (line 6) * spaces, ignore around commands: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 6) * spacing within math mode: Spacing in math mode. (line 6) * spacing, inter-sentence: \frenchspacing. (line 6) * spacing, inter-sentence <1>: \normalsfcodes. (line 6) * spacing, math mode: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 6) * Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 144) * special characters: Reserved characters. (line 6) * special characters <1>: Additional Latin letters. (line 6) * special insertions: Special insertions. (line 6) * specifier, float placement: Floats. (line 31) * splitting the input file: Splitting the input. (line 6) * square root: \sqrt. (line 6) * stack math: \stackrel. (line 6) * star-variants, commands: \@ifstar. (line 6) * starred form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 25) * starting a new page: \newpage. (line 6) * starting a new page and clearing floats: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * starting and ending: Starting and ending. (line 6) * starting on a right-hand page: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6) * sterling symbol: Text symbols. (line 49) * straight double quote, base: Text symbols. (line 169) * straight quote, base: Text symbols. (line 169) * straight single quote: Text symbols. (line 165) * stretch, infinite horizontal: \hfill. (line 6) * stretch, infinite vertical: \vfill. (line 6) * stretch, omitting vertical: \raggedbottom. (line 6) * strut: \strut. (line 6) * styles of text: Font styles. (line 6) * styles, page: Page styles. (line 6) * subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 6) * subparagraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 6) * subscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * subsection: Sectioning. (line 6) * subsection <1>: \subsection. (line 6) * subsubsection: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 6) * superscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 6) * symbol: \newglossaryentry. (line 59) * symbols package: Math symbols. (line 6) * symbols, boldface: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 6) * symbols, math: Math symbols. (line 6) * symbols, text: Text symbols. (line 6) * tab stops, using: tabbing. (line 6) * tabbing environment: tabbing. (line 6) * table environment: table. (line 6) * table of contents entry, manually adding: \addcontentsline. (line 6) * table of contents file: Output files. (line 43) * table of contents, avoiding footnotes: Footnotes in section headings. (line 6) * table of contents, creating: Table of contents etc.. (line 6) * table of contents, sectioning numbers printed: Sectioning. (line 74) * tables, creating: table. (line 6) * tabular environment: tabular. (line 6) * template, article: article template. (line 6) * template, beamer: beamer template. (line 6) * template, book: book template. (line 6) * template, book <1>: Larger book template. (line 6) * template, TUGboat: tugboat template. (line 6) * templates, document: Document templates. (line 6) * terminal input/output: Terminal input/output. (line 6) * TeX logo: Text symbols. (line 63) * text symbols: Text symbols. (line 6) * text, resizing: \scalebox. (line 6) * text, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * text, scaling: \scalebox. (line 6) * text, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6) * textcase package: Upper and lower case. (line 42) * textcomp package: Font styles. (line 132) * textcomp package <1>: Text symbols. (line 6) * thanks, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 57) * thebibliography environment: thebibliography. (line 6) * theorem environment: theorem. (line 6) * theorem-like environment: \newtheorem. (line 6) * theorems, defining: \newtheorem. (line 6) * theorems, typesetting: theorem. (line 6) * thin space: Spacing in math mode. (line 32) * thin space <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 6) * thin space, negative: Spacing in math mode. (line 46) * thin space, negative <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 6) * thorn, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 56) * three-quarters em-dash: Text symbols. (line 178) * tie: ~. (line 6) * tie-after accent: Accents. (line 81) * TikZ package: \line. (line 36) * TikZ package <1>: \strut. (line 62) * TikZ package <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 72) * tilde accent: Accents. (line 46) * tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 38) * tilde, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 69) * title page, separate or run-in: Document class options. (line 71) * title pages, creating: titlepage. (line 6) * title, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 64) * titlepage environment: titlepage. (line 6) * titlepage option: Document class options. (line 49) * titles, making: \maketitle. (line 6) * titlesec package: \part. (line 54) * titlesec package <1>: \chapter. (line 79) * titlesec package <2>: \section. (line 64) * titlesec package <3>: \subsection. (line 52) * titlesec package <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 65) * tocbibbind package: Table of contents etc.. (line 91) * tocdepth: Sectioning. (line 73) * tocdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 74) * tocloft package: Table of contents etc.. (line 91) * today's date: \today. (line 6) * tombstone: \rule. (line 13) * topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 125) * topnumber: Floats. (line 138) * topnumber <1>: Floats. (line 139) * totalnumber: Floats. (line 142) * totalnumber <1>: Floats. (line 143) * trademark symbol: Text symbols. (line 181) * transcript file: Output files. (line 28) * TrueType fonts: TeX engines. (line 6) * TUGboat template: tugboat template. (line 6) * two-column output: \twocolumn. (line 6) * two-thirds em-dash: Text symbols. (line 184) * twocolumn option: Document class options. (line 78) * twoside option: Document class options. (line 78) * type styles: Font styles. (line 6) * typed text, simulating: verbatim. (line 6) * typeface sizes: Font sizes. (line 6) * typefaces: Fonts. (line 6) * typewriter font: Font styles. (line 96) * typewriter labels in lists: description. (line 36) * ulem package: Over- and Underlining. (line 15) * umlaut accent: Accents. (line 23) * underbar: Accents. (line 51) * underlining: Over- and Underlining. (line 6) * underscore, in text: Text symbols. (line 187) * Unicode input, native: TeX engines. (line 6) * units, of length: Units of length. (line 6) * unofficial nature of this manual: About this document. (line 25) * unordered lists: itemize. (line 6) * uppercase: Upper and lower case. (line 6) * url package: \verb. (line 38) * using BibTeX: Using BibTeX. (line 6) * usrguide official documentation: About this document. (line 44) * UTF-8: TeX engines. (line 6) * variables, a list of: Counters. (line 6) * vector symbol, math: Math accents. (line 41) * verbatim environment: verbatim. (line 6) * verbatim text: verbatim. (line 6) * verbatim text, inline: \verb. (line 6) * verbatimbox package: verbatim. (line 37) * verse environment: verse. (line 6) * vertical bar, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 81) * vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 78) * vertical mode: Modes. (line 34) * vertical space: \vspace. (line 6) * vertical space <1>: \addvspace. (line 6) * vertical space before paragraphs: \parindent & \parskip. (line 6) * vertical spacing: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 6) * vertical spacing, math mode: \smash. (line 6) * visible space: \verb. (line 31) * visible space symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 190) * weights, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 58) * white space: Spaces. (line 6) * wide hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 44) * wide tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 47) * widths, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 70) * writing external files: filecontents. (line 6) * writing letters: Letters. (line 6) * x-height: Units of length. (line 38) * xdvi command: Output files. (line 10) * xdvipdfmx: TeX engines. (line 39) * xelatex command: TeX engines. (line 39) * XeTeX: TeX engines. (line 39) * xindy: makeindex. (line 153) * xindy program: makeindex. 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