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+


+Next: , +Previous: (dir), +Up: (dir) +
+
+ +

LaTeX2e is a document preparation system implemented as a macro package +for Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program. + +

LaTeX was originally conceived by Leslie Lamport. + +

This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Top, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

1 Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide

+ +

+The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the +LaTeX Macro package for TeX. To be more specific, it processes an input +file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that +describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least three +files as output: + +

    +
  1. A “Device Independent”, or .dvi file. This contains commands that +can be translated into commands for a variety of output devices. You +can view the output of LaTeX by using a program such as xdvi, +which actually uses the .dvi file. +
  2. A “transcript” or .log file that contains summary information and +diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. +
  3. An “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for +things such as sectioning. +
+ +

For a description of what goes on inside TeX, you should consult +The TeXbook by Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-13448-9, published +jointly by the American Mathematical Society and Addison-Wesley +Publishing Company. + +

For a description of LaTeX, you should consult: + +

LaTeX: A Document Preparation System, by Leslie Lamport, +Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2nd edition, 1994. + +

The LaTeX Companion, by Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, and +Alexander Samarin, Addison-Wesley, 1994. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Overview, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

2 Commands

+ +

A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a +\ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single +non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], are +optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are required. + +

NOTE: LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case +unless explicitly directed to do otherwise. + +

+ + + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Commands, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.1 Counters

+ +

+Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The +name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or +command that produces the number, except with no \. (enumi - +enumiv are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list +of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control +numbering. + +

      part            paragraph       figure          enumi
+      chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
+      section         page            footnote        enumiii
+      subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
+      subsubsection
+
+ + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Counters, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.1 \addtocounter

+ +

+\addtocounter{counter}{value} + +

The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the +amount specified by the value argument. The value +argument can be negative. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \addtocounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.2 \alph

+ +

+\alph{counter} + +

This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in +alphabetic characters. The \alph command uses lower case +alphabetic alphabetic characters, i.e., a, b, c... while the +\Alph command uses upper case alphabetic characters, i.e., +A, B, C.... + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \alph, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.3 \arabic

+ +

+\arabic{counter} + +

The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be +printed in Arabic numbers, i.e., 3. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \arabic, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.4 \fnsymbol

+ +

+\fnsymbol{counter} + +

The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to +be printed in a specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used for +numbering footnotes. + +

NB. counter must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \fnsymbol, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.5 \newcounter

+ +

+\newcounter{foo}[counter] + +

The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo. +The counter is initialized to zero. + +

The optional argument [counter] causes the counter foo to +be reset whenever the counter named in the optional argument is +incremented. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.6 \refstepcounter

+ +

+\refstepcounter{counter} + +

The \refstepcounter command works like \stepcounter +See \stepcounter, except it also defines the current \ref +value to be the result of \thecounter. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \refstepcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.7 \roman

+ +

+\roman{counter} + +

This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in +Roman numerals. The \roman command uses lower case Roman +numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii..., while the \Roman command +uses upper case Roman numerals, i.e., I, II, III.... + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \roman, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.8 \stepcounter

+ +

+\stepcounter{counter} + +

The \stepcounter command adds one to the counter and +resets all subsidiary counters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \stepcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.9 \setcounter

+ +

+\setcounter{counter}{value} + +

The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to +that specified by the value argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \setcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.10 \usecounter

+ +

+\usecounter{counter} + +

The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the +list environment to allow the counter specified to be used to +number the list items. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \usecounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.11 \value

+ +

+\value{counter} + +

The \value command produces the value of the counter named +in the mandatory argument. It can be used where LaTeX expects an +integer or number, such as the second argument of a \setcounter +or \addtocounter command, or in: + +

             \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}
+
+

It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Counters, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.2 Cross References

+ +

+One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.” + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Cross References, +Up: Cross References +
+
+ + +

2.2.1 \label

+ +

+\label{key} + +

A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the +key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing +inside a numbered environment assigns that number to the key. + +

A key can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are different. + +

To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a +colon. The prefixes conventionally used are + +

+ +

Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:bandersnatch. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \label, +Up: Cross References +
+
+ + +

2.2.2 \pageref

+ +

+\pageref{key} + +

The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in the +text where the corresponding \label command appears. ie. where +\label{key} appears. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \pageref, +Up: Cross References +
+
+ + +

2.2.3 \ref

+ +

+\ref{key} + +

The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation number, ... of the corresponding \label command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Cross References, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.3 Definitions

+ + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Definitions, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.1 \newcommand

+ +

+

      \newcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
+      \newcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
+      \renewcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
+      \renewcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
+
+

These commands define (or redefine) a command. + +

+
cmd
A command name beginning with a \. For \newcommand it +must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for +\renewcommand it must already be defined. + +
args
An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the command +being defined. The default is for the command to have no arguments. + +
def
If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's first +argument is optional. The default value of the optional argument is +def. + +
definition
The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a +parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of +the nth argument when this substitution takes place. + +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \newcommand, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.2 \newenvironment

+ +

+

      \newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
+      \newenvironment{nam}[args][default]{begdef}{enddef}
+      \renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
+
+

These commands define or redefine an environment. + +

+
nam
The name of the environment. For \newenvironment there must be +no currently defined environment by that name, and the command +\nam must be undefined. For \renewenvironment the +environment must already be defined. + +
args
An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of +the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + +
default
If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default +gives the default value for that argument. + +
begdef
The text substituted for every occurrence of \begin{nam}; a +parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of +the nth argument when this substitution takes place. + +
enddef
The text substituted for every occurrence of \end{nam}. It may +not contain any argument parameters. + +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \newenvironment, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.3 \newtheorem

+ +

+

      \newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
+      \newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}
+
+

This command defines a theorem-like environment. + +

+
env_name
The name of the environment to be defined. A string of letters. It must +not be the name of an existing environment or counter. + +
caption
The text printed at the beginning of the environment, right before the +number. This may simply say “Theorem”, for example. + +
within
The name of an already defined counter, usually of a sectional unit. +Provides a means of resetting the new theorem counter within +the sectional unit. + +
numbered_like
The name of an already defined theorem-like environment. + +
+ +

The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \newtheorem, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.4 \newfont

+ +

+\newfont{cmd}{font_name} + +

Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently +defined, to be a declaration that selects the font named +font_name to be the current font. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Definitions, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.4 Document Classes

+ +

+Valid LaTeX document classes include: + +

+ +

Other document classes are often available. See Overview, for details. +They are selected with the following command: + +

\documentclass [options] {class} + +

All the standard classes (except slides) accept the following options +for selecting the typeface size (10 pt is default): + +

10pt, 11pt, 12pt + +

All classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default +is letter): + +

a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, letterpaper, legalpaper, executivepaper + +

Miscellaneous options: + +

+ +

These options are not available with the slides class: + +

+ +

The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at +the bottom of each note. + +

If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by a comma. + +

Additional packages are loaded by a + +

\usepackage[options]{pkg} + +command. If you specify more than one package, they must be separated by +a comma. + +Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +\usepackage. + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Footnotes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

+ +

2.5 Layout

+ +

Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.1 \flushbottom

+ +

+The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same +height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page. + +

This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \flushbottom, +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.2 \onecolumn

+ +

+The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \onecolumn, +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.3 \raggedbottom

+ +

+The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the +text on that page. No extra vertical space is added. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \raggedbottom, +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.4 \twocolumn

+ +

+\twocolumn[text] + +

The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it +is typeset in one-column mode. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Document Classes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.6 Environments

+ +

+LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. +Each environment begins and ends in the same manner. + +

             \begin{environment-name}
+             .
+             .
+             .
+             \end{environment-name}
+
+ + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Environments, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.1 array

+ +

+

     \begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
+     column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+     \end{array}
+
+

Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single +mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment +within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter +that tells how items in that row should be formatted. + +

+ +

Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may +include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated +with the string \\. + +

Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so +normally it is used inside an equation environment. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: array, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.2 center

+ +

+

      \begin{center}
+      Text on line 1 \\
+      Text on line 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{center}
+
+

The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of +lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current +page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: center +
+
+ + +
2.6.2.1 \centering
+ +

+This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This +declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in +a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the +page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the +figure or table environment. + +

Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does +not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an +environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: center, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.3 description

+ +

+

      \begin{description}
+      \item [label] First item
+      \item [label] Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{description}
+
+

The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The +label is bold face and flushed right. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: description, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.4 enumerate

+ +

+

      \begin{enumerate}
+      \item First item
+      \item Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{enumerate}
+
+

The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments. + +

Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + +

The enumerate environment uses the enumi through +enumiv counters (see Counters). The type of numbering can be +changed by redefining \theenumi etc. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: enumerate, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.5 eqnarray

+ +

+

      \begin{eqnarray}
+      math formula 1 \\
+      math formula 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{eqnarray}
+
+

The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column +array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ +and consecutive items within a row separated by an &. + +

An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +\nonumber command. + +

+The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: eqnarray, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.6 equation

+ +

+

      \begin{equation}
+       math formula
+      \end{equation}
+
+

The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places +the equation number in the right margin. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: equation, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.7 figure

+ +

+

      \begin{figure}[placement]
+     
+       body of the figure
+     
+      \caption{figure title}
+      \end{figure}
+
+

Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + +

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try +to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly +put a float: + +

    +
  1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure +environment appears. +
  2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page. +
  3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. +
  4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. +
+ +

The standard report and article classes use the default placement +tbp. + +

The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. +you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: figure, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.8 flushleft

+ +

+

      \begin{flushleft}
+      Text on line 1 \\
+      Text on line 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{flushleft}
+
+

The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin. +Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: flushleft +
+
+ + +
2.6.8.1 \raggedright
+ +

+This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This +declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in +a parbox. + +

Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an +environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: flushleft, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.9 flushright

+ +

+

      \begin{flushright}
+      Text on line 1 \\
+      Text on line 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{flushright}
+
+

The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin. +Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: flushright +
+
+ + +
2.6.9.1 \raggedleft
+ +

+This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This +declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in +a parbox. + +

Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an +environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: flushright, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.10 itemize

+ +

+

      \begin{itemize}
+      \item First item
+      \item Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{itemize}
+
+

The itemize environment produces a “bulleted” list. Itemizations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments. + +

Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + +

The itemize environment uses the itemi through +itemiv counters (see Counters). The type of numbering can be +changed by redefining \theitemi etc. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: itemize, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.11 letter

+ +

+This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: letter, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.12 list

+ +

+The list environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + +

      \begin{list}{label}{spacing}
+      \item First item
+      \item Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{list}
+
+

The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled. +This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. + +

The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing +parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e., +{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice +for most cases. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: list, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.13 minipage

+ +

+

      \begin{minipage}[position]{width}
+       text
+      \end{minipage}
+
+

The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command. +It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory +width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments +inside a minipage. + +

Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at +the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it +uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary +footnote counter See Counters. + +

NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; +they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: minipage, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.14 picture

+ +

+

      \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
+       .
+       .
+       picture commands
+       .
+       .
+      \end{picture}
+
+

The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind +of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You +tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their +coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and +a minus sign — a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A +coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length +\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, +then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You +can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the +\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try +changing it inside the picture environment. + +

A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying +the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. +Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, +which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that +when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; +the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + +

The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + +

The picture environment also has an optional position +argument, following the size argument, that can change the +origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not +contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the +coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture +(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength +has been set to 1mm, the command +

        \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
+
+

produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 +millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + +

The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the +picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; +LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even +off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining +how much room to leave for it. + +

Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put +command. The command +

        \put (11.3,-.3){...}
+
+

puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its +reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for +various objects will be described below. + +

The \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything +in the text argument of the \put command that you'd put into the +argument of an \mbox and related commands. When you do this, the +reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. + +

Picture commands: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.1 \circle
+ +

+\circle[*]{diameter} + +

The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close to +the specified one as possible. If the *-form of the command is +used, LaTeX draws a solid circle. + +

Note that only circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \circle, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.2 \dashbox
+ +

+Draws a box with a dashed line. + +

\dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){...} + +

The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width of +each dash. A dashed box looks best when the width and +height are multiples of the dash_length. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \dashbox, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.3 \frame
+ +

+\frame{...} + +

The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object +specified in the argument. The reference point is the bottom left +corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the +object. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \frame, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.4 \framebox
+ +

+\framebox(width,height)[position]{...} + +

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox +command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that +it creates. + +

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness +\fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule +and the contents of the box. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \framebox (picture), +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.5 \line
+ +

+\line(x slope,y slope){length} + +

The \line command draws a line of the specified length and +slope. + +

Note that LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y +have integer values from -6 through 6. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \line, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.6 \linethickness
+ +

+\linethickness{dimension} + +

Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture +environment to be dimension, which must be a positive length. It +does not affect the thickness of slanted lines and circles, or the +quarter circles drawn by \oval to form the corners of an oval. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \linethickness, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.7 \makebox
+ +

+\makebox(width,height)[position]{...} + +

The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to +the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a +width and height in multiples of \unitlength. + +

The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + +

+ +

See \makebox. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \makebox (picture), +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.8 \multiput
+ +

+\multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object} + +

The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the same +object in a regular pattern across a picture. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \multiput, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.9 \oval
+ +

+\oval(width,height)[portion] + +

The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The +optional argument, [portion], allows you to select part of the +oval. + +

+ +

Note that the “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with +a maximum radius of 20 pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes +with rounded corners. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \oval, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.10 \put
+ +

+\put(x coord,y coord){ ... } + +

The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \put, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.11 \shortstack
+ +

+\shortstack[position]{... \\ ... \\ ...} + +

The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: \shortstack, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.12 \vector
+ +

+\vector(x slope,y slope){length} + +

The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The x and y values must lie between -4 +and +4, inclusive. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: picture, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.15 quotation

+ +

+

      \begin{quotation}
+       text
+      \end{quotation}
+
+

The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the left +and the right. The text is justified at both margins and there is +paragraph indentation. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new +paragraph. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: quotation, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.16 quote

+ +

+

      \begin{quote}
+       text
+      \end{quote}
+
+

The margins of the quote environment are indented on the left and +the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line +between text produces a new paragraph. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: quote, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.17 tabbing

+ +

+

      \begin{tabbing}
+      text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
+      second row \>  \> more \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{tabbing}
+
+

The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. +It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much the way you do +with an ordinary typewriter. + +

It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant +and known in advance. + +

This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular +environment. + +

The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment: + +

+
\=
+Sets a tab stop at the current position. + +
\>
+Advances to the next tab stop. + +
\<
+This command allows you to put something to the left of the +local margin without changing the margin. +Can only be used at the start of the line. + +
\+
+Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the right. + +
\-
+Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the left. + +
\'
+Moves everything that you have typed so far in the +current column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, +\<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right +of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. + +
\`
+Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab +stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column +because there's no tab stop there. The \` command moves all the +text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} +command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing +environment. There must be no \> or \' command between +the \` and the command that ends the line. + +
\kill
+Sets tab stops without producing +text. Works just like \\ except that it throws away the +current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any +\=, \+ or \- commands in that line remain in +effect. + +
\pushtabs
+Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for +temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a +tabbing environment. + +
\poptabs
+Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs. + +
\a
+In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and +\` do not produce accents as normal. Instead, the commands +\a=, \a' and \a` are used. +
+ +

This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + +

             \begin{tabbing}
+             function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
+                      \> begin \= \+ \\
+                            \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
+                                     fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
+                               else \+ \\
+                                     fact := 1; \-\- \\
+                         end;\\
+             \end{tabbing}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: tabbing, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.18 table

+ +

+

      \begin{table}[placement]
+     
+       body of the table
+     
+      \caption{table title}
+      \end{table}
+
+

Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + +

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try +to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put +a float: + +

+ +

The standard report and article classes use the default +placement [tbp]. + +

The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., +you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: table, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.19 tabular

+ +

+

      \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
+      column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{tabular}
+
+

or + +

      \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
+      column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{tabular*}
+
+

These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. The mandatory and optional +arguments consist of: + +

+
width
Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There must be +rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified +width. +
pos
Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of +the environment. + +
    +
  • t - align on top row +
  • b - align on bottom row +
+ +
cols
Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the +following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and +intercolumn material. + +
    +
  • l - A column of left-aligned items. +
  • r - A column of right-aligned items. +
  • c - A column of centred items. +
  • | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. +
  • @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression +suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any +desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be +included in text. An \extracolsep{wd} command in an +@-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the +left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another +\extracolsep command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this +extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An +\extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the +cols argument. +
  • p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of +width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} +command. However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in the +following situations: +
      +
    1. inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular. +
    2. inside an explicit \parbox. +
    3. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft +declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an +environment when used in a p-column element. +
    +
  • *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of +cols, where num is any positive integer and cols is +any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another +*-expression. + +
+ +
+ +

These commands can be used inside a tabular environment: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.1 \cline
+ +

+\cline{i-j} + +

The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, +which are identified in the mandatory argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cline, +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.2 \hline
+ +

+The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of the +table. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and +between the rows of the table. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hline, +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.3 \multicolumn
+ +

+\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text} + +

The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the +number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, +specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centred, l +for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument, +text, specifies what text is to make up the entry. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \multicolumn, +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.4 \vline
+ +

+The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to +move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@-expression. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: tabular, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.20 thebibliography

+ +

+

      \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
+      \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{thebibliography}
+
+

The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. In the article class, this reference list is +labelled “References”; in the report class, it is labelled +“Bibliography”. + +

+ + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.1 \bibitem
+ +

+\bibitem[label]{cite_key} + +

The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. +If the label argument is missing, a number is generated as the +label, using the enumi counter. The cite_key is +any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing +a comma. This command writes an entry on the .aux file +containing cite_key and the item's label. When this +.aux file is read by the \begin{document} command, the +item's label is associated with cite_key, causing the +reference to cite_key by a \cite command to produce the +associated label. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \bibitem, +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.2 \cite
+ +

+\cite[text]{key_list} + +

The key_list argument is a list of citation keys. This command +generates an in-text citation to the references associated with the keys +in key_list by entries on the .aux file read by the +\begin{document} command. + +

The optional text argument will appear after the citation, +i.e. \cite[p. 2]{knuth} might produce `[Knuth, p. 2]'. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cite, +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.3 \nocite
+ +

+\nocite{key_list} + +

The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, +which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \nocite, +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.4 Using BibTeX
+ +

+If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if +you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain +your bibliography, you don't use the thebibliography +environment. Instead, you include the lines + +

             \bibliographystyle{style}
+             \bibliography{bibfile}
+
+

where style refers to a file style.bst, which defines how +your citations will look. The standard styles distributed with BibTeX +are: + +

+
alpha
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of +publication. +
plain
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. +
unsrt
Like plain, but entries are in order of citation. +
abbrv
Like plain, but more compact labels. +
+ +

In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the +demands of various publications. + +

The argument to \bibliography refers to the file +bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in BibTeX +format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and \nocite +will be listed in the bibliography. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: thebibliography, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.21 theorem

+ +

+

      \begin{theorem}
+       theorem text
+      \end{theorem}
+
+

The theorem environment produces “Theorem x” in boldface followed +by your theorem text. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: theorem, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.22 titlepage

+ +

+

      \begin{titlepage}
+       text
+      \end{titlepage}
+
+

The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e. a page with no +printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be +numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The +\today command comes in handy for title pages. + +Note that you can use the \maketitle (see \maketitle) command to +produce a standard title page. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: titlepage, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.23 verbatim

+ +

+

      \begin{verbatim}
+       text
+      \end{verbatim}
+
+

The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that +gets LaTeX to print exactly what you type in. It turns LaTeX into a +typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that +they would on a typewriter. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: verbatim +
+
+ + +
2.6.23.1 \verb
+ +

+ +

\verb char literal_text char + +

\verb*char literal_text char + +

Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special +characters and spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style. +There may be no space between \verb or \verb* and +char (space is shown here only for clarity). The *-form +differs only in that spaces are printed + + + + + +

+


+Previous: verbatim, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.24 verse

+ +

+

      \begin{verse}
+       text
+      \end{verse}
+
+

The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + +

The margins are indented on the left and the right. Separate the lines +of each stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to +separate the stanzas. + + + + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Environments, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.7 Footnotes

+ +

+Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be +produced with one command, the \footnote command. They can also +be produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the +\footnotetext commands. See the specific command for information +on why you would use one over the other. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Footnotes, +Up: Footnotes +
+
+ + +

2.7.1 \footnote

+ +

+\footnote[number]{text} + +

The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at +the bottom of the current page. The optional argument, number, +is used to change the default footnote number. This command can only be +used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning +commands like \chapter, in figures, tables or in a tabular +environment. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \footnote, +Up: Footnotes +
+
+ + +

2.7.2 \footnotemark

+ +

+The \footnotemark command puts the footnote number in the +text. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. The text of +the footnote is supplied by the \footnotetext command. + +

This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers +referring to the same footnote by using + +

\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] + +

after the first \footnote command. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \footnotemark, +Up: Footnotes +
+
+ + +

2.7.3 \footnotetext

+ +

+\footnotetext[number]{text} + +

The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed +at the bottom of the page. This command can come anywhere after the +\footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must +appear in outer paragraph mode. + +

The optional argument, number, is used to change the default +footnote number. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Layout, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.8 Lengths

+ +

+A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a +length as an argument. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Lengths, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.1 \newlength

+ +

+\newlength{\gnat} + +

The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, +\gnat, as a length command with a value of 0in. An +error occurs if a \gnat command already exists. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newlength, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.2 \setlength

+ +

+\setlength{\gnat}{length} + +

The \setlength command is used to set the value of a +length command. The length argument can be expressed in +any terms of length LaTeX understands, i.e., inches (in), +millimetres (mm), points (pt), etc. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \setlength, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.3 \addtolength

+ +

+\addtolength{\gnat}{length} + +

The \addtolength command increments a “length command” by the +amount specified in the length argument. It can be a negative +amount. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \addtolength, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.4 \settodepth

+ +

+\settodepth{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command +equal to the depth of the text argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \settodepth, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.5 \settoheight

+ +

+\settoheight{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command +equal to the height of the text argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \settoheight, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.6 \settowidth

+ +

+\settowidth{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command +equal to the width of the text argument. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \settowidth, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.7 Predefined lengths

+ +

+\width + +\height + +\depth + +\totalheight + +These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making +commands See Spaces & Boxes. They specify the natural width etc. of +the text in the box. \totalheight equals \height + +\depth. To make a box with the text stretched to double the +natural size, e.g., say + +

\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Lengths, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.9 Letters

+ +

+You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The +letter document class is designed to make a number of letters at +once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + +

Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other +document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a +minimum: + +

      \documentclass{letter}
+      \begin{document}
+       ... letters ...
+      \end{document}
+
+

Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name +and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + +

      \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
+           \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
+        ...
+      \end{letter}
+
+

The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of +the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that +make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not work. The letter +closes with a \closing command. + +

After the closing, you can have additional material. The +\cc command produces the usual “cc: ...”. There's also a similar +\encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, +use \\ to separate the items. + +

These commands are used with the letter class: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Letters, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.1 \address

+ +

+\address{Return address} + +

The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope. +Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands. +If you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter will +be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead. +(See Overview, for details on your local implementation). If you +give an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted +as a personal letter. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \address, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.2 \cc

+ +

+\cc{Kate Schechter\\Rob McKenna} + +

Generate a list of other persons the letter was sent to. Each name is +printed on a separate line. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cc, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.3 \closing

+ +

+\closing{text} + +

The letter closes with a \closing command, i.e., +

      \closing{Best Regards,}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \closing, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.4 \encl

+ +

+\encl{CV\\Certificates} + +

Generate a list of enclosed material. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \encl, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.5 \location

+ +

+\location{address} + +

This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears +if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \location, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.6 \makelabels

+ +

+\makelabels{number} + +

If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet of +address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \makelabels, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.7 \name

+ +

+\name{June Davenport} + +

Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return +address. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \name, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.8 \opening

+ +

+\opening{text} + +

The letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory +argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter, +i.e., +

      \opening{Dear Joe,}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \opening, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.9 \ps

+ +

+\ps + +

Use this command before a postscript. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \ps, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.10 \signature

+ +

+\signature{Harvey Swick} + +

Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the +space for your signature. Items that should go on separate lines should +be separated by \\ commands. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \signature, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.11 \startbreaks

+ +

+\startbreaks + +

Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \startbreaks, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.12 \stopbreaks

+ +

+\stopbreaks + +

Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \stopbreaks, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.13 \telephone

+ +

+\telephone{number} + +

This is your telephone number. This only appears if the +firstpage pagestyle is selected. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Letters, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.10 Line & Page Breaking

+ +

+The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a string of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this string must be broken into lines, and +these lines must be broken into pages. In some environments, you do the +line breaking yourself with the \\ command, but LaTeX usually +does it for you. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Line & Page Breaking, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.1 \\

+ +

+\\[*][extra-space] + +

The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an +optional argument, extra-space, that specifies how much extra +vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a +negative amount. + +

The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command +except that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \\, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.2 \-

+ +

+The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that +point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all +correct hyphenation points. The \- command is used for the +exceptional cases. + +

Note that when you insert \- commands in a word, the word will +only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation +points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \- (hyphenation), +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.3 \cleardoublepage

+ +

+The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cleardoublepage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.4 \clearpage

+ +

+The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \clearpage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.5 \enlargethispage

+ +

+\enlargethispage{size} + +

\enlargethispage*{size} + +

Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one +additional line. + +

The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as +much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +\pagebreak. + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \enlargethispage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.6 \fussy

+ +

+\fussy + +

This declaration (which is the default) makes TeX more fussy about line +breaking. This can avoids too much space between words, but may produce +overfull boxes. + +

This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command. \sloppy + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \fussy, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.7 \hyphenation

+ +

+\hyphenation{words} + +

The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points, +where words is a list of words, separated by spaces, in which +each hyphenation point is indicated by a - character. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hyphenation, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.8 \linebreak

+ +

+\linebreak[number] + +

The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at +the point of the command. With the optional argument, number, +you can convert the \linebreak command from a demand to a +request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the +number, the more insistent the request is. + +

The \linebreak command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it +extends to the right margin. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \linebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.9 \newline

+ +

+The \newline command breaks the line right where it is. It can +only be used in paragraph mode. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newline, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.10 \newpage

+ +

+The \newpage command ends the current page. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newpage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.11 \nolinebreak

+ +

+\nolinebreak[number] + +

The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current +line at the point of the command. With the optional argument, +number, you can convert the \nolinebreak command from a +demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The +higher the number, the more insistent the request is. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \nolinebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.12 \nopagebreak

+ +

+\nopagebreak[number] + +

The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current +page at the point of the command. With the optional argument, +number, you can convert the \nopagebreak command from a +demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The +higher the number, the more insistent the request is. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \nopagebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.13 \pagebreak

+ +

+\pagebreak[number] + +

The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at +the point of the command. With the optional argument, number, +you can convert the \pagebreak command from a demand to a +request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the +number, the more insistent the request is. + +

+


+Previous: \pagebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.14 \sloppy

+ +

+\sloppy + +

This declaration makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This can +prevent overfull boxes, but may leave too much space between words. + +

Lasts until a \fussy command is issued. \fussy. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Line & Page Breaking, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.11 Making Paragraphs

+ +

+A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines — lines not +containing even a %. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Making Paragraphs, +Up: Making Paragraphs +
+
+ + +

2.11.1 \indent

+ +

+\indent + +

This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the +paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it +would otherwise be suppressed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \indent, +Up: Making Paragraphs +
+
+ + +

2.11.2 \noindent

+ +

+\noindent + +

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the paragraph +indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \noindent, +Up: Making Paragraphs +
+
+ + +

2.11.3 \par

+ +

+Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or environment +definitions easier to read. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Making Paragraphs, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.12 Margin Notes

+ +

+The command \marginpar[left]{right} creates a note in the margin. +The first line will be at the same height as the line in the text where +the \marginpar occurs. + +

When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will +be placed + +

+ +

By issuing the command \reversemarginpar, you can force the marginal +notes to go into the opposite (inside) margin. + +

When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left +margin, and right is used for the right margin. + +

The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation by prefixing the first word with a \hspace{0pt} +command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Margin Notes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.13 Math Formulae

+ +

+There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: + +

+
math
For Formulae that appear right in the text. +
displaymath
For Formulae that appear on their own line. +
equation
The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation +number in the right margin. +
+ +

The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the displaymath and equation environments can be used +only in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath +environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: + +

         \(...\)     instead of     \begin{math}...\end{math}
+     
+         \[...\]     instead of     \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
+
+

In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + +

         $ ... $     instead of     \(...\)
+
+

+ +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Math Formulae, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.1 Subscripts & Superscripts

+ +

+To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type +_{exp}. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type +^{exp}. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of +that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when +something has both a subscript and a superscript. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Subscripts & Superscripts, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.2 Math Symbols

+ +

+ + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Math Symbols, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.3 Spacing in Math Mode

+ +

+ +

In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts +in the spacing that it thinks is best. LaTeX formats mathematics the +way it's done in mathematics texts. If you want different spacing, +LaTeX provides the following four commands for use in math mode: + +

+

    +
  1. \; - a thick space +
  2. \: - a medium space +
  3. \, - a thin space +
  4. \! - a negative thin space +
+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: Spacing in Math Mode, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.4 Math Miscellany

+ +

+

+
\cdots
Produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are raised to the centre +of the line. + +
\ddots
Produces a diagonal ellipsis. + +
\frac{num}{den}
Produces the fraction num divided by den. + +
\ldots
Produces an ellipsis. This command works in +any mode, not just math mode. + +
\overbrace{text}
Generates a brace over text. + +
\overline{text}
Causes the argument text to be overlined. + +
\sqrt[root]{arg}
Produces the square root of its argument. The +optional argument, root, determines what root to produce, i.e., +the cube root of x+y would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$. + +
\underbrace{text}
Generates text with a brace underneath. + +
\underline{text}
Causes the argument text to be underlined. +This command can also be used in paragraph and LR modes. + +
\vdots
Produces a vertical ellipsis. + +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Math Formulae, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.14 Modes

+ +

+ +

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + +

+ +

LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + +

“Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when +processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into +lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in “math mode” when +it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR mode”, as in paragraph +mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of +words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX +keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. +Even if you put a hundred words into an \mbox, LaTeX would keep +typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then +complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line. + +

LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a parbox. When +LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in +“inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out +in, is called “outer paragraph mode”. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Modes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.15 Page Styles

+ +

+The \documentclass command determines the size and position of +the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Page Styles, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.1 \maketitle

+ +

+\maketitle + +

The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title page +- except in the article class, where the title normally goes at +the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is +obtained from the following declarations: + +

See Page Styles, for the commands to give the information. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \maketitle, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.2 \author

+ +

+\author{names} + +

The \author command declares the author(s), where names is +a list of authors separated by \and commands. Use \\ to +separate lines within a single author's entry – for example, to give +the author's institution or address. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \author, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.3 \date

+ +

+\date{text} + +

The \date command declares text to be the document's date. With +no \date command, the current date is used. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \date, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.4 \thanks

+ +

+\thanks{text} + +

The \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \thanks, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.5 \title

+ +

+\title{text} + +

The \title command declares text to be the title. Use +\\ to tell LaTeX where to start a new line in a long title. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \maketitle, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.6 \pagenumbering

+ +

+\pagenumbering{num_style} + +

Specifies the style of page numbers. Possible values of num_style are: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \pagenumbering, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.7 \pagestyle

+ +

+\pagestyle{option} + +

The \pagestyle command changes the style from the current page on +throughout the remainder of your document. + +

The valid options are: + +

+ + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \pagestyle, +Up: \pagestyle +
+
+ + +

2.15.8 \markboth

+ +

+

     \markboth{left head}{right head}
+
+

The \markboth command is used in +conjunction with the page style myheadings for setting +both the left and the right heading. You should note that a “left-hand +heading” is generated by the last \markboth command before the +end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” is generated by the first +\markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is +one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \markboth, +Up: \pagestyle +
+
+ + +

2.15.9 \markright

+ +

+

     \markright{right head}
+
+

The \markright command is used in conjunction with the page style +myheadings for setting the right heading, leaving the left +heading unchanged. You should note that a “left-hand heading” is +generated by the last \markboth command before the end of the +page, while a “right-hand heading” is generated by the first +\markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is +one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \pagestyle, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.10 \thispagestyle

+ +

+\thispagestyle{option} + +

The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the +\pagestyle command except that it changes the style for the +current page only. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Page Styles, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.16 Sectioning

+ +

+Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units. + +

+ +

All sectioning commands take the same general form, i.e., + +

\chapter[optional]{title} + +

In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory argument +of the sectioning command can appear in two other places: + +

    +
  1. The table of contents +
  2. The running head at the top of the page +
+ +

You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two places as +appears in the text heading. To handle this situation, the sectioning +commands have an optional argument that provides the text for +these other two purposes. + +

All sectioning commands have *-forms that print a title, +but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of +contents. + +

+\appendix + +

The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are +numbered. The \appendix command generates no text and does not +affect the numbering of parts. +The normal use of this command is something like + +

     \chapter{The First Chapter}
+     ...
+     \appendix
+     \chapter{The First Appendix}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Sectioning, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.17 Spaces & Boxes

+ +

+All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + + +

Horizontal space +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.1 \dotfill

+ +

+The \dotfill command produces a “rubber length” that produces dots +instead of just spaces. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \dotfill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.2 \hfill

+ +

+The \hfill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with spaces. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hfill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.3 \hrulefill

+ +

+The \hrulefill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hrulefill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.4 \hspace

+ +

+\hspace[*]{length} + +

The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length of the +space can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., +points, inches, etc. You can add negative as well as positive space +with an \hspace command. Adding negative space is like +backspacing. + +

LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line. If you +don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * +argument. Then the space is never removed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hspace, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.5 \addvspace

+ +

+\addvspace{length} + +

The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to length. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \addvspace, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.6 \bigskip

+ +

+The \bigskip command is equivalent to +\vspace{bigskipamount} where bigskipamount is determined +by the document class. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \bigskip, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.7 \medskip

+ +

+The \medskip command is equivalent to +\vspace{medskipamount} where medskipamount is determined +by the document class. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \medskip, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.8 \smallskip

+ +

+\smallskip + +

The \smallskip command is equivalent to +\vspace{smallskipamount} where smallskipamount is +determined by the document class. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \smallskip, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.9 \vfill

+ +

+The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can +stretch or shrink vertically. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \vfill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.10 \vspace

+ +

+\vspace[*]{length} + +

The \vspace command adds vertical space. The length of the space +can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, +inches, etc. You can add negative as well as positive space with an +\vspace command. + +

LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page. If you +don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * +argument. Then the space is never removed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \vspace, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.11 \fbox

+ +

+\fbox{text} + +

The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox +command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that +it creates. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \fbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.12 \framebox

+ +

+\framebox[width][position]{text} + +

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox +command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that +it creates. + +

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and +leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the +box. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \framebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.13 lrbox

+ +

+\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox} + +

This is the environment form of \sbox. + +

The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which +must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: lrbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.14 \makebox

+ +

+\makebox[width][position]{text} + +

The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain +the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the +optional width argument. The position of the text within the box +is determined by the optional position argument. + +

+ +

See \makebox (picture). + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \makebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.15 \mbox

+ +

+\mbox{text} + +

The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text +created by its argument. + +

Use this command to prevent text from being split across lines. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \mbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.16 \newsavebox

+ +

+\newsavebox{cmd} + +

Declares cmd, which must be a command name that is not already +defined, to be a bin for saving boxes. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newsavebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.17 \parbox

+ +

+\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text} + +

A parbox is a box whose contents are created in paragraph +mode. The \parbox has two mandatory arguments: + +

+ +

LaTeX will position a parbox so its centre lines up with the centre of +the text line. The optional position argument allows you +to line up either the top or bottom line in the parbox (default is top). + +

If the height argument is not given, the box will have the natural +height of the text. + +

The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the +box. If it is not specified, position is used. + +

+ +

A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece +of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use +any of the paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox +argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a +paragraph-making environment, you should use a minipage +environment See minipage. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \parbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.18 \raisebox

+ +

+\raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text} + +

The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text. The first +mandatory argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or +lowered if it is a negative amount). The text itself is processed in +LR mode. + +

Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different +size than it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would +normally think it has. The \raisebox command lets you tell +LaTeX how tall it is. + +

The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think +that the text extends above the line by the amount specified. The +second optional argument, extend-below, makes LaTeX think that +the text extends below the line by the amount specified. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \raisebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.19 \rule

+ +

+\rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness} + +

The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines. The +arguments are defined as follows: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \rule, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.20 \savebox

+ +

+

      \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}
+
+

This command typeset text in a box just as for \makebox. +However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin +cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \savebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.21 \sbox

+ +

+\sbox{text} + +

This commands typeset text in a box just as for \mbox. +However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin +cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \sbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.22 \usebox

+ +

+\usebox{cmd} + +

Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a +\savebox command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Spaces & Boxes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.18 Special Characters

+ +

+The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called +“special printing characters”, or simply “special characters”. + +

                            # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
+
+

Whenever you put one of these special characters into your file, you are +doing something special. If you simply want the character to be printed +just as any other letter, include a \ in front of the character. +For example, \$ will produce $ in your output. + +

One exception to this rule is the \ itself because \\ has +its own special meaning. A \ is produced by typing +$\backslash$ in your file. + +

Also, \~ means `place a tilde accent over the following letter', +so you will probably want to use \verb instead. + +

+In addition, you can access any character of a font once you know its +number by using the \symbol command. For example, the character +used for displaying spaces in the \verb* command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}. + +

You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers +with ", so the previous example could also be written as +\symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Special Characters, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.19 Splitting the Input

+ +

+ +

A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole +input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into +several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, +there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type +when you run LaTeX. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Splitting the Input, +Up: Splitting the Input +
+
+ + +

2.19.1 \include

+ +

+\include{file} + +

The \include command is used in conjunction with the +\includeonly command for selective inclusion of files. The +file argument is the first name of a file, denoting +file.tex. If file is one the file names in the file list +of the \includeonly command or if there is no \includeonly +command, the \include command is equivalent to + +

     \clearpage \input{file} \clearpage
+
+

except that if the file file.tex does not exist, then a warning +message rather than an error is produced. If the file is not in the +file list, the \include command is equivalent to \clearpage. + +

The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file +read by another \include command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \include, +Up: Splitting the Input +
+
+ + +

2.19.2 \includeonly

+ +

+\includeonly{file_list} + +

The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in by +an \include command. file_list should be a comma-separated +list of filenames. Each filename must match exactly a filename specified +in a \include command. This command can only appear in the +preamble. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \includeonly, +Up: Splitting the Input +
+
+ + +

2.19.3 \input

+ +

+\input{file} + +

The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and +processed, exactly as if its contents had been inserted in the current +file at that point. The file name may be a complete file name with +extension or just a first name, in which case the file file.tex +is used. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Splitting the Input, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.20 Starting & Ending

+ +

+Your input file must contain the following commands as a minimum: + +

      \documentclass{class}
+      \begin{document}
+        ... your text goes here ...
+      \end{document}
+
+

where the class selected is one of the valid classes for LaTeX. +See Document Classes, (and see Overview), for details of the +various document classes available locally. + +

You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentclass +and the \begin{document} commands (i.e., in the `preamble'). + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Starting & Ending, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.21 Table of Contents

+ +

+ +

A table of contents is produced with the +\tableofcontents +command. You put the command right where you want the table of contents +to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. It produces a heading, but it does +not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the +table of contents, include a \newpage command after the +\tableofcontents command. + +

There are similar commands +\listoffigures +and +\listoftables + for producing a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. +Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. + +

NOTE: If you want any of these items to be generated, you cannot have +the +\nofiles +command in your document. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Table of Contents, +Up: Table of Contents +
+
+ + +

2.21.1 \addcontentsline

+ +

+\addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry} + +

The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list +or table where: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: \addcontentsline, +Up: Table of Contents +
+
+ + +

2.21.2 \addtocontents

+ +

+\addtocontents{file}{text} + +

The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly +to the file that generates the table of contents or list of figures or +tables. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Table of Contents, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.22 Terminal Input/Output

+ +

+ +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: Terminal Input/Output +
+
+ + +

2.22.1 \typein

+ +

+\typein[cmd]{msg} + +

Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for +you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the cmd +argument is missing, the typed input is processed as if it had been +included in the input file in place of the \typein command. If +the cmd argument is present, it must be a command name. This +command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \typein, +Up: Terminal Input/Output +
+
+ + +

2.22.2 \typeout

+ +

+\typeout{msg} + +

Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. Commands +in msg that are defined with \newcommand or +\renewcommand are replaced by their definitions before being +printed. + +

LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as +a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to +msg. A \space command in msg causes a single space +to be printed. A ^^J in msg prints a newline. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: Terminal Input/Output, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.23 Typefaces

+ +

+The typeface is specified by giving the “size” and “style”. A +typeface is also called a “font”. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Typefaces, +Up: Typefaces +
+
+ + +

2.23.1 \Styles

+ +

+ +

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. + +

These commands are used like \textit{italics text}. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + +

The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say +\sffamily\bfseries to get sans serif boldface. + +

You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; e.g. +\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}. + +

+
\textrm (\rmfamily)
Roman. +
\textit (\itshape)

\emph
Emphasis (toggles between \textit and \textrm). +
\textmd (\mdseries)
Medium weight (default). The opposite of boldface. +
\textbf (\bfseries)
Boldface. +
\textup (\upshape)
Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. +
\textsl (\slshape)
Slanted. +
\textsf (\sffamily)
Sans serif. +
\textsc (\scshape)
Small caps. +
\texttt (\ttfamily)
Typewriter. +
\textnormal (\normalfont)
Main document font. +
\mathrm
Roman, for use in math mode. +
\mathbf
Boldface, for use in math mode. +
\mathsf
Sans serif, for use in math mode. +
\mathtt
Typewriter, for use in math mode. +
\mathit
Italics, for use in math mode, e.g. variable names with several letters. +
\mathnormal
For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. +
\mathcal
`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. +
+ +

In addition, the command +\mathversion{bold} +can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in +formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Styles, +Up: Typefaces +
+
+ + +

2.23.2 Sizes

+ +

+ +

The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. + +

The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the +declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of +the current group. + +

You can also use the environment form of these commands; e.g. +\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}. + +

+
\tiny
+
\scriptsize
+
\footnotesize
+
\small
+
\normalsize
(default) + +
\large
+
\Large
+
\LARGE
+
\huge
+
\Huge
+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: Sizes, +Up: Typefaces +
+
+ + +

2.23.3 Low-level font commands

+ +

+These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. For full details, you should consult Chapter 7 of The LaTeX +Companion. + +

+
\fontencoding{enc}
Select font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1. + +
\fontfamily{family}
Select font family. Valid families include: + +
    +
  • cmr for Computer Modern Roman +
  • cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif +
  • cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter +
+ +

and numerous others. + +

\fontseries{series}
Select font series. Valid series include: + +
    +
  • m Medium (normal) +
  • b Bold +
  • c Condensed +
  • bc Bold condensed +
  • bx Bold extended +
+ +

and various other combinations. + +

\fontshape{shape}
Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + +
    +
  • n Upright (normal) +
  • it Italic +
  • sl Slanted (oblique) +
  • sc Small caps +
  • ui Upright italics +
  • ol Outline +
+ +

The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + +

\fontsize{size}{skip}
Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to; the +second is the \baselineskip to use. The unit of both parameters +defaults to pt. A rule of thumb is that the baselineskip should be 1.2 +times the font size. + +
\selectfont
The changes made by calling the four font commands described above do +not come into effect until \selectfont is called. + +
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
Equivalent to calling \fontencoding, \fontfamily, +\fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters, followed by \selectfont. +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Commands, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

3 Parameters

+ +

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX +uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the input file +entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You specify command +options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g. + +

latex ``\scrollmode\input foo.tex'' + +

will process foo.tex without pausing after every error. + +

Output files are always created in the current directory. When you fail +to specify an input file name, TeX bases the output names on the file +specification associated with the logical name TEX_OUTPUT, typically +texput.log. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Parameters, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

Concept Index

+ + +
+


+Previous: Concept Index, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

Command Index

+ + + + +
+

Table of Contents

+ +
+ + + diff --git a/Master/texmf/doc/latex/base/latex.pdf b/Master/texmf/doc/latex/base/latex.pdf new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..e0ccd6d4546 Binary files /dev/null and b/Master/texmf/doc/latex/base/latex.pdf differ diff --git a/Master/texmf/doc/latex/base/latex2e.html b/Master/texmf/doc/latex/base/latex2e.html new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..db830bbde27 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf/doc/latex/base/latex2e.html @@ -0,0 +1,6090 @@ + + +Untitled + + + + + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: (dir), +Up: (dir) +
+
+ +

LaTeX2e is a document preparation system implemented as a macro package +for Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program. + +

LaTeX was originally conceived by Leslie Lamport. + +

This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Top, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

1 Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide

+ +

+The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the +LaTeX Macro package for TeX. To be more specific, it processes an input +file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that +describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least three +files as output: + +

    +
  1. A “Device Independent”, or .dvi file. This contains commands that +can be translated into commands for a variety of output devices. You +can view the output of LaTeX by using a program such as xdvi, +which actually uses the .dvi file. +
  2. A “transcript” or .log file that contains summary information and +diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. +
  3. An “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for +things such as sectioning. +
+ +

For a description of what goes on inside TeX, you should consult +The TeXbook by Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-13448-9, published +jointly by the American Mathematical Society and Addison-Wesley +Publishing Company. + +

For a description of LaTeX, you should consult: + +

LaTeX: A Document Preparation System, by Leslie Lamport, +Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2nd edition, 1994. + +

The LaTeX Companion, by Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, and +Alexander Samarin, Addison-Wesley, 1994. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Overview, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

2 Commands

+ +

A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a +\ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single +non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], are +optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are required. + +

NOTE: LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case +unless explicitly directed to do otherwise. + +

+ + + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Commands, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.1 Counters

+ +

+Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The +name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or +command that produces the number, except with no \. (enumi - +enumiv are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list +of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control +numbering. + +

      part            paragraph       figure          enumi
+      chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
+      section         page            footnote        enumiii
+      subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
+      subsubsection
+
+ + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Counters, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.1 \addtocounter

+ +

+\addtocounter{counter}{value} + +

The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the +amount specified by the value argument. The value +argument can be negative. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \addtocounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.2 \alph

+ +

+\alph{counter} + +

This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in +alphabetic characters. The \alph command uses lower case +alphabetic alphabetic characters, i.e., a, b, c... while the +\Alph command uses upper case alphabetic characters, i.e., +A, B, C.... + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \alph, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.3 \arabic

+ +

+\arabic{counter} + +

The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be +printed in Arabic numbers, i.e., 3. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \arabic, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.4 \fnsymbol

+ +

+\fnsymbol{counter} + +

The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to +be printed in a specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used for +numbering footnotes. + +

NB. counter must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \fnsymbol, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.5 \newcounter

+ +

+\newcounter{foo}[counter] + +

The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo. +The counter is initialized to zero. + +

The optional argument [counter] causes the counter foo to +be reset whenever the counter named in the optional argument is +incremented. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.6 \refstepcounter

+ +

+\refstepcounter{counter} + +

The \refstepcounter command works like \stepcounter +See \stepcounter, except it also defines the current \ref +value to be the result of \thecounter. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \refstepcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.7 \roman

+ +

+\roman{counter} + +

This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in +Roman numerals. The \roman command uses lower case Roman +numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii..., while the \Roman command +uses upper case Roman numerals, i.e., I, II, III.... + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \roman, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.8 \stepcounter

+ +

+\stepcounter{counter} + +

The \stepcounter command adds one to the counter and +resets all subsidiary counters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \stepcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.9 \setcounter

+ +

+\setcounter{counter}{value} + +

The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to +that specified by the value argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \setcounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.10 \usecounter

+ +

+\usecounter{counter} + +

The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the +list environment to allow the counter specified to be used to +number the list items. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \usecounter, +Up: Counters +
+
+ + +

2.1.11 \value

+ +

+\value{counter} + +

The \value command produces the value of the counter named +in the mandatory argument. It can be used where LaTeX expects an +integer or number, such as the second argument of a \setcounter +or \addtocounter command, or in: + +

             \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}
+
+

It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Counters, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.2 Cross References

+ +

+One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.” + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Cross References, +Up: Cross References +
+
+ + +

2.2.1 \label

+ +

+\label{key} + +

A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the +key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing +inside a numbered environment assigns that number to the key. + +

A key can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are different. + +

To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a +colon. The prefixes conventionally used are + +

+ +

Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:bandersnatch. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \label, +Up: Cross References +
+
+ + +

2.2.2 \pageref

+ +

+\pageref{key} + +

The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in the +text where the corresponding \label command appears. ie. where +\label{key} appears. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \pageref, +Up: Cross References +
+
+ + +

2.2.3 \ref

+ +

+\ref{key} + +

The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation number, ... of the corresponding \label command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Cross References, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.3 Definitions

+ + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Definitions, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.1 \newcommand

+ +

+

      \newcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
+      \newcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
+      \renewcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
+      \renewcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
+
+

These commands define (or redefine) a command. + +

+
cmd
A command name beginning with a \. For \newcommand it +must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for +\renewcommand it must already be defined. + +
args
An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the command +being defined. The default is for the command to have no arguments. + +
def
If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's first +argument is optional. The default value of the optional argument is +def. + +
definition
The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a +parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of +the nth argument when this substitution takes place. + +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \newcommand, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.2 \newenvironment

+ +

+

      \newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
+      \newenvironment{nam}[args][default]{begdef}{enddef}
+      \renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
+
+

These commands define or redefine an environment. + +

+
nam
The name of the environment. For \newenvironment there must be +no currently defined environment by that name, and the command +\nam must be undefined. For \renewenvironment the +environment must already be defined. + +
args
An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of +the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + +
default
If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default +gives the default value for that argument. + +
begdef
The text substituted for every occurrence of \begin{nam}; a +parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of +the nth argument when this substitution takes place. + +
enddef
The text substituted for every occurrence of \end{nam}. It may +not contain any argument parameters. + +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \newenvironment, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.3 \newtheorem

+ +

+

      \newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
+      \newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}
+
+

This command defines a theorem-like environment. + +

+
env_name
The name of the environment to be defined. A string of letters. It must +not be the name of an existing environment or counter. + +
caption
The text printed at the beginning of the environment, right before the +number. This may simply say “Theorem”, for example. + +
within
The name of an already defined counter, usually of a sectional unit. +Provides a means of resetting the new theorem counter within +the sectional unit. + +
numbered_like
The name of an already defined theorem-like environment. + +
+ +

The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \newtheorem, +Up: Definitions +
+
+ + +

2.3.4 \newfont

+ +

+\newfont{cmd}{font_name} + +

Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently +defined, to be a declaration that selects the font named +font_name to be the current font. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Definitions, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.4 Document Classes

+ +

+Valid LaTeX document classes include: + +

+ +

Other document classes are often available. See Overview, for details. +They are selected with the following command: + +

\documentclass [options] {class} + +

All the standard classes (except slides) accept the following options +for selecting the typeface size (10 pt is default): + +

10pt, 11pt, 12pt + +

All classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default +is letter): + +

a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, letterpaper, legalpaper, executivepaper + +

Miscellaneous options: + +

+ +

These options are not available with the slides class: + +

+ +

The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at +the bottom of each note. + +

If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by a comma. + +

Additional packages are loaded by a + +

\usepackage[options]{pkg} + +command. If you specify more than one package, they must be separated by +a comma. + +Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +\usepackage. + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Footnotes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

+ +

2.5 Layout

+ +

Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.1 \flushbottom

+ +

+The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same +height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page. + +

This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \flushbottom, +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.2 \onecolumn

+ +

+The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \onecolumn, +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.3 \raggedbottom

+ +

+The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the +text on that page. No extra vertical space is added. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \raggedbottom, +Up: Layout +
+
+ + +

2.5.4 \twocolumn

+ +

+\twocolumn[text] + +

The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional text argument is present, it +is typeset in one-column mode. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Document Classes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.6 Environments

+ +

+LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. +Each environment begins and ends in the same manner. + +

             \begin{environment-name}
+             .
+             .
+             .
+             \end{environment-name}
+
+ + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Environments, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.1 array

+ +

+

     \begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
+     column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+     \end{array}
+
+

Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single +mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment +within them. Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter +that tells how items in that row should be formatted. + +

+ +

Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may +include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated +with the string \\. + +

Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so +normally it is used inside an equation environment. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: array, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.2 center

+ +

+

      \begin{center}
+      Text on line 1 \\
+      Text on line 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{center}
+
+

The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of +lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current +page. Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: center +
+
+ + +
2.6.2.1 \centering
+ +

+This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This +declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in +a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the +page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the +figure or table environment. + +

Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does +not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an +environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: center, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.3 description

+ +

+

      \begin{description}
+      \item [label] First item
+      \item [label] Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{description}
+
+

The description environment is used to make labelled lists. The +label is bold face and flushed right. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: description, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.4 enumerate

+ +

+

      \begin{enumerate}
+      \item First item
+      \item Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{enumerate}
+
+

The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments. + +

Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + +

The enumerate environment uses the enumi through +enumiv counters (see Counters). The type of numbering can be +changed by redefining \theenumi etc. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: enumerate, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.5 eqnarray

+ +

+

      \begin{eqnarray}
+      math formula 1 \\
+      math formula 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{eqnarray}
+
+

The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column +array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ +and consecutive items within a row separated by an &. + +

An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +\nonumber command. + +

+The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: eqnarray, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.6 equation

+ +

+

      \begin{equation}
+       math formula
+      \end{equation}
+
+

The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places +the equation number in the right margin. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: equation, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.7 figure

+ +

+

      \begin{figure}[placement]
+     
+       body of the figure
+     
+      \caption{figure title}
+      \end{figure}
+
+

Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + +

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try +to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly +put a float: + +

    +
  1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure +environment appears. +
  2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page. +
  3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. +
  4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. +
+ +

The standard report and article classes use the default placement +tbp. + +

The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. +you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your figure. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: figure, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.8 flushleft

+ +

+

      \begin{flushleft}
+      Text on line 1 \\
+      Text on line 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{flushleft}
+
+

The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin. +Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: flushleft +
+
+ + +
2.6.8.1 \raggedright
+ +

+This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This +declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in +a parbox. + +

Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an +environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: flushleft, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.9 flushright

+ +

+

      \begin{flushright}
+      Text on line 1 \\
+      Text on line 2 \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{flushright}
+
+

The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin. +Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: flushright +
+
+ + +
2.6.9.1 \raggedleft
+ +

+This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This +declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in +a parbox. + +

Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an +environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: flushright, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.10 itemize

+ +

+

      \begin{itemize}
+      \item First item
+      \item Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{itemize}
+
+

The itemize environment produces a “bulleted” list. Itemizations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments. + +

Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + +

The itemize environment uses the itemi through +itemiv counters (see Counters). The type of numbering can be +changed by redefining \theitemi etc. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: itemize, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.11 letter

+ +

+This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: letter, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.12 list

+ +

+The list environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + +

      \begin{list}{label}{spacing}
+      \item First item
+      \item Second item
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{list}
+
+

The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled. +This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. + +

The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing +parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e., +{}. This will select all default spacing which should suffice +for most cases. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: list, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.13 minipage

+ +

+

      \begin{minipage}[position]{width}
+       text
+      \end{minipage}
+
+

The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command. +It takes the same optional position argument and mandatory +width argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments +inside a minipage. + +

Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at +the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it +uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary +footnote counter See Counters. + +

NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; +they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: minipage, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.14 picture

+ +

+

      \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
+       .
+       .
+       picture commands
+       .
+       .
+      \end{picture}
+
+

The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind +of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You +tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their +coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and +a minus sign — a number like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A +coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length +\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, +then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You +can change the value of \unitlength anywhere you want, using the +\setlength command, but strange things will happen if you try +changing it inside the picture environment. + +

A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying +the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. +Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, +which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that +when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; +the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + +

The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + +

The picture environment also has an optional position +argument, following the size argument, that can change the +origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not +contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the +coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture +(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength +has been set to 1mm, the command +

        \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
+
+

produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 +millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + +

The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the +picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; +LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even +off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining +how much room to leave for it. + +

Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put +command. The command +

        \put (11.3,-.3){...}
+
+

puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its +reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for +various objects will be described below. + +

The \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything +in the text argument of the \put command that you'd put into the +argument of an \mbox and related commands. When you do this, the +reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. + +

Picture commands: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.1 \circle
+ +

+\circle[*]{diameter} + +

The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close to +the specified one as possible. If the *-form of the command is +used, LaTeX draws a solid circle. + +

Note that only circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \circle, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.2 \dashbox
+ +

+Draws a box with a dashed line. + +

\dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){...} + +

The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width of +each dash. A dashed box looks best when the width and +height are multiples of the dash_length. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \dashbox, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.3 \frame
+ +

+\frame{...} + +

The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object +specified in the argument. The reference point is the bottom left +corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the +object. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \frame, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.4 \framebox
+ +

+\framebox(width,height)[position]{...} + +

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox +command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that +it creates. + +

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness +\fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule +and the contents of the box. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \framebox (picture), +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.5 \line
+ +

+\line(x slope,y slope){length} + +

The \line command draws a line of the specified length and +slope. + +

Note that LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y +have integer values from -6 through 6. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \line, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.6 \linethickness
+ +

+\linethickness{dimension} + +

Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture +environment to be dimension, which must be a positive length. It +does not affect the thickness of slanted lines and circles, or the +quarter circles drawn by \oval to form the corners of an oval. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \linethickness, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.7 \makebox
+ +

+\makebox(width,height)[position]{...} + +

The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to +the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a +width and height in multiples of \unitlength. + +

The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + +

+ +

See \makebox. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \makebox (picture), +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.8 \multiput
+ +

+\multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object} + +

The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the same +object in a regular pattern across a picture. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \multiput, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.9 \oval
+ +

+\oval(width,height)[portion] + +

The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The +optional argument, [portion], allows you to select part of the +oval. + +

+ +

Note that the “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with +a maximum radius of 20 pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes +with rounded corners. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \oval, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.10 \put
+ +

+\put(x coord,y coord){ ... } + +

The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \put, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.11 \shortstack
+ +

+\shortstack[position]{... \\ ... \\ ...} + +

The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: \shortstack, +Up: picture +
+
+ + +
2.6.14.12 \vector
+ +

+\vector(x slope,y slope){length} + +

The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The x and y values must lie between -4 +and +4, inclusive. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: picture, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.15 quotation

+ +

+

      \begin{quotation}
+       text
+      \end{quotation}
+
+

The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the left +and the right. The text is justified at both margins and there is +paragraph indentation. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new +paragraph. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: quotation, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.16 quote

+ +

+

      \begin{quote}
+       text
+      \end{quote}
+
+

The margins of the quote environment are indented on the left and +the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line +between text produces a new paragraph. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: quote, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.17 tabbing

+ +

+

      \begin{tabbing}
+      text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
+      second row \>  \> more \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{tabbing}
+
+

The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. +It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much the way you do +with an ordinary typewriter. + +

It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant +and known in advance. + +

This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular +environment. + +

The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment: + +

+
\=
+Sets a tab stop at the current position. + +
\>
+Advances to the next tab stop. + +
\<
+This command allows you to put something to the left of the +local margin without changing the margin. +Can only be used at the start of the line. + +
\+
+Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the right. + +
\-
+Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the left. + +
\'
+Moves everything that you have typed so far in the +current column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, +\<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right +of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. + +
\`
+Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab +stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column +because there's no tab stop there. The \` command moves all the +text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} +command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing +environment. There must be no \> or \' command between +the \` and the command that ends the line. + +
\kill
+Sets tab stops without producing +text. Works just like \\ except that it throws away the +current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any +\=, \+ or \- commands in that line remain in +effect. + +
\pushtabs
+Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for +temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a +tabbing environment. + +
\poptabs
+Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs. + +
\a
+In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and +\` do not produce accents as normal. Instead, the commands +\a=, \a' and \a` are used. +
+ +

This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + +

             \begin{tabbing}
+             function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
+                      \> begin \= \+ \\
+                            \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
+                                     fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
+                               else \+ \\
+                                     fact := 1; \-\- \\
+                         end;\\
+             \end{tabbing}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: tabbing, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.18 table

+ +

+

      \begin{table}[placement]
+     
+       body of the table
+     
+      \caption{table title}
+      \end{table}
+
+

Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + +

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try +to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put +a float: + +

+ +

The standard report and article classes use the default +placement [tbp]. + +

The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., +you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: table, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.19 tabular

+ +

+

      \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
+      column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{tabular}
+
+

or + +

      \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
+      column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{tabular*}
+
+

These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. The mandatory and optional +arguments consist of: + +

+
width
Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There must be +rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified +width. +
pos
Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of +the environment. + +
    +
  • t - align on top row +
  • b - align on bottom row +
+ +
cols
Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the +following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and +intercolumn material. + +
    +
  • l - A column of left-aligned items. +
  • r - A column of right-aligned items. +
  • c - A column of centred items. +
  • | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. +
  • @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression +suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any +desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be +included in text. An \extracolsep{wd} command in an +@-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the +left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another +\extracolsep command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this +extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An +\extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the +cols argument. +
  • p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of +width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} +command. However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in the +following situations: +
      +
    1. inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular. +
    2. inside an explicit \parbox. +
    3. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft +declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an +environment when used in a p-column element. +
    +
  • *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of +cols, where num is any positive integer and cols is +any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another +*-expression. + +
+ +
+ +

These commands can be used inside a tabular environment: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.1 \cline
+ +

+\cline{i-j} + +

The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, +which are identified in the mandatory argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cline, +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.2 \hline
+ +

+The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of the +table. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and +between the rows of the table. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hline, +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.3 \multicolumn
+ +

+\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text} + +

The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the +number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, +specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centred, l +for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument, +text, specifies what text is to make up the entry. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \multicolumn, +Up: tabular +
+
+ + +
2.6.19.4 \vline
+ +

+The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to +move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@-expression. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: tabular, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.20 thebibliography

+ +

+

      \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
+      \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
+      .
+      .
+      .
+      \end{thebibliography}
+
+

The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. In the article class, this reference list is +labelled “References”; in the report class, it is labelled +“Bibliography”. + +

+ + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.1 \bibitem
+ +

+\bibitem[label]{cite_key} + +

The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. +If the label argument is missing, a number is generated as the +label, using the enumi counter. The cite_key is +any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing +a comma. This command writes an entry on the .aux file +containing cite_key and the item's label. When this +.aux file is read by the \begin{document} command, the +item's label is associated with cite_key, causing the +reference to cite_key by a \cite command to produce the +associated label. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \bibitem, +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.2 \cite
+ +

+\cite[text]{key_list} + +

The key_list argument is a list of citation keys. This command +generates an in-text citation to the references associated with the keys +in key_list by entries on the .aux file read by the +\begin{document} command. + +

The optional text argument will appear after the citation, +i.e. \cite[p. 2]{knuth} might produce `[Knuth, p. 2]'. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cite, +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.3 \nocite
+ +

+\nocite{key_list} + +

The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, +which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \nocite, +Up: thebibliography +
+
+ + +
2.6.20.4 Using BibTeX
+ +

+If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if +you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain +your bibliography, you don't use the thebibliography +environment. Instead, you include the lines + +

             \bibliographystyle{style}
+             \bibliography{bibfile}
+
+

where style refers to a file style.bst, which defines how +your citations will look. The standard styles distributed with BibTeX +are: + +

+
alpha
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of +publication. +
plain
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. +
unsrt
Like plain, but entries are in order of citation. +
abbrv
Like plain, but more compact labels. +
+ +

In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the +demands of various publications. + +

The argument to \bibliography refers to the file +bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in BibTeX +format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and \nocite +will be listed in the bibliography. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: thebibliography, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.21 theorem

+ +

+

      \begin{theorem}
+       theorem text
+      \end{theorem}
+
+

The theorem environment produces “Theorem x” in boldface followed +by your theorem text. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: theorem, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.22 titlepage

+ +

+

      \begin{titlepage}
+       text
+      \end{titlepage}
+
+

The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e. a page with no +printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be +numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The +\today command comes in handy for title pages. + +Note that you can use the \maketitle (see \maketitle) command to +produce a standard title page. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: titlepage, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.23 verbatim

+ +

+

      \begin{verbatim}
+       text
+      \end{verbatim}
+
+

The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that +gets LaTeX to print exactly what you type in. It turns LaTeX into a +typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that +they would on a typewriter. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Up: verbatim +
+
+ + +
2.6.23.1 \verb
+ +

+ +

\verb char literal_text char + +

\verb*char literal_text char + +

Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special +characters and spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style. +There may be no space between \verb or \verb* and +char (space is shown here only for clarity). The *-form +differs only in that spaces are printed + + + + + +

+


+Previous: verbatim, +Up: Environments +
+
+ + +

2.6.24 verse

+ +

+

      \begin{verse}
+       text
+      \end{verse}
+
+

The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + +

The margins are indented on the left and the right. Separate the lines +of each stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to +separate the stanzas. + + + + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Environments, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.7 Footnotes

+ +

+Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be +produced with one command, the \footnote command. They can also +be produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the +\footnotetext commands. See the specific command for information +on why you would use one over the other. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Footnotes, +Up: Footnotes +
+
+ + +

2.7.1 \footnote

+ +

+\footnote[number]{text} + +

The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at +the bottom of the current page. The optional argument, number, +is used to change the default footnote number. This command can only be +used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning +commands like \chapter, in figures, tables or in a tabular +environment. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \footnote, +Up: Footnotes +
+
+ + +

2.7.2 \footnotemark

+ +

+The \footnotemark command puts the footnote number in the +text. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. The text of +the footnote is supplied by the \footnotetext command. + +

This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers +referring to the same footnote by using + +

\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] + +

after the first \footnote command. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \footnotemark, +Up: Footnotes +
+
+ + +

2.7.3 \footnotetext

+ +

+\footnotetext[number]{text} + +

The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed +at the bottom of the page. This command can come anywhere after the +\footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must +appear in outer paragraph mode. + +

The optional argument, number, is used to change the default +footnote number. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Layout, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.8 Lengths

+ +

+A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a +length as an argument. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Lengths, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.1 \newlength

+ +

+\newlength{\gnat} + +

The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, +\gnat, as a length command with a value of 0in. An +error occurs if a \gnat command already exists. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newlength, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.2 \setlength

+ +

+\setlength{\gnat}{length} + +

The \setlength command is used to set the value of a +length command. The length argument can be expressed in +any terms of length LaTeX understands, i.e., inches (in), +millimetres (mm), points (pt), etc. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \setlength, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.3 \addtolength

+ +

+\addtolength{\gnat}{length} + +

The \addtolength command increments a “length command” by the +amount specified in the length argument. It can be a negative +amount. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \addtolength, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.4 \settodepth

+ +

+\settodepth{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command +equal to the depth of the text argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \settodepth, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.5 \settoheight

+ +

+\settoheight{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command +equal to the height of the text argument. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \settoheight, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.6 \settowidth

+ +

+\settowidth{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command +equal to the width of the text argument. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \settowidth, +Up: Lengths +
+
+ + +

2.8.7 Predefined lengths

+ +

+\width + +\height + +\depth + +\totalheight + +These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making +commands See Spaces & Boxes. They specify the natural width etc. of +the text in the box. \totalheight equals \height + +\depth. To make a box with the text stretched to double the +natural size, e.g., say + +

\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Lengths, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.9 Letters

+ +

+You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The +letter document class is designed to make a number of letters at +once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + +

Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other +document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a +minimum: + +

      \documentclass{letter}
+      \begin{document}
+       ... letters ...
+      \end{document}
+
+

Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name +and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + +

      \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
+           \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
+        ...
+      \end{letter}
+
+

The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of +the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that +make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not work. The letter +closes with a \closing command. + +

After the closing, you can have additional material. The +\cc command produces the usual “cc: ...”. There's also a similar +\encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, +use \\ to separate the items. + +

These commands are used with the letter class: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Letters, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.1 \address

+ +

+\address{Return address} + +

The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope. +Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands. +If you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter will +be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead. +(See Overview, for details on your local implementation). If you +give an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted +as a personal letter. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \address, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.2 \cc

+ +

+\cc{Kate Schechter\\Rob McKenna} + +

Generate a list of other persons the letter was sent to. Each name is +printed on a separate line. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cc, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.3 \closing

+ +

+\closing{text} + +

The letter closes with a \closing command, i.e., +

      \closing{Best Regards,}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \closing, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.4 \encl

+ +

+\encl{CV\\Certificates} + +

Generate a list of enclosed material. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \encl, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.5 \location

+ +

+\location{address} + +

This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears +if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \location, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.6 \makelabels

+ +

+\makelabels{number} + +

If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet of +address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \makelabels, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.7 \name

+ +

+\name{June Davenport} + +

Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return +address. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \name, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.8 \opening

+ +

+\opening{text} + +

The letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory +argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter, +i.e., +

      \opening{Dear Joe,}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \opening, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.9 \ps

+ +

+\ps + +

Use this command before a postscript. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \ps, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.10 \signature

+ +

+\signature{Harvey Swick} + +

Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the +space for your signature. Items that should go on separate lines should +be separated by \\ commands. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \signature, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.11 \startbreaks

+ +

+\startbreaks + +

Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \startbreaks, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.12 \stopbreaks

+ +

+\stopbreaks + +

Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \stopbreaks, +Up: Letters +
+
+ + +

2.9.13 \telephone

+ +

+\telephone{number} + +

This is your telephone number. This only appears if the +firstpage pagestyle is selected. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Letters, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.10 Line & Page Breaking

+ +

+The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a string of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this string must be broken into lines, and +these lines must be broken into pages. In some environments, you do the +line breaking yourself with the \\ command, but LaTeX usually +does it for you. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Line & Page Breaking, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.1 \\

+ +

+\\[*][extra-space] + +

The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an +optional argument, extra-space, that specifies how much extra +vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a +negative amount. + +

The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command +except that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \\, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.2 \-

+ +

+The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that +point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all +correct hyphenation points. The \- command is used for the +exceptional cases. + +

Note that when you insert \- commands in a word, the word will +only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation +points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \- (hyphenation), +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.3 \cleardoublepage

+ +

+The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \cleardoublepage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.4 \clearpage

+ +

+The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \clearpage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.5 \enlargethispage

+ +

+\enlargethispage{size} + +

\enlargethispage*{size} + +

Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one +additional line. + +

The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as +much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +\pagebreak. + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \enlargethispage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.6 \fussy

+ +

+\fussy + +

This declaration (which is the default) makes TeX more fussy about line +breaking. This can avoids too much space between words, but may produce +overfull boxes. + +

This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command. \sloppy + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \fussy, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.7 \hyphenation

+ +

+\hyphenation{words} + +

The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points, +where words is a list of words, separated by spaces, in which +each hyphenation point is indicated by a - character. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hyphenation, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.8 \linebreak

+ +

+\linebreak[number] + +

The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at +the point of the command. With the optional argument, number, +you can convert the \linebreak command from a demand to a +request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the +number, the more insistent the request is. + +

The \linebreak command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it +extends to the right margin. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \linebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.9 \newline

+ +

+The \newline command breaks the line right where it is. It can +only be used in paragraph mode. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newline, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.10 \newpage

+ +

+The \newpage command ends the current page. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newpage, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.11 \nolinebreak

+ +

+\nolinebreak[number] + +

The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current +line at the point of the command. With the optional argument, +number, you can convert the \nolinebreak command from a +demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The +higher the number, the more insistent the request is. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \nolinebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.12 \nopagebreak

+ +

+\nopagebreak[number] + +

The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current +page at the point of the command. With the optional argument, +number, you can convert the \nopagebreak command from a +demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The +higher the number, the more insistent the request is. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \nopagebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.13 \pagebreak

+ +

+\pagebreak[number] + +

The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at +the point of the command. With the optional argument, number, +you can convert the \pagebreak command from a demand to a +request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the +number, the more insistent the request is. + +

+


+Previous: \pagebreak, +Up: Line & Page Breaking +
+
+ + +

2.10.14 \sloppy

+ +

+\sloppy + +

This declaration makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This can +prevent overfull boxes, but may leave too much space between words. + +

Lasts until a \fussy command is issued. \fussy. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Line & Page Breaking, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.11 Making Paragraphs

+ +

+A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines — lines not +containing even a %. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Making Paragraphs, +Up: Making Paragraphs +
+
+ + +

2.11.1 \indent

+ +

+\indent + +

This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the +paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it +would otherwise be suppressed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \indent, +Up: Making Paragraphs +
+
+ + +

2.11.2 \noindent

+ +

+\noindent + +

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the paragraph +indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \noindent, +Up: Making Paragraphs +
+
+ + +

2.11.3 \par

+ +

+Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or environment +definitions easier to read. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Making Paragraphs, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.12 Margin Notes

+ +

+The command \marginpar[left]{right} creates a note in the margin. +The first line will be at the same height as the line in the text where +the \marginpar occurs. + +

When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will +be placed + +

+ +

By issuing the command \reversemarginpar, you can force the marginal +notes to go into the opposite (inside) margin. + +

When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left +margin, and right is used for the right margin. + +

The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation by prefixing the first word with a \hspace{0pt} +command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Margin Notes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.13 Math Formulae

+ +

+There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: + +

+
math
For Formulae that appear right in the text. +
displaymath
For Formulae that appear on their own line. +
equation
The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation +number in the right margin. +
+ +

The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the displaymath and equation environments can be used +only in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath +environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: + +

         \(...\)     instead of     \begin{math}...\end{math}
+     
+         \[...\]     instead of     \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
+
+

In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + +

         $ ... $     instead of     \(...\)
+
+

+ +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Math Formulae, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.1 Subscripts & Superscripts

+ +

+To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type +_{exp}. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type +^{exp}. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of +that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when +something has both a subscript and a superscript. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Subscripts & Superscripts, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.2 Math Symbols

+ +

+ + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Math Symbols, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.3 Spacing in Math Mode

+ +

+ +

In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts +in the spacing that it thinks is best. LaTeX formats mathematics the +way it's done in mathematics texts. If you want different spacing, +LaTeX provides the following four commands for use in math mode: + +

+

    +
  1. \; - a thick space +
  2. \: - a medium space +
  3. \, - a thin space +
  4. \! - a negative thin space +
+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: Spacing in Math Mode, +Up: Math Formulae +
+
+ + +

2.13.4 Math Miscellany

+ +

+

+
\cdots
Produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are raised to the centre +of the line. + +
\ddots
Produces a diagonal ellipsis. + +
\frac{num}{den}
Produces the fraction num divided by den. + +
\ldots
Produces an ellipsis. This command works in +any mode, not just math mode. + +
\overbrace{text}
Generates a brace over text. + +
\overline{text}
Causes the argument text to be overlined. + +
\sqrt[root]{arg}
Produces the square root of its argument. The +optional argument, root, determines what root to produce, i.e., +the cube root of x+y would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$. + +
\underbrace{text}
Generates text with a brace underneath. + +
\underline{text}
Causes the argument text to be underlined. +This command can also be used in paragraph and LR modes. + +
\vdots
Produces a vertical ellipsis. + +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Math Formulae, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.14 Modes

+ +

+ +

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + +

+ +

LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + +

“Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when +processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into +lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in “math mode” when +it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR mode”, as in paragraph +mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of +words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX +keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. +Even if you put a hundred words into an \mbox, LaTeX would keep +typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then +complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line. + +

LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a parbox. When +LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in +“inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out +in, is called “outer paragraph mode”. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Modes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.15 Page Styles

+ +

+The \documentclass command determines the size and position of +the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Page Styles, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.1 \maketitle

+ +

+\maketitle + +

The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title page +- except in the article class, where the title normally goes at +the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is +obtained from the following declarations: + +

See Page Styles, for the commands to give the information. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \maketitle, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.2 \author

+ +

+\author{names} + +

The \author command declares the author(s), where names is +a list of authors separated by \and commands. Use \\ to +separate lines within a single author's entry – for example, to give +the author's institution or address. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \author, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.3 \date

+ +

+\date{text} + +

The \date command declares text to be the document's date. With +no \date command, the current date is used. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \date, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.4 \thanks

+ +

+\thanks{text} + +

The \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \thanks, +Up: \maketitle +
+
+ + +

2.15.5 \title

+ +

+\title{text} + +

The \title command declares text to be the title. Use +\\ to tell LaTeX where to start a new line in a long title. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \maketitle, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.6 \pagenumbering

+ +

+\pagenumbering{num_style} + +

Specifies the style of page numbers. Possible values of num_style are: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \pagenumbering, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.7 \pagestyle

+ +

+\pagestyle{option} + +

The \pagestyle command changes the style from the current page on +throughout the remainder of your document. + +

The valid options are: + +

+ + + + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \pagestyle, +Up: \pagestyle +
+
+ + +

2.15.8 \markboth

+ +

+

     \markboth{left head}{right head}
+
+

The \markboth command is used in +conjunction with the page style myheadings for setting +both the left and the right heading. You should note that a “left-hand +heading” is generated by the last \markboth command before the +end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” is generated by the first +\markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is +one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \markboth, +Up: \pagestyle +
+
+ + +

2.15.9 \markright

+ +

+

     \markright{right head}
+
+

The \markright command is used in conjunction with the page style +myheadings for setting the right heading, leaving the left +heading unchanged. You should note that a “left-hand heading” is +generated by the last \markboth command before the end of the +page, while a “right-hand heading” is generated by the first +\markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is +one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \pagestyle, +Up: Page Styles +
+
+ + +

2.15.10 \thispagestyle

+ +

+\thispagestyle{option} + +

The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the +\pagestyle command except that it changes the style for the +current page only. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Page Styles, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.16 Sectioning

+ +

+Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units. + +

+ +

All sectioning commands take the same general form, i.e., + +

\chapter[optional]{title} + +

In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory argument +of the sectioning command can appear in two other places: + +

    +
  1. The table of contents +
  2. The running head at the top of the page +
+ +

You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two places as +appears in the text heading. To handle this situation, the sectioning +commands have an optional argument that provides the text for +these other two purposes. + +

All sectioning commands have *-forms that print a title, +but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of +contents. + +

+\appendix + +

The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are +numbered. The \appendix command generates no text and does not +affect the numbering of parts. +The normal use of this command is something like + +

     \chapter{The First Chapter}
+     ...
+     \appendix
+     \chapter{The First Appendix}
+
+ + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Sectioning, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.17 Spaces & Boxes

+ +

+All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + + +

Horizontal space +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.1 \dotfill

+ +

+The \dotfill command produces a “rubber length” that produces dots +instead of just spaces. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \dotfill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.2 \hfill

+ +

+The \hfill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with spaces. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hfill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.3 \hrulefill

+ +

+The \hrulefill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hrulefill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.4 \hspace

+ +

+\hspace[*]{length} + +

The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length of the +space can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., +points, inches, etc. You can add negative as well as positive space +with an \hspace command. Adding negative space is like +backspacing. + +

LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line. If you +don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * +argument. Then the space is never removed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \hspace, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.5 \addvspace

+ +

+\addvspace{length} + +

The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to length. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \addvspace, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.6 \bigskip

+ +

+The \bigskip command is equivalent to +\vspace{bigskipamount} where bigskipamount is determined +by the document class. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \bigskip, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.7 \medskip

+ +

+The \medskip command is equivalent to +\vspace{medskipamount} where medskipamount is determined +by the document class. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \medskip, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.8 \smallskip

+ +

+\smallskip + +

The \smallskip command is equivalent to +\vspace{smallskipamount} where smallskipamount is +determined by the document class. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \smallskip, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.9 \vfill

+ +

+The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can +stretch or shrink vertically. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \vfill, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.10 \vspace

+ +

+\vspace[*]{length} + +

The \vspace command adds vertical space. The length of the space +can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, +inches, etc. You can add negative as well as positive space with an +\vspace command. + +

LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page. If you +don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * +argument. Then the space is never removed. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \vspace, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.11 \fbox

+ +

+\fbox{text} + +

The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox +command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that +it creates. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \fbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.12 \framebox

+ +

+\framebox[width][position]{text} + +

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox +command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that +it creates. + +

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and +leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the +box. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \framebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.13 lrbox

+ +

+\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox} + +

This is the environment form of \sbox. + +

The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which +must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: lrbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.14 \makebox

+ +

+\makebox[width][position]{text} + +

The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain +the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the +optional width argument. The position of the text within the box +is determined by the optional position argument. + +

+ +

See \makebox (picture). + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \makebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.15 \mbox

+ +

+\mbox{text} + +

The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text +created by its argument. + +

Use this command to prevent text from being split across lines. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \mbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.16 \newsavebox

+ +

+\newsavebox{cmd} + +

Declares cmd, which must be a command name that is not already +defined, to be a bin for saving boxes. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \newsavebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.17 \parbox

+ +

+\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text} + +

A parbox is a box whose contents are created in paragraph +mode. The \parbox has two mandatory arguments: + +

+ +

LaTeX will position a parbox so its centre lines up with the centre of +the text line. The optional position argument allows you +to line up either the top or bottom line in the parbox (default is top). + +

If the height argument is not given, the box will have the natural +height of the text. + +

The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the +box. If it is not specified, position is used. + +

+ +

A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece +of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use +any of the paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox +argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a +paragraph-making environment, you should use a minipage +environment See minipage. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \parbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.18 \raisebox

+ +

+\raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text} + +

The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text. The first +mandatory argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or +lowered if it is a negative amount). The text itself is processed in +LR mode. + +

Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different +size than it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would +normally think it has. The \raisebox command lets you tell +LaTeX how tall it is. + +

The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think +that the text extends above the line by the amount specified. The +second optional argument, extend-below, makes LaTeX think that +the text extends below the line by the amount specified. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \raisebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.19 \rule

+ +

+\rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness} + +

The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines. The +arguments are defined as follows: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: \rule, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.20 \savebox

+ +

+

      \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}
+
+

This command typeset text in a box just as for \makebox. +However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin +cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \savebox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.21 \sbox

+ +

+\sbox{text} + +

This commands typeset text in a box just as for \mbox. +However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin +cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \sbox, +Up: Spaces & Boxes +
+
+ + +

2.17.22 \usebox

+ +

+\usebox{cmd} + +

Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a +\savebox command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Spaces & Boxes, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.18 Special Characters

+ +

+The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called +“special printing characters”, or simply “special characters”. + +

                            # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
+
+

Whenever you put one of these special characters into your file, you are +doing something special. If you simply want the character to be printed +just as any other letter, include a \ in front of the character. +For example, \$ will produce $ in your output. + +

One exception to this rule is the \ itself because \\ has +its own special meaning. A \ is produced by typing +$\backslash$ in your file. + +

Also, \~ means `place a tilde accent over the following letter', +so you will probably want to use \verb instead. + +

+In addition, you can access any character of a font once you know its +number by using the \symbol command. For example, the character +used for displaying spaces in the \verb* command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}. + +

You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers +with ", so the previous example could also be written as +\symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Special Characters, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.19 Splitting the Input

+ +

+ +

A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole +input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into +several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, +there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type +when you run LaTeX. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Splitting the Input, +Up: Splitting the Input +
+
+ + +

2.19.1 \include

+ +

+\include{file} + +

The \include command is used in conjunction with the +\includeonly command for selective inclusion of files. The +file argument is the first name of a file, denoting +file.tex. If file is one the file names in the file list +of the \includeonly command or if there is no \includeonly +command, the \include command is equivalent to + +

     \clearpage \input{file} \clearpage
+
+

except that if the file file.tex does not exist, then a warning +message rather than an error is produced. If the file is not in the +file list, the \include command is equivalent to \clearpage. + +

The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file +read by another \include command. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: \include, +Up: Splitting the Input +
+
+ + +

2.19.2 \includeonly

+ +

+\includeonly{file_list} + +

The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in by +an \include command. file_list should be a comma-separated +list of filenames. Each filename must match exactly a filename specified +in a \include command. This command can only appear in the +preamble. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \includeonly, +Up: Splitting the Input +
+
+ + +

2.19.3 \input

+ +

+\input{file} + +

The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and +processed, exactly as if its contents had been inserted in the current +file at that point. The file name may be a complete file name with +extension or just a first name, in which case the file file.tex +is used. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Splitting the Input, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.20 Starting & Ending

+ +

+Your input file must contain the following commands as a minimum: + +

      \documentclass{class}
+      \begin{document}
+        ... your text goes here ...
+      \end{document}
+
+

where the class selected is one of the valid classes for LaTeX. +See Document Classes, (and see Overview), for details of the +various document classes available locally. + +

You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentclass +and the \begin{document} commands (i.e., in the `preamble'). + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Starting & Ending, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.21 Table of Contents

+ +

+ +

A table of contents is produced with the +\tableofcontents +command. You put the command right where you want the table of contents +to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. It produces a heading, but it does +not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the +table of contents, include a \newpage command after the +\tableofcontents command. + +

There are similar commands +\listoffigures +and +\listoftables + for producing a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. +Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. + +

NOTE: If you want any of these items to be generated, you cannot have +the +\nofiles +command in your document. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Table of Contents, +Up: Table of Contents +
+
+ + +

2.21.1 \addcontentsline

+ +

+\addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry} + +

The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list +or table where: + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: \addcontentsline, +Up: Table of Contents +
+
+ + +

2.21.2 \addtocontents

+ +

+\addtocontents{file}{text} + +

The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly +to the file that generates the table of contents or list of figures or +tables. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Table of Contents, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.22 Terminal Input/Output

+ +

+ +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Up: Terminal Input/Output +
+
+ + +

2.22.1 \typein

+ +

+\typein[cmd]{msg} + +

Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for +you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the cmd +argument is missing, the typed input is processed as if it had been +included in the input file in place of the \typein command. If +the cmd argument is present, it must be a command name. This +command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: \typein, +Up: Terminal Input/Output +
+
+ + +

2.22.2 \typeout

+ +

+\typeout{msg} + +

Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. Commands +in msg that are defined with \newcommand or +\renewcommand are replaced by their definitions before being +printed. + +

LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as +a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to +msg. A \space command in msg causes a single space +to be printed. A ^^J in msg prints a newline. + + + + + +

+


+Previous: Terminal Input/Output, +Up: Commands +
+
+ + +

2.23 Typefaces

+ +

+The typeface is specified by giving the “size” and “style”. A +typeface is also called a “font”. + +

+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Typefaces, +Up: Typefaces +
+
+ + +

2.23.1 \Styles

+ +

+ +

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. + +

These commands are used like \textit{italics text}. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + +

The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say +\sffamily\bfseries to get sans serif boldface. + +

You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; e.g. +\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}. + +

+
\textrm (\rmfamily)
Roman. +
\textit (\itshape)

\emph
Emphasis (toggles between \textit and \textrm). +
\textmd (\mdseries)
Medium weight (default). The opposite of boldface. +
\textbf (\bfseries)
Boldface. +
\textup (\upshape)
Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. +
\textsl (\slshape)
Slanted. +
\textsf (\sffamily)
Sans serif. +
\textsc (\scshape)
Small caps. +
\texttt (\ttfamily)
Typewriter. +
\textnormal (\normalfont)
Main document font. +
\mathrm
Roman, for use in math mode. +
\mathbf
Boldface, for use in math mode. +
\mathsf
Sans serif, for use in math mode. +
\mathtt
Typewriter, for use in math mode. +
\mathit
Italics, for use in math mode, e.g. variable names with several letters. +
\mathnormal
For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. +
\mathcal
`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. +
+ +

In addition, the command +\mathversion{bold} +can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in +formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Styles, +Up: Typefaces +
+
+ + +

2.23.2 Sizes

+ +

+ +

The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. + +

The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the +declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of +the current group. + +

You can also use the environment form of these commands; e.g. +\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}. + +

+
\tiny
+
\scriptsize
+
\footnotesize
+
\small
+
\normalsize
(default) + +
\large
+
\Large
+
\LARGE
+
\huge
+
\Huge
+ + + + + +
+


+Previous: Sizes, +Up: Typefaces +
+
+ + +

2.23.3 Low-level font commands

+ +

+These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. For full details, you should consult Chapter 7 of The LaTeX +Companion. + +

+
\fontencoding{enc}
Select font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1. + +
\fontfamily{family}
Select font family. Valid families include: + +
    +
  • cmr for Computer Modern Roman +
  • cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif +
  • cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter +
+ +

and numerous others. + +

\fontseries{series}
Select font series. Valid series include: + +
    +
  • m Medium (normal) +
  • b Bold +
  • c Condensed +
  • bc Bold condensed +
  • bx Bold extended +
+ +

and various other combinations. + +

\fontshape{shape}
Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + +
    +
  • n Upright (normal) +
  • it Italic +
  • sl Slanted (oblique) +
  • sc Small caps +
  • ui Upright italics +
  • ol Outline +
+ +

The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + +

\fontsize{size}{skip}
Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to; the +second is the \baselineskip to use. The unit of both parameters +defaults to pt. A rule of thumb is that the baselineskip should be 1.2 +times the font size. + +
\selectfont
The changes made by calling the four font commands described above do +not come into effect until \selectfont is called. + +
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
Equivalent to calling \fontencoding, \fontfamily, +\fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters, followed by \selectfont. +
+ + + + + +
+


+Next: , +Previous: Commands, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

3 Parameters

+ +

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX +uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the input file +entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You specify command +options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g. + +

latex ``\scrollmode\input foo.tex'' + +

will process foo.tex without pausing after every error. + +

Output files are always created in the current directory. When you fail +to specify an input file name, TeX bases the output names on the file +specification associated with the logical name TEX_OUTPUT, typically +texput.log. + + + + + +

+


+Next: , +Previous: Parameters, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

Concept Index

+ + +
+


+Previous: Concept Index, +Up: Top +
+
+ + +

Command Index

+ + + + +
+

Table of Contents

+ +
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