From 310879a3c5868a81753450c3ca110fa3e1515d38 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Karl Berry Date: Sun, 15 Jun 2008 00:46:16 +0000 Subject: latex2e-help-texinfo update, unofficial latex reference manual; remove old instances; .info install done by hand git-svn-id: svn://tug.org/texlive/trunk@8743 c570f23f-e606-0410-a88d-b1316a301751 --- .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ChangeLog | 269 + .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/Makefile | 39 + .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/NEWS | 71 + .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/README | 13 + .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dbk | 6498 ++++++++++++++++ .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dvi | Bin 0 -> 594424 bytes .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.html | 7877 ++++++++++++++++++++ .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.pdf | Bin 0 -> 740914 bytes .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.texi | 6474 ++++++++++++++++ .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt | 5951 +++++++++++++++ .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.xml | 7105 ++++++++++++++++++ .../doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ltx-help.el | 270 + 12 files changed, 34567 insertions(+) create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ChangeLog create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/Makefile create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/NEWS create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/README create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dbk create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dvi create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.html create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.pdf create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.texi create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.xml create mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ltx-help.el (limited to 'Master/texmf-doc') diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ChangeLog b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ChangeLog new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..88a2c7beb97 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ChangeLog @@ -0,0 +1,269 @@ +2008-06-12 Karl Berry + + * 2.0 release for ctan.org/get/doc/latex-info, and TeX Live 2008. + +2007-11-05 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \put \raggedbottom + +2007-11-04 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \ps \psi \Psi \pushtabs + +2007-11-03 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \protect + +2007-10-29 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (math): \Pr \prec \preceq \prime \prod \propto. + +2007-10-28 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (Text symbols): \poptabs \pounds. + +2007-10-25 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \perp \phi \pi \Pi \pm \pmod + +2007-10-24 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \part \partial + +2007-10-23 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \parskip + +2007-10-22 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \parsep + +2007-10-21 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \parindent + +2007-10-20 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \parbox + +2007-10-17 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \paragraph \parallel + +2007-10-16 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \pagestyle + +2007-10-15 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \pagenumberingstyle \pageref + +2007-10-11 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \oplus \oslash \otimes + +2007-10-10 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \onecolumn \opening + +2007-10-08 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \dot \oe \OE \oint \omega \Omega \ominus + +2007-10-07 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (\oddsidemargin) + +2007-10-06 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \obeycr, \restorecr; split page/line breaking into + separate chapters. + +2007-10-05 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \not \notin \nu \nwarrow \o \O + +2007-10-04 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (\normalmarginpar \normalsize) + +2007-10-03 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \nopagebreak + +2007-06-27 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \flat \flushbottom + +2007-06-26 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \evensidemargin \exists \exp \fbox \fboxrule + \fboxsep + +2007-06-25 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \epsilon \equiv \eta + +2007-06-24 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \em \emptyset \encl + +2007-06-23 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \doublerulesep \downarrow \Downarrow \ell + +2007-06-22 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \dot \doteq \dotfill + +2007-06-21 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \displaystyle + +2007-06-20 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \deg \delta \Delta \det \diamond \Diamong + \diamondsuit \dim \div + +2007-06-19 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \ddag \ddagger \ddot + +2007-06-18 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \dblfloatpagefraction \dblfloatsep + \dbltextfloatsep \dbltopfraction + +2007-06-17 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \day \month \year; put xref chapter earlier. + +2007-06-16 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \dashbox \dashv \date + +2007-06-15 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \d \dag \dagger + +2007-06-14 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \cos \cosh \cot \coth \cup + +2007-06-13 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \cong \coprod \copyright + +2007-06-12 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \columnsep \columnseprule \columnwidth + +2007-06-11 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \cline \closing \clubsuit + +2007-06-03 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \chi \circ \circle[*] + +2007-06-01 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \centering \chapter \check + +2007-05-31 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \caption \cc \cdot \cdots + +2007-05-30 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \cal \cap + +2007-05-24 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \bottomfraction, \bowtie, \Box, \breve, \bullet, \c. + +2007-05-23 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \boldmath, \bot. + +2007-05-22 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (\bigskip, \bmod) + +2007-05-21 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (Math Symbols): \big operators + +2007-05-19 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (Using BibTeX): \bibliography, \bibliographystyle + +2007-05-18 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (\bf, \bibitem) + +2007-05-17 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (verse environment, \beta) + +2007-05-15 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (titlepage, verbatim): environments. + (\verb). + +2007-05-14 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (theorem): environment. + +2007-05-12 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (tabbing): environment. + +2007-04-12 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (\AT): new node for \@. + +2007-04-11 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (tabbing): \a' \a` \a= for accents. + +2007-04-10 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (Accents): \~ for tilde accent. + +2007-04-09 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \| + +2007-04-06 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \\ in its various contexts + +2007-04-02 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: macron accent + * latex2e.texi (Accents): \= for macron. + +2007-04-01 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: \: \; \< + +2007-03-30 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: through \. + +2007-03-28 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: remove unneeded @page, fix over/underfull boxes, etc. + +2007-03-27 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi: remove node pointers + * latex2e.texi: \*: discretionary multiplication. + +2007-03-21 Karl Berry + + * latex2e.texi (\SPACE): new node. + + * latex2e.texi: remove comments, single space after @node for ease + of searching. diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/Makefile b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/Makefile new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..f2ef4f052b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/Makefile @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +# Copyright 2006 Karl Berry. +# You may freely use, modify and/or distribute this file. +# Makefile for latexrefman. + +texi2dvi = texi2dvi --batch --tidy --build-dir=$*.t2dvi +texi2pdf = texi2pdf --batch --tidy --build-dir=$*.t2pdf +# +texi2docbook = makeinfo --docbook +texi2html = makeinfo --no-split --html +texi2info = makeinfo --no-split +texi2txt = makeinfo --no-split --plaintext -o $@ +texi2xml = makeinfo --xml + +%.pdf: %.texi + $(texi2pdf) $< +%.dvi: %.texi + $(texi2dvi) $< +%.dbk: %.texi + $(texi2docbook) -o $@ $< +%.html: %.texi + $(texi2html) $< +%.info: %.texi + $(texi2info) $< +%.txt: %.texi + $(texi2txt) $< +%.xml: %.texi + $(texi2xml) $< + +tex_output = latex2e.dvi latex2e.pdf +makeinfo_output = latex2e.info latex2e.html latex2e.txt latex2e.xml latex2e.dbk +all: makeinfo_output tex_output +makeinfo_output: $(makeinfo_output) +tex_output: $(tex_output) + +mostlyclean clean: + rm -rf latex2e.t2* + +realclean distclean: clean + rm -f $(all) diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/NEWS b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/NEWS new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..006d315db78 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/NEWS @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +NEWS for latex2e.texi, aka the latex2e-help-texinfo package. + +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Changes in release 2.0: + +After discussions with Torsten and Stephen Gilmore, maintainership of +this document has been handed off to me. See the README for more +project info. + +Dozens of missing commands added; all mathematical symbol commands in +basic LaTeX are now included. Also a few usage examples, template +documents, default values, and more. Of course plenty more work could +be done, contributions welcome. + +The Info file is now named latex2e.info, for consistency. ltx-help.el +updated accordingly. + +Derived files generated with the current TeX and Texinfo. + +Karl Berry (karl@freefriends.org), June 12 2008 + +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Changes in release 1.6: + +Some minor bug fixes; thanks to Piet van Oostrum and Ralf +Fassel for those. + +The node previously named 'List of Commands' is now named 'Command +Index' so that the Emacs command Info-index may work. Suggested by Ralf +Fassel. 'ltx-help.el' has therefore been updated. You _must_ use the +ltx-help.el included in this release with version 1.6 of latex2e.texi. +A bug has also been fixed in ltx-help.el; thanks to Kurt Hornik for +this. + +As always, bug reports and comments are welcome. + +Torsten Martinsen, April 24 1996 + +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Changes in release 1.3: + +A selection of low-level NFSS2 commands added. +A short description of how to use BibTeX. +Concept index cleaned up. +Function index should be complete now. +Better formatting. +Description of recommended naming conventions for labels. +Several minor omissions and errors fixed. + +Torsten Martinsen, March 13th 1995 + +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Changes in release 1.4: + +NOTE: The name of the generated Info file is now `latex' and not `latex2e'. +More commands added to function index (ahem). +Index generally improved. +A few omissions fixed. + +Torsten Martinsen, April 5th 1995 + +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Changes in release 1.5: + +All menu items now have one-line descriptions. +Major cleanup of next/previous links. +Some other minor cleanups. +NOTE that my mail address has changed. +Emacs Lisp file 'ltx-help.el' for use with AUC TeX included. + +Torsten Martinsen, April 9 1996 diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/README b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/README new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..66f243a1375 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/README @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +Copyright 2008 Karl Berry. +You may freely use, modify and/or distribute this file. + +This project is an attempt to write a reference manual for core LaTeX. +It is unofficial and the LaTeX Project members have not reviewed it. + +http://home.gna.org/latexrefman (the project home page) has more +information, including links to the current output in various formats, +sources, mailing lists, and other infrastructure. + +Help is most definitely wanted. (Search for "xx" in the source for just +a few of the known deficiencies.) Please email any bug reports, new +material, general discussion, whatever, to latexrefman-discuss@gna.org. diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dbk b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dbk new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..8d7d14494a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dbk @@ -0,0 +1,6498 @@ + + + +]> + + &latex;2e reference manual 2.0 + + + + + + + This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an +unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation +system. &latex; is a macro package for &tex;. + This was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS +Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by +George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The +&latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The +&latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl +Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges +using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and the +&latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway +and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as +&tex;niques number 10), as reference material (text was not +directly copied). + Copyright © 2007, 2008 Karl Berry. +Copyright © 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore. +Copyright © 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. + Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of +this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice +are preserved on all copies. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this +manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire +resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission +notice identical to this one. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual +into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. + + + + &latex;2e + This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an +unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation +system. It is intended to cover &latex;2e, which has been the +standard version of &latex; for many years. + Knuth, Donald E.Lamport, Leslie&latex; Project team&latex; is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's +&tex; typesetting program. &latex; was originally created by Leslie +Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers +(http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written +by the &latex; project is available there. Again, the present +document is unofficial and has not been reviewed by the &latex; +maintainers. + + + + Overview of &latex; + overview of &latex;&latex; overview +The &latex; command typesets a file of text using the &tex; program +and the &latex; “macro package” for &tex;. To be more specific, +it processes an input file containing the text of a document with +interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. +It produces at least three files as output: + + + A main output file, which is one of: + + + If invoked as latex, a “Device Independent” (.dvi) +file. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for +a variety of output devices. You can view such .dvi output of +&latex; by using a program such as xdvi (display directly) +or dvips (convert to PostScript). + + + If invoked as pdflatex, a “Portable Document Format” +(.pdf) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with +all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does +make the output much larger than the .dvi produced from the +same document. + + + There are other less-common variants of &latex; (and &tex;) as well, +which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. + + + A “transcript” or .log file that contains summary information and +diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. + + + An “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by &latex; itself, for +things such as sectioning. + + + A &latex; command begins with the command name, which consists of a +\ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a +single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], +are optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are +required. + &latex; is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless +explicitly directed to do otherwise. + + + + Starting & ending + starting & endingending & starting +A minimal input file looks like the following: + +\documentclass{class} +\begin{document} +your text +\end{document} + + where the class is a valid document class for &latex;. +See , for details of the various document classes +available locally. + preamble, definedYou may include other &latex; commands between the \documentclass +and the \begin{document} commands (this area is called the +preamble). + + + + Document classes + document classesclasses of documents\documentclass +The class of a given document is defined with the command: + +\documentclass[options]{class} + + The \documentclass command must be the first command in a +&latex; source file. + article classreport classbook classletter classslides classBuilt-in &latex; document class names are (many other document +classes are available as add-ons; see ): + +article report book letter slides + + + Standard options are described below. + + + Document class options + document class optionsoptions, document classclass optionsglobal options +You can specify so-called global options or class options +to the \documentclass command by enclosing them in square +brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate +them with a comma: + +\documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class} + + Here is the list of the standard class options. + 10pt option11pt option12pt optionAll of the standard classes except slides accept the following +options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt): + +10pt 11pt 12pt + + a4paper optiona5paper optionb5paper optionexecutivepaper optionlegalpaper optionletterpaper optionAll of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper +size (default is letterpaper): + +a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper + + draft optionfinal optionfleqn optionlandscape optionleqno optionopenbib optiontitlepage optionnotitlepage optionMiscellaneous other options: + + + draft, final + + black boxes, omittingmark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is final. + + + + fleqn + + Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. + + + + landscape + + Selects landscape format; default is portrait. + + + + leqno + + Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. + + + + openbib + + Use “open” bibliography format. + + + + titlepage, notitlepage + + Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. + + + + These options are not available with the slides class: + onecolumn optiontwocolumn optiononeside optiontwoside optionopenright optionopenany option + + + onecolumn + twocolumn + + Typeset in one or two columns; default is onecolumn. + + + + oneside + twoside + + \evensidemargin\oddsidemarginSelects one- or two-sided layout; default is oneside, except +for the book class. + The \evensidemargin (\oddsidemargin parameter determines +the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the +page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper +size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided +printing the text is centered, for two-sided, \oddsidemargin is +40% of the difference between \paperwidth and \textwidth +with \evensidemargin the remainder. + + + + openright + openany + + Determines if a chapter should start on a +right-hand page; default is openright for book. + + + + The slides class offers the option clock for printing +the time at the bottom of each note. + packages, loadingloading additional packages\usepackageAdditional packages are loaded like this: + +\usepackage[options]{pkg} + + To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a +comma, or use multiple \usepackage commands. + global optionsoptions, globalAny options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +\usepackage. + + + + + Typefaces + typefacesfonts +Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size +and a style. The &latex; commands for doing this are described here. + + + Font styles + font stylestypeface stylesstyles of text +The following type style commands are supported by &latex;. + These commands are used like \textit{italic text}. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either +\sffamily\bfseries or \bfseries\sffamily to get bold +sans serif. + You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance, +\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}. + + + \textrm (\rmfamily) + + \textrm\rmfamilyRoman. + + + + \textit (\itshape) + + \textit\itshapeItalics. + + + + \emph + + \emphemphasisEmphasis (switches between \textit and \textrm). + + + + \textmd (\mdseries) + + \textmd\mdseriesMedium weight (default). + + + + \textbf (\bfseries) + + \textbf\bfseriesBoldface. + + + + \textup (\upshape) + + \textup\upshapeUpright (default). The opposite of slanted. + + + + \textsl (\slshape) + + \textsl\slshapeSlanted. + + + + \textsf (\sffamily) + + \textsf\sffamilySans serif. + + + + \textsc (\scshape) + + \textsc\scshapeSmall caps. + + + + \texttt (\ttfamily) + + \texttt\ttfamilyTypewriter. + + + + \textnormal (\normalfont) + + \textnormal\normalfontMain document font. + + + + \mathrm + + \mathrmRoman, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathbf + + \mathbfBoldface, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathsf + + \mathsfSans serif, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathtt + + \mathttTypewriter, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathit + (\mit) + + Italics, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathnormal + + \mathnormalFor use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. + + + + \mathcal + + \mathcal`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. + + + + In addition, the command +\mathversion{bold} +\mathversioncan be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in +formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default. + &latex; also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to +the given style, that is, are not cumulative. They are used +differently than the above commands, too: {\cmd ...} +instead of \cmd{...}. These are two very different +things. + + + \bf + + bold fontSwitch to bold face. + + + + \cal + + script letters for mathcalligraphic letters for mathSwitch to calligraphic letters for math. + + + + \em + + emphasisEmphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). + + + + \it + + italic fontItalics. + + + + \rm + + roman fontRoman. + + + + \sc + + small caps fontSmall caps. + + + + \sf + + sans serif fontSans serif. + + + + \sl + + slanted fontoblique fontSlanted (oblique). + + + + \tt + + typewriter fontmonospace fontfixed-width fontTypewriter (monospace, fixed-width). + + + + + + + Font sizes + font sizestypeface sizessizes of text +The following standard type size commands are supported by &latex;. +The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font +size used (in points) with the ‘10pt’, ‘11pt’, and +‘12pt’ document size options, respectively (see ). + \tiny\scriptsize\footnotesize\small\normalsize\large\Large\LARGE\huge\Huge + + + + + + + + + Command + 10pt + 11pt + 12pt + + + + + \tiny + 5 + 6 + 6 + + + \scriptsize + 7 + 8 + 8 + + + \footnotesize + 8 + 9 + 10 + + + \small + 9 + 10 + 10.95 + + + \normalsize (default) + 10 + 10.95 + 12 + + + \large + 12 + 12 + 14.4 + + + \Large + 14.4 + 14.4 + 17.28 + + + \LARGE + 17.28 + 17.28 + 20.74 + + + \huge + 20.74 + 20.74 + 24.88 + + + \Huge + 24.88 + 24.88 + 24.88 + + + + + The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of +the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the +end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of +these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}. + + + + Low-level font commands + low-level font commandsfont commands, low-level +These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. + + + \fontencoding{enc} + + \fontencodingSelect font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1. + + + + \fontfamily{family} + + \fontfamilySelect font family. Valid families include: + + + cmr for Computer Modern Roman + + + cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif + + + cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter + + + and numerous others. + + + + \fontseries{series} + + \fontseriesSelect font series. Valid series include: + + + m Medium (normal) + + + b Bold + + + c Condensed + + + bc Bold condensed + + + bx Bold extended + + + and various other combinations. + + + + \fontshape{shape} + + \fontshapeSelect font shape. Valid shapes are: + + + n Upright (normal) + + + it Italic + + + sl Slanted (oblique) + + + sc Small caps + + + ui Upright italics + + + ol Outline + + + The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + + + + \fontsize{size}{skip} + + \fontsize\baselineskipSet font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and +the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter +named \baselineskip. The unit of both parameters defaults to +pt. The default \baselineskip for the Computer Modern typeface +is 1.2 times the \fontsize. + \baselinestretchsetspace packageThe line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the +\baselinestretch parameter when the type size changes; the +default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document, +if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the +setspace package; see +http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace. + + + + \selectfont + + \selectfontThe changes made by calling the four font commands described above do +not come into effect until \selectfont is called. + + + + \usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape} + + \usefontThe same as invoking \fontencoding, \fontfamily, +\fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters, +followed by \selectfont. + + + + + + + + Layout + layout commands +Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + + + <literal>\onecolumn</literal> + \onecolumnone-column output +The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. This is the default. + + + + <literal>\twocolumn</literal> + \twocolumnmulticolumn texttwo-column output +Synopsis: + +\twocolumn[text1col] + + The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present, +it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting +starts. + These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: + + + \columnsep + + The distance between columns (35pt by default). + + + + \columnseprule + + The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. + + + + \columnwidth + + The width of the current column; this is equal to \textwidth in +single-column text. + + + + These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: + + + \dbltopfraction + + Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied +by floats. Default ‘.7’, can be usefully redefined to (say) +‘.9’ to avoid going to float pages so soon. + + + + \dblfloatpagefraction + + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, +for a two-column float page. Default ‘.5’. + + + + \dblfloatsep + + Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float +page. Default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for ‘10pt’ and +‘11pt’ documents, ‘14pt plus2pt minus4pt’ for ‘12pt’. + + + + \dbltextfloatsep + + Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page +and the main text. Default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’. + + + + + + + <literal>\flushbottom</literal> + \flushbottom +The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same +height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the +page. + This is the default if twocolumn mode is selected +(see ). + + + + <literal>\raggedbottom</literal> + \raggedbottomstretch, omitting vertical +The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the natural +height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be +stretched. + + + + Page layout parameters + page layout parametersparameters, page layoutlayout, page parameters forheader, parameters forfooter, parameters forrunning header and footer + + + \headheight + + Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is +‘30pt’, except in the book class, where it varies with the +type size. + + + + \headsep + + Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of +the main text. Default is ‘25pt’, except in the book +class, where it varies with the type size. + + + + \footskip + + Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of +the page footer. Default is ‘30pt’, except in the book +class, where it varies with the type size. + + + + \linewidth + + Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, +paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an article document in +‘10pt’, it's set to ‘345pt’; in two-column mode, that +becomes ‘229.5pt’. + + + + \textheight + + The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with +the font size, document class, etc. For an article or +report document in ‘10pt’, it's set to +‘43\baselineskip’; for book, it's ‘41\baselineskip’. +For ‘11pt’, it's ‘38\baselineskip’ and for ‘12pt’, +‘36\baselineskip’. + + + + \textwidth + + The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as +usual. For an article or report document, it's +‘345pt’ at ‘10pt’, ‘360pt’ at ‘11pt’, and +‘390pt’ at ‘12pt’. For a book document, it's +‘4.5in’ at ‘10pt’, and ‘5in’ at ‘11pt’ or ‘12pt’. + + + + \topmargin + + Space between the top of the &tex; page (one inch from the top of the +paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed +based on many other parameters: \paperheight − 2in − +\headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip, and +then divided by two. + + + + \topskip + + Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of +the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the +same as the font size, e.g., ‘10pt’ at ‘10pt’. + + + + + + + + Sectioning + sectioning +Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: + + + \part + \chapter + + (report and book class only) + + + + \section + \subsection + \subsubsection + \paragraph + \subparagraph + + + All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., + +\chapter[toctitle]{title} + + In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the +section title can appear in two other places: + + + The table of contents. + + + The running head at the top of the page. + + + You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. +To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument +toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other +places. + *-form of sectioning commandsAlso, all sectioning commands have *-forms that print +title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an +entry in the table of contents. For instance: + +\section*{Preamble} + + \appendixappendix, creatingThe \appendix command changes the way following sectional units +are numbered. The \appendix command itself generates no text +and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this +command is something like + +\chapter{A Chapter} +… +\appendix +\chapter{The First Appendix} + + + + + Cross references + cross references +One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.” + + + <literal>\label</literal> + \label +Synopsis: + +\label{key} + + A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to +key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing +inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key. + A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. + To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by +a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: + + + ch + + for chapters + + + + sec + + for lower-level sectioning commands + + + + fig + + for figures + + + + tab + + for tables + + + + eq + + for equations + + + + Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:snark or +fig.snark. + + + + <literal>\pageref{<replaceable>key</replaceable>}</literal> + \pagerefcross referencing with page numberpage number, cross referencing +Synopsis: + +\pageref{key} + + The \pageref{key} command produces the page number of +the place in the text where the corresponding +\label{key} command appears. + + + + <literal>\ref{<replaceable>key</replaceable>}</literal> + \refcross referencing, symbolicsection number, cross referencingequation number, cross referencingfigure number, cross referencingfootnote number, cross referencing +Synopsis: + +\ref{key} + + The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation, footnote, figure, …, of the corresponding +\label command (see ). It does not produce any text, +such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. + + + + + Environments + environments +\begin\end +&latex; provides many environments for marking off certain text. +Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: + +\begin{envname} +... +\end{envname} + + + <literal>abstract</literal> + abstract environmentabstracts +Synopsis: + +\begin{abstract} +... +\end{abstract} + + Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. + + + + <literal>array</literal> + array environmentarrays, math +Synopsis: + +\begin{array}{template} +col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\ +... +\end{array} + + Math arrays are produced with the array environment, normally +within an equation environment (see ). It has a +single mandatory template argument describing the number of +columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is +specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should +be formatted, as follows: + + + c + + centered + + + + l + + flush left + + + + r + + flush right + + + + \\ (for array)Column entries are separated by &. Column entries may include +other &latex; commands. Each row of the array is terminated with +\\. + @{...}In the template, the construct @{text} puts text +between columns in each row. + Here's an example: + +\begin{equation} + \begin{array}{lrc} + left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ + left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ + \end{array} +\end{equation} + + \arraycolsepThe \arraycolsep parameter defines half the width of the space +separating columns; the default is ‘5pt’. See , for other +parameters which affect formatting in array environments, +namely \arrayrulewidth and \arraystretch. + The array environment can only be used in math mode. + + + + <literal>center</literal> + center environmentcentering text, environment for +Synopsis: + +\begin{center} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +\end{center} + + \\ (for center)The center environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right +margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the +string \\. + + + <literal>\centering</literal> + \centeringcentering text, declaration for +The \centering declaration corresponds to the center +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as quote or in a parbox. Thus, the text of a figure or +table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering +command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. + Unlike the center environment, the \centering command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how &latex; formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of +the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of +an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + Here's an example: + +\begin{quote} +\centering +first line \\ +second line \\ +\end{quote} + + + + + + <literal>description</literal> + description environmentlabelled lists, creatingdescription lists, creating +Synopsis: + +\begin{description} +\item [label1] item1 +\item [label2] item2 +... +\end{description} + + \itemThe description environment is used to make labelled lists. Each +label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may +contain multiple paragraphs. + bold typewriter, avoidingtypewriter labels in listsAnother variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if +you typeset a label in typewriter using \texttt, you'll get +bold typewriter: \item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]. This +may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use +\tt, which resets all other style variations: \item[{\tt +plain typewriter}]. + For details about list spacing, see . + + + + <literal>displaymath</literal> + displaymath environment +Synopsis: + +\begin{displaymath} +math +\end{displaymath} + + or + +\[math\] + + The displaymath environment (\[...\] is a synonym) +typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default. +The global fleqn option makes equations flush left; see +. + No equation number is added to displaymath text; to get an +equation number, use the equation environment (see ). + + + + <literal>document</literal> + document environment +The document environment encloses the body of a document. +It is required in every &latex; document. See . + + + + <literal>enumerate</literal> + enumerate environmentlists of items, numbered +Synopsis: + +\begin{enumerate} +\item item1 +\item item2 +... +\end{enumerate} + + The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as +itemize (see ) and description +(see ). + \itemEach item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: + + + 1., 2., … + + + (a), (b), … + + + i., ii., … + + + A., B., … + + + \enumi\enumii\enumiii\enumivThe enumerate environment uses the counters \enumi +through \enumiv counters (see ). If the optional +argument to \item is given, the counter is not incremented for +that item. + \labelenumi\labelenumii\labelenumiii\labelenumivThe enumerate environment uses the commands \labelenumi +through \labelenumiv to produce the default label. So, you can +use \renewcommand to change the labels (see ). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase +letters: + \Alph example + +\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}} + + + + + <literal>eqnarray</literal> + eqnarray environmentequations, aligningaligning Equations + +\begin{eqnarray} (or eqnarray*) +formula1 \\ +formula2 \\ +... +\end{eqnarray} + + \\ (for eqnarray)The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column +array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ +and consecutive items within a row separated by an &. + \\* (for eqnarray)\\* can also be used to separate equations, with its normal +meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. + \nonumberequation numbers, omittingAn equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +\nonumber command. Alternatively, The *-form of the +environment (\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}) will +omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as +eqnarray. + \lefteqnThe command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + + + + <literal>equation</literal> + equation environmentequations, environment forformulas, environment for +Synopsis: + +\begin{equation} +math +\end{equation} + + The equation environment starts a displaymath +environment (see ), e.g., centering the math text +on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin. + + + + <literal>figure</literal> + figureinserting figuresfigures, inserting + +\begin{figure}[placement] +figbody +\label{label} +\caption[loftitle]{text} +\end{figure} + + Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + The optional argument [placement] determines where &latex; will try +to place your figure. There are four places where &latex; can possibly +put a float: + + + h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure +environment appears. + + + t (Top) - at the top of a text page. + + + b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. + + + p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. + + + The standard report and article classes use the default placement +tbp. + The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc. +you wish. + \captionThe \caption command specifies caption text for the +figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is +present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text +(see ). + + + <indexterm role="fn"><primary>\bottomfraction</primary></indexterm>The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats atthe bottom; default ‘<literal>.3</literal>’. + + \floatpagefraction + + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; +default ‘.5’. + + + + \floatsep + + Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default +‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’. + + + + \intextsep + + Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default +‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for ‘10pt’ and ‘11pt’ styles, +‘14pt plus4pt minus4pt’ for ‘12pt’. + + + + \textfloatsep + + Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; +default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’. + + + + \textfraction + + Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too +much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a +different page. The default is ‘.2’. + + + + \topfraction + + Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before +floats; default is ‘.7’. + + + + + + + <literal>flushleft</literal> + flushleft environmentleft-justifying text, environment forragged right text, environment for + +\begin{flushleft} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +... +\end{flushleft} + + \\ for flushleftThe flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged +right Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + + + <literal>\raggedright</literal> + \raggedrightragged right textleft-justifying textjustification, ragged right +The \raggedright declaration corresponds to the +flushleft environment. This declaration can be used inside an +environment such as quote or in a parbox. + Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright +command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; +formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the +scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end +command that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + <literal>flushright</literal> + flushright environmentragged left text, environment forright-justifying text, environment for + +\begin{flushright} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +... +\end{flushright} + + \\ (for flushright)The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged +left. Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + + + <literal>\raggedleft</literal> + \raggedleftragged left textjustification, ragged leftright-justifying text +The \raggedleft declaration corresponds to the +flushright environment. This declaration can be used inside an +environment such as quote or in a parbox. + Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft +command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; +formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the +scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end +command that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + + <literal>itemize</literal> + itemize environment\itemlists of itemsunordered listsbulleted lists +Synopsis: + +\begin{itemize} +\item item1 +\item item2 +... +\end{itemize} + + The itemize environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted” +list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four +levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making +environments, such as enumerate (see ). + Each item of an itemize list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + By default, the marks at each level look like this: + + + + + + -- (bold en-dash) + + + * + + + . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) + + + \labelitemi\labelitemii\labelitemiii\labelitemivThe itemize environment uses the commands \labelitemi +through \labelitemiv to produce the default label. So, you can +use \renewcommand to change the labels. For instance, to have +the first level use diamonds: + +\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} + + \leftmargin\leftmargini\leftmarginii\leftmarginiii\leftmarginiv\leftmarginv\leftmarginviThe \leftmargini through \leftmarginvi parameters define +the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and +the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin is set +to the appropriate \leftmarginN when a new level of +nesting is entered. + The defaults vary from ‘.5em’ (highest levels of nesting) to +‘2.5em’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. +This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: + +\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em + + + Some parameters that affect list formatting: + + + \itemindent + + Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. + + + + \labelsep + + Space between the label and text of an item; default ‘.5em’. + + + + \labelwidth + + Width of the label; default ‘2em’, or ‘1.5em’ in two-column mode. + + + + \listparindent + + Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a +list item; default ‘0pt’. + + + + \rightmargin + + Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the +enclosing environment; default ‘0pt’, except in the quote, +quotation, and verse environments, where it is set equal +to \leftmargin. + + + + Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather +loose, by default). + + + \itemsep + + Vertical space between items. The default is 2pt plus1pt +minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt for +11pt, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt for 12pt. + + + + \parsep + + Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults +are the same as \itemsep. + + + + \topsep + + Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. +The default is 4pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt documents, +6pt plus2pt minus2pt for 11pt, and 9pt plus3pt +minus5pt for 12pt. + + + + \partopsep + + Extra space added to \topsep when the list environment starts a +paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt +documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 3pt +plus2pt minus2pt for 12pt. + + + + \topsep + + Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list +item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; for +instance, within a first-level list at ‘10pt’, it is ‘4pt +plus2pt minus2pt’. + + + + \parskip exampleEspecially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide +space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize* +environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs +within a single item (\parskip is not list-specific, +see ): + +\newenvironment{itemize*}% + {\begin{itemize}% + \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% + \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% + \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% + {\end{itemize}} + + + + + <literal>letter</literal> environment: writing letters + letter +This environment is used for creating letters. See . + + + + <literal>list</literal> + listlists of items, generic +The list environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + +\begin{list}{labeling}{spacing} +\item item1 +\item item2 +... +\end{list} + + The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be +labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item). +This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. It can and usually does contain other &latex; commands. + The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the +spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be +empty, i.e., {}, which leaves the default spacing. + + + + <literal>math</literal> + math environmentin-line formulas +Synopsis: + +\begin{math} +math +\end{math} + + The math environment inserts the given math within the +running text. \(...\)) and $...$ are synonyms. +See . + + + + <literal>minipage</literal> + minipage environmentminipage, creating a + +\begin{minipage}[position]{width} +text +\end{minipage} + + The minipage environment typesets its body text in a +block that will not be broken across pages (similar to the +\parbox command, see ). You may use other +paragraph-making environments inside a minipage (unlike \parbox). + + It takes an optional position argument for placing text, +and a mandatory width argument for specifying the line width. + indentation of paragraphs, in minipageparagraph indentation, in minipage\parindentBy default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage +environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as +\setlength{\parindent}{1pc} command. + footnotes in figuresfigures, footnotes inFootnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at +the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it +uses the \mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary +footnote counter (see ). + However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using +footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + + + + <literal>picture</literal> + picturecreating picturespictures, creating + +\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) +… picture commands … +\end{picture} + + \unitlengthThe picture environment allows you to create just about any +kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. +You tell &latex; where to put things in the picture by specifying +their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal +point and a minus sign—a number like 5, 0.3 or +-3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the +unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set +to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 +centimeters. You should only change the value of \unitlength, +using the \setlength command, outside of a picture +environment. + A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying +the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. +Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, +which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that +when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; +the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + The picture environment also has an optional position +argument, following the size argument, that can change the +origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not +contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the +coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture +(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength +has been set to 1mm, the command + + \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) + + produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 +millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the +picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; +&latex; will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even +off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by &latex; in determining +how much room to leave for it. + Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put +command. The command + +\put (11.3,-.3){...} + + puts the object specified by ... in the +picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). +The reference points for various objects will be described below. + lR boxThe \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything +that can go in an \mbox (see ) in the text argument of +the \put command. When you do this, the reference point will +be the lower left corner of the box. + The picture commands are described in the following sections. + + + <literal>\circle</literal> + \circle + +\circle[*]{diameter} + + The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close +to the specified one as possible. The *-form of the command +draws a solid circle. + Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + + + + <literal>\makebox</literal> + \makebox (picture) +\makebox(width,height)[position]{...} + The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to +the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a +width and height in multiples of \unitlength. + The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + + + t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle + + + b - Moves the item to the bottom + + + l - Moves the item to the left + + + r - Moves the item to the right + + + See . + + + + <literal>\framebox</literal> + \framebox +Synopsis: + +\framebox(width,height)[pos]{...} + + The \framebox command is like \makebox (see previous +section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box +that it creates. + \fboxrule\fboxsepThe \framebox command produces a rule of thickness +\fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule +and the contents of the box. + + + + <literal>\dashbox</literal> + \dashbox +Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: + +\dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text} + + \dashbox creates a dashed rectangle around text in a +picture environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the +rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight. +The text is positioned at optional pos. + +A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are +multiples of the dlen. + + + + <literal>\frame</literal> + \frame +Synopsis: + +\frame{text} + + The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around text. +The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra +space is put between the frame and the object. + + + + <literal>\line</literal> + \line +Synopsis: + +\line(xslope,yslope){length} + + The \line command draws a line with the given length and +slope xslope/yslope. + Standard &latex; can only draw lines with slope = x/y, +where x and y have integer values from −6 +through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes, +see the curve2e and many many other packages on CTAN. + + + + <literal>\linethickness</literal> + \linethickness +The \linethickness{dim} command declares the thickness +of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be +dim, which must be a positive length. + \linethickness does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, +circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval. + + + + <literal>\thicklines</literal> + \thicklines +The \thicklines command is an alternate line thickness for +horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; +cf.  and . + + + + <literal>\thinlines</literal> + \thinlines +The \thinlines command is the default line thickness for +horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; +cf.  and . + + + + <literal>\multiput</literal> + \multiput +Synopsis: + +\multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj} + + The \multiput command copies the object obj in a regular +pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position +(x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, +n times. + + + + <literal>\oval</literal> + \oval +Synopsis: + +\oval(width,height)[portion] + + The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. +The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the +oval via the following: + + + t + + selects the top portion; + + + + b + + selects the bottom portion; + + + + r + + selects the right portion; + + + + l + + selects the left portion. + + + + The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a +maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like +boxes with rounded corners. + + + + <literal>\put</literal> + \put +\put(x coord,y coord){ ... } + The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + + + + <literal>\shortstack</literal> + \shortstack +Synopsis: + +\shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...} + + The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + + + r + + Move the objects to the right of the stack. + + + + l + + Move the objects to the left of the stack + + + + c + + Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) + + + + \\ (for \shortstack objects)Objects are separated with \\. + + + + <literal>\vector</literal> + \vector +Synopsis: + +\vector(x-slope,y-slope){length} + + The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The x and y values must lie between +−4 and +4, inclusive. + + + + + <literal>quotation</literal> + quotationquoted text with paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text with paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text +Synopsis: + +\begin{quotation} +text +\end{quotation} + + The margins of the quotation environment are indented on both +the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. +Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + Unlike the quote environment, each paragraph is indented +normally. + + + + <literal>quote</literal> + quotequoted text without paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text without paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text, omitting +Snyopsis: + +\begin{quote} +text +\end{quote} + + The margins of the quote environment are indented on both the +left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a +blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + Unlike the quotation environment, paragraphs are not indented. + + + + <literal>tabbing</literal> + tabbing environmenttab stops, usinglining text up in columns using tab stopsalignment via tabbing +Synopsis: + +\begin{tabbing} +row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\ +row2col1 \> \> row2col3 \\ +... +\end{tabbing} + + The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in +columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as +was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where +the width of each column is constant and known in advance. + This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular +environment. + The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment: + + + \\ tabbing + + End a line. + + + + \= (tabbing) + + Sets a tab stop at the current position. + + + + \> (tabbing) + + \>Advances to the next tab stop. + + + + \< + + Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing +the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. + + + + \+ + + Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if +necessary. + + + + \- + + Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if +necessary. + + + + \' (tabbing) + + Moves everything that you have typed so far in the +current column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, +\<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right +of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. + + + + \` (tabbing) + + Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab +stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column +because there's no tab stop there. The \` command moves all the +text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} +command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing +environment. There must be no \> or \' command between +the \` and the command that ends the line. + + + + \a (tabbing) + + \a' (acute accent in tabbing)\a` (grave accent in tabbing)\a= (macron accent in tabbing)In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and +\` do not produce accents as usual (see ). Instead, +the commands \a=, \a' and \a` are used. + + + + \kill + + Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\ +except that it throws away the current line instead of producing +output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \- +commands in that line remain in effect. + + + + \poptabs + + \poptabsRestores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs. + + + + \pushtabs + + Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing +tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing environment. + + + + \tabbingsep + + Distance to left of tab stop moved by \'. + + + + This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + +\begin{tabbing} +function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ + \> begin \= \+ \\ + \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ + fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ + else \+ \\ + fact := 1; \-\- \\ + end;\\ +\end{tabbing} + + + + + <literal>table</literal> + tabletables, creatingcreating tables +Synopsis: + + \begin{table}[placement] + + body of the table + + \caption{table title} + \end{table} + + Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + The optional argument [placement] determines where &latex; will try +to place your table. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put +a float: + + + h: Here - at the position in the text where the table +environment appears. + + + t: Top - at the top of a text page. + + + b: Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. + + + p: Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. + + + The standard report and article classes use the default +placement [tbp]. + The body of the table is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc., +you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table. + + + + <literal>tabular</literal> + tabular environmentlines in tableslining text up in tables +Synopsis: + +\begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} +column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ +... +\end{tabular} + + or + +\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} +column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ +... +\end{tabular*} + + These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. + \\ for tabular\\ must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, +except for the last, where it is optional—unless an \hline +command (to put a rule below the table) follows. + The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: + + + width + + Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There must be +rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified +width. + + + + pos + + Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of +the environment. + + + t - align on top row + + + b - align on bottom row + + + + + + cols + + Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the +following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and +intercolumn material. + + + l - A column of left-aligned items. + + + r - A column of right-aligned items. + + + c - A column of centred items. + + + | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. + + + @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression +suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any +desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be +included in text. An \extracolsep{wd} command in an +@-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the +left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another +\extracolsep command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this +extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An +\extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the +cols argument. + + + p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of +width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} +command. However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in the +following situations: + + + inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular. + + + inside an explicit \parbox. + + + in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft +declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an +environment when used in a p-column element. + + + + + *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of +cols, where num is any positive integer and cols is +any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another +*-expression. + + + + + + Parameters that control formatting: + + + + \arrayrulewidth + + Thickness of the rule created by |, \hline, and +\vline in the tabular and array environments; the +default is ‘.4pt’. + + + + \arraystretch + + Scaling of spacing between rows in the tabular and array +environments; default is ‘1’,for no scaling. + + + + \doublerulesep + + Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by || +in the tabular and array environments; default is ‘2pt’. + + + + \tabcolsep + + Half the width of the space between columns; default is ‘6pt’. + + + + These commands can be used inside a tabular environment: + + + <literal>\multicolumn</literal> + \multicolumn +Synopsis: + +\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text} + + The \multicolumn command makes an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the +number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, +specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centered, l +for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument, +text, specifies what text to put in the entry. + Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; +\multicolumn is used for the heading: + +\begin{tabular}{r@{--}l} +\multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr + 0x80&0x7FF \cr + 0x800&0xFFFF \cr +0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr +\end{tabular} + + + + + <literal>\cline</literal> + \cline +Synopsis: + +\cline{i-j} + + The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, +which are specified in the mandatory argument. + + + + <literal>\hline</literal> + \hline +The \hline command draws a horizontal line the width of the +enclosing tabular or array environment. It's most +commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows +of a table. + + + + <literal>\vline</literal> + \vline +The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to +move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@-expression. + + + + + <literal>thebibliography</literal> + thebibliographybibliography, creating (manually) +Synopsis: + +\begin{thebibliography}{widest-label} +\bibitem[label]{cite_key} +... +\end{thebibliography} + + The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. + In the article class, this reference list is labelled +“References”; in the report class, it is labelled +“Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes) +by redefining the command \refname. For instance, this +eliminates it entirely: + +\renewcommand{\refname}{} + + The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset, +is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem +commands. It is typically given as 9 for bibliographies with +less than 10 references, 99 for ones with less than 100, etc. + + + <literal>\bibitem</literal> + \bibitem +Synopsis: + +\bibitem[label]{cite_key} + + The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by +label. If the label argument is missing, a number is +automatically generated using the enumi counter. The +cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation +symbols not containing a comma. + This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the +item's cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by +the \begin{document} command, the item's label is +associated with cite_key, causing references to cite_key +with a \cite command (see next section) to produce the +associated label. + + + + <literal>\cite</literal> + \cite +Synopsis: + +\cite[subcite]{keys + + The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, +separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to +the references associated with keys by entries in the +.aux file. + The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the +citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth} might produce +`[Knuth, p. 314]'. + + + + <literal>\nocite</literal> + \nocite +\nocite{key_list} + The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, +which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file. + + + + Using Bib&tex; + using Bib&tex;bib&tex;, usingbibliography, creating (automatically)\bibliographystyle\bibliography +If you use the Bib&tex; program by Oren Patashnik (highly +recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of +titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the +thebibliography environment (see ). Instead, +you include the lines + +\bibliographystyle{bibstyle} +\bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2} + + The \bibliographystyle command does not produce any output of +its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will +be produced: bibstyle refers to a file +bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look. +The standard style names distributed with Bib&tex; are: + + + alpha + + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of +publication. + + + + plain + + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. + + + + unsrt + + Like plain, but entries are in order of citation. + + + + abbrv + + Like plain, but more compact labels. + + + + In addition, numerous other Bib&tex; style files exist tailored to +the demands of various publications. See +http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib. + The \bibliography command is what actually produces the +bibliography. The argument to \bibliography refers to files +named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in +Bib&tex; format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and +\nocite will be listed in the bibliography. + + + + + <literal>theorem</literal> + theorem environmenttheorems, typesetting +Synopsis: + +\begin{theorem} +theorem-text +\end{theorem} + + The theorem environment produces “Theorem n” in +boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering +possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem +(see ). + + + + <literal>titlepage</literal> + titlepage environmentmaking a title pagetitle pages, creating +Synopsis: + +\begin{titlepage} +text +\end{titlepage} + + The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e., a page +with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following +page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to +you. The \today command may be useful on title pages +(see ). + You can use the \maketitle command (see ) to +produce a standard title page without a titlepage environment. + + + + <literal>verbatim</literal> + verbatim environmentverbatim textsimulating typed texttyped text, simulatingcode, typesettingcomputer programs, typesetting +Synopsis: + +\begin{verbatim} +literal-text +\end{verbatim} + + The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment in +which &latex; produces exactly what you type in; for instance the +\ character produces a printed ‘\’. It turns &latex; +into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same +effect that they would on a typewriter. + The verbatim uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt). + + + <literal>\verb</literal> + \verbverbatim text, inline +Synopsis: + +\verbcharliteral-textchar +\verb*charliteral-textchar + + The \verb command typesets literal-text as it is input, +including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter +(\tt) font. No spaces are allowed between \verb or +\verb* and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the +verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text. + visible spaceThe *-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a +“visible space” character. + + + + + <literal>verse</literal> + verse environmentpoetry, an environment for +Synopsis: + +\begin{verse} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +... +\end{verse} + + The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + \\ for verseThe margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not +indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each +stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to separate the +stanzas. + + + + + Footnotes + footnotes, creating +Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced +with one command, the \footnote command. They can also be +produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the +\footnotetext commands. + + + <literal>\footnote</literal> + \footnote +Synopsis: + +\footnote[number]{text} + + The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text +at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument number +changes the default footnote number. + This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you +cannot use it in sectioning commands like \chapter, in figures, +tables or in a tabular environment. (See following sections.) + + + + + <literal>\footnotemark</literal> + \footnotemark +With no optional argument, the \footnotemark command puts the +current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in +inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, +with the \footnotetext command. + This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote +markers referring to the same footnote with + +\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] + + after the first \footnote command. + + + + <literal>\footnotetext</literal> + \footnotetext +Synopsis: + +\footnotetext[number]{text} + + The \footnotetext command places text at the bottom of +the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the +\footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must +appear in outer paragraph mode. + The optional argument number changes the default footnote number. + + + + Footnote parameters + footnote parameters + + + \footnoterule + + Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's +footnotes. Default dimensions: 0.4pt thick (or wide), and +0.4\columnwidth long in the standard document classes (except +slides, where it does not appear). + + + + \footnotesep + + The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By +default, this is set to the normal strut for \footnotesize +fonts (see ), therefore there is no extra space between +footnotes. This is ‘6.65pt’ for ‘10pt’, ‘7.7pt’ for +‘11pt’, and ‘8.4pt’ for ‘12pt’. + + + + + + + + Definitions + definitions +&latex; has support for making new commands of many different kinds. + + + <literal>\newcommand</literal> & <literal>\renewcommand</literal> + \newcommandcommands, defining new onesdefining a new commandnew commands, defining +\newcommand and \renewcommand define and redefine a +command, respectively. Synopses: + + \newcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn} +\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn} + \newcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn} +\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn} + + + + cmd + + The command name beginning with \. For \newcommand, it +must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for +\renewcommand, it must already be defined. + + + + nargs + + An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments +that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no +arguments. + + + + default + + If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's +first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the +default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not specified +in the call) is the string ‘def’. + + + + defn + + The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a +construct of the form #n in defn is replaced by the +text of the nth argument. + + + + + + + <literal>\newcounter</literal> + \newcountercounters, defining new +Synopsis: + +\newcounter{cnt}[countername] + + The \newcounter command defines a new counter named cnt. +The new counter is initialized to zero. + Given the optional argument [countername], cnt +will be reset whenever countername is incremented. + See , for more information about counters. + + + + <literal>\newlength</literal> + \newlengthlengths, defining new +Synopsis: + +\newlength{\arg} + + The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument as a +length command with a value of 0in. The argument must +be a control sequence, as in \newlength{\foo}. An error +occurs if \foo is already defined. + See , for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and +for more information about lengths in general. + + + + <literal>\newsavebox</literal> + \newsavebox +Synopsis: + +\newsavebox{cmd} + + Defines \cmd, which must be a command name not already +defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. + + + + <literal>\newenvironment</literal> & <literal>\renewenvironment</literal> + \newenvironment\renewenvironmentenvironments, definingdefining new environmentsredefining environments +Synopses: + + \newenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef} + \newenvironment{env}[nargs][default]{begdef}{enddef} +\renewenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef} + + These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is, +\begin{env} … \end{env}. + + + env + + The name of the environment. For \newenvironment, env +must not be an existing environment, and the command \env +must be undefined. For \renewenvironment, env must be +the name of an existing environment. + + + + nargs + + An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of +the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + + + + default + + If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default +gives the default value for that argument. + + + + begdef + + The text expanded at every occurrence of \begin{env}; a +construct of the form #n in begdef is replaced by +the text of the nth argument. + + + + enddef + + The text expanded at every occurrence of \end{env}. It +may not contain any argument parameters. + + + + + + + <literal>\newtheorem</literal> + \newtheoremtheorems, definingdefining new theorems + +\newtheorem{newenv}{label}[within] +\newtheorem{newenv}[numbered_like]{label} + + This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: + + + newenv + + The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an +existing environment or otherwise defined. + + + + label + + The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the +number. For example, ‘Theorem’. + + + + numbered_like + + (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; +the new environment will be numbered just like numbered_like. + + + + within + + (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. +The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the +within counter. + + + + At most one of numbered_like and within can be specified, +not both. + + + + <literal>\newfont</literal> + \newfontfonts, new commands fordefining new fonts +Synopsis: + +\newfont{cmd}{fontname} + + Defines a control sequence \cmd, which must not already +be defined, to make fontname be the current font. The file +looked for on the system is named fontname.tfm. + This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. +More commonly, fonts are defined in families through .fd files. + + + + <literal>\protect</literal> + \protect +fragile commandsmoving argumentsFootnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and +many more are so-called fragile commands. When a fragile +command is used in certain contexts, called moving arguments, it +must be preceded by \protect. In addition, any fragile +commands within the arguments must have their own \protect. + Some examples of moving arguments are \caption +(see ), \thanks (see ), and +expressions in tabular and array environments +(see ). + robust commandsCommands which are not fragile are called robust. They must not +be preceded by \protect. + See also: + +http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html +http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect + + + + + + + Counters + counters, a list ofvariables, a list of +Everything &latex; numbers for you has a counter associated with +it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment +or command that produces the number, except with no \. +(enumienumiv are used for the nested enumerate +environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in &latex;'s +standard document classes to control numbering. + +part paragraph figure enumi +chapter subparagraph table enumii +section page footnote enumiii +subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv +subsubsection + + + <literal>\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</literal>: Printing counters + All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for +instance, \alph{enumi}. + + + \alph + + prints counter using lowercase letters: `a', `b', …. + + + + \Alph + + uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', …. + + + + \arabic + + uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', …. + + + + \roman + + uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', …. + + + + \roman + + uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', …. + + + + \fnsymbol + + prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine +symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of +counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. + The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the names: +asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel +double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger + + + + + + + + <literal>\usecounter{<replaceable>counter</replaceable>}</literal> + \usecounterlist items, specifying counternumbered items, specifying counter +Synopsis: + +\usecounter{counter} + + The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the +list environment to specify counter to be used to number +the list items. + + + + <literal>\value{<replaceable>counter</replaceable>}</literal> + \valuecounters, getting value of +Synopsis: + +\value{counter} + + The \value command produces the value of counter. It can +be used anywhere &latex; expects a number, for example: + +\setcounter{myctr}{3} +\addtocounter{myctr}{1} +\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent} + + + + + <literal>\setcounter{<replaceable>counter</replaceable>}{<replaceable>value</replaceable>}</literal> + \setcountercounters, settingsetting counters +Synopsis: + +\setcounter{\counter}{value} + + The \setcounter command sets the value of \counter to the +value argument. + + + + <literal>\addtocounter{<replaceable>counter</replaceable>}{<replaceable>value</replaceable>}</literal> + \addtocounter +The \addtocounter command increments counter by the +amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative. + + + + <literal>\refstepcounter{<replaceable>counter</replaceable>}</literal> + \refstepcounter +The \refstepcounter command works in the same way as +\stepcounter See , except it also defines the +current \ref value to be the result of \thecounter. + + + + <literal>\stepcounter{<replaceable>counter</replaceable>}</literal> + \stepcounter +The \stepcounter command adds one to counter and +resets all subsidiary counters. + + + + <literal>\day \month \year</literal>: Predefined counters + \day\month\year +&latex; defines counters for the day of the month (\day, +1–31), month of the year (\month, 1–12), and year +(\year, Common Era). When &tex; starts up, they are +set to the current values on the system where &tex; is running. They +are not updated as the job progresses. + The related command \today produces a string representing the +current day (see ). + + + + + Lengths + lengths, defining and using +A length is a measure of distance. Many &latex; commands take a +length as an argument. + + + <literal>\setlength{\<replaceable>len</replaceable>}{<replaceable>value</replaceable>}</literal> + \setlengthlengths, setting +The \setlength sets the value of \len to the value +argument, which can be expressed in any units that &latex; +understands, i.e., inches (in), millimeters (mm), points +(pt), big points (bp, etc. + + + + \addtolength{<replaceable>\len</replaceable>}{<replaceable>amount</replaceable>} + \addtolengthlengths, adding to +The \addtolength command increments a “length command” +\len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which +may be negative. + + + + <literal>\settodepth</literal> + \settodepth +\settodepth{\gnat}{text} + The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command +equal to the depth of the text argument. + + + + <literal>\settoheight</literal> + \settoheight +\settoheight{\gnat}{text} + The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command +equal to the height of the text argument. + + + + <literal>\settowidth{\<replaceable>len</replaceable>}{<replaceable>text</replaceable>}</literal> + \settowidth +The \settowidth command sets the value of the command \len +to the width of the text argument. + + + + Predefined lengths + lengths, predefinedpredefined lengths +\width +\width +\height +\height +\depth +\depth +\totalheight +\totalheight +These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making +commands (see ). They specify the natural width etc. of the +text in the box. \totalheight equals \height + +\depth. To make a box with the text stretched to double the +natural size, e.g., say + \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} + + + + + Line breaking + line breakingbreaking lines +The first thing &latex; does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines +(and these lines must be broken into pages). + &latex; usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in +some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the +\\ command, and you can always manually force breaks. + + + <literal>\\</literal>[*][<replaceable>morespace</replaceable>] + \\ force line breaknew line, startingline break, forcing +The \\ command tells &latex; to start a new line. It has an +optional argument, morespace, that specifies how much extra +vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a +negative amount. + The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command +except that it tells &latex; not to start a new page after the line. + + + + <literal>\obeycr</literal> & <literal>\restorecr</literal> + \obeycr\restorecrnew line, output as input +The \obeycr command makes a return in the input file +(‘^^M’, internally) the same as \\ (followed by +\relax). So each new line in the input will also be a new line +in the output. + \restorecr restores normal line-breaking behavior. + + + + <literal>\newline</literal> + \newlinenew line, starting (paragraph mode) +The \newline command breaks the line at the present point, with +no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph +mode. + + + + <literal>\-</literal> (discretionary hyphen) + \- (hyphenation)hyphenation, forcing +The \- command tells &latex; that it may hyphenate the word at +that point. &latex; is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually +find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an +incorrect one. The \- command is used for the exceptional +cases. + When you insert \- commands in a word, the word will only be +hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points +that &latex; might otherwise have chosen. + + + + <literal>\fussy</literal> + \fussy +The declaration \fussy (which is the default) makes &tex; +picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between +words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. + This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command +(see . + + + + <literal>\sloppy</literal> + The declaration \sloppy makes &tex; less fussy about line +breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose +interword spacing. + Lasts until a \fussy command is issued (see ). + + + + <literal>\hyphenation</literal> + \hyphenationhyphenation, defining +Synopsis: + +\hyphenation{word-one word-two} + + The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points +with a - character in the given words. The words are separated +by spaces. &tex; will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no +inflections are tried. Multiple \hyphenation commands +accumulate. Some examples (the default &tex; hyphenation patterns +misses the hyphenations in these words): + +\hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases} + + + + + <literal>\linebreak</literal> & <literal>\nolinebreak</literal> + \linebreak\nolinebreakline breaks, forcingline breaks, preventing +Synopses: + +\linebreak[priority] +\nolinebreak[priority] + + By default, the \linebreak (\nolinebreak) command forces +(prevents) a line break at the current position. For +\linebreak, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it +extends to the right margin as usual. + With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command +from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from +0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. + + + + + Page breaking + page breakingbreaking pages +&latex; starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has +accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, +but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. + + + <literal>\cleardoublepage</literal> + \cleardoublepagestarting on a right-hand page +The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + + + + <literal>\clearpage</literal> + \clearpageflushing floats and starting a pagestarting a new page and clearing floats +The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + + + + <literal>\newpage</literal> + \newpagenew page, startingstarting a new page +The \newpage command ends the current page, but does not clear +floats (see \clearpage above). + + + + <literal>\enlargethispage</literal> + \enlargethispageenlarge current page +\enlargethispage{size} + \enlargethispage*{size} + Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one +additional line. + The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as +much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +\pagebreak. + + + + <literal>\pagebreak</literal> & <literal>\nopagebreak</literal> + \pagebreak\nopagebreakpage break, forcingpage break, preventing +Synopses: + +\pagebreak[priority] +\nopagebreak[priority] + + By default, the \pagebreak (\nopagebreak) command forces +(prevents) a page break at the current position. For +\linebreak, the vertical space on the page is stretched out +where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. + With the optional argument priority, you can convert the +\pagebreak command from a demand to a request. The number must +be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more +insistent the request is. + + + + + Making paragraphs + making paragraphsparagraphs +A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not +containing even a %. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + + + <literal>\indent</literal> + \indent\parindentindent, forcing +\indent produces a horizontal space whose width equals the +width of the \parindent length, the normal paragraph +indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would +otherwise be suppressed. + The default value for \parindent is 1em in two-column +mode, otherwise 15pt for 10pt documents, 17pt for +11pt, and 1.5em for 12pt. + + + + <literal>\noindent</literal> + \noindentindent, suppressing +When used at the beginning of the paragraph, \noindent +suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in +the middle of a paragraph. + + + + <literal>\parskip</literal> + \parskipvertical space before paragraphs +\parskip is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added +before each paragraph. The default is 0pt plus1pt. + + + + Marginal notes + marginal notesnotes in the marginremarks in the margin\marginpar +Synopsis: + +\marginpar[left]{right} + + The \marginpar command creates a note in the margin. The first +line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text +where the \marginpar occurs. + When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text +will be placed + + + in the right margin for one-sided layout; + + + in the outside margin for two-sided layout; + + + in the nearest margin for two-column layout. + + + \reversemarginpar\normalmarginparThe command \reversemarginpar places subsequent marginal notes +in the opposite (inside) margin. \normalmarginpar places them +in the default position. + When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left +margin, and right is used for the right margin. + The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation there by beginning the node with \hspace{0pt}. + These parameters affect the formatting of the note: + + + \marginparpush + + Minimum vertical space between notes; default ‘7pt’ for +‘12pt’ documents, ‘5pt’ else. + + + + \marginparsep + + Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default +‘11pt’ for ‘10pt’ documents, ‘10pt’ else. + + + + \marginparwidth + + Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided ‘10pt’ document +is ‘90pt’, ‘83pt’ for ‘11pt’, and ‘68pt’ for +‘12pt’; ‘17pt’ more in each case for a two-sided document. +In two column mode, the default is ‘48pt’. + + + + + + + + Math formulas + math formulasformulas, mathmath mode, entering +math environmentdisplaymath environmentequation environmentThere are three environments that put &latex; in math mode: + + + math + + For formulas that appear right in the text. + + + + displaymath + + For formulas that appear on their own line. + + + + equation + + The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation +number in the right margin. + + + + \(\)\[\]The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the displaymath and equation environments can be used +only in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath +environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: + +\(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} +\[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} + + $In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + +$ ... $ instead of \(...\) + + \boldmath\unboldmathThe \boldmath command changes math letters and symbols to be in +a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the +\unboldmath command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; +it too is used outside of math mode. + + \displaystyleThe \displaystyle declaration forces the size and style of the +formula to be that of displaymath, e.g., with limits above and +below summations. For example + +$\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ + + + + Subscripts & Superscripts + superscriptsubscriptexponent_^ +To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type +_{exp}. To get exp to appear as a +superscript, you type ^{exp}. &latex; handles +superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. +It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a +superscript. + + + + Math symbols + math symbolssymbols, mathgreek letters +&latex; provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to +need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. +For example, if you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get +the pi symbol (\pi) in your output. + + + \| + + \| + + + + \aleph + + \aleph + + + + \alpha + + \alpha + + + + \amalg + + \amalg (binary operation) + + + + \angle + + \angle + + + + \approx + + \approx (relation) + + + + \ast + + \ast (binary operation) + + + + \asymp + + \asymp (relation) + + + + \backslash + + \ (delimiter) + + + + \beta + + \beta + + + + \bigcap + + \bigcap + + + + \bigcirc + + \bigcirc (binary operation) + + + + \bigcup + + \bigcup + + + + \bigodot + + \bigodot + + + + \bigoplus + + \bigoplus + + + + \bigotimes + + \bigotimes + + + + \bigtriangledown + + \bigtriangledown (binary operation) + + + + \bigtriangleup + + \bigtriangleup (binary operation) + + + + \bigsqcup + + \bigsqcup + + + + \biguplus + + \biguplus + + + + \bigcap + + \bigvee + + + + \bigwedge + + \bigwedge + + + + \bot + + \bot + + + + \bowtie + + \bowtie (relation) + + + + \Box + + (square open box symbol) + + + + + \bullet + + bullet symbol\bullet (binary operation) + + + + \cap + + \cap (binary operation) + + + + \cdot + + \cdot (binary operation) + + + + \chi + + \chi + + + + \circ + + \circ (binary operation) + + + + \clubsuit + + \clubsuit + + + + \cong + + \cong (relation) + + + + \coprod + + \coprod + + + + \cup + + \cup (binary operation) + + + + \dagger + + \dagger (binary operation) + + + + \dashv + + \dashv (relation) + + + + \ddagger + + \dagger (binary operation) + + + + \Delta + + \Delta + + + + \delta + + \delta + + + + \Diamond + + bigger \diamond + + + + + \diamond + + \diamond (binary operation) + + + + \diamondsuit + + \diamondsuit + + + + \div + + \div (binary operation) + + + + \doteq + + \doteq (relation) + + + + \downarrow + + \downarrow (delimiter) + + + + \Downarrow + + \Downarrow (delimiter) + + + + \ell + + \ell + + + + \emptyset + + \emptyset + + + + \epsilon + + \epsilon + + + + \equiv + + \equiv (relation) + + + + \eta + + \eta + + + + \exists + + \exists + + + + \flat + + \flat + + + + \forall + + \forall + + + + \frown + + \frown (relation) + + + + \Gamma + + \Gamma + + + + \gamma + + \gamma + + + + \ge + + \ge + + + + \geq + + \geq (relation) + + + + \gets + + \gets + + + + \gg + + \gg (relation) + + + + \hbar + + \hbar + + + + \heartsuit + + \heartsuit + + + + \hookleftarrow + + \hookleftarrow + + + + \hookrightarrow + + \hookrightarrow + + + + \iff + + \iff + + + + \Im + + \Im + + + + \in + + \in (relation) + + + + \infty + + \infty + + + + \int + + \int + + + + \iota + + \iota + + + + \Join + + condensed bowtie symbol (relation) + + + + + \kappa + + \kappa + + + + \Lambda + + \Lambda + + + + \lambda + + \lambda + + + + \land + + \land + + + + \langle + + \langle (delimiter) + + + + \lbrace + + \lbrace (delimiter) + + + + \lbrack + + \lbrack (delimiter) + + + + \lceil + + \lceil (delimiter) + + + + \le + + \le + + + + \leadsto + + + + + + \Leftarrow + + \Leftarrow + + + + \leftarrow + + \leftarrow + + + + \leftharpoondown + + \leftharpoondown + + + + \leftharpoonup + + \leftharpoonup + + + + \Leftrightarrow + + \Leftrightarrow + + + + \leftrightarrow + + \leftrightarrow + + + + \leq + + \leq (relation) + + + + \lfloor + + \lfloor (delimiter) + + + + \lhd + + (left-pointing arrow head) + + + + + \ll + + \ll (relation) + + + + \lnot + + \lnot + + + + \longleftarrow + + \longleftarrow + + + + \longleftrightarrow + + \longleftrightarrow + + + + \longmapsto + + \longmapsto + + + + \longrightarrow + + \longrightarrow + + + + \lor + + \lor + + + + \mapsto + + \mapsto + + + + \mho + + + + + + \mid + + \mid (relation) + + + + \models + + \models (relation) + + + + \mp + + \mp (binary operation) + + + + \mu + + \mu + + + + \nabla + + \nabla + + + + \natural + + \natural + + + + \ne + + \ne + + + + \nearrow + + \nearrow + + + + \neg + + \neg + + + + \neq + + \neq (relation) + + + + \ni + + \ni (relation) + + + + \not + + Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=. + + + + \notin + + \ni + + + + \nu + + \nu + + + + \nwarrow + + \nwarrow + + + + \odot + + \odot (binary operation) + + + + \oint + + \oint + + + + \Omega + + \Omega + + + + \omega + + \omega + + + + \ominus + + \ominus (binary operation) + + + + \oplus + + \oplus (binary operation) + + + + \oslash + + \oslash (binary operation) + + + + \otimes + + \otimes (binary operation) + + + + \owns + + \owns + + + + \parallel + + \parallel (relation) + + + + \partial + + \partial + + + + \perp + + \perp (relation) + + + + \phi + + \phi + + + + \Pi + + \Pi + + + + \pi + + \pi + + + + \pm + + \pm (binary operation) + + + + \prec + + \prec (relation) + + + + \preceq + + \preceq (relation) + + + + \prime + + \prime + + + + \prod + + \prod + + + + \propto + + \propto (relation) + + + + \Psi + + \Psi + + + + \psi + + \psi + + + + \rangle + + \rangle (delimiter) + + + + \rbrace + + \rbrace (delimiter) + + + + \rbrack + + \rbrack (delimiter) + + + + \rceil + + \rceil (delimiter) + + + + \Re + + \Re + + + + \rfloor + + \rfloor + + + + \rhd + + (binary operation) + + + + + \rho + + \rho + + + + \Rightarrow + + \Rightarrow + + + + \rightarrow + + \rightarrow + + + + \rightharpoondown + + \rightharpoondown + + + + \rightharpoonup + + \rightharpoonup + + + + \rightleftharpoons + + \rightleftharpoons + + + + \searrow + + \searrow + + + + \setminus + + \setminus (binary operation) + + + + \sharp + + \sharp + + + + \Sigma + + \Sigma + + + + \sigma + + \sigma + + + + \sim + + \sim (relation) + + + + \simeq + + \simeq (relation) + + + + \smallint + + \smallint + + + + \smile + + \smile (relation) + + + + \spadesuit + + \spadesuit + + + + \sqcap + + \sqcap (binary operation) + + + + \sqcup + + \sqcup (binary operation) + + + + \sqsubset + + (relation) + + + + + \sqsubseteq + + \sqsubseteq (relation) + + + + \sqsupset + + (relation) + + + + + \sqsupseteq + + \sqsupseteq (relation) + + + + \star + + \star (binary operation) + + + + \subset + + \subset (relation) + + + + \subseteq + + \subseteq (relation) + + + + \succ + + \succ (relation) + + + + \succeq + + \succeq (relation) + + + + \sum + + \sum + + + + \supset + + \supset (relation) + + + + \supseteq + + \supseteq (relation) + + + + \surd + + \surd + + + + \swarrow + + \swarrow + + + + \tau + + \tau + + + + \theta + + \theta + + + + \times + + \times (binary operation) + + + + \to + + \to + + + + \top + + \top + + + + \triangle + + \triangle + + + + \triangleleft + + \triangleleft (binary operation) + + + + \triangleright + + \triangleright (binary operation) + + + + \unlhd + + left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + + + + + \unrhd + + right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + + + + + \Uparrow + + \Uparrow (delimiter) + + + + \uparrow + + \uparrow (delimiter) + + + + \Updownarrow + + \Updownarrow (delimiter) + + + + \updownarrow + + \updownarrow (delimiter) + + + + \uplus + + \uplus (binary operation) + + + + \Upsilon + + \Upsilon + + + + \upsilon + + \upsilon + + + + \varepsilon + + \varepsilon + + + + \varphi + + \varphi + + + + \varpi + + \varpi + + + + \varrho + + \varrho + + + + \varsigma + + \varsigma + + + + \vartheta + + \vartheta + + + + \vdash + + \vdash (relation) + + + + \vee + + \vee (binary operation) + + + + \Vert + + \Vert (delimiter) + + + + \vert + + \vert (delimiter) + + + + \wedge + + \wedge (binary operation) + + + + \wp + + \wp + + + + \wr + + \wr (binary operation) + + + + \Xi + + \Xi + + + + \xi + + \xi + + + + \zeta + + \zeta + + + + + + + Math functions + math functionsfunctions, math +These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper +spacing. + + + \arccos + + \arccos + + + + \arcsin + + \arcsin + + + + \arctan + + \arctan + + + + \arg + + \arg + + + + \bmod + + Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) + + + + \cos + + \cos + + + + \cosh + + \cosh + + + + \cot + + \cos + + + + \coth + + \cosh + + + + \csc + + \csc + + + + \deg + + \deg + + + + \det + + \deg + + + + \dim + + \dim + + + + \exp + + \exp + + + + \gcd + + \gcd + + + + \hom + + \hom + + + + \inf + + \inf + + + + \ker + + \ker + + + + \lg + + \lg + + + + \lim + + \lim + + + + \liminf + + \liminf + + + + \limsup + + \limsup + + + + \ln + + \ln + + + + \log + + \log + + + + \max + + \max + + + + \min + + \min + + + + \pmod + + parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) + + + + \Pr + + \Pr + + + + \sec + + \sec + + + + \sin + + \sin + + + + \sinh + + \sinh + + + + \sup + + \sup + + + + \tan + + \tan + + + + \tanh + + \tanh + + + + + + + Math accents + math accentsaccents, mathematical +&latex; provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters +in math. These are different from accents in normal text +(see ). + + + \acute + + acute accent, mathMath acute accent: \acutex. + + + + \breve + + breve accent, mathMath breve accent: \brevex. + + + + \check + + check accent, mathhác<ek accent, mathMath hác<ek (check) accent: \checkx. + + + + \ddot + + double dot accent, mathMath dieresis accent: \ddotx. + + + + \dot + + overdot accent, mathdot over accent, mathMath dot accent: \dotx. + + + + \grave + + grave accent, mathMath grave accent: \gravex. + + + + \hat + + hat accent, mathcircumflex accent, mathMath hat (circumflex) accent: \hatx. + + + + \imath + + dotless i, mathMath dotless i. + + + + \jmath + + dotless j, mathMath dotless j. + + + + \tilde + + tilde accent, mathMath tilde accent: \tildex. + + + + \vec + + vector symbol, mathMath vector symbol: \vecx. + + + + \widehat + + wide hat accent, mathMath wide hat accent: \widehatx+y. + + + + \widehat + + wide tile accent, mathMath wide tilde accent: \widetildex+y. + + + + + + + Spacing in math mode + spacing within math modemath mode, spacing +In a math environment, &latex; ignores the spaces you type and +puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics +texts. If you want different spacing, &latex; provides the following +commands for use in math mode: + + + \; + + \;A thick space (5\over18\,quad). + + + + \: + \> + + \:\>Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad). + + + + \, + + \,A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode. + + + + \! + + A negative thin space (-1\over6\,quad). + + + + + + + Math Miscellany + math Miscellany + + + \* + + discretionary multiplicationmultiplication symbol, discretionary line breakA “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is +allowed. + + + + \cdots + + A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. + + + + \ddots + + A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. + + + + \frac{num}{den} + + \fracProduces the fraction num divided by den. + + + + \left delim1 ... \right delim2 + + \rightnull delimiterThe two delimiters need not match; ‘.’ acts as a null delimiter, +producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math +in between. Example: \left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]. + + + + \overbrace{text} + + Generates a brace over text. +For example, \overbracex+\cdots+x^k \rm\;times. + + + + \overline{text} + + Generates a horizontal line over tex. +For exampe, \overlinex+y. + + + + \sqrt[root]{arg} + + Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The +optional argument root determines what root to produce. For +example, the cube root of x+y would be typed as +$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$. + + + + \stackrel{text}{relation} + + Puts text above relation. For example, +\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}. + + + + \underbrace{math} + + Generates math with a brace underneath. + + + + \underline{text} + + Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be +underlined. + + + + \vdots + + \vdotsProduces a vertical ellipsis. + + + + + + + + Modes + modesparagraph modemath modeleft-to-right modelR mode + When &latex; is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + + + Paragraph mode + + + Math mode + + + Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short + + + &latex; changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +&latex; is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + “Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one &latex; is in +when processing ordinary text. In that mode, &latex; breaks your +text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. &latex; is in +“math mode” when it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR +mode”, as in paragraph mode, &latex; considers the output that it +produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, +unlike paragraph mode, &latex; keeps going from left to right; it +never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words +into an \mbox, &latex; would keep typesetting them from left +to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting +box was too wide to fit on the line. + &latex; is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put &latex; in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a parbox. When +&latex; is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in +“inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out +in, is called “outer paragraph mode”. + + + + Page Styles + styles, pagepage styles +The \documentclass command determines the size and position of +the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + + + <literal>\maketitle</literal> + titles, making\maketitle +The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title +page—except in the article class, where the title is placed +at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title +is obtained from the following declarations: + + + \author{name \and name2} + + author, for titlepage\\ for \author\and for \authorThe \author command declares the document author(s), where the +argument is a list of authors separated by \and commands. Use +\\ to separate lines within a single author's entry—for +example, to give the author's institution or address. + + + + \date{text} + + date, for titlepageThe \date command declares text to be the document's +date. With no \date command, the current date (see ) +is used. + + + + \thanks{text} + + thanks, for titlepagecredit footnoteThe \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title, +usually used for credit acknowledgements. + + + + \title{text} + + title, for titlepage\\ for \titleThe \title command declares text to be the title of the +document. Use \\ to force a line break, as usual. + + + + + + + <literal>\pagenumbering</literal> + \pagenumberingpage numbering style +Synopsis: + +\pagenumbering{style} + + Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style: + + + arabic + + arabic numerals + + + + roman + + lowercase Roman numerals + + + + Roman + + uppercase Roman numerals + + + + alph + + lowercase letters + + + + Alph + + uppercase letters + + + + + + + <literal>\pagestyle</literal> + \pagestyleheader stylefooter stylerunning header and footer style +Synopsis: + +\pagestyle{style} + + The \pagestyle command specifies how the headers and footers +are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style: + + + plain + + Just a plain page number. + + + + empty + + Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. + + + + headings + + Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what +goes in the headers. + + + + myheadings + + Custom headers, specified via the \markboth or the +\markright commands. + + + + Here are the descriptions of \markboth and \markright: + + + \markboth{left}{right} + + Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading” +(left) is generated by the last \markboth command before +the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right is +generated by the first \markboth or \markright that +comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before +the page. + + + + \markright{right} + + Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. + + + + + + + <literal>\thispagestyle{<replaceable>style</replaceable>}</literal> + \thispagestyle +The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the +\pagestyle command (see previous section) except that it +changes to style for the current page only. + + + + + Spaces + spaces +&latex; has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. + Another space-producing command is \, to produce a “thin” +space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is +more often useful in math mode (see ). + + + <literal>\hspace</literal> + \hspace +Synopsis: + +\hspace[*]{length} + + The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length +argument can be expressed in any terms that &latex; understands: +points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both +negative and positive space with an \hspace command; adding +negative space is like backspacing. + &latex; normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning +or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional * +form. + + + + <literal>\hfill</literal> + \hfillThe \hfill fill command produces a “rubber length” which has +no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as +needed. + \fillThe \fill parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, +the glue value ‘0pt plus1fill’); thus, \hspace\fill is +equivalent to \hfill. + + + + <literal>\SPACE</literal> + \SPACE\TAB\NEWLINE +The \ (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's +useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example +Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental. +It is also often used after control sequences, as in \TeX\ is a +nice system. + In normal circumstances, \tab and \newline +are equivalent to \ . + + + + <literal>\@</literal> + \@ +The \@ command makes the following punctuation character end a +sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after +a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without +\@: + +… in C\@. Pascal, though … +… in C. Pascal, though … + + produces + +
+ … in C. Pascal, though … +… in C. Pascal, though … +
+
+ + + <literal>\thinspace</literal> + \thinspace +\thinspace produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that +is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as +in '”. + + + + <literal>\/</literal> + \/ +The \/ command produces an italic correction. This is a +small space defined by the font designer for a given character, +to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic +f character typically has a large italic correction value. + If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to +insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a +very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as +normal letters, it can help. Compare +f: f; (in the &tex; output, the `f's are nicely separated) +with f: f;. + Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic +correction. Compare +pdf&tex; (in the &tex; output, there is a small space after the `f') +with pdf&tex;. + + + + <literal>\hrulefill</literal> + \hrulefill +The \hrulefill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + + + + <literal>\dotfill</literal> + \dotfill +The \dotfill command produces a “rubber length” that fills +with dots instead of just white space. + + + + + <literal>\addvspace</literal> + \addvspacevertical spacespace, inserting vertical +\addvspace{length} + The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to length. + + + + <literal>\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</literal> + These commands produce a given amount of space. + + + \bigskip + + \bigskip\bigskipamountThe same as \vspace{bigskipamount}, ordinarily about one line +space (with stretch and shrink). + + + + \medskip + + \medskip\medskipamountThe same as \vspace{medskipamount}, ordinarily +about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + + + + \smallskip + + \smallskip\smallskipamountThe same as \vspace{smallskipamount}, ordinarily about a +quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + + + + The \...amount parameters are determined by the document class. + + + + <literal>\vfill</literal> + \vfill +The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which +can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to +\vspace{\fill} (see ). + + + + <literal>\vspace[*]{<replaceable>length</replaceable>}</literal> + \vspace +Synopsis: + +\vspace[*]{length} + + The \vspace command adds the vertical space length, i.e., +a rubber length. length can be negative or positive. + Ordinarily, &latex; removes vertical space added by \vspace at +the top or bottom of a page. With the optional * argument, the +space is not removed. + +
+ + + Boxes + boxes +All the predefined length parameters (see ) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + + + <literal>\mbox{<replaceable>text}</replaceable></literal> + \mbox +hyphenation, preventingThe \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the +text created by its argument. The text is not broken into +lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation. + + + + <literal>\fbox</literal> and <literal>\framebox</literal> + \fbox\framebox +Synopses: + +\fbox{text} +\framebox[width][position]{text} + + The \fbox and \framebox commands are like \mbox, +except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. + In addition, the \framebox command allows for explicit +specification of the box width with the optional width argument +(a dimension), and positioning with the optional position +argument. + +\fboxrule\fboxsepBoth commands produce a rule of thickness \fboxrule (default +‘.4pt’), and leave a space of \fboxsep (default +‘3pt’) between the rule and the contents of the box. + See , for the \framebox command in the +picture environment. + + + + <literal>lrbox</literal> + lrbox +\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox} + This is the environment form of \sbox. + The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which +must have been declared with \newsavebox. + + + + <literal>\makebox</literal> + \makebox +Synopsis: + +\makebox[width][position]{text} + + The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain +the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the +optional width argument. The position of the text within the box +is determined by the optional position argument, which may take +the following values: + + + c + + Centered (default). + + + + l + + Flush left. + + + + r + + Flush right. + + + + s + + Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain +stretchable space for this to work. + + + + \makebox is also used within the picture environment +see . + + + + <literal>\parbox</literal> + \parbox +Synopsis: + +\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text} + + The \parbox command produces a box whose contents are created +in paragraph mode. It should be used to make a box small +pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you +shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a +\parbox argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones +containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a +minipage environment (see ). + \parbox has two mandatory arguments: + + + width + + the width of the parbox; + + + + text + + the text that goes inside the parbox. + + + + The optional position argument allows you to align either the +top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding +text (default is top). + The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box. + The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside +the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used. + + + t + + text is placed at the top of the box. + + + + c + + text is centered in the box. + + + + b + + text is placed at the bottom of the box. + + + + s + + stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space +for this to work. + + + + + + + <literal>\raisebox</literal> + \raisebox +Synopsis: + +\raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text} + + The \raisebox command raises or lowers text. The first +mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or +lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed +in LR mode. + The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. +If they are specified, &latex; treats text as extending a +certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), +ignoring its natural height and depth. + + + + <literal>\savebox</literal> + \savebox +Synopsis: + +\savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text} + + This command typeset text in a box just as with \makebox +(see ), except that instead of printing the resulting box, +it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been +declared with \newsavebox (see ). + + + + <literal>\sbox{<replaceable>\boxcmd</replaceable>}{<replaceable>text</replaceable>}</literal> + \sbox +Synopsis: + +\sbox{\boxcmd}{text} + + \sbox types text in a box just as with \mbox +(see ) except that instead of the resulting box being +included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled +\boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with +\newsavebox (see ). + + + + <literal>\usebox{<replaceable>\boxcmd</replaceable></literal> + \usebox +Synopsis: + +\usebox{\boxcmd} + + \usebox producesthe box most recently saved in the bin +\boxcmd by a \savebox command (see ). + + + + + Special insertions + &latex; provides commands for inserting characters that have a +special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. + + + Reserved characters + reserved characterscharacters, reserved +The following characters play a special role in &latex; and are called +“reserved characters” or “special characters”. + +# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } + + \#\$\%\&\_\{\}Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, &latex; +will do something special. If you simply want the character to be +printed as itself, include a \ in front of the character. For +example, \$ will produce $ in your output. + \backslashOne exception to this rule is \ itself, because \\ has +its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by +typing $\backslash$ in your file, and a typewriter \ is +produced by using ‘\’ in a verbatim command (see ). + \~\^Also, \~ and \^ place tilde and circumflex accents over +the following letter, as in õ and ô (see ); to get +a standalone ~ or ^, you can again use a verbatim +command. + \symbolaccessing any character of a font +Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you +know its number by using the \symbol command. For example, the +visible space character used in the \verb* command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}. + You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers +with ", so the previous example could also be written as +\symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}. + + + + Text symbols + text symbols&latex; provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols +in running text. + + + \copyright + + copyright symbolThe copyright symbol, ©. + + + + \dag + + dagger, in textThe dagger symbol (in text). + + + + \ddag + + double dagger, in textThe double dagger symbol (in text). + + + + \LaTeX + + &latex; logologo, &latex;The &latex; logo. + + + + \ldots + + ellipsisAn ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `…'. This +command also works in math mode. + + + + \lq + + left quoteopening quoteLeft (opening) quote: `. + + + + \P + + paragraph signpilcrowParagraph sign (pilcrow). + + + + \pounds + + pounds symbolsterling symbolEnglish pounds sterling. + + + + \rq + + right quoteclosing quoteRight (closing) quote: '. + + + + \S + + section symbolSection symbol. + + + + \TeX + + &tex; logologo, &tex;The &tex; logo. + + + + + + + Accents + accentscharacters, accentedletters, accented +&latex; has wide support for many of the world's scripts and +languages, through the babel package and related support. This +section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely the +core &latex; commands for creating accented characters. + + + \" + + \" (umlaut accent)umlaut accentProduces an umlaut, as in ö. + + + + \' + + \' (acute accent)acute accentProduces an acute accent, as in ó. In the tabbing +environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column +(see ). + + + + \. + + \. (dot-over accent)dot accentdot-over accentProduces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. + + + + \= + + \= (macron accent)macron accentoverbar accentbar-over accentProduces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o¯. + + + + \^ + + \^ (circumflex accent)circumflex accenthat accentProduces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô. + + + + \` + + \` (grave accent)grave accentProduces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the +tabbing environment, move following text to the right margin +(see ). + + + + \~ + + \~ (tilde accent)tilde accentProduces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ. + + + + \b + + \b (bar-under accent)bar-under accentProduces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. + + + + \bar + + \bar (macron, bar-over accent)bar-over accentmacron accentProduces a macron accent over the following, as in o¯. + + + + \c + + \c (cedilla accent)cedilla accentProduces a cedilla accent under the following, as in + + + + + \d + + \d (dot-under accent)dot-under accentProduces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. + + + + \H + + \H (Hungarian umlaut accent)hungarian umlaut accentProduces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''. + + + + \i + + \i (dotless i)dotless iProduces a dotless i, as in `i'. + + + + \j + + \j (dotless j)dotless jProduces a dotless j, as in `j'. + + + + \t + + \t (tie-after accent)tie-after accentProduces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. + + + + \u + + \u (breve accent)breve accentProduces a breve accent, as in `o('. + + + + \v + + \v (breve accent)hacek accentcheck accentProduces a hác<ek (check) accent, as in `o<'. + + + + + + + Non-English characters + special charactersnon-English characterscharacters, non-Englishletters, non-English +Here are the basic &latex; commands for inserting characters commonly +used in languages other than English. + + + \aa + \AA + + \aa (å)\AA (Å)aringå and Å. + + + + \ae + \AE + + \ae (æ)\AE (Æ)ae ligatureæ and Æ. + + + + \l + \L + + \l (/l)\L (/L)polish l/l and /L. + + + + \o + \O + + \o (ø)\O (Ø)oslashø and Ø. + + + + \oe + \OE + + \oe (œ)\OE (Œ)oe ligatureœ and Œ. + + + + \ss + + \ss (ß)es-zet German lettersharp S lettersß. + + + + + + + <literal>\rule</literal> + \rule +Synopsis: + +\rule[raise]{width}{thickness} + + The \rule command produces rules, that is, lines or +rectangles. The arguments are: + + + raise + + How high to raise the rule (optional). + + + + width + + The length of the rule (mandatory). + + + + thickness + + The thickness of the rule (mandatory). + + + + + + + <literal>\today</literal> + \today +The \today command produces today's date, in the format +‘month dd, yyyy’; for example, `July 4, 1976'. +It uses the predefined counters \day, \month, and +\year (see ) to do this. It is not +updated as the program runs. + datetime packageThe datetime package, among others, can produce a wide variety +of other date formats. + + + + + Splitting the input + splitting the input fileinput file +A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole +input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into +several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, +there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type +when you run &latex;. + + + <literal>\include</literal> + \include +Synopsis: + +\include{file} + + If no \includeonly command is present, the \include +command executes \clearpage to start a new page +(see ), then reads file, then does another +\clearpage. + Given an \includeonly command, the \include actions are +only run if file is listed as an argument to +\includeonly. See the next section. + nested \include, not allowedThe \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file +read by another \include command. + + + + \<literal>includeonly</literal> + \includeonly +Synopsis: + +\includeonly{file1,file2,...} + + The \includeonly command controls which files will be read by +subsequent \include commands. The list of filenames is +comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename +specified in a \include command for the selection to be +effective. + This command can only appear in the preamble. + + + + \input + \input +Synopsis: + +\input{file} + + The \input command causes the specified file to be read +and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current +file at that point. + If file does not end in ‘.tex’ (e.g., ‘foo’ or +‘foo.bar’), it is first tried with that extension (‘foo.tex’ +or ‘foo.bar.tex’). If that is not found, the original file +is tried (‘foo’ or ‘foo.bar’). + + + + + Front/back matter + + Tables of contents + table of contents, creating +\tableofcontentsA table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents +command. You put the command right where you want the table of +contents to go; &latex; does the rest for you. A previous run must +have generated a .toc file. + The \tableofcontents command produces a heading, but it does +not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the +table of contents, write a \newpage command after the +\tableofcontents command. + \listoffigures\listoftablesThe analagous commands \listoffigures and \listoftables +produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. +Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. + \nofilesThe command \nofiles overrides these commands, and +prevents any of these lists from being generated. + + + \addcontentsline + \addcontentsline{ext}{unit}{text}table of contents entry, manually adding +The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list +or table where: + + + ext + + The extension of the file on which information is to be written, +typically one of: toc (table of contents), lof (list of +figures), or lot (list of tables). + + + + unit + + The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the +following, matching the value of the ext argument: + + + toc + + The name of the sectional unit: part, chapter, +section, subsection, subsubsection. + + + + lof + + For the list of figures. + + + + lot + + For the list of tables. + + + + + + + entry + + The actual text of the entry. + + + + \contentslineWhat is written to the .ext file is the +command \contentsline{unit}{name}. + + + + + \addtocontents + \addtocontents{ext}{text} +The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) +directly to the .ext file that generates the table of +contents or lists of figures or tables. + + + ext + + The extension of the file on which information is to be written: +toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or +lot (list of tables). + + + + text + + The text to be written. + + + + + + + + Glossaries + glossaries +\makeglossaryThe command \makeglossary enables creating glossaries. + \glossary.glo fileThe command \glossary{text} writes a glossary entry for +text to an auxiliary file with the .glo extension. + \glossaryentrySpecifically, what gets written is the command +\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}, where +pageno is the current \thepage value. + The glossary package on CTAN provides support for fancier +glossaries. + + + + Indexes + indexes +\makeindexThe command \makeindex enables creating indexes. + \index.idx fileThe command \index{text} writes a glossary entry for +text to an auxiliary file with the .idx extension. + \indexentrySpecifically, what gets written is the command +\indexentry{text}{pageno}, where pageno +is the current \thepage value. + The rubber length \indexspace is inserted before each new +letter in the index; its default value is ‘10pt plus5pt +minus3pt’. + makeindex programxindy program.ind file +The .idx file can then be sorted with an external command, +typically makeindex or xindy, resulting in a +.ind file, which can then be used to typeset the index. + + + + + Letters + letterscreating letters +You can use &latex; to typeset letters, both personal and business. The +letter document class is designed to make a number of letters at +once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other +document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a +minimum: + + \documentclass{letter} + \begin{document} + ... letters ... + \end{document} + + Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name +and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + + \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St. + \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} + ... + \end{letter} + + The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of +the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary &latex; input. Commands that +make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not work. The letter +closes with a \closing command. + \\ for lettersAfter the closing, you can have additional material. The +\cc command produces the usual “cc: …”. There's also a +similar \encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these +commands, use \\ to separate the items. + These commands are used with the letter class. + + + \address{<replaceable>return-address}</replaceable> + \address +The \address specifies the return address of a letter, as it +should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the +address should be separated by \\ commands. + If you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter +will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard +letterhead. (See , for details on your local +implementation). If you give an \address declaration, then the +letter will be formatted as a personal letter. + + + + <literal>\cc</literal> + \cccc list, in letters +Synopsis: + +\cc{name1\\name2} + + Produce a list of names the letter was copied to. Each name is +printed on a separate line. + + + + <literal>\closing</literal> + \closingletters, endingclosing letters +Synopsis: + +\closing{text} + + A letter closes with a \closing command, for example, + +\closing{Best Regards,} + + + + + <literal>\encl</literal> + \enclenclosure list +Synopsis: + +\encl{line1\\line2} + + Declare a list of one more enclosures. + + + + <literal>\location</literal> + \location +\location{address} + This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears +if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. + + + + <literal>\makelabels</literal> + \makelabels +\makelabels{number} + If you issue this command in the preamble, &latex; will create a sheet of +address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. + + + + <literal>\name</literal> + \name +\name{June Davenport} + Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return +address. + + + + <literal>\opening{<replaceable>text</replaceable>}</literal> + \openingletters, starting +Synopsis: + +\opening{text} + + A letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory +argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. +For instance: + +\opening{Dear Joe,} + + + + + <literal>\ps</literal> + \pspostscript, in letters +Use the \ps command to start a postscript in a letter, after +\closing. + + + + <literal>\signature{<replaceable>text</replaceable>}</literal> + \signature +Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the +space for your signature. \\ starts a new line within +text as usual. + + + + <literal>\startbreaks</literal> + \startbreaks +\startbreaks + Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again. + + + + <literal>\stopbreaks</literal> + \stopbreaks +\stopbreaks + Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs. + + + + <literal>\telephone</literal> + \telephone +\telephone{number} + This is your telephone number. This only appears if the +firstpage pagestyle is selected. + + + + + Terminal Input/Output + input/Outputterminal Input/Output + + + <literal>\typein[<replaceable>cmd</replaceable>]{<replaceable>msg</replaceable>}</literal> + \typein +Synopsis: + +\typein[\cmd]{msg} + + \typein prints msg on the terminal and causes &latex; to +stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If +the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is +processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the +\typein command. If the \cmd argument is present, it +must be a command name. This command name is then defined or +redefined to be the typed input. + + + + <literal>\typeout{<replaceable>msg</replaceable>}</literal> + \typeout +Synopsis: + +\typeout{msg} + + Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. +Commands in msg that are defined with \newcommand or +\renewcommand (among others) are replaced by their definitions +before being printed. + &latex;'s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space +and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg. A +\space command in msg causes a single space to be +printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A ^^J in +msg prints a newline. + + + + + Command Line + command Line +The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; +&tex; uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the +input file entirely, &tex; accepts input from the terminal. You +specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the +command; e.g. + +latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' + + will process foo.tex without pausing after every error. + *’ promptprompt, ‘*\stopIf &latex; stops in the middle of the document and gives you a +‘*’ prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type \stop +(and return) and it will prematurely end the document. + + + + Document templates + document templates +Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will +be useful. + + + <literal>book</literal> template + \documentclass{book} +\title{Book Class Template} +\author{Alex Author} + +\begin{document} +\maketitle + +\chapter{First} +Some text. + +\chapter{Second} +Some other text. + +\section{A subtopic} +The end. +\end{document} + + + + + <literal>beamer</literal> template + The beamer class creates slides presentations. + \documentclass{beamer} + +\title{Beamer Class template} +\author{Alex Author} +\date{July 31, 2007} + +\begin{document} + +\maketitle + +% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. +\begin{frame}[fragile] + \frametitle{First Slide} + +\begin{verbatim} + This is \verbatim! +\end{verbatim} + +\end{frame} + +\end{document} + + + + + + <literal>tugboat</literal> template + TUGboat is the journal of the &tex; Users Group, +http://tug.org/TUGboat. + \documentclass{ltugboat} % ltugproc for proceedings + +\usepackage{graphicx} +\usepackage{ifpdf} +\ifpdf + \usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black, + urlcolor=black]{hyperref} +\else + \usepackage{url} +\fi + +\begin{document} + +\title{Example \TUB\ Regular Article} + +% repeat info for each author. +\author{First Last} +\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} +\netaddress{user (at) example dot org} +\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} + +\maketitle + +% The abstract comes after \maketitle in ltugboat. +\begin{abstract} +This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue. +\end{abstract} + +\section{Introduction} + +This is an example article for \TUB, from +\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. + +We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the hyperref +package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output). \TUB\ is produced +using \acro{PDF} files exclusively, nowadays. + +The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others: + +{\small +\begin{verbatim} +\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW +\BibTeX \CandT \CTAN \DTD \DVItoVDU \HTML +\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \JoT \LAMSTeX \LaTeXe +\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \pcMF \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas +\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS +\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG +\tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \VorTeX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE + +\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag +\careof \thinskip + +\acro{FRED} -> {\sc fred} % please use! +\cs{fred} -> \fred +\env{fred} -> \begin{fred} +\meta{fred} -> <fred> +\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... +\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 +\booktitle{Book of Fred} +\end{verbatim} +} + +For more information, see the ltubguid document at: +\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} + +Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. + + +\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style +\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty +\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX + + +\makesignature % not in ltugproc +\end{document} + + + + + + Concept Index + + + + + + Command Index + + +
diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dvi b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dvi new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..f5d54a76e71 Binary files /dev/null and b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.dvi differ diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.html b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.html new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..2a810c81b3e --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.html @@ -0,0 +1,7877 @@ + + +LaTeX2e reference manual 2.0 + + + + + + + + + + +

LaTeX2e reference manual 2.0

+ + + + +
+

Table of Contents

+ +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Up: (dir) + +
+ +

LaTeX2e

+ +

This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an +unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document preparation +system. It is intended to cover LaTeX2e, which has been the +standard version of LaTeX for many years. + +

LaTeX is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's +TeX typesetting program. LaTeX was originally created by Leslie +Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers +(http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written +by the LaTeX project is available there. Again, the present +document is unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX +maintainers. + +

+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Top, +Up: Top + +
+ +

1 Overview of LaTeX

+ +

+The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program +and the LaTeX “macro package” for TeX. To be more specific, +it processes an input file containing the text of a document with +interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. +It produces at least three files as output: + +

    +
  1. A main output file, which is one of: + +
      +
    1. If invoked as latex, a “Device Independent” (.dvi) +file. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for +a variety of output devices. You can view such .dvi output of +LaTeX by using a program such as xdvi (display directly) +or dvips (convert to PostScript). + +
    2. If invoked as pdflatex, a “Portable Document Format” +(.pdf) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with +all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does +make the output much larger than the .dvi produced from the +same document. +
    + +

    There are other less-common variants of LaTeX (and TeX) as well, +which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. + +

  2. A “transcript” or .log file that contains summary information and +diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. + +
  3. An “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for +things such as sectioning. +
+ +

A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a +\ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a +single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], +are optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are +required. + +

LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless +explicitly directed to do otherwise. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: Overview, +Up: Top + +
+ +

2 Starting & ending

+ +

+A minimal input file looks like the following: + +

     \documentclass{class}
+     \begin{document}
+     your text
+     \end{document}
+
+

where the class is a valid document class for LaTeX. +See Document classes, for details of the various document classes +available locally. + +

You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentclass +and the \begin{document} commands (this area is called the +preamble). + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Starting & ending, +Up: Top + +
+ +

3 Document classes

+ +

+The class of a given document is defined with the command: + +

     \documentclass[options]{class}
+
+

The \documentclass command must be the first command in a +LaTeX source file. + +

Built-in LaTeX document class names are (many other document +classes are available as add-ons; see Overview): + +

     article  report  book  letter  slides
+
+ +

Standard options are described below. + +

+ +
+


+ +Up: Document classes + +
+ +

3.1 Document class options

+ +

+You can specify so-called global options or class options +to the \documentclass command by enclosing them in square +brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate +them with a comma: + +

     \documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}
+
+

Here is the list of the standard class options. + +

All of the standard classes except slides accept the following +options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt): + +

     10pt  11pt  12pt
+
+

All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper +size (default is letterpaper): + +

     a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper
+
+

Miscellaneous other options: + +

+
draft, final
mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is final. +
fleqn
Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. +
landscape
Selects landscape format; default is portrait. +
leqno
Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. +
openbib
Use “open” bibliography format. +
titlepage, notitlepage
Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. +
+ +

These options are not available with the slides class: + +

+

+
onecolumn
twocolumn
Typeset in one or two columns; default is onecolumn. + +
oneside
twoside
Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is oneside, except +for the book class. + +

The \evensidemargin (\oddsidemargin parameter determines +the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the +page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper +size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided +printing the text is centered, for two-sided, \oddsidemargin is +40% of the difference between \paperwidth and \textwidth +with \evensidemargin the remainder. + +

openright
openany
Determines if a chapter should start on a +right-hand page; default is openright for book. +
+ +

The slides class offers the option clock for printing +the time at the bottom of each note. + +

Additional packages are loaded like this: + +

     \usepackage[options]{pkg}
+
+

To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a +comma, or use multiple \usepackage commands. + +

Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +\usepackage. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Document classes, +Up: Top + +
+ +

4 Typefaces

+ +

+Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size +and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. + +

+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Up: Typefaces + +
+ +

4.1 Font styles

+ +

+The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. + +

These commands are used like \textit{italic text}. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + +

The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either +\sffamily\bfseries or \bfseries\sffamily to get bold +sans serif. + +

You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance, +\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}. + +

+
\textrm (\rmfamily)
Roman. + +
\textit (\itshape)
Italics. + +
\emph
Emphasis (switches between \textit and \textrm). + +
\textmd (\mdseries)
Medium weight (default). + +
\textbf (\bfseries)
Boldface. +
\textup (\upshape)
Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. +
\textsl (\slshape)
Slanted. +
\textsf (\sffamily)
Sans serif. +
\textsc (\scshape)
Small caps. +
\texttt (\ttfamily)
Typewriter. +
\textnormal (\normalfont)
Main document font. +
\mathrm
Roman, for use in math mode. +
\mathbf
Boldface, for use in math mode. +
\mathsf
Sans serif, for use in math mode. +
\mathtt
Typewriter, for use in math mode. + +
\mathit
(\mit)
Italics, for use in math mode. + +
\mathnormal
For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. +
\mathcal
`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. +
+ +

In addition, the command +\mathversion{bold} +can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in +formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default. + +

LaTeX also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to +the given style, that is, are not cumulative. They are used +differently than the above commands, too: {\cmd ...} +instead of \cmd{...}. These are two very different +things. + +

+
\bf
Switch to bold face. + +
\cal
Switch to calligraphic letters for math. + +
\em
Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). + +
\it
Italics. + +
\rm
Roman. + +
\sc
Small caps. + +
\sf
Sans serif. + +
\sl
Slanted (oblique). + +
\tt
Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Font styles, +Up: Typefaces + +
+ +

4.2 Font sizes

+ +

+The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. +The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font +size used (in points) with the ‘10pt’, ‘11pt’, and +‘12pt’ document size options, respectively (see Document class options). + +

+

Command 10pt 11pt 12pt +
\tiny +5 6 6 +
\scriptsize +7 8 8 +
\footnotesize +8 9 10 +
\small +9 10 10.95 +
\normalsize (default) +10 10.95 12 +
\large +12 12 14.4 +
\Large +14.4 14.4 17.28 +
\LARGE +17.28 17.28 20.74 +
\huge +20.74 20.74 24.88 +
\Huge +24.88 24.88 24.88 +
+ +

The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of +the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the +end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of +these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}. + +

+


+ + +Previous: Font sizes, +Up: Typefaces + +
+ +

4.3 Low-level font commands

+ +

+These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. + +

+
\fontencoding{enc}
Select font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1. + +
\fontfamily{family}
Select font family. Valid families include: + +
    +
  • cmr for Computer Modern Roman +
  • cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif +
  • cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter +
+ +

and numerous others. + +

\fontseries{series}
Select font series. Valid series include: + +
    +
  • m Medium (normal) +
  • b Bold +
  • c Condensed +
  • bc Bold condensed +
  • bx Bold extended +
+ +

and various other combinations. + +

\fontshape{shape}
Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + +
    +
  • n Upright (normal) +
  • it Italic +
  • sl Slanted (oblique) +
  • sc Small caps +
  • ui Upright italics +
  • ol Outline +
+ +

The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + +

\fontsize{size}{skip}
Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and +the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter +named \baselineskip. The unit of both parameters defaults to +pt. The default \baselineskip for the Computer Modern typeface +is 1.2 times the \fontsize. + +

The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the +\baselinestretch parameter when the type size changes; the +default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document, +if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the +setspace package; see +http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace. + +

\selectfont
The changes made by calling the four font commands described above do +not come into effect until \selectfont is called. + +
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
The same as invoking \fontencoding, \fontfamily, +\fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters, +followed by \selectfont. +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Typefaces, +Up: Top + +
+ +

5 Layout

+ +

+Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Layout + +
+ +

5.1 \onecolumn

+ +

+The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. This is the default. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \onecolumn, +Up: Layout + +
+ +

5.2 \twocolumn

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \twocolumn[text1col]
+
+

The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present, +it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting +starts. + +

These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: + +

+
\columnsep
The distance between columns (35pt by default). + +
\columnseprule
The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. + +
\columnwidth
The width of the current column; this is equal to \textwidth in +single-column text. + +
+ +

These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: + +

+
\dbltopfraction
Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied +by floats. Default ‘.7’, can be usefully redefined to (say) +‘.9’ to avoid going to float pages so soon. + +
\dblfloatpagefraction
The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, +for a two-column float page. Default ‘.5’. + +
\dblfloatsep
Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float +page. Default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for ‘10pt’ and +‘11pt’ documents, ‘14pt plus2pt minus4pt’ for ‘12pt’. + +
\dbltextfloatsep
Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page +and the main text. Default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \twocolumn, +Up: Layout + +
+ +

5.3 \flushbottom

+ +

+The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same +height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the +page. + +

This is the default if twocolumn mode is selected +(see Document class options). + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \flushbottom, +Up: Layout + +
+ +

5.4 \raggedbottom

+ +

+The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the natural +height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be +stretched. + +

+


+ +Previous: \raggedbottom, +Up: Layout + +
+ +

5.5 Page layout parameters

+ +

+

+
\headheight
Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is +‘30pt’, except in the book class, where it varies with the +type size. + +
\headsep
Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of +the main text. Default is ‘25pt’, except in the book +class, where it varies with the type size. + +
\footskip
Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of +the page footer. Default is ‘30pt’, except in the book +class, where it varies with the type size. + +
\linewidth
Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, +paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an article document in +‘10pt’, it's set to ‘345pt’; in two-column mode, that +becomes ‘229.5pt’. + +
\textheight
The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with +the font size, document class, etc. For an article or +report document in ‘10pt’, it's set to +‘43\baselineskip’; for book, it's ‘41\baselineskip’. +For ‘11pt’, it's ‘38\baselineskip’ and for ‘12pt’, +‘36\baselineskip’. + +
\textwidth
The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as +usual. For an article or report document, it's +‘345pt’ at ‘10pt’, ‘360pt’ at ‘11pt’, and +‘390pt’ at ‘12pt’. For a book document, it's +‘4.5in’ at ‘10pt’, and ‘5in’ at ‘11pt’ or ‘12pt’. + +
\topmargin
Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the +paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed +based on many other parameters: \paperheight − 2in − +\headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip, and +then divided by two. + +
\topskip
Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of +the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the +same as the font size, e.g., ‘10pt’ at ‘10pt’. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Layout, +Up: Top + +
+ +

6 Sectioning

+ +

+Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: + +

+
\part
\chapter
(report and book class only) +
\section
\subsection
\subsubsection
\paragraph
\subparagraph
+ +

All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., + +

     \chapter[toctitle]{title}
+
+

In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the +section title can appear in two other places: + +

    +
  1. The table of contents. +
  2. The running head at the top of the page. +
+ +

You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. +To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument +toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other +places. + +

Also, all sectioning commands have *-forms that print +title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an +entry in the table of contents. For instance: + +

     \section*{Preamble}
+
+

The \appendix command changes the way following sectional units +are numbered. The \appendix command itself generates no text +and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this +command is something like + +

     \chapter{A Chapter}
+     ...
+     \appendix
+     \chapter{The First Appendix}
+
+
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Sectioning, +Up: Top + +
+ +

7 Cross references

+ +

+One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.” + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Cross references + +
+ +

7.1 \label

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \label{key}
+
+

A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to +key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing +inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key. + +

A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. + +

To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by +a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: + +

+
ch
for chapters +
sec
for lower-level sectioning commands +
fig
for figures +
tab
for tables +
eq
for equations +
+ +

Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:snark or +fig.snark. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \label, +Up: Cross references + +
+ +

7.2 \pageref{key}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \pageref{key}
+
+

The \pageref{key} command produces the page number of +the place in the text where the corresponding +\label{key} command appears. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \pageref, +Up: Cross references + +
+ +

7.3 \ref{key}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \ref{key}
+
+

The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding +\label command (see \label). It does not produce any text, +such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Cross references, +Up: Top + +
+ +

8 Environments

+ +

+ +LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. +Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: + +

     \begin{envname}
+     ...
+     \end{envname}
+
+ + +
+


+ +Next: , +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.1 abstract

+ +

+Synopsis: +

     \begin{abstract}
+     ...
+     \end{abstract}
+
+

Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: abstract, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.2 array

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{array}{template}
+     col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\
+     ...
+     \end{array}
+
+

Math arrays are produced with the array environment, normally +within an equation environment (see equation). It has a +single mandatory template argument describing the number of +columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is +specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should +be formatted, as follows: + +

+
c
centered +
l
flush left +
r
flush right +
+ +

Column entries are separated by &. Column entries may include +other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with +\\. + +

In the template, the construct @{text} puts text +between columns in each row. + +

Here's an example: + +

     \begin{equation}
+       \begin{array}{lrc}
+       left1 & right1 & centered1 \\
+       left2 & right2 & centered2 \\
+       \end{array}
+     \end{equation}
+
+

The \arraycolsep parameter defines half the width of the space +separating columns; the default is ‘5pt’. See tabular, for other +parameters which affect formatting in array environments, +namely \arrayrulewidth and \arraystretch. + +

The array environment can only be used in math mode. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: array, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.3 center

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{center}
+     line1 \\
+     line2 \\
+     \end{center}
+
+

The center environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right +margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the +string \\. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Up: center + +
+ +

8.3.1 \centering

+ +

+The \centering declaration corresponds to the center +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as quote or in a parbox. Thus, the text of a figure or +table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering +command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. + +

Unlike the center environment, the \centering command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of +the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of +an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + +

Here's an example: + +

     \begin{quote}
+     \centering
+     first line \\
+     second line \\
+     \end{quote}
+
+
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: center, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.4 description

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{description}
+     \item [label1] item1
+     \item [label2] item2
+     ...
+     \end{description}
+
+

The description environment is used to make labelled lists. Each +label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may +contain multiple paragraphs. + +

Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if +you typeset a label in typewriter using \texttt, you'll get +bold typewriter: \item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]. This +may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use +\tt, which resets all other style variations: \item[{\tt +plain typewriter}]. + +

For details about list spacing, see itemize. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: description, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.5 displaymath

+ +

+Synopsis: +

     \begin{displaymath}
+     math
+     \end{displaymath}
+
+

or + +

     \[math\]
+
+

The displaymath environment (\[...\] is a synonym) +typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default. +The global fleqn option makes equations flush left; see +Document class options. + +

No equation number is added to displaymath text; to get an +equation number, use the equation environment (see equation). + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: displaymath, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.6 document

+ +

+The document environment encloses the body of a document. +It is required in every LaTeX document. See Starting & ending. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: document, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.7 enumerate

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{enumerate}
+     \item item1
+     \item item2
+     ...
+     \end{enumerate}
+
+

The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as +itemize (see itemize) and description +(see description). + +

Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + +

By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: + +

    +
  1. 1., 2., ... +
  2. (a), (b), ... +
  3. i., ii., ... +
  4. A., B., ... +
+ +

The enumerate environment uses the counters \enumi +through \enumiv counters (see Counters). If the optional +argument to \item is given, the counter is not incremented for +that item. + +

The enumerate environment uses the commands \labelenumi +through \labelenumiv to produce the default label. So, you can +use \renewcommand to change the labels (see \newcommand & \renewcommand). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase +letters: + +

+

     \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}
+
+
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: enumerate, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.8 eqnarray

+ +

+

     \begin{eqnarray}  (or eqnarray*)
+     formula1 \\
+     formula2 \\
+     ...
+     \end{eqnarray}
+
+

The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column +array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ +and consecutive items within a row separated by an &. + +

\\* can also be used to separate equations, with its normal +meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. + +

An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +\nonumber command. Alternatively, The *-form of the +environment (\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}) will +omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as +eqnarray. + +

The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: eqnarray, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.9 equation

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{equation}
+     math
+     \end{equation}
+
+

The equation environment starts a displaymath +environment (see displaymath), e.g., centering the math text +on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: equation, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.10 figure

+ +

+

     \begin{figure}[placement]
+     figbody
+     \label{label}
+     \caption[loftitle]{text}
+     \end{figure}
+
+

Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + +

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try +to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly +put a float: + +

    +
  1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure +environment appears. +
  2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page. +
  3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. +
  4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. +
+ +

The standard report and article classes use the default placement +tbp. + +

The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. +you wish. + +

The \caption command specifies caption text for the +figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is +present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text +(see Tables of contents). + + + + +

The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at +the bottom; default ‘.3’. + +
\floatpagefraction
The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; +default ‘.5’. + +
\floatsep
Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default +‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’. + +
\intextsep
Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default +‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for ‘10pt’ and ‘11pt’ styles, +‘14pt plus4pt minus4pt’ for ‘12pt’. + +
\textfloatsep
Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; +default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’. + +
\textfraction
Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too +much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a +different page. The default is ‘.2’. + +
\topfraction
Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before +floats; default is ‘.7’. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: figure, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.11 flushleft

+ +

+

     \begin{flushleft}
+     line1 \\
+     line2 \\
+     ...
+     \end{flushleft}
+
+

The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged +right Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Up: flushleft + +
+ +

8.11.1 \raggedright

+ +

+The \raggedright declaration corresponds to the +flushleft environment. This declaration can be used inside an +environment such as quote or in a parbox. + +

Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright +command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX +formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the +scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end +command that ends the paragraph unit. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: flushleft, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.12 flushright

+ +

+

     \begin{flushright}
+     line1 \\
+     line2 \\
+     ...
+     \end{flushright}
+
+

The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged +left. Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Up: flushright + +
+ +

8.12.1 \raggedleft

+ +

+The \raggedleft declaration corresponds to the +flushright environment. This declaration can be used inside an +environment such as quote or in a parbox. + +

Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft +command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX +formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the +scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end +command that ends the paragraph unit. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: flushright, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.13 itemize

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{itemize}
+     \item item1
+     \item item2
+     ...
+     \end{itemize}
+
+

The itemize environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted” +list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four +levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making +environments, such as enumerate (see enumerate). + +

Each item of an itemize list begins with an \item command. +There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + +

By default, the marks at each level look like this: + +

    +
  1. • +
  2. -- (bold en-dash) +
  3. * +
  4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) +
+ +

The itemize environment uses the commands \labelitemi +through \labelitemiv to produce the default label. So, you can +use \renewcommand to change the labels. For instance, to have +the first level use diamonds: + +

     \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
+
+

The \leftmargini through \leftmarginvi parameters define +the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and +the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin is set +to the appropriate \leftmarginN when a new level of +nesting is entered. + +

The defaults vary from ‘.5em’ (highest levels of nesting) to +‘2.5em’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. +This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: + +

     \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
+
+ +

Some parameters that affect list formatting: + +

+
\itemindent
Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. + +
\labelsep
Space between the label and text of an item; default ‘.5em’. + +
\labelwidth
Width of the label; default ‘2em’, or ‘1.5em’ in two-column mode. + +
\listparindent
Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a +list item; default ‘0pt’. + +
\rightmargin
Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the +enclosing environment; default ‘0pt’, except in the quote, +quotation, and verse environments, where it is set equal +to \leftmargin. + +
+ +

Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather +loose, by default). + +

+
\itemsep
Vertical space between items. The default is 2pt plus1pt +minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt for +11pt, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt for 12pt. + +
\parsep
Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults +are the same as \itemsep. + +
\topsep
Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. +The default is 4pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt documents, +6pt plus2pt minus2pt for 11pt, and 9pt plus3pt +minus5pt for 12pt. + +
\partopsep
Extra space added to \topsep when the list environment starts a +paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt +documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 3pt +plus2pt minus2pt for 12pt. + +
\topsep
Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list +item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; for +instance, within a first-level list at ‘10pt’, it is ‘4pt +plus2pt minus2pt’. + +
+ +

Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide +space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize* +environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs +within a single item (\parskip is not list-specific, +see \parskip): + +

     \newenvironment{itemize*}%
+       {\begin{itemize}%
+         \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
+         \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
+         \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
+       {\end{itemize}}
+
+
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: itemize, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.14 letter environment: writing letters

+ +

+This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: letter, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.15 list

+ +

+The list environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + +

     \begin{list}{labeling}{spacing}
+     \item item1
+     \item item2
+     ...
+     \end{list}
+
+

The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be +labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item). +This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. + +

The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the +spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be +empty, i.e., {}, which leaves the default spacing. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: list, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.16 math

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{math}
+     math
+     \end{math}
+
+

The math environment inserts the given math within the +running text. \(...\)) and $...$ are synonyms. +See Math formulas. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: math, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.17 minipage

+ +

+

     \begin{minipage}[position]{width}
+     text
+     \end{minipage}
+
+

The minipage environment typesets its body text in a +block that will not be broken across pages (similar to the +\parbox command, see \parbox). You may use other +paragraph-making environments inside a minipage (unlike \parbox). + + +

It takes an optional position argument for placing text, +and a mandatory width argument for specifying the line width. + +

By default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage +environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as +\setlength{\parindent}{1pc} command. + +

Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at +the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it +uses the \mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary +footnote counter (see Counters). + +

However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using +footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: minipage, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.18 picture

+ +

+

     \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
+     ... picture commands ...
+     \end{picture}
+
+

The picture environment allows you to create just about any +kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. +You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying +their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal +point and a minus sign—a number like 5, 0.3 or +-3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the +unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set +to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 +centimeters. You should only change the value of \unitlength, +using the \setlength command, outside of a picture +environment. + +

A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying +the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. +Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, +which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that +when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; +the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + +

The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + +

The picture environment also has an optional position +argument, following the size argument, that can change the +origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not +contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the +coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture +(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength +has been set to 1mm, the command +

        \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
+
+

produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 +millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + +

The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the +picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; +LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even +off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining +how much room to leave for it. + +

Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put +command. The command + +

     \put (11.3,-.3){...}
+
+

puts the object specified by ... in the +picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). +The reference points for various objects will be described below. + +

The \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything +that can go in an \mbox (see \mbox) in the text argument of +the \put command. When you do this, the reference point will +be the lower left corner of the box. + +

The picture commands are described in the following sections. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.1 \circle

+ +

+

     \circle[*]{diameter}
+
+

The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close +to the specified one as possible. The *-form of the command +draws a solid circle. + +

Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \circle, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.2 \makebox

+ +

+\makebox(width,height)[position]{...} + +

The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to +the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a +width and height in multiples of \unitlength. + +

The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + +

    +
  • t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle +
  • b - Moves the item to the bottom +
  • l - Moves the item to the left +
  • r - Moves the item to the right +
+ +

See \makebox. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \makebox (picture), +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.3 \framebox

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \framebox(width,height)[pos]{...}
+
+

The \framebox command is like \makebox (see previous +section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box +that it creates. + +

The \framebox command produces a rule of thickness +\fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule +and the contents of the box. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \framebox (picture), +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.4 \dashbox

+ +

+Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: + +

     \dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text}
+
+

\dashbox creates a dashed rectangle around text in a +picture environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the +rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight. +The text is positioned at optional pos. + +

A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are +multiples of the dlen. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \dashbox, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.5 \frame

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \frame{text}
+
+

The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around text. +The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra +space is put between the frame and the object. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \frame, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.6 \line

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \line(xslope,yslope){length}
+
+

The \line command draws a line with the given length and +slope xslope/yslope. + +

Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, +where x and y have integer values from −6 +through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes, +see the curve2e and many many other packages on CTAN. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \line, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.7 \linethickness

+ +

+The \linethickness{dim} command declares the thickness +of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be +dim, which must be a positive length. + +

\linethickness does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, +circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \linethickness, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.8 \thicklines

+ +

+The \thicklines command is an alternate line thickness for +horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; +cf. \linethickness and \thinlines. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \thicklines, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.9 \thinlines

+ +

+The \thinlines command is the default line thickness for +horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; +cf. \linethickness and \thicklines. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \thinlines, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.10 \multiput

+ +

+Synopsis: +

     \multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj}
+
+

The \multiput command copies the object obj in a regular +pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position +(x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, +n times. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \multiput, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.11 \oval

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \oval(width,height)[portion]
+
+

The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. +The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the +oval via the following: + +

+
t
selects the top portion; +
b
selects the bottom portion; +
r
selects the right portion; +
l
selects the left portion. +
+ +

The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a +maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like +boxes with rounded corners. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \oval, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.12 \put

+ +

+\put(x coord,y coord){ ... } + +

The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \put, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.13 \shortstack

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...}
+
+

The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + +

+
r
Move the objects to the right of the stack. +
l
Move the objects to the left of the stack +
c
Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) +
+ +

Objects are separated with \\. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \shortstack, +Up: picture + +
+ +

8.18.14 \vector

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \vector(x-slope,y-slope){length}
+
+

The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The x and y values must lie between +−4 and +4, inclusive. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: picture, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.19 quotation

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{quotation}
+     text
+     \end{quotation}
+
+

The margins of the quotation environment are indented on both +the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. +Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + +

Unlike the quote environment, each paragraph is indented +normally. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: quotation, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.20 quote

+ +

+Snyopsis: + +

     \begin{quote}
+     text
+     \end{quote}
+
+

The margins of the quote environment are indented on both the +left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a +blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + +

Unlike the quotation environment, paragraphs are not indented. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: quote, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.21 tabbing

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{tabbing}
+     row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\
+     row2col1 \>                \> row2col3 \\
+     ...
+     \end{tabbing}
+
+

The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in +columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as +was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where +the width of each column is constant and known in advance. + +

This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular +environment. + +

The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment: + +

+
\\ tabbing
End a line. + +
\= (tabbing)
Sets a tab stop at the current position. + +
\> (tabbing)
Advances to the next tab stop. + +
\<
Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing +the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. + +
\+
Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if +necessary. + +
\-
Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if +necessary. + +
\' (tabbing)
Moves everything that you have typed so far in the +current column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, +\<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right +of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. + +
\` (tabbing)
Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab +stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column +because there's no tab stop there. The \` command moves all the +text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} +command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing +environment. There must be no \> or \' command between +the \` and the command that ends the line. + +
\a (tabbing)
In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and +\` do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead, +the commands \a=, \a' and \a` are used. + +
\kill
Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\ +except that it throws away the current line instead of producing +output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \- +commands in that line remain in effect. + +
\poptabs
Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs. + +
\pushtabs
Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing +tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing environment. + +
\tabbingsep
Distance to left of tab stop moved by \'. + +
+ +

This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + +

     \begin{tabbing}
+     function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
+              \> begin \= \+ \\
+                    \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
+                             fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
+                       else \+ \\
+                             fact := 1; \-\- \\
+                 end;\\
+     \end{tabbing}
+
+
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: tabbing, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.22 table

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

      \begin{table}[placement]
+     
+       body of the table
+     
+      \caption{table title}
+      \end{table}
+
+

Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + +

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try +to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put +a float: + +

    +
  • h: Here - at the position in the text where the table +environment appears. +
  • t: Top - at the top of a text page. +
  • b: Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. +
  • p: Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. +
+ +

The standard report and article classes use the default +placement [tbp]. + +

The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., +you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: table, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.23 tabular

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
+     column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+     ...
+     \end{tabular}
+
+

or + +

     \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
+     column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
+     ...
+     \end{tabular*}
+
+

These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. + +

\\ must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, +except for the last, where it is optional—unless an \hline +command (to put a rule below the table) follows. + +

The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: + +

+
width
Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There must be +rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified +width. +
pos
Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of +the environment. + +
    +
  • t - align on top row +
  • b - align on bottom row +
+ +
cols
Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the +following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and +intercolumn material. + +
    +
  • l - A column of left-aligned items. +
  • r - A column of right-aligned items. +
  • c - A column of centred items. +
  • | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. +
  • @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression +suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any +desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be +included in text. An \extracolsep{wd} command in an +@-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the +left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another +\extracolsep command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this +extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An +\extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the +cols argument. +
  • p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of +width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} +command. However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in the +following situations: +
      +
    1. inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular. +
    2. inside an explicit \parbox. +
    3. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft +declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an +environment when used in a p-column element. +
    +
  • *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of +cols, where num is any positive integer and cols is +any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another +*-expression. + +
+ +
+ +

Parameters that control formatting: + + +

+
\arrayrulewidth
Thickness of the rule created by |, \hline, and +\vline in the tabular and array environments; the +default is ‘.4pt’. + +
\arraystretch
Scaling of spacing between rows in the tabular and array +environments; default is ‘1’,for no scaling. + +
\doublerulesep
Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by || +in the tabular and array environments; default is ‘2pt’. + +
\tabcolsep
Half the width of the space between columns; default is ‘6pt’. + +
+ +

These commands can be used inside a tabular environment: + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: tabular + +
+ +

8.23.1 \multicolumn

+ +

+Synopsis: +

     \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}
+
+

The \multicolumn command makes an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the +number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, +specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centered, l +for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument, +text, specifies what text to put in the entry. + +

Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; +\multicolumn is used for the heading: + +

     \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l}
+     \multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr
+        0x80&0x7FF   \cr
+       0x800&0xFFFF  \cr
+     0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr
+     \end{tabular}
+
+
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \multicolumn, +Up: tabular + +
+ +

8.23.2 \cline

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \cline{i-j}
+
+

The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, +which are specified in the mandatory argument. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \cline, +Up: tabular + +
+ +

8.23.3 \hline

+ +

+The \hline command draws a horizontal line the width of the +enclosing tabular or array environment. It's most +commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows +of a table. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \hline, +Up: tabular + +
+ +

8.23.4 \vline

+ +

+The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to +move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@-expression. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: tabular, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.24 thebibliography

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
+     \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
+     ...
+     \end{thebibliography}
+
+

The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. + +

In the article class, this reference list is labelled +“References”; in the report class, it is labelled +“Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes) +by redefining the command \refname. For instance, this +eliminates it entirely: + +

     \renewcommand{\refname}{}
+
+

The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset, +is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem +commands. It is typically given as 9 for bibliographies with +less than 10 references, 99 for ones with less than 100, etc. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: thebibliography + +
+ +

8.24.1 \bibitem

+ +

+Synopsis: +

     \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
+
+

The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by +label. If the label argument is missing, a number is +automatically generated using the enumi counter. The +cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation +symbols not containing a comma. + +

This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the +item's cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by +the \begin{document} command, the item's label is +associated with cite_key, causing references to cite_key +with a \cite command (see next section) to produce the +associated label. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \bibitem, +Up: thebibliography + +
+ +

8.24.2 \cite

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \cite[subcite]{keys
+
+

The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, +separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to +the references associated with keys by entries in the +.aux file. + +

The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the +citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth} might produce +`[Knuth, p. 314]'. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \cite, +Up: thebibliography + +
+ +

8.24.3 \nocite

+ +

+\nocite{key_list} + +

The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, +which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file. + +

+


+ +Previous: \nocite, +Up: thebibliography + +
+ +

8.24.4 Using BibTeX

+ +

+If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly +recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of +titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the +thebibliography environment (see thebibliography). Instead, +you include the lines + +

     \bibliographystyle{bibstyle}
+     \bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2}
+
+

The \bibliographystyle command does not produce any output of +its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will +be produced: bibstyle refers to a file +bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look. +The standard style names distributed with BibTeX are: + +

+
alpha
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of +publication. +
plain
Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. +
unsrt
Like plain, but entries are in order of citation. +
abbrv
Like plain, but more compact labels. +
+ +

In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to +the demands of various publications. See +http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib. + +

The \bibliography command is what actually produces the +bibliography. The argument to \bibliography refers to files +named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in +BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and +\nocite will be listed in the bibliography. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: thebibliography, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.25 theorem

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{theorem}
+     theorem-text
+     \end{theorem}
+
+

The theorem environment produces “Theorem n” in +boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering +possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem +(see \newtheorem). + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: theorem, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.26 titlepage

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{titlepage}
+     text
+     \end{titlepage}
+
+

The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e., a page +with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following +page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to +you. The \today command may be useful on title pages +(see \today). + +

You can use the \maketitle command (see \maketitle) to +produce a standard title page without a titlepage environment. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: titlepage, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.27 verbatim

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{verbatim}
+     literal-text
+     \end{verbatim}
+
+

The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment in +which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the +\ character produces a printed ‘\’. It turns LaTeX +into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same +effect that they would on a typewriter. + +

The verbatim uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt). + +

+ +
+


+ + +Up: verbatim + +
+ +

8.27.1 \verb

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \verbcharliteral-textchar
+     \verb*charliteral-textchar
+
+

The \verb command typesets literal-text as it is input, +including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter +(\tt) font. No spaces are allowed between \verb or +\verb* and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the +verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text. + +

The *-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a +“visible space” character. + +

+


+ +Previous: verbatim, +Up: Environments + +
+ +

8.28 verse

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \begin{verse}
+     line1 \\
+     line2 \\
+     ...
+     \end{verse}
+
+

The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + +

The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not +indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each +stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to separate the +stanzas. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Page breaking, +Up: Top + +
+ +

9 Footnotes

+ +

+Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced +with one command, the \footnote command. They can also be +produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the +\footnotetext commands. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Footnotes + +
+ +

9.1 \footnote

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \footnote[number]{text}
+
+

The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text +at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument number +changes the default footnote number. + +

This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you +cannot use it in sectioning commands like \chapter, in figures, +tables or in a tabular environment. (See following sections.) + + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \footnote, +Up: Footnotes + +
+ +

9.2 \footnotemark

+ +

+With no optional argument, the \footnotemark command puts the +current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in +inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, +with the \footnotetext command. + +

This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote +markers referring to the same footnote with + +

     \footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
+
+

after the first \footnote command. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \footnotemark, +Up: Footnotes + +
+ +

9.3 \footnotetext

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \footnotetext[number]{text}
+
+

The \footnotetext command places text at the bottom of +the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the +\footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must +appear in outer paragraph mode. + +

The optional argument number changes the default footnote number. + +

+


+ +Previous: \footnotetext, +Up: Footnotes + +
+ +

9.4 Footnote parameters

+ +

+

+
\footnoterule
Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's +footnotes. Default dimensions: 0.4pt thick (or wide), and +0.4\columnwidth long in the standard document classes (except +slides, where it does not appear). + +
\footnotesep
The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By +default, this is set to the normal strut for \footnotesize +fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between +footnotes. This is ‘6.65pt’ for ‘10pt’, ‘7.7pt’ for +‘11pt’, and ‘8.4pt’ for ‘12pt’. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Footnotes, +Up: Top + +
+ +

10 Definitions

+ +

+LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. + + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.1 \newcommand & \renewcommand

+ +

+\newcommand and \renewcommand define and redefine a +command, respectively. Synopses: + +

       \newcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
+     \renewcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
+       \newcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn}
+     \renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn}
+
+
+
cmd
The command name beginning with \. For \newcommand, it +must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for +\renewcommand, it must already be defined. + +
nargs
An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments +that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no +arguments. + +
default
If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's +first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the +default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not specified +in the call) is the string ‘def’. + +
defn
The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a +construct of the form #n in defn is replaced by the +text of the nth argument. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newcommand & \renewcommand, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.2 \newcounter

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \newcounter{cnt}[countername]
+
+

The \newcounter command defines a new counter named cnt. +The new counter is initialized to zero. + +

Given the optional argument [countername], cnt +will be reset whenever countername is incremented. + +

See Counters, for more information about counters. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newcounter, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.3 \newlength

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \newlength{\arg}
+
+

The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument as a +length command with a value of 0in. The argument must +be a control sequence, as in \newlength{\foo}. An error +occurs if \foo is already defined. + +

See Lengths, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and +for more information about lengths in general. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newlength, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.4 \newsavebox

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \newsavebox{cmd}
+
+

Defines \cmd, which must be a command name not already +defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newsavebox, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.5 \newenvironment & \renewenvironment

+ +

+Synopses: + +

       \newenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
+       \newenvironment{env}[nargs][default]{begdef}{enddef}
+     \renewenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
+
+

These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is, +\begin{env} ... \end{env}. + +

+
env
The name of the environment. For \newenvironment, env +must not be an existing environment, and the command \env +must be undefined. For \renewenvironment, env must be +the name of an existing environment. + +
nargs
An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of +the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + +
default
If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default +gives the default value for that argument. + +
begdef
The text expanded at every occurrence of \begin{env}; a +construct of the form #n in begdef is replaced by +the text of the nth argument. + +
enddef
The text expanded at every occurrence of \end{env}. It +may not contain any argument parameters. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.6 \newtheorem

+ +

+

     \newtheorem{newenv}{label}[within]
+     \newtheorem{newenv}[numbered_like]{label}
+
+

This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: + +

+
newenv
The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an +existing environment or otherwise defined. + +
label
The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the +number. For example, ‘Theorem’. + +
numbered_like
(Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; +the new environment will be numbered just like numbered_like. + +
within
(Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. +The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the +within counter. + +
+ +

At most one of numbered_like and within can be specified, +not both. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newtheorem, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.7 \newfont

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \newfont{cmd}{fontname}
+
+

Defines a control sequence \cmd, which must not already +be defined, to make fontname be the current font. The file +looked for on the system is named fontname.tfm. + +

This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. +More commonly, fonts are defined in families through .fd files. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \newfont, +Up: Definitions + +
+ +

10.8 \protect

+ +

+Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and +many more are so-called fragile commands. When a fragile +command is used in certain contexts, called moving arguments, it +must be preceded by \protect. In addition, any fragile +commands within the arguments must have their own \protect. + +

Some examples of moving arguments are \caption +(see figure), \thanks (see \maketitle), and +expressions in tabular and array environments +(see tabular). + +

Commands which are not fragile are called robust. They must not +be preceded by \protect. + +

See also: + +


http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html
+
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect
+
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Definitions, +Up: Top + +
+ +

11 Counters

+ +

+Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with +it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment +or command that produces the number, except with no \. +(enumienumiv are used for the nested enumerate +environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's +standard document classes to control numbering. + +

     part            paragraph       figure          enumi
+     chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
+     section         page            footnote        enumiii
+     subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
+     subsubsection
+
+ + +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.1 \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol: Printing counters

+ +

All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for +instance, \alph{enumi}. + +

+
\alph
prints counter using lowercase letters: `a', `b', ... + +
\Alph
uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', ... + +
\arabic
uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', ... + +
\roman
uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', ... + +
\roman
uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', ... + +
\fnsymbol
prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine +symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of +counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. + +

The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the names: +

          asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel
+          double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger
+
+
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.2 \usecounter{counter}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \usecounter{counter}
+
+

The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the +list environment to specify counter to be used to number +the list items. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \usecounter, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.3 \value{counter}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \value{counter}
+
+

The \value command produces the value of counter. It can +be used anywhere LaTeX expects a number, for example: + +

     \setcounter{myctr}{3}
+     \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
+     \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
+
+
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \value, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.4 \setcounter{counter}{value}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \setcounter{\counter}{value}
+
+

The \setcounter command sets the value of \counter to the +value argument. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \setcounter, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.5 \addtocounter{counter}{value}

+ +

+The \addtocounter command increments counter by the +amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \addtocounter, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.6 \refstepcounter{counter}

+ +

+The \refstepcounter command works in the same way as +\stepcounter See \stepcounter, except it also defines the +current \ref value to be the result of \thecounter. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \refstepcounter, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.7 \stepcounter{counter}

+ +

+The \stepcounter command adds one to counter and +resets all subsidiary counters. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \stepcounter, +Up: Counters + +
+ +

11.8 \day \month \year: Predefined counters

+ +

+LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (\day, +1–31), month of the year (\month, 1–12), and year +(\year, Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are +set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They +are not updated as the job progresses. + +

The related command \today produces a string representing the +current day (see \today). + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Counters, +Up: Top + +
+ +

12 Lengths

+ +

+A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a +length as an argument. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Lengths + +
+ +

12.1 \setlength{\len}{value}

+ +

+The \setlength sets the value of \len to the value +argument, which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX +understands, i.e., inches (in), millimeters (mm), points +(pt), big points (bp, etc. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \setlength, +Up: Lengths + +
+ +

12.2 \addtolength{\len}{amount}

+ +

+The \addtolength command increments a “length command” +\len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which +may be negative. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \addtolength, +Up: Lengths + +
+ +

12.3 \settodepth

+ +

+\settodepth{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command +equal to the depth of the text argument. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \settodepth, +Up: Lengths + +
+ +

12.4 \settoheight

+ +

+\settoheight{\gnat}{text} + +

The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command +equal to the height of the text argument. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \settoheight, +Up: Lengths + +
+ +

12.5 \settowidth{\len}{text}

+ +

+The \settowidth command sets the value of the command \len +to the width of the text argument. + +

+


+ +Previous: \settowidth, +Up: Lengths + +
+ +

12.6 Predefined lengths

+ +

+\width + +\height + +\depth + +\totalheight + +These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making +commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width etc. of the +text in the box. \totalheight equals \height + +\depth. To make a box with the text stretched to double the +natural size, e.g., say + +

\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Environments, +Up: Top + +
+ +

13 Line breaking

+ +

+The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines +(and these lines must be broken into pages). + +

LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in +some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the +\\ command, and you can always manually force breaks. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.1 \\[*][morespace]

+ +

+The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an +optional argument, morespace, that specifies how much extra +vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a +negative amount. + +

The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command +except that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \\, +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.2 \obeycr & \restorecr

+ +

+The \obeycr command makes a return in the input file +(‘^^M’, internally) the same as \\ (followed by +\relax). So each new line in the input will also be a new line +in the output. + +

\restorecr restores normal line-breaking behavior. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \obeycr & \restorecr, +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.3 \newline

+ +

+The \newline command breaks the line at the present point, with +no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph +mode. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newline, +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.4 \- (discretionary hyphen)

+ +

+The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at +that point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually +find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an +incorrect one. The \- command is used for the exceptional +cases. + +

When you insert \- commands in a word, the word will only be +hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points +that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \- (hyphenation), +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.5 \fussy

+ +

+The declaration \fussy (which is the default) makes TeX +picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between +words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. + +

This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command +(see \sloppy. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.6 \sloppy

+ +

The declaration \sloppy makes TeX less fussy about line +breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose +interword spacing. + +

Lasts until a \fussy command is issued (see \fussy). + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \fussy, +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.7 \hyphenation

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \hyphenation{word-one word-two}
+
+

The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points +with a - character in the given words. The words are separated +by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no +inflections are tried. Multiple \hyphenation commands +accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns +misses the hyphenations in these words): + +

     \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}
+
+
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \hyphenation, +Up: Line breaking + +
+ +

13.8 \linebreak & \nolinebreak

+ +

+Synopses: + +

     \linebreak[priority]
+     \nolinebreak[priority]
+
+

By default, the \linebreak (\nolinebreak) command forces +(prevents) a line break at the current position. For +\linebreak, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it +extends to the right margin as usual. + +

With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command +from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from +0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Line breaking, +Up: Top + +
+ +

14 Page breaking

+ +

+LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has +accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, +but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Page breaking + +
+ +

14.1 \cleardoublepage

+ +

+The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \cleardoublepage, +Up: Page breaking + +
+ +

14.2 \clearpage

+ +

+The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \clearpage, +Up: Page breaking + +
+ +

14.3 \newpage

+ +

+The \newpage command ends the current page, but does not clear +floats (see \clearpage above). + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \newpage, +Up: Page breaking + +
+ +

14.4 \enlargethispage

+ +

+\enlargethispage{size} + +

\enlargethispage*{size} + +

Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one +additional line. + +

The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as +much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +\pagebreak. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \enlargethispage, +Up: Page breaking + +
+ +

14.5 \pagebreak & \nopagebreak

+ +

+Synopses: + +

     \pagebreak[priority]
+     \nopagebreak[priority]
+
+

By default, the \pagebreak (\nopagebreak) command forces +(prevents) a page break at the current position. For +\linebreak, the vertical space on the page is stretched out +where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. + +

With the optional argument priority, you can convert the +\pagebreak command from a demand to a request. The number must +be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more +insistent the request is. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Lengths, +Up: Top + +
+ +

15 Making paragraphs

+ +

+A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not +containing even a %. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Making paragraphs + +
+ +

15.1 \indent

+ +

+\indent produces a horizontal space whose width equals the +width of the \parindent length, the normal paragraph +indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would +otherwise be suppressed. + +

The default value for \parindent is 1em in two-column +mode, otherwise 15pt for 10pt documents, 17pt for +11pt, and 1.5em for 12pt. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \indent, +Up: Making paragraphs + +
+ +

15.2 \noindent

+ +

+When used at the beginning of the paragraph, \noindent +suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in +the middle of a paragraph. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \noindent, +Up: Making paragraphs + +
+ +

15.3 \parskip

+ +

+\parskip is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added +before each paragraph. The default is 0pt plus1pt. + +

+


+ +Previous: \parskip, +Up: Making paragraphs + +
+ +

15.4 Marginal notes

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \marginpar[left]{right}
+
+

The \marginpar command creates a note in the margin. The first +line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text +where the \marginpar occurs. + +

When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text +will be placed + +

    +
  • in the right margin for one-sided layout; +
  • in the outside margin for two-sided layout; +
  • in the nearest margin for two-column layout. +
+ +

The command \reversemarginpar places subsequent marginal notes +in the opposite (inside) margin. \normalmarginpar places them +in the default position. + +

When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left +margin, and right is used for the right margin. + +

The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation there by beginning the node with \hspace{0pt}. + +

These parameters affect the formatting of the note: + +

+
\marginparpush
Minimum vertical space between notes; default ‘7pt’ for +‘12pt’ documents, ‘5pt’ else. + +
\marginparsep
Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default +‘11pt’ for ‘10pt’ documents, ‘10pt’ else. + +
\marginparwidth
Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided ‘10pt’ document +is ‘90pt’, ‘83pt’ for ‘11pt’, and ‘68pt’ for +‘12pt’; ‘17pt’ more in each case for a two-sided document. +In two column mode, the default is ‘48pt’. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Making paragraphs, +Up: Top + +
+ +

16 Math formulas

+ +

+There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: + +

+
math
For formulas that appear right in the text. +
displaymath
For formulas that appear on their own line. +
equation
The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation +number in the right margin. +
+ +

The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the displaymath and equation environments can be used +only in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath +environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: + +

     \(...\)   instead of   \begin{math}...\end{math}
+     \[...\]   instead of   \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
+
+

In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + +

     $ ... $   instead of   \(...\)
+
+

The \boldmath command changes math letters and symbols to be in +a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the +\unboldmath command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; +it too is used outside of math mode. + + +

The \displaystyle declaration forces the size and style of the +formula to be that of displaymath, e.g., with limits above and +below summations. For example +

     $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $
+
+ + + +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Math formulas + +
+ +

16.1 Subscripts & Superscripts

+ +

+To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type +_{exp}. To get exp to appear as a +superscript, you type ^{exp}. LaTeX handles +superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. +It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a +superscript. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Subscripts & Superscripts, +Up: Math formulas + +
+ +

16.2 Math symbols

+ +

+LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to +need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. +For example, if you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get +the pi symbol (\pi) in your output. + +

+
\|
\| + +
\aleph
\aleph + +
\alpha
\alpha + +
\amalg
\amalg (binary operation) + +
\angle
\angle + +
\approx
\approx (relation) + +
\ast
\ast (binary operation) + +
\asymp
\asymp (relation) + +
\backslash
\ (delimiter) + +
\beta
\beta + +
\bigcap
\bigcap + +
\bigcirc
\bigcirc (binary operation) + +
\bigcup
\bigcup + +
\bigodot
\bigodot + +
\bigoplus
\bigoplus + +
\bigotimes
\bigotimes + +
\bigtriangledown
\bigtriangledown (binary operation) + +
\bigtriangleup
\bigtriangleup (binary operation) + +
\bigsqcup
\bigsqcup + +
\biguplus
\biguplus + +
\bigcap
\bigvee + +
\bigwedge
\bigwedge + +
\bot
\bot + +
\bowtie
\bowtie (relation) + +
\Box
(square open box symbol) + +
\bullet
\bullet (binary operation) + +
\cap
\cap (binary operation) + +
\cdot
\cdot (binary operation) + +
\chi
\chi + +
\circ
\circ (binary operation) + +
\clubsuit
\clubsuit + +
\cong
\cong (relation) + +
\coprod
\coprod + +
\cup
\cup (binary operation) + +
\dagger
\dagger (binary operation) + +
\dashv
\dashv (relation) + +
\ddagger
\dagger (binary operation) + +
\Delta
\Delta + +
\delta
\delta + +
\Diamond
bigger \diamond + +
\diamond
\diamond (binary operation) + +
\diamondsuit
\diamondsuit + +
\div
\div (binary operation) + +
\doteq
\doteq (relation) + +
\downarrow
\downarrow (delimiter) + +
\Downarrow
\Downarrow (delimiter) + +
\ell
\ell + +
\emptyset
\emptyset + +
\epsilon
\epsilon + +
\equiv
\equiv (relation) + +
\eta
\eta + +
\exists
\exists + +
\flat
\flat + +
\forall
\forall + +
\frown
\frown (relation) + +
\Gamma
\Gamma + +
\gamma
\gamma + +
\ge
\ge + +
\geq
\geq (relation) + +
\gets
\gets + +
\gg
\gg (relation) + +
\hbar
\hbar + +
\heartsuit
\heartsuit + +
\hookleftarrow
\hookleftarrow + +
\hookrightarrow
\hookrightarrow + +
\iff
\iff + +
\Im
\Im + +
\in
\in (relation) + +
\infty
\infty + +
\int
\int + +
\iota
\iota + +
\Join
condensed bowtie symbol (relation) + +
\kappa
\kappa + +
\Lambda
\Lambda + +
\lambda
\lambda + +
\land
\land + +
\langle
\langle (delimiter) + +
\lbrace
\lbrace (delimiter) + +
\lbrack
\lbrack (delimiter) + +
\lceil
\lceil (delimiter) + +
\le
\le + +
\leadsto
+ +
\Leftarrow
\Leftarrow + +
\leftarrow
\leftarrow + +
\leftharpoondown
\leftharpoondown + +
\leftharpoonup
\leftharpoonup + +
\Leftrightarrow
\Leftrightarrow + +
\leftrightarrow
\leftrightarrow + +
\leq
\leq (relation) + +
\lfloor
\lfloor (delimiter) + +
\lhd
(left-pointing arrow head) + +
\ll
\ll (relation) + +
\lnot
\lnot + +
\longleftarrow
\longleftarrow + +
\longleftrightarrow
\longleftrightarrow + +
\longmapsto
\longmapsto + +
\longrightarrow
\longrightarrow + +
\lor
\lor + +
\mapsto
\mapsto + +
\mho
+ +
\mid
\mid (relation) + +
\models
\models (relation) + +
\mp
\mp (binary operation) + +
\mu
\mu + +
\nabla
\nabla + +
\natural
\natural + +
\ne
\ne + +
\nearrow
\nearrow + +
\neg
\neg + +
\neq
\neq (relation) + +
\ni
\ni (relation) + +
\not
Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=. + +
\notin
\ni + +
\nu
\nu + +
\nwarrow
\nwarrow + +
\odot
\odot (binary operation) + +
\oint
\oint + +
\Omega
\Omega + +
\omega
\omega + +
\ominus
\ominus (binary operation) + +
\oplus
\oplus (binary operation) + +
\oslash
\oslash (binary operation) + +
\otimes
\otimes (binary operation) + +
\owns
\owns + +
\parallel
\parallel (relation) + +
\partial
\partial + +
\perp
\perp (relation) + +
\phi
\phi + +
\Pi
\Pi + +
\pi
\pi + +
\pm
\pm (binary operation) + +
\prec
\prec (relation) + +
\preceq
\preceq (relation) + +
\prime
\prime + +
\prod
\prod + +
\propto
\propto (relation) + +
\Psi
\Psi + +
\psi
\psi + +
\rangle
\rangle (delimiter) + +
\rbrace
\rbrace (delimiter) + +
\rbrack
\rbrack (delimiter) + +
\rceil
\rceil (delimiter) + +
\Re
\Re + +
\rfloor
\rfloor + +
\rhd
(binary operation) + +
\rho
\rho + +
\Rightarrow
\Rightarrow + +
\rightarrow
\rightarrow + +
\rightharpoondown
\rightharpoondown + +
\rightharpoonup
\rightharpoonup + +
\rightleftharpoons
\rightleftharpoons + +
\searrow
\searrow + +
\setminus
\setminus (binary operation) + +
\sharp
\sharp + +
\Sigma
\Sigma + +
\sigma
\sigma + +
\sim
\sim (relation) + +
\simeq
\simeq (relation) + +
\smallint
\smallint + +
\smile
\smile (relation) + +
\spadesuit
\spadesuit + +
\sqcap
\sqcap (binary operation) + +
\sqcup
\sqcup (binary operation) + +
\sqsubset
(relation) + +
\sqsubseteq
\sqsubseteq (relation) + +
\sqsupset
(relation) + +
\sqsupseteq
\sqsupseteq (relation) + +
\star
\star (binary operation) + +
\subset
\subset (relation) + +
\subseteq
\subseteq (relation) + +
\succ
\succ (relation) + +
\succeq
\succeq (relation) + +
\sum
\sum + +
\supset
\supset (relation) + +
\supseteq
\supseteq (relation) + +
\surd
\surd + +
\swarrow
\swarrow + +
\tau
\tau + +
\theta
\theta + +
\times
\times (binary operation) + +
\to
\to + +
\top
\top + +
\triangle
\triangle + +
\triangleleft
\triangleleft (binary operation) + +
\triangleright
\triangleright (binary operation) + +
\unlhd
left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + +
\unrhd
right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + +
\Uparrow
\Uparrow (delimiter) + +
\uparrow
\uparrow (delimiter) + +
\Updownarrow
\Updownarrow (delimiter) + +
\updownarrow
\updownarrow (delimiter) + +
\uplus
\uplus (binary operation) + +
\Upsilon
\Upsilon + +
\upsilon
\upsilon + +
\varepsilon
\varepsilon + +
\varphi
\varphi + +
\varpi
\varpi + +
\varrho
\varrho + +
\varsigma
\varsigma + +
\vartheta
\vartheta + +
\vdash
\vdash (relation) + +
\vee
\vee (binary operation) + +
\Vert
\Vert (delimiter) + +
\vert
\vert (delimiter) + +
\wedge
\wedge (binary operation) + +
\wp
\wp + +
\wr
\wr (binary operation) + +
\Xi
\Xi + +
\xi
\xi + +
\zeta
\zeta + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Math symbols, +Up: Math formulas + +
+ +

16.3 Math functions

+ +

+These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper +spacing. + +

+
\arccos
\arccos + +
\arcsin
\arcsin + +
\arctan
\arctan + +
\arg
\arg + +
\bmod
Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) + +
\cos
\cos + +
\cosh
\cosh + +
\cot
\cos + +
\coth
\cosh + +
\csc
\csc + +
\deg
\deg + +
\det
\deg + +
\dim
\dim + +
\exp
\exp + +
\gcd
\gcd + +
\hom
\hom + +
\inf
\inf + +
\ker
\ker + +
\lg
\lg + +
\lim
\lim + +
\liminf
\liminf + +
\limsup
\limsup + +
\ln
\ln + +
\log
\log + +
\max
\max + +
\min
\min + +
\pmod
parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) + +
\Pr
\Pr + +
\sec
\sec + +
\sin
\sin + +
\sinh
\sinh + +
\sup
\sup + +
\tan
\tan + +
\tanh
\tanh + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Math functions, +Up: Math formulas + +
+ +

16.4 Math accents

+ +

+LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters +in math. These are different from accents in normal text +(see Accents). + +

+
\acute
Math acute accent: \acutex. + +
\breve
Math breve accent: \brevex. + +
\check
Math hác<ek (check) accent: \checkx. + +
\ddot
Math dieresis accent: \ddotx. + +
\dot
Math dot accent: \dotx. + +
\grave
Math grave accent: \gravex. + +
\hat
Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hatx. + +
\imath
Math dotless i. + +
\jmath
Math dotless j. + +
\tilde
Math tilde accent: \tildex. + +
\vec
Math vector symbol: \vecx. + +
\widehat
Math wide hat accent: \widehatx+y. + +
\widehat
Math wide tilde accent: \widetildex+y. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Math accents, +Up: Math formulas + +
+ +

16.5 Spacing in math mode

+ +

+In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and +puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics +texts. If you want different spacing, LaTeX provides the following +commands for use in math mode: + +

+
\;
A thick space (5\over18\,quad). +
\:
\>
Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad). +
\,
A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode. +
\!
A negative thin space (-1\over6\,quad). +
+ +
+


+ +Previous: Spacing in math mode, +Up: Math formulas + +
+ +

16.6 Math Miscellany

+ +

+

+
\*
A “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is +allowed. + +
\cdots
A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. + +
\ddots
A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. + +
\frac{num}{den}
Produces the fraction num divided by den. + +
\left delim1 ... \right delim2
The two delimiters need not match; ‘.’ acts as a null delimiter, +producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math +in between. Example: \left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]. + +
\overbrace{text}
Generates a brace over text. +For example, \overbracex+\cdots+x^k \rm\;times. + +
\overline{text}
Generates a horizontal line over tex. +For exampe, \overlinex+y. + +
\sqrt[root]{arg}
Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The +optional argument root determines what root to produce. For +example, the cube root of x+y would be typed as +$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$. + +
\stackrel{text}{relation}
Puts text above relation. For example, +\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}. + +
\underbrace{math}
Generates math with a brace underneath. + +
\underline{text}
Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be +underlined. + +
\vdots
Produces a vertical ellipsis. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Math formulas, +Up: Top + +
+ +

17 Modes

+ +

+ +

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + +

    +
  • Paragraph mode +
  • Math mode +
  • Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short +
+ +

LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + +

“Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in +when processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your +text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in +“math mode” when it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR +mode”, as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it +produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, +unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it +never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words +into an \mbox, LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left +to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting +box was too wide to fit on the line. + +

LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a parbox. When +LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in +“inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out +in, is called “outer paragraph mode”. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Modes, +Up: Top + +
+ +

18 Page Styles

+ +

+The \documentclass command determines the size and position of +the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Page Styles + +
+ +

18.1 \maketitle

+ +

+The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title +page—except in the article class, where the title is placed +at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title +is obtained from the following declarations: + +

+
\author{name \and name2}
The \author command declares the document author(s), where the +argument is a list of authors separated by \and commands. Use +\\ to separate lines within a single author's entry—for +example, to give the author's institution or address. + +
\date{text}
The \date command declares text to be the document's +date. With no \date command, the current date (see \today) +is used. + +
\thanks{text}
The \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title, +usually used for credit acknowledgements. + +
\title{text}
The \title command declares text to be the title of the +document. Use \\ to force a line break, as usual. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \maketitle, +Up: Page Styles + +
+ +

18.2 \pagenumbering

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \pagenumbering{style}
+
+

Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style: + +

+
arabic
arabic numerals +
roman
lowercase Roman numerals +
Roman
uppercase Roman numerals +
alph
lowercase letters +
Alph
uppercase letters +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \pagenumbering, +Up: Page Styles + +
+ +

18.3 \pagestyle

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \pagestyle{style}
+
+

The \pagestyle command specifies how the headers and footers +are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style: + +

+
plain
Just a plain page number. + +
empty
Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. + +
headings
Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what +goes in the headers. + +
myheadings
Custom headers, specified via the \markboth or the +\markright commands. + +
+ +

Here are the descriptions of \markboth and \markright: + +

+
\markboth{left}{right}
Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading” +(left) is generated by the last \markboth command before +the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right is +generated by the first \markboth or \markright that +comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before +the page. + +
\markright{right}
Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Previous: \pagestyle, +Up: Page Styles + +
+ +

18.4 \thispagestyle{style}

+ +

+The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the +\pagestyle command (see previous section) except that it +changes to style for the current page only. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Page Styles, +Up: Top + +
+ +

19 Spaces

+ +

+LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. + +

Another space-producing command is \, to produce a “thin” +space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is +more often useful in math mode (see Spacing in math mode). + + +

Horizontal space +

+

Vertical space +

+ + +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.1 \hspace

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \hspace[*]{length}
+
+

The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length +argument can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands: +points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both +negative and positive space with an \hspace command; adding +negative space is like backspacing. + +

LaTeX normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning +or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional * +form. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \/, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.2 \hfill

+ +

The \hfill fill command produces a “rubber length” which has +no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as +needed. + +

The \fill parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, +the glue value ‘0pt plus1fill’); thus, \hspace\fill is +equivalent to \hfill. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \hspace, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.3 \SPACE

+ +

+The \ (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's +useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example +Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental. +It is also often used after control sequences, as in \TeX\ is a +nice system. + +

In normal circumstances, \<tab> and \<newline> +are equivalent to \ . + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \SPACE, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.4 \@

+ +

+The \@ command makes the following punctuation character end a +sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after +a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without +\@: + +

     ... in C\@.  Pascal, though ...
+     ... in C.  Pascal, though ...
+
+

produces + + +

+... in C. Pascal, though ... +... in C. Pascal, though ... +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \AT, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.5 \thinspace

+ +

+\thinspace produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that +is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as +in '. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \thinspace, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.6 \/

+ +

+The \/ command produces an italic correction. This is a +small space defined by the font designer for a given character, +to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic +f character typically has a large italic correction value. + +

If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to +insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a +very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as +normal letters, it can help. Compare +f: f; (in the TeX output, the `f's are nicely separated) +with f: f;. + +

Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic +correction. Compare +pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the `f') +with pdfTeX. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \hfill, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.7 \hrulefill

+ +

+The \hrulefill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \hrulefill, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.8 \dotfill

+ +

+The \dotfill command produces a “rubber length” that fills +with dots instead of just white space. + + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \dotfill, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.9 \addvspace

+ +

+\addvspace{length} + +

The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to length. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \addvspace, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.10 \bigskip \medskip \smallskip

+ +

These commands produce a given amount of space. + +

+
\bigskip
The same as \vspace{bigskipamount}, ordinarily about one line +space (with stretch and shrink). + +
\medskip
The same as \vspace{medskipamount}, ordinarily +about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + +
\smallskip
The same as \vspace{smallskipamount}, ordinarily about a +quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + +
+ +

The \...amount parameters are determined by the document class. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.11 \vfill

+ +

+The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which +can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to +\vspace{\fill} (see \hfill). + +

+


+ + +Previous: \vfill, +Up: Spaces + +
+ +

19.12 \vspace[*]{length}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \vspace[*]{length}
+
+

The \vspace command adds the vertical space length, i.e., +a rubber length. length can be negative or positive. + +

Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by \vspace at +the top or bottom of a page. With the optional * argument, the +space is not removed. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Spaces, +Up: Top + +
+ +

20 Boxes

+ +

+All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.1 \mbox{text}

+ +

+The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the +text created by its argument. The text is not broken into +lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \mbox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.2 \fbox and \framebox

+ +

+Synopses: + +

     \fbox{text}
+     \framebox[width][position]{text}
+
+

The \fbox and \framebox commands are like \mbox, +except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. + +

In addition, the \framebox command allows for explicit +specification of the box width with the optional width argument +(a dimension), and positioning with the optional position +argument. + +

Both commands produce a rule of thickness \fboxrule (default +‘.4pt’), and leave a space of \fboxsep (default +‘3pt’) between the rule and the contents of the box. + +

See \framebox (picture), for the \framebox command in the +picture environment. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: \fbox and \framebox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.3 lrbox

+ +

+\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox} + +

This is the environment form of \sbox. + +

The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which +must have been declared with \newsavebox. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: lrbox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.4 \makebox

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \makebox[width][position]{text}
+
+

The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain +the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the +optional width argument. The position of the text within the box +is determined by the optional position argument, which may take +the following values: + +

+
c
Centered (default). +
l
Flush left. +
r
Flush right. +
s
Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain +stretchable space for this to work. +
+ +

\makebox is also used within the picture environment +see \makebox (picture). + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \makebox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.5 \parbox

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}
+
+

The \parbox command produces a box whose contents are created +in paragraph mode. It should be used to make a box small +pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you +shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a +\parbox argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones +containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a +minipage environment (see minipage). + +

\parbox has two mandatory arguments: + +

+
width
the width of the parbox; +
text
the text that goes inside the parbox. +
+ +

The optional position argument allows you to align either the +top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding +text (default is top). + +

The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box. + +

The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside +the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used. + +

+
t
text is placed at the top of the box. +
c
text is centered in the box. +
b
text is placed at the bottom of the box. +
s
stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space +for this to work. +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \parbox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.6 \raisebox

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}
+
+

The \raisebox command raises or lowers text. The first +mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or +lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed +in LR mode. + +

The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. +If they are specified, LaTeX treats text as extending a +certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), +ignoring its natural height and depth. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \raisebox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.7 \savebox

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text}
+
+

This command typeset text in a box just as with \makebox +(see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box, +it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been +declared with \newsavebox (see \newsavebox). + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \savebox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.8 \sbox{\boxcmd}{text}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \sbox{\boxcmd}{text}
+
+

\sbox types text in a box just as with \mbox +(see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being +included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled +\boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with +\newsavebox (see \newsavebox). + +

+


+ + +Previous: \sbox, +Up: Boxes + +
+ +

20.9 \usebox{\boxcmd

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \usebox{\boxcmd}
+
+

\usebox producesthe box most recently saved in the bin +\boxcmd by a \savebox command (see \savebox). + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Boxes, +Up: Top + +
+ +

21 Special insertions

+ +

LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a +special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. + +

+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Up: Special insertions + +
+ +

21.1 Reserved characters

+ +

+The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called +“reserved characters” or “special characters”. + +

     # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
+
+

Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX +will do something special. If you simply want the character to be +printed as itself, include a \ in front of the character. For +example, \$ will produce $ in your output. + +

One exception to this rule is \ itself, because \\ has +its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by +typing $\backslash$ in your file, and a typewriter \ is +produced by using ‘\’ in a verbatim command (see verbatim). + +

Also, \~ and \^ place tilde and circumflex accents over +the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get +a standalone ~ or ^, you can again use a verbatim +command. + +

+Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you +know its number by using the \symbol command. For example, the +visible space character used in the \verb* command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}. + +

You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers +with ", so the previous example could also be written as +\symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Reserved characters, +Up: Special insertions + +
+ +

21.2 Text symbols

+ +

LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols +in running text. + +

+
\copyright
The copyright symbol, ©. + +
\dag
The dagger symbol (in text). + +
\ddag
The double dagger symbol (in text). + +
\LaTeX
The LaTeX logo. + +
\ldots
An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `...'. This +command also works in math mode. + +
\lq
Left (opening) quote: `. + +
\P
Paragraph sign (pilcrow). + +
\pounds
English pounds sterling. + +
\rq
Right (closing) quote: '. + +
\S
Section symbol. + +
\TeX
The TeX logo. + +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Text symbols, +Up: Special insertions + +
+ +

21.3 Accents

+ +

+LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and +languages, through the babel package and related support. This +section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely the +core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters. + +

+
\"
Produces an umlaut, as in ö. + +
\'
Produces an acute accent, as in ó. In the tabbing +environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column +(see tabbing). + +
\.
Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. + +
\=
Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o¯. + +
\^
Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô. + +
\`
Produces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the +tabbing environment, move following text to the right margin +(see tabbing). + +
\~
Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ. + +
\b
Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. + +
\bar
Produces a macron accent over the following, as in o¯. + +
\c
Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in + +
\d
Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. + +
\H
Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''. + +
\i
Produces a dotless i, as in `i'. + +
\j
Produces a dotless j, as in `j'. + +
\t
Produces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. + +
\u
Produces a breve accent, as in `o('. + +
\v
Produces a hác<ek (check) accent, as in `o<'. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: Accents, +Up: Special insertions + +
+ +

21.4 Non-English characters

+ +

+Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly +used in languages other than English. + +

+
\aa
\AA
å and Å. + +
\ae
\AE
æ and Æ. + +
\l
\L
/l and /L. + +
\o
\O
ø and Ø. + +
\oe
\OE
œ and Œ. + +
\ss
ß. + +
+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: Non-English characters, +Up: Special insertions + +
+ +

21.5 \rule

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \rule[raise]{width}{thickness}
+
+

The \rule command produces rules, that is, lines or +rectangles. The arguments are: + +

+
raise
How high to raise the rule (optional). + +
width
The length of the rule (mandatory). + +
thickness
The thickness of the rule (mandatory). +
+ +
+


+ + +Previous: \rule, +Up: Special insertions + +
+ +

21.6 \today

+ +

+The \today command produces today's date, in the format +‘month dd, yyyy’; for example, `July 4, 1976'. +It uses the predefined counters \day, \month, and +\year (see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not +updated as the program runs. + +

The datetime package, among others, can produce a wide variety +of other date formats. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Special insertions, +Up: Top + +
+ +

22 Splitting the input

+ +

+A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole +input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into +several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, +there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type +when you run LaTeX. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Splitting the input + +
+ +

22.1 \include

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \include{file}
+
+

If no \includeonly command is present, the \include +command executes \clearpage to start a new page +(see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another +\clearpage. + +

Given an \includeonly command, the \include actions are +only run if file is listed as an argument to +\includeonly. See the next section. + +

The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file +read by another \include command. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \include, +Up: Splitting the input + +
+ +

22.2 \includeonly

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \includeonly{file1,file2,...}
+
+

The \includeonly command controls which files will be read by +subsequent \include commands. The list of filenames is +comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename +specified in a \include command for the selection to be +effective. + +

This command can only appear in the preamble. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \includeonly, +Up: Splitting the input + +
+ +

22.3 \input

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \input{file}
+
+

The \input command causes the specified file to be read +and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current +file at that point. + +

If file does not end in ‘.tex’ (e.g., ‘foo’ or +‘foo.bar’), it is first tried with that extension (‘foo.tex’ +or ‘foo.bar.tex’). If that is not found, the original file +is tried (‘foo’ or ‘foo.bar’). + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: Splitting the input, +Up: Top + +
+ +

23 Front/back matter

+ + + +
+


+ +Next: , +Up: Front/back matter + +
+ +

23.1 Tables of contents

+ +

+A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents +command. You put the command right where you want the table of +contents to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must +have generated a .toc file. + +

The \tableofcontents command produces a heading, but it does +not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the +table of contents, write a \newpage command after the +\tableofcontents command. + +

The analagous commands \listoffigures and \listoftables +produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. +Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. + +

The command \nofiles overrides these commands, and +prevents any of these lists from being generated. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Tables of contents + +
+ +

23.1.1 \addcontentsline

+ +

+The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list +or table where: + +

+
ext
The extension of the file on which information is to be written, +typically one of: toc (table of contents), lof (list of +figures), or lot (list of tables). + +
unit
The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the +following, matching the value of the ext argument: + +
+
toc
The name of the sectional unit: part, chapter, +section, subsection, subsubsection. +
lof
For the list of figures. +
lot
For the list of tables. +
+ +
entry
The actual text of the entry. +
+ +

What is written to the .ext file is the +command \contentsline{unit}{name}. + + +

+


+ + +Previous: \addcontentsline, +Up: Tables of contents + +
+ +

23.1.2 \addtocontents

+ +

+The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) +directly to the .ext file that generates the table of +contents or lists of figures or tables. + +

+
ext
The extension of the file on which information is to be written: +toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or +lot (list of tables). + +
text
The text to be written. +
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Tables of contents, +Up: Front/back matter + +
+ +

23.2 Glossaries

+ +

+The command \makeglossary enables creating glossaries. + +

The command \glossary{text} writes a glossary entry for +text to an auxiliary file with the .glo extension. + +

Specifically, what gets written is the command +\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}, where +pageno is the current \thepage value. + +

The glossary package on CTAN provides support for fancier +glossaries. + +

+


+ +Previous: Glossaries, +Up: Front/back matter + +
+ +

23.3 Indexes

+ +

+The command \makeindex enables creating indexes. + +

The command \index{text} writes a glossary entry for +text to an auxiliary file with the .idx extension. + +

Specifically, what gets written is the command +\indexentry{text}{pageno}, where pageno +is the current \thepage value. + +

The rubber length \indexspace is inserted before each new +letter in the index; its default value is ‘10pt plus5pt +minus3pt’. + +

+The .idx file can then be sorted with an external command, +typically makeindex or xindy, resulting in a +.ind file, which can then be used to typeset the index. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Front/back matter, +Up: Top + +
+ +

24 Letters

+ +

+You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The +letter document class is designed to make a number of letters at +once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + +

Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other +document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a +minimum: + +

      \documentclass{letter}
+      \begin{document}
+       ... letters ...
+      \end{document}
+
+

Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name +and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + +

      \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
+           \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
+        ...
+      \end{letter}
+
+

The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of +the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that +make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not work. The letter +closes with a \closing command. + +

After the closing, you can have additional material. The +\cc command produces the usual “cc: ...”. There's also a +similar \encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these +commands, use \\ to separate the items. + +

These commands are used with the letter class. + +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.1 \address{return-address}

+ +

+The \address specifies the return address of a letter, as it +should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the +address should be separated by \\ commands. + +

If you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter +will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard +letterhead. (See Overview, for details on your local +implementation). If you give an \address declaration, then the +letter will be formatted as a personal letter. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \address, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.2 \cc

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \cc{name1\\name2}
+
+

Produce a list of names the letter was copied to. Each name is +printed on a separate line. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \cc, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.3 \closing

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \closing{text}
+
+

A letter closes with a \closing command, for example, +

     \closing{Best Regards,}
+
+
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \closing, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.4 \encl

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \encl{line1\\line2}
+
+

Declare a list of one more enclosures. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \encl, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.5 \location

+ +

+\location{address} + +

This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears +if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \location, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.6 \makelabels

+ +

+\makelabels{number} + +

If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet of +address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \makelabels, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.7 \name

+ +

+\name{June Davenport} + +

Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return +address. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \name, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.8 \opening{text}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \opening{text}
+
+

A letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory +argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. +For instance: + +

     \opening{Dear Joe,}
+
+
+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \opening, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.9 \ps

+ +

+Use the \ps command to start a postscript in a letter, after +\closing. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \ps, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.10 \signature{text}

+ +

+Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the +space for your signature. \\ starts a new line within +text as usual. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \signature, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.11 \startbreaks

+ +

+\startbreaks + +

Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: \startbreaks, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.12 \stopbreaks

+ +

+\stopbreaks + +

Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \stopbreaks, +Up: Letters + +
+ +

24.13 \telephone

+ +

+\telephone{number} + +

This is your telephone number. This only appears if the +firstpage pagestyle is selected. + +

+


+ + +Next: , +Previous: Letters, +Up: Top + +
+ +

25 Terminal Input/Output

+ +

+ +

+ +
+


+ + +Next: , +Up: Terminal Input/Output + +
+ +

25.1 \typein[cmd]{msg}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \typein[\cmd]{msg}
+
+

\typein prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to +stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If +the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is +processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the +\typein command. If the \cmd argument is present, it +must be a command name. This command name is then defined or +redefined to be the typed input. + +

+


+ + +Previous: \typein, +Up: Terminal Input/Output + +
+ +

25.2 \typeout{msg}

+ +

+Synopsis: + +

     \typeout{msg}
+
+

Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. +Commands in msg that are defined with \newcommand or +\renewcommand (among others) are replaced by their definitions +before being printed. + +

LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space +and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg. A +\space command in msg causes a single space to be +printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A ^^J in +msg prints a newline. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Terminal Input/Output, +Up: Top + +
+ +

26 Command Line

+ +

+The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; +TeX uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the +input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You +specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the +command; e.g. + +

     latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'
+
+

will process foo.tex without pausing after every error. + +

If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a +‘*’ prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type \stop +(and return) and it will prematurely end the document. + +

+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Command Line, +Up: Top + +
+ +

Appendix A Document templates

+ +

+Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will +be useful. + +

+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Up: Document templates + +
+ +

A.1 book template

+ +
\documentclass{book}
+\title{Book Class Template}
+\author{Alex Author}
+
+\begin{document}
+\maketitle
+
+\chapter{First}
+Some text.
+
+\chapter{Second}
+Some other text.
+
+\section{A subtopic}
+The end.
+\end{document}
+
+ +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: book template, +Up: Document templates + +
+ +

A.2 beamer template

+ +

The beamer class creates slides presentations. + +

\documentclass{beamer}
+
+\title{Beamer Class template}
+\author{Alex Author}
+\date{July 31, 2007}
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\maketitle
+
+% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
+\begin{frame}[fragile]
+ \frametitle{First Slide}
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  This is \verbatim!
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\end{frame}
+
+\end{document}
+
+
+ +
+


+ +Previous: beamer template, +Up: Document templates + +
+ +

A.3 tugboat template

+ +

TUGboat is the journal of the TeX Users Group, +http://tug.org/TUGboat. + +

\documentclass{ltugboat}  % ltugproc for proceedings
+
+\usepackage{graphicx}
+\usepackage{ifpdf}
+\ifpdf
+  \usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black,
+              urlcolor=black]{hyperref}
+\else
+  \usepackage{url}
+\fi
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\title{Example \TUB\ Regular Article}
+
+% repeat info for each author.
+\author{First Last}
+\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
+\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
+\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}
+
+\maketitle
+
+% The abstract comes after \maketitle in ltugboat.
+\begin{abstract}
+This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue.
+\end{abstract}
+
+\section{Introduction}
+
+This is an example article for \TUB, from
+\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.
+
+We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the hyperref
+package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output).  \TUB\ is produced
+using \acro{PDF} files exclusively, nowadays.
+
+The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others:
+
+{\small
+\begin{verbatim}
+\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
+\BibTeX \CandT \CTAN \DTD \DVItoVDU \HTML
+\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \JoT \LAMSTeX \LaTeXe
+\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \pcMF \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas
+\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
+\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG
+\tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \VorTeX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE
+
+\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
+\careof \thinskip
+
+\acro{FRED} -> {\sc fred}  % please use!
+\cs{fred}   -> \fred
+\env{fred}  -> \begin{fred}
+\meta{fred} -> <fred>
+\nth{n}     -> 1st, 2nd, ...
+\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
+\booktitle{Book of Fred}
+\end{verbatim}
+}
+
+For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
+\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
+
+Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.
+
+
+\bibliographystyle{plain}  % we recommend the plain bibliography style
+\nocite{book-minimal}      % just making the bibliography non-empty
+\bibliography{xampl}       % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX
+
+
+\makesignature  % not in ltugproc
+\end{document}
+
+ +
+


+ +Previous: Command Index, +Up: Top + +
+ +

Concept Index

+ + +
+


+ +Next: , +Previous: Document templates, +Up: Top + +
+ +

Command Index

+ + + + + diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.pdf b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.pdf new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..99e78eebdbd Binary files /dev/null and b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.pdf differ diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.texi b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.texi new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..f9c7070c6a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.texi @@ -0,0 +1,6474 @@ +\input texinfo +@c $Id: latex2e.texi 234 2008-06-10 18:27:54Z karl $ +@comment %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) +@setfilename latex2e.info +@set UPDATED June 2008 +@set VERSION 2.0 +@settitle @LaTeX{}2e reference manual @value{VERSION} +@comment %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.) + +@c xx merge http://ctan.org/tex-archive/info/latex-info/ +@c xx latex 2.09 should be pretty much complete now, but +@c new stuff in latex2e is surely missing. + +@copying +This document is version @value{VERSION} (@value{UPDATED}) of an +unofficial reference manual for @LaTeX{}, a document preparation +system. @LaTeX{} is a macro package for @TeX{}. + +This was originally translated from @file{LATEX.HLP} v1.0a in the VMS +Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by +George@tie{}D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The +@LaTeX{}@tie{}2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The +@LaTeX{}2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl +Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges +using @cite{Hypertext Help with @LaTeX{}}, by Sheldon Green, and the +@cite{@LaTeX{} Command Summary} (for @LaTeX{} 2.09) by L.@tie{}Botway +and C.@tie{}Biemesderfer (published by the @TeX{} Users Group as +@cite{@TeX{}niques} number 10), as reference material (text was not +directly copied). + +Copyright @copyright{} 2007, 2008 Karl Berry.@* +Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.@* +Copyright @copyright{} 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. + +Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of +this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice +are preserved on all copies. + +@ignore +Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the +results, provided the printed document carries copying permission +notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph +(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). +@end ignore + +Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this +manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire +resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission +notice identical to this one. + +Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual +into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. +@end copying + +@dircategory TeX +@direntry +* LaTeX2e: (latex2e). Unofficial LaTeX reference manual. +@end direntry + +@tex +\global\hbadness=4444 % don't complain much +@end tex + +@titlepage +@title @LaTeX{}: Structured documents for @TeX{} +@subtitle unofficial @LaTeX{} reference manual +@subtitle version @value{VERSION}, @value{UPDATED} +@author +@page +@vskip 0pt plus 1filll +@insertcopying +@end titlepage + +@shortcontents +@contents + +@node Top +@top @LaTeX{}2e + +This document is version @value{VERSION} (@value{UPDATED}) of an +unofficial reference manual for @LaTeX{}, a document preparation +system. It is intended to cover @LaTeX{}2e, which has been the +standard version of @LaTeX{} for many years. + +@cindex Knuth, Donald E. +@cindex Lamport, Leslie +@cindex @LaTeX{} Project team +@LaTeX{} is implemented as a macro package for Donald@tie{}E. Knuth's +@TeX{} typesetting program. @LaTeX{} was originally created by Leslie +Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers +(@url{http://latex-project.org}). The official documentation written +by the @LaTeX{} project is available there. Again, the present +document is unofficial and has not been reviewed by the @LaTeX{} +maintainers. + +@menu +* Overview:: What is @LaTeX{}? +* Starting & ending:: The standard beginning and end of a document. +* Document classes:: Some of the various classes available. +* Typefaces:: And fonts, such as bold, italics etc. +* Layout:: Controlling the page layout. +* Sectioning:: How to section properly. +* Cross references:: Automatic referencing. +* Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize. +* Line breaking:: Influencing line breaks. +* Page breaking:: Influencing page breaks. +* Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes. +* Definitions:: Define your own commands etc. +* Counters:: Internal counters used by @LaTeX{}. +* Lengths:: The length commands. +* Making paragraphs:: Paragraph commands. +* Math formulas:: How to create mathematical formulas. +* Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes. +* Page Styles:: Various styles of page layout. +* Spaces:: Horizontal and vertical space. +* Boxes:: Making boxes. +* Special insertions:: Inserting reserved and special characters. +* Splitting the input:: Dealing with big files by splitting. +* Front/back matter:: Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. +* Letters:: The letter class. +* Terminal Input/Output:: User interaction. +* Command Line:: System-independent command-line behavior. +* Document templates:: Starter templates for various document classes. +* Command Index:: Alphabetical list of @LaTeX{} commands. +* Concept Index:: General index. +@end menu + + +@node Overview +@chapter Overview of @LaTeX{} + +@cindex overview of @LaTeX{} +@cindex @LaTeX{} overview + +The @LaTeX{} command typesets a file of text using the @TeX{} program +and the @LaTeX{} ``macro package'' for @TeX{}. To be more specific, +it processes an input file containing the text of a document with +interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. +It produces at least three files as output: + +@enumerate +@item +A main output file, which is one of: + +@enumerate +@item +If invoked as @command{latex}, a ``Device Independent'' (@file{.dvi}) +file. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for +a variety of output devices. You can view such @file{.dvi} output of +@LaTeX{} by using a program such as @command{xdvi} (display directly) +or @command{dvips} (convert to PostScript). + +@item +If invoked as @command{pdflatex}, a ``Portable Document Format'' +(@file{.pdf}) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with +all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does +make the output much larger than the @file{.dvi} produced from the +same document. +@end enumerate + +There are other less-common variants of @LaTeX{} (and @TeX{}) as well, +which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. + +@item +A ``transcript'' or @file{.log} file that contains summary information and +diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. + +@item +An ``auxiliary'' or @file{.aux} file. This is used by @LaTeX{} itself, for +things such as sectioning. +@end enumerate + +A @LaTeX{} command begins with the command name, which consists of a +@code{\} followed by either (a)@tie{}a string of letters or (b)@tie{}a +single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, @code{[]}, +are optional while arguments contained in braces, @code{@{@}}, are +required. + +@LaTeX{} is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless +explicitly directed to do otherwise. + + +@node Starting & ending +@chapter Starting & ending + +@cindex starting & ending +@cindex ending & starting + +A minimal input file looks like the following: + +@example +\documentclass@{@var{class}@} +\begin@{document@} +@var{your text} +\end@{document@} +@end example + +@noindent +where the @var{class} is a valid document class for @LaTeX{}. +@xref{Document classes}, for details of the various document classes +available locally. + +@cindex preamble, defined +You may include other @LaTeX{} commands between the @code{\documentclass} +and the @code{\begin@{document@}} commands (this area is called the +@dfn{preamble}). + + +@node Document classes +@chapter Document classes + +@cindex document classes +@cindex classes of documents +@findex \documentclass + +The class of a given document is defined with the command: + +@example +\documentclass[@var{options}]@{@var{class}@} +@end example + +@noindent +The @code{\documentclass} command must be the first command in a +@LaTeX{} source file. + +@findex article @r{class} +@findex report @r{class} +@findex book @r{class} +@findex letter @r{class} +@findex slides @r{class} +Built-in @LaTeX{} document @var{class} names are (many other document +classes are available as add-ons; @pxref{Overview}): + +@example +article report book letter slides +@end example + +@c xx briefly describe each one + +Standard @var{options} are described below. + +@menu +* Document class options:: Global options. +@end menu + + +@node Document class options +@section Document class options + +@cindex document class options +@cindex options, document class +@cindex class options +@cindex global options + +You can specify so-called @dfn{global options} or @dfn{class options} +to the @code{\documentclass} command by enclosing them in square +brackets as usual. To specify more than one @var{option}, separate +them with a comma: + +@example +\documentclass[@var{option1},@var{option2},...]@{@var{class}@} +@end example + +Here is the list of the standard class options. + +@findex 10pt @r{option} +@findex 11pt @r{option} +@findex 12pt @r{option} +All of the standard classes except @code{slides} accept the following +options for selecting the typeface size (default is @code{10pt}): + +@example +10pt 11pt 12pt +@end example + +@findex a4paper @r{option} +@findex a5paper @r{option} +@findex b5paper @r{option} +@findex executivepaper @r{option} +@findex legalpaper @r{option} +@findex letterpaper @r{option} +All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper +size (default is @code{letterpaper}): + +@example +a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper +@end example + +@findex draft @r{option} +@findex final @r{option} +@findex fleqn @r{option} +@findex landscape @r{option} +@findex leqno @r{option} +@findex openbib @r{option} +@findex titlepage @r{option} +@findex notitlepage @r{option} +Miscellaneous other options: + +@table @code +@item draft, final +@cindex black boxes, omitting +mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is @code{final}. +@item fleqn +Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. +@item landscape +Selects landscape format; default is portrait. +@item leqno +Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. +@item openbib +Use ``open'' bibliography format. +@item titlepage, notitlepage +Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. +@end table + +These options are not available with the slides class: + +@findex onecolumn @r{option} +@findex twocolumn @r{option} +@findex oneside @r{option} +@findex twoside @r{option} +@findex openright @r{option} +@findex openany @r{option} +@table @code +@item onecolumn +@itemx twocolumn +Typeset in one or two columns; default is @code{onecolumn}. + +@item oneside +@itemx twoside +@findex \evensidemargin +@findex \oddsidemargin +Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is @code{oneside}, except +for the @code{book} class. + +The @code{\evensidemargin} (@code{\oddsidemargin} parameter determines +the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the +page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper +size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided +printing the text is centered, for two-sided, @code{\oddsidemargin} is +40% of the difference between @code{\paperwidth} and @code{\textwidth} +with @code{\evensidemargin} the remainder. + +@item openright +@itemx openany +Determines if a chapter should start on a +right-hand page; default is @code{openright} for book. +@end table + +The @code{slides} class offers the option @code{clock} for printing +the time at the bottom of each note. + + +@cindex packages, loading +@cindex loading additional packages +@findex \usepackage +Additional packages are loaded like this: + +@example +\usepackage[@var{options}]@{@var{pkg}@} +@end example + +To specify more than one @var{pkg}, you can separate them with a +comma, or use multiple @code{\usepackage} commands. + +@cindex global options +@cindex options, global +Any options given in the @code{\documentclass} command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +@code{\usepackage}. + + +@node Typefaces +@chapter Typefaces + +@cindex typefaces +@cindex fonts + +Two important aspects of selecting a @dfn{font} are specifying a size +and a style. The @LaTeX{} commands for doing this are described here. + +@menu +* Font styles:: Select roman, italics etc. +* Font sizes:: Select point size. +* Low-level font commands:: Select encoding, family, series, shape. +@end menu + + +@node Font styles +@section Font styles + +@cindex font styles +@cindex typeface styles +@cindex styles of text + +The following type style commands are supported by @LaTeX{}. + +These commands are used like @code{\textit@{italic text@}}. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the ``declaration form'', which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + +The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either +@code{\sffamily\bfseries} or @code{\bfseries\sffamily} to get bold +sans serif. + +You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance, +@code{\begin@{ttfamily@}...\end@{ttfamily@}}. + +@table @code +@item \textrm (\rmfamily) +@findex \textrm +@findex \rmfamily +Roman. + +@item \textit (\itshape) +@findex \textit +@findex \itshape +Italics. + +@item \emph +@findex \emph +@cindex emphasis +Emphasis (switches between @code{\textit} and @code{\textrm}). + +@item \textmd (\mdseries) +@findex \textmd +@findex \mdseries +Medium weight (default). + +@item \textbf (\bfseries) +@findex \textbf +@findex \bfseries +Boldface. +@item \textup (\upshape) +@findex \textup +@findex \upshape +Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. +@item \textsl (\slshape) +@findex \textsl +@findex \slshape +Slanted. +@item \textsf (\sffamily) +@findex \textsf +@findex \sffamily +Sans serif. +@item \textsc (\scshape) +@findex \textsc +@findex \scshape +Small caps. +@item \texttt (\ttfamily) +@findex \texttt +@findex \ttfamily +Typewriter. +@item \textnormal (\normalfont) +@findex \textnormal +@findex \normalfont +Main document font. +@item \mathrm +@findex \mathrm +Roman, for use in math mode. +@item \mathbf +@findex \mathbf +Boldface, for use in math mode. +@item \mathsf +@findex \mathsf +Sans serif, for use in math mode. +@item \mathtt +@findex \mathtt +Typewriter, for use in math mode. + +@item \mathit +@itemx (\mit) +Italics, for use in math mode. + +@item \mathnormal +@findex \mathnormal +For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. +@item \mathcal +@findex \mathcal +`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. +@end table + +In addition, the command +@code{\mathversion@{bold@}} +@findex \mathversion +can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in +formulas. @code{\mathversion@{normal@}} restores the default. + +@LaTeX{} also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to +the given style, that is, are @emph{not} cumulative. They are used +differently than the above commands, too: @code{@{\@var{cmd} ...@}} +instead of @code{\@var{cmd}@{...@}}. These are two very different +things. + +@ftable @code +@item \bf +@cindex bold font +Switch to @b{bold face}. + +@item \cal +@cindex script letters for math +@cindex calligraphic letters for math +Switch to calligraphic letters for math. + +@item \em +@cindex emphasis +Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). + +@item \it +@cindex italic font +Italics. + +@item \rm +@cindex roman font +Roman. + +@item \sc +@cindex small caps font +Small caps. + +@item \sf +@cindex sans serif font +Sans serif. + +@item \sl +@cindex slanted font +@cindex oblique font +Slanted (oblique). + +@item \tt +@cindex typewriter font +@cindex monospace font +@cindex fixed-width font +Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). + +@end ftable + + +@node Font sizes +@section Font sizes +@cindex font sizes +@cindex typeface sizes +@cindex sizes of text + +The following standard type size commands are supported by @LaTeX{}. +The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font +size used (in points) with the @samp{10pt}, @samp{11pt}, and +@samp{12pt} document size options, respectively (@pxref{Document class +options}). + +@findex \tiny +@findex \scriptsize +@findex \footnotesize +@findex \small +@findex \normalsize +@findex \large +@findex \Large +@findex \LARGE +@findex \huge +@findex \Huge + +@multitable {@code{\normalsize} (default)} {24.88} {24.88} {24.88} +@headitem Command @tab @code{10pt} @tab @code{11pt} @tab @code{12pt} +@item @code{\tiny} +@tab 5 @tab 6 @tab 6 +@item @code{\scriptsize} +@tab 7 @tab 8 @tab 8 +@item @code{\footnotesize} +@tab 8 @tab 9 @tab 10 +@item @code{\small} +@tab 9 @tab 10 @tab 10.95 +@item @code{\normalsize} (default) +@tab 10 @tab 10.95 @tab 12 +@item @code{\large} +@tab 12 @tab 12 @tab 14.4 +@item @code{\Large} +@tab 14.4 @tab 14.4 @tab 17.28 +@item @code{\LARGE} +@tab 17.28 @tab 17.28 @tab 20.74 +@item @code{\huge} +@tab 20.74 @tab 20.74 @tab 24.88 +@item @code{\Huge} +@tab 24.88 @tab 24.88 @tab 24.88 +@end multitable + +The commands as listed here are ``declaration forms''. The scope of +the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the +end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of +these commands; for instance, @code{\begin@{tiny@}...\end@{tiny@}}. + + +@node Low-level font commands +@section Low-level font commands +@cindex low-level font commands +@cindex font commands, low-level + +These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. + +@table @code +@item \fontencoding@{enc@} +@findex \fontencoding +Select font encoding. Valid encodings include @code{OT1} and @code{T1}. + +@item \fontfamily@{family@} +@findex \fontfamily +Select font family. Valid families include: + +@itemize @bullet +@item @code{cmr} for Computer Modern Roman +@item @code{cmss} for Computer Modern Sans Serif +@item @code{cmtt} for Computer Modern Typewriter +@end itemize + +and numerous others. + +@item \fontseries@{series@} +@findex \fontseries +Select font series. Valid series include: + +@itemize @bullet +@item @code{m} Medium (normal) +@item @code{b} Bold +@item @code{c} Condensed +@item @code{bc} Bold condensed +@item @code{bx} Bold extended +@end itemize + +and various other combinations. + +@item \fontshape@{shape@} +@findex \fontshape +Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + +@itemize @bullet +@item @code{n} Upright (normal) +@item @code{it} Italic +@item @code{sl} Slanted (oblique) +@item @code{sc} Small caps +@item @code{ui} Upright italics +@item @code{ol} Outline +@end itemize + +The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + +@item \fontsize@{size@}@{skip@} +@findex \fontsize +@findex \baselineskip +Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and +the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter +named @code{\baselineskip}. The unit of both parameters defaults to +pt. The default @code{\baselineskip} for the Computer Modern typeface +is 1.2 times the @code{\fontsize}. + +@findex \baselinestretch +@cindex @code{setspace} package +The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the +@code{\baselinestretch} parameter when the type size changes; the +default is 1. However, the best way to ``double space'' a document, +if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the +@code{setspace} package; see +@url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace}. + +@item \selectfont +@findex \selectfont +The changes made by calling the four font commands described above do +not come into effect until @code{\selectfont} is called. + +@item \usefont@{enc@}@{family@}@{series@}@{shape@} +@findex \usefont +The same as invoking @code{\fontencoding}, @code{\fontfamily}, +@code{\fontseries} and @code{\fontshape} with the given parameters, +followed by @code{\selectfont}. +@end table + + +@node Layout +@chapter Layout +@cindex layout commands + +Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + +@menu +* \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout. +* \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout. +* \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height. +* \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height. +* Page layout parameters:: \headheight \footskip. +@end menu + + +@node \onecolumn +@section @code{\onecolumn} +@findex \onecolumn +@cindex one-column output + +The @code{\onecolumn} declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. This is the default. + + +@node \twocolumn +@section @code{\twocolumn} +@findex \twocolumn +@cindex multicolumn text +@cindex two-column output + +Synopsis: + +@example +\twocolumn[@var{text1col}] +@end example + +The @code{\twocolumn} declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional @var{text1col} argument is present, +it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting +starts. + +These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: + +@ftable @code +@item \columnsep +The distance between columns (35pt by default). + +@item \columnseprule +The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. + +@item \columnwidth +The width of the current column; this is equal to @code{\textwidth} in +single-column text. + +@end ftable + +These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: + +@ftable @code +@item \dbltopfraction +Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied +by floats. Default @samp{.7}, can be usefully redefined to (say) +@samp{.9} to avoid going to float pages so soon. + +@item \dblfloatpagefraction +The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, +for a two-column float page. Default @samp{.5}. + +@item \dblfloatsep +Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float +page. Default @samp{12pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @samp{10pt} and +@samp{11pt} documents, @samp{14pt plus2pt minus4pt} for @samp{12pt}. + +@item \dbltextfloatsep +Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page +and the main text. Default @samp{20pt plus2pt minus4pt}. + +@end ftable + + +@node \flushbottom +@section @code{\flushbottom} + +@findex \flushbottom + +The @code{\flushbottom} declaration makes all text pages the same +height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the +page. + +This is the default if @code{twocolumn} mode is selected +(@pxref{Document class options}). + + +@node \raggedbottom +@section @code{\raggedbottom} +@findex \raggedbottom +@cindex stretch, omitting vertical + +The @code{\raggedbottom} declaration makes all pages the natural +height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be +stretched. + + +@node Page layout parameters +@section Page layout parameters + +@cindex page layout parameters +@cindex parameters, page layout +@cindex layout, page parameters for +@cindex header, parameters for +@cindex footer, parameters for +@cindex running header and footer + +@ftable @code +@item \headheight +Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is +@samp{30pt}, except in the @code{book} class, where it varies with the +type size. + +@item \headsep +Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of +the main text. Default is @samp{25pt}, except in the @code{book} +class, where it varies with the type size. + +@item \footskip +Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of +the page footer. Default is @samp{30pt}, except in the @code{book} +class, where it varies with the type size. + +@item \linewidth +Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, +paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an @code{article} document in +@samp{10pt}, it's set to @samp{345pt}; in two-column mode, that +becomes @samp{229.5pt}. + +@item \textheight +The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with +the font size, document class, etc. For an @code{article} or +@code{report} document in @samp{10pt}, it's set to +@samp{43\baselineskip}; for @code{book}, it's @samp{41\baselineskip}. +For @samp{11pt}, it's @samp{38\baselineskip} and for @samp{12pt}, +@samp{36\baselineskip}. + +@item \textwidth +The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as +usual. For an @code{article} or @code{report} document, it's +@samp{345pt} at @samp{10pt}, @samp{360pt} at @samp{11pt}, and +@samp{390pt} at @samp{12pt}. For a @code{book} document, it's +@samp{4.5in} at @samp{10pt}, and @samp{5in} at @samp{11pt} or @samp{12pt}. + +@item \topmargin +Space between the top of the @TeX{} page (one inch from the top of the +paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed +based on many other parameters: @code{\paperheight @minus{} 2in @minus{} +\headheight @minus{} \headsep @minus{} \textheight @minus{} \footskip}, and +then divided by two. + +@item \topskip +Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of +the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the +same as the font size, e.g., @samp{10pt} at @samp{10pt}. + +@end ftable + + +@node Sectioning +@chapter Sectioning +@cindex sectioning + +Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: + +@ftable @code +@item \part +@item \chapter +(report and book class only) +@item \section +@item \subsection +@item \subsubsection +@item \paragraph +@item \subparagraph +@end ftable + +All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., + +@example +\chapter[@var{toctitle}]@{@var{title}@} +@end example + +In addition to providing the heading @var{title} in the main text, the +section title can appear in two other places: + +@enumerate +@item +The table of contents. +@item +The running head at the top of the page. +@end enumerate + +You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. +To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument +@var{toctitle} that, when given, specifies the text for these other +places. + +@cindex *-form of sectioning commands +Also, all sectioning commands have @code{*}-forms that print +@var{title} as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an +entry in the table of contents. For instance: + +@example +\section*@{Preamble@} +@end example + +@findex \appendix +@cindex appendix, creating +The @code{\appendix} command changes the way following sectional units +are numbered. The @code{\appendix} command itself generates no text +and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this +command is something like + +@example +\chapter@{A Chapter@} +@dots{} +\appendix +\chapter@{The First Appendix@} +@end example + + +@node Cross references +@chapter Cross references +@cindex cross references + +One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in ``See Figure 3 for more details.'' + +@menu +* \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. +* \pageref:: Refer to a page number. +* \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar. +@end menu + + +@node \label +@section @code{\label} +@findex \label + +Synopsis: + +@example +\label@{@var{key}@} +@end example + +A @code{\label} command appearing in ordinary text assigns to +@var{key} the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing +inside a numbered environment assigns that number to @var{key}. + +A @var{key} name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. + +To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by +a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: + +@table @code +@item ch +for chapters +@item sec +for lower-level sectioning commands +@item fig +for figures +@item tab +for tables +@item eq +for equations +@end table + +Thus, a label for a figure would look like @code{fig:snark} or +@code{fig.snark}. + + +@node \pageref +@section @code{\pageref@{@var{key}@}} +@findex \pageref +@cindex cross referencing with page number +@cindex page number, cross referencing + +Synopsis: + +@example +\pageref@{@var{key}@} +@end example + +The @code{\pageref}@{@var{key}@} command produces the page number of +the place in the text where the corresponding +@code{\label}@{@var{key}@} command appears. + + +@node \ref +@section @code{\ref@{@var{key}@}} +@findex \ref +@cindex cross referencing, symbolic +@cindex section number, cross referencing +@cindex equation number, cross referencing +@cindex figure number, cross referencing +@cindex footnote number, cross referencing + +Synopsis: + +@example +\ref@{@var{key}@} +@end example + +The @code{\ref} command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation, footnote, figure, @dots{}, of the corresponding +@code{\label} command (@pxref{\label}). It does not produce any text, +such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. + + +@node Environments +@chapter Environments +@cindex environments + +@findex \begin +@findex \end + +@LaTeX{} provides many environments for marking off certain text. +Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: + +@example +\begin@{@var{envname}@} +... +\end@{@var{envname}@} +@end example + +@menu +* abstract:: Produce an abstract. +* array:: Math arrays. +* center:: Centred lines. +* description:: Labelled lists. +* displaymath:: Formulas that appear on their own line. +* document:: Enclose the whole document. +* enumerate:: Numbered lists. +* eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations. +* equation:: Displayed equation. +* figure:: Floating figures. +* flushleft:: Flushed left lines. +* flushright:: Flushed right lines. +* itemize:: Bulleted lists. +* letter:: Letters. +* list:: Generic list environment. +* math:: In-line math. +* minipage:: Miniature page. +* picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. +* quotation:: Indented environment with paragraph indentation. +* quote:: Indented environment with no paragraph indentation. +* tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily. +* table:: Floating tables. +* tabular:: Align text in columns. +* thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list. +* theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc. +* titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages. +* verbatim:: Simulating typed input. +* verse:: For poetry and other things. +@end menu + + +@node abstract +@section @code{abstract} + +@findex abstract @r{environment} +@cindex abstracts + +Synopsis: +@example +\begin@{abstract@} +... +\end@{abstract@} +@end example + +Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. + + +@node array +@section @code{array} +@findex array @r{environment} +@cindex arrays, math + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{array@}@{@var{template}@} +@var{col1 text}&@var{col1 text}&@var{coln}@}\\ +... +\end@{array@} +@end example + +Math arrays are produced with the @code{array} environment, normally +within an @code{equation} environment (@pxref{equation}). It has a +single mandatory @var{template} argument describing the number of +columns and the alignment within them. Each column @var{col} is +specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should +be formatted, as follows: + +@table @code +@item c +centered +@item l +flush left +@item r +flush right +@end table + +@findex \\ (for @code{array}) +Column entries are separated by @code{&}. Column entries may include +other @LaTeX{} commands. Each row of the array is terminated with +@code{\\}. + +@findex @@@{...@} +In the template, the construct @code{@@@{@var{text}@}} puts @var{text} +between columns in each row. + +Here's an example: + +@example +\begin@{equation@} + \begin@{array@}@{lrc@} + left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ + left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ + \end@{array@} +\end@{equation@} +@end example + +@findex \arraycolsep +The @code{\arraycolsep} parameter defines half the width of the space +separating columns; the default is @samp{5pt}. @xref{tabular}, for other +parameters which affect formatting in @code{array} environments, +namely @code{\arrayrulewidth} and @code{\arraystretch}. + +The @code{array} environment can only be used in math mode. + + +@node center +@section @code{center} + +@findex center @r{environment} +@cindex centering text, environment for + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{center@} +@var{line1} \\ +@var{line2} \\ +\end@{center@} +@end example + +@findex \\ (for @code{center}) +The @code{center} environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right +margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the +string @code{\\}. + +@menu +* \centering:: Declaration form of the @code{center} environment. +@end menu + + +@node \centering +@subsection @code{\centering} + +@findex \centering +@cindex centering text, declaration for + +The @code{\centering} declaration corresponds to the @code{center} +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as @code{quote} or in a @code{parbox}. Thus, the text of a figure or +table can be centered on the page by putting a @code{\centering} +command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. + +Unlike the @code{center} environment, the @code{\centering} command +does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how @LaTeX{} formats +paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of +the declaration must contain the blank line or @code{\end} command (of +an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + +Here's an example: + +@example +\begin@{quote@} +\centering +first line \\ +second line \\ +\end@{quote@} +@end example + + +@node description +@section @code{description} + +@findex description @r{environment} +@cindex labelled lists, creating +@cindex description lists, creating + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{description@} +\item [@var{label1}] @var{item1} +\item [@var{label2}] @var{item2} +... +\end@{description@} +@end example + +@findex \item +The @code{description} environment is used to make labelled lists. Each +@var{label} is typeset in bold, flush right. The @var{item} text may +contain multiple paragraphs. + +@cindex bold typewriter, avoiding +@cindex typewriter labels in lists +Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if +you typeset a label in typewriter using @code{\texttt}, you'll get +bold typewriter: @code{\item[\texttt@{bold and typewriter@}]}. This +may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use +@code{\tt}, which resets all other style variations: @code{\item[@{\tt +plain typewriter@}]}. + +For details about list spacing, see @ref{itemize}. + + +@node displaymath +@section @code{displaymath} + +@findex displaymath @r{environment} + +Synopsis: +@example +\begin@{displaymath@} +@var{math} +\end@{displaymath@} +@end example + +@noindent or + +@example +\[@var{math}\] +@end example + +The @code{displaymath} environment (@code{\[...\]} is a synonym) +typesets the @var{math} text on its own line, centered by default. +The global @code{fleqn} option makes equations flush left; see +@ref{Document class options}. + +No equation number is added to @code{displaymath} text; to get an +equation number, use the @code{equation} environment (@pxref{equation}). + + +@node document +@section @code{document} + +@findex document @r{environment} + +The @code{document} environment encloses the body of a document. +It is required in every @LaTeX{} document. @xref{Starting & ending}. + + +@node enumerate +@section @code{enumerate} + +@findex enumerate @r{environment} +@cindex lists of items, numbered + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{enumerate@} +\item @var{item1} +\item @var{item2} +... +\end@{enumerate@} +@end example + +The @code{enumerate} environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as +@code{itemize} (@pxref{itemize}) and @code{description} +(@pxref{description}). + +@findex \item +Each item of an enumerated list begins with an @code{\item} command. +There must be at least one @code{\item} command within the environment. + +By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: + +@enumerate +@item 1., 2., @dots{} +@item (a), (b), @dots{} +@item i., ii., @dots{} +@item A., B., @dots{} +@end enumerate + +@findex \enumi +@findex \enumii +@findex \enumiii +@findex \enumiv +The @code{enumerate} environment uses the counters @code{\enumi} +through @code{\enumiv} counters (@pxref{Counters}). If the optional +argument to @code{\item} is given, the counter is not incremented for +that item. + +@findex \labelenumi +@findex \labelenumii +@findex \labelenumiii +@findex \labelenumiv +The @code{enumerate} environment uses the commands @code{\labelenumi} +through @code{\labelenumiv} to produce the default label. So, you can +use @code{\renewcommand} to change the labels (@pxref{\newcommand & +\renewcommand}). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase +letters: + +@findex \Alph @r{example} +@example +\renewcommand@{\labelenumi@}@{\Alph@{enumi@}@} +@end example + + + +@node eqnarray +@section @code{eqnarray} + +@findex eqnarray @r{environment} +@cindex equations, aligning +@cindex aligning Equations + +@example +\begin@{eqnarray@} @r{(or @code{eqnarray*})} +@var{formula1} \\ +@var{formula2} \\ +... +\end@{eqnarray@} +@end example + +@findex \\ (for @code{eqnarray}) +The @code{eqnarray} environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column +@code{array} environment, with consecutive rows separated by @code{\\} +and consecutive items within a row separated by an @code{&}. + +@findex \\* (for @code{eqnarray}) +@code{\\*} can also be used to separate equations, with its normal +meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. + +@findex \nonumber +@cindex equation numbers, omitting +An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +@code{\nonumber} command. Alternatively, The @code{*}-form of the +environment (@code{\begin@{eqnarray*@} ... \end@{eqnarray*@}}) will +omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as +@code{eqnarray}. + +@findex \lefteqn +The command @code{\lefteqn} is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + + +@node equation +@section @code{equation} + +@findex equation @r{environment} +@cindex equations, environment for +@cindex formulas, environment for + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{equation@} +@var{math} +\end@{equation@} +@end example + +The @code{equation} environment starts a @code{displaymath} +environment (@pxref{displaymath}), e.g., centering the @var{math} text +on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin. + + +@node figure +@section @code{figure} +@findex figure +@cindex inserting figures +@cindex figures, inserting + +@example +\begin@{figure@}[@var{placement}] +@var{figbody} +\label@{@var{label@}} +\caption[@var{loftitle}]@{@var{text}@} +\end@{figure@} +@end example + +Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +instead ``floated'' to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + +The optional argument @code{[placement]} determines where @LaTeX{} will try +to place your figure. There are four places where @LaTeX{} can possibly +put a float: + +@enumerate +@item +@code{h} (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure +environment appears. +@item +@code{t} (Top) - at the top of a text page. +@item +@code{b} (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. +@item +@code{p} (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. +@end enumerate + +The standard report and article classes use the default placement +@code{tbp}. + +The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, @LaTeX{} commands, etc. +you wish. + +@findex \caption +The @code{\caption} command specifies caption @var{text} for the +figure. The caption is numbered by default. If @var{loftitle} is +present, it is used in the list of figures instead of @var{text} +(@pxref{Tables of contents}). + +@c xx float-placement, float-caption sections? +@ftable @code +@findex \bottomfraction +The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at +the bottom; default @samp{.3}. + +@item \floatpagefraction +The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; +default @samp{.5}. + +@item \floatsep +Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default +@samp{12pt plus2pt minus2pt}. + +@item \intextsep +Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default +@samp{12pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @samp{10pt} and @samp{11pt} styles, +@samp{14pt plus4pt minus4pt} for @samp{12pt}. + +@item \textfloatsep +Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; +default @samp{20pt plus2pt minus4pt}. + +@item \textfraction +Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too +much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a +different page. The default is @samp{.2}. + +@item \topfraction +Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before +floats; default is @samp{.7}. + +@end ftable + + +@node flushleft +@section @code{flushleft} +@findex flushleft @r{environment} +@cindex left-justifying text, environment for +@cindex ragged right text, environment for + +@example +\begin@{flushleft@} +@var{line1} \\ +@var{line2} \\ +... +\end@{flushleft@} +@end example + +@findex \\ @r{for @code{flushleft}} +The @code{flushleft} environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged +right Each line must be terminated with the string @code{\\}. + +@menu +* \raggedright:: Declaration form of the @code{flushleft} environment. +@end menu + + +@node \raggedright +@subsection @code{\raggedright} +@findex \raggedright +@cindex ragged right text +@cindex left-justifying text +@cindex justification, ragged right + +The @code{\raggedright} declaration corresponds to the +@code{flushleft} environment. This declaration can be used inside an +environment such as @code{quote} or in a @code{parbox}. + +Unlike the @code{flushleft} environment, the @code{\raggedright} +command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how @LaTeX{} +formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the +scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or @code{\end} +command that ends the paragraph unit. + + +@node flushright +@section @code{flushright} +@findex flushright @r{environment} +@cindex ragged left text, environment for +@cindex right-justifying text, environment for + +@example +\begin@{flushright@} +@var{line1} \\ +@var{line2} \\ +... +\end@{flushright@} +@end example + +@findex \\ (for @code{flushright}) +The @code{flushright} environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged +left. Each line must be terminated with the string @code{\\}. + +@menu +* \raggedleft:: Declaration form of the @code{flushright} environment. +@end menu + + +@node \raggedleft +@subsection @code{\raggedleft} +@findex \raggedleft +@cindex ragged left text +@cindex justification, ragged left +@cindex right-justifying text + +The @code{\raggedleft} declaration corresponds to the +@code{flushright} environment. This declaration can be used inside an +environment such as @code{quote} or in a @code{parbox}. + +Unlike the @code{flushright} environment, the @code{\raggedleft} +command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how @LaTeX{} +formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the +scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or @code{\end} +command that ends the paragraph unit. + + +@node itemize +@section @code{itemize} +@findex itemize @r{environment} +@findex \item +@cindex lists of items +@cindex unordered lists +@cindex bulleted lists + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{itemize@} +\item @var{item1} +\item @var{item2} +... +\end@{itemize@} +@end example + +The @code{itemize} environment produces an ``unordered'', ``bulleted'' +list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four +levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making +environments, such as @code{enumerate} (@pxref{enumerate}). + +Each item of an @code{itemize} list begins with an @code{\item} command. +There must be at least one @code{\item} command within the environment. + +By default, the marks at each level look like this: + +@enumerate +@item @bullet{} +@item @b{-@w{-}} (bold en-dash) +@item * +@iftex +@item @math{\cdot} (centered dot) +@end iftex +@ifnottex +@item . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) +@end ifnottex +@end enumerate + +@findex \labelitemi +@findex \labelitemii +@findex \labelitemiii +@findex \labelitemiv +The @code{itemize} environment uses the commands @code{\labelitemi} +through @code{\labelitemiv} to produce the default label. So, you can +use @code{\renewcommand} to change the labels. For instance, to have +the first level use diamonds: + +@example +\renewcommand@{\labelitemi@}@{$\diamond$@} +@end example + +@findex \leftmargin +@findex \leftmargini +@findex \leftmarginii +@findex \leftmarginiii +@findex \leftmarginiv +@findex \leftmarginv +@findex \leftmarginvi +The @code{\leftmargini} through @code{\leftmarginvi} parameters define +the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and +the left margin of the list. By convention, @code{\leftmargin} is set +to the appropriate @code{\leftmargin@var{N}} when a new level of +nesting is entered. + +The defaults vary from @samp{.5em} (highest levels of nesting) to +@samp{2.5em} (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. +This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: + +@example +\setlength@{\leftmargini@}@{1.25em@} % default 2.5em +@end example + +@c xx should be in its own generic section +Some parameters that affect list formatting: + +@ftable @code +@item \itemindent +Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. + +@item \labelsep +Space between the label and text of an item; default @samp{.5em}. + +@item \labelwidth +Width of the label; default @samp{2em}, or @samp{1.5em} in two-column mode. + +@item \listparindent +Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a +list item; default @samp{0pt}. + +@item \rightmargin +Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the +enclosing environment; default @samp{0pt}, except in the @code{quote}, +@code{quotation}, and @code{verse} environments, where it is set equal +to @code{\leftmargin}. + +@end ftable + +Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather +loose, by default). + +@ftable @code +@item \itemsep +Vertical space between items. The default is @code{2pt plus1pt +minus1pt} for @code{10pt} documents, @code{3pt plus2pt minus1pt} for +@code{11pt}, and @code{4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt} for @code{12pt}. + +@item \parsep +Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults +are the same as @code{\itemsep}. + +@item \topsep +Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. +The default is @code{4pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @code{10pt} documents, +@code{6pt plus2pt minus2pt} for @code{11pt}, and @code{9pt plus3pt +minus5pt} for @code{12pt}. + +@item \partopsep +Extra space added to @code{\topsep} when the list environment starts a +paragraph. The default is @code{2pt plus1pt minus1pt} for @code{10pt} +documents, @code{3pt plus1pt minus1pt} for @code{11pt}, and @code{3pt +plus2pt minus2pt} for @code{12pt}. + +@item \topsep +Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list +item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; for +instance, within a first-level list at @samp{10pt}, it is @samp{4pt +plus2pt minus2pt}. + +@end ftable + +@findex \parskip @r{example} +Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide +space between items. Here is an example defining an @code{itemize*} +environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs +within a single item (@code{\parskip} is not list-specific, +@pxref{\parskip}): + +@example +\newenvironment@{itemize*@}% + @{\begin@{itemize@}% + \setlength@{\itemsep@}@{0pt@}% + \setlength@{\parsep@}@{0pt@}@}% + \setlength@{\parskip@}@{0pt@}@}% + @{\end@{itemize@}@} +@end example + + +@node letter +@section @code{letter} environment: writing letters +@findex letter + +This environment is used for creating letters. @xref{Letters}. + + +@node list +@section @code{list} +@findex list +@cindex lists of items, generic + +The @code{list} environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + +@example +\begin@{list@}@{@var{labeling}@}@{@var{spacing}@} +\item @var{item1} +\item @var{item2} +... +\end@{list@} +@end example + +The mandatory @var{labeling} argument specifies how items should be +labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to @code{\item}). +This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. It can and usually does contain other @LaTeX{} commands. + +The mandatory @var{spacing} argument contains commands to change the +spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be +empty, i.e., @code{@{@}}, which leaves the default spacing. + + +@node math +@section @code{math} + +@findex math @r{environment} +@cindex in-line formulas + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{math@} +@var{math} +\end@{math@} +@end example + +The @code{math} environment inserts the given @var{math} within the +running text. @code{\(...\))} and @code{$...$} are synonyms. +@xref{Math formulas}. + + +@node minipage +@section @code{minipage} + +@findex minipage @r{environment} +@cindex minipage, creating a + +@example +\begin@{minipage@}[@var{position}]@{@var{width}@} +@var{text} +\end@{minipage@} +@end example + +The @code{minipage} environment typesets its body @var{text} in a +block that will not be broken across pages (similar to the +@code{\parbox} command, @pxref{\parbox}). You may use other +paragraph-making environments inside a minipage (unlike @code{\parbox}). + +@c (xxref positions) +It takes an optional @var{position} argument for placing @var{text}, +and a mandatory @var{width} argument for specifying the line width. + +@cindex indentation of paragraphs, in minipage +@cindex paragraph indentation, in minipage +@findex \parindent +By default, paragraphs are not indented in the @code{minipage} +environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as +@code{\setlength@{\parindent@}@{1pc@}} command. + +@cindex footnotes in figures +@cindex figures, footnotes in +Footnotes in a @code{minipage} environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +@code{\footnote} or @code{\footnotetext} command puts the footnote at +the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it +uses the @code{\mpfootnote} counter instead of the ordinary +@code{footnote} counter (@pxref{Counters}). + +However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using +footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + + +@node picture +@section @code{picture} + +@findex picture +@cindex creating pictures +@cindex pictures, creating + +@example +\begin@{picture@}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) +@dots{} @var{picture commands} @dots{} +\end@{picture@} +@end example + +@findex \unitlength +The @code{picture} environment allows you to create just about any +kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. +You tell @LaTeX{} where to put things in the picture by specifying +their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal +point and a minus sign---a number like @code{5}, @code{0.3} or +@code{-3.1416}. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the +unit length @code{\unitlength}, so if @code{\unitlength} has been set +to @code{1cm}, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 +centimeters. You should only change the value of @code{\unitlength}, +using the @code{\setlength} command, outside of a @code{picture} +environment. + +A position is a pair of coordinates, such as @code{(2.4,-5)}, specifying +the point with x-coordinate @code{2.4} and y-coordinate @code{-5}. +Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, +which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that +when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; +the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + +The @code{picture} environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +@code{position}. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + +The @code{picture} environment also has an optional @code{position} +argument, following the @code{size} argument, that can change the +origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not +contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the +coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture +(thereby determining the origin). For example, if @code{\unitlength} +has been set to @code{1mm}, the command +@example + \begin@{picture@}(100,200)(10,20) +@end example +produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 +millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + +The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the +picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; +@LaTeX{} will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even +off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by @LaTeX{} in determining +how much room to leave for it. + +Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the @code{\put} +command. The command + +@example +\put (11.3,-.3)@{...@} +@end example + +@noindent puts the object specified by @code{...} in the +picture, with its reference point at coordinates @math{(11.3,-.3)}. +The reference points for various objects will be described below. + +@findex lR box +The @code{\put} command creates an @dfn{LR box}. You can put anything +that can go in an @code{\mbox} (@pxref{\mbox}) in the text argument of +the @code{\put} command. When you do this, the reference point will +be the lower left corner of the box. + +The @code{picture} commands are described in the following sections. + +@menu +* \circle:: Draw a circle. +* \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size. +* \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it. +* \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box. +* \frame:: Draw a frame around an object. +* \line:: Draw a straight line. +* \linethickness:: Set the line thickness. +* \thicklines:: A heavier line thickness. +* \thinlines:: The default line thickness. +* \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object. +* \oval:: Draw an ellipse. +* \put:: Place an object at a specified place. +* \shortstack:: Make a pile of objects. +* \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow. +@end menu + + +@node \circle +@subsection @code{\circle} +@findex \circle + +@example +\circle[*]@{@var{diameter}@} +@end example + +The @code{\circle} command produces a circle with a diameter as close +to the specified one as possible. The @code{*}-form of the command +draws a solid circle. + +Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + + +@node \makebox (picture) +@subsection @code{\makebox} +@findex \makebox (picture) + +@code{\makebox(width,height)[position]@{...@}} + +The @code{\makebox} command for the picture environment is similar to +the normal @code{\makebox} command except that you must specify a +@code{width} and @code{height} in multiples of @code{\unitlength}. + +The optional argument, @code{[position]}, specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +@code{t} - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle +@item +@code{b} - Moves the item to the bottom +@item +@code{l} - Moves the item to the left +@item +@code{r} - Moves the item to the right +@end itemize + +@xref{\makebox}. + + +@node \framebox (picture) +@subsection @code{\framebox} +@findex \framebox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\framebox(@var{width},@var{height})[@var{pos}]@{...@} +@end example + +The @code{\framebox} command is like @code{\makebox} (see previous +section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box +that it creates. + +@findex \fboxrule +@findex \fboxsep +The @code{\framebox} command produces a rule of thickness +@code{\fboxrule}, and leaves a space @code{\fboxsep} between the rule +and the contents of the box. + + +@node \dashbox +@subsection @code{\dashbox} + +@findex \dashbox + +Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: + +@example +\dashbox@{@var{dlen}@}(@var{rwidth},@var{rheight})[@var{pos}]@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +@code{\dashbox} creates a dashed rectangle around @var{text} in a +@code{picture} environment. Dashes are @var{dlen} units long, and the +rectangle has overall width @var{rwidth} and height @var{rheight}. +The @var{text} is positioned at optional @var{pos}. @c xxref positions. + +A dashed box looks best when the @code{rwidth} and @code{rheight} are +multiples of the @code{dlen}. + + +@node \frame +@subsection @code{\frame} +@findex \frame + +Synopsis: + +@example +\frame@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\frame} command puts a rectangular frame around @var{text}. +The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra +space is put between the frame and the object. + + +@node \line +@subsection @code{\line} +@findex \line + +Synopsis: + +@example +\line(@var{xslope},@var{yslope})@{@var{length}@} +@end example + +The @code{\line} command draws a line with the given @var{length} and +slope @var{xslope}/@var{yslope}. + +Standard @LaTeX{} can only draw lines with @math{@var{slope} = x/y}, +where @math{x} and @math{y} have integer values from @minus{}6 +through@tie{}6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes, +see the @code{curve2e} and many many other packages on CTAN. + + +@node \linethickness +@subsection @code{\linethickness} +@findex \linethickness + +The @code{\linethickness@{@var{dim}@}} command declares the thickness +of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be +@var{dim}, which must be a positive length. + +@code{\linethickness} does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, +circles, or the quarter circles drawn by @code{\oval}. + + +@node \thicklines +@subsection @code{\thicklines} +@findex \thicklines + +The @code{\thicklines} command is an alternate line thickness for +horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; +cf.@tie{}@ref{\linethickness} and @ref{\thinlines}. + + +@node \thinlines +@subsection @code{\thinlines} +@findex \thinlines + +The @code{\thinlines} command is the default line thickness for +horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; +cf.@tie{}@ref{\linethickness} and @ref{\thicklines}. + + +@node \multiput +@subsection @code{\multiput} +@findex \multiput + +Synopsis: +@example +\multiput(@var{x},@var{y})(@var{delta_x},@var{delta_y})@{@var{n}@}@{@var{obj}@} +@end example + +The @code{\multiput} command copies the object @var{obj} in a regular +pattern across a picture. @var{obj} is first placed at position +@math{(x,y)}, then at @math{(x+\delta x,y+\delta y)}, and so on, +@var{n} times. + + +@node \oval +@subsection @code{\oval} +@findex \oval + +Synopsis: + +@example +\oval(@var{width},@var{height})[@var{portion}] +@end example + +The @code{\oval} command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. +The optional argument @var{portion} allows you to select part of the +oval via the following: + +@table @code +@item t +selects the top portion; +@item b +selects the bottom portion; +@item r +selects the right portion; +@item l +selects the left portion. +@end table + +The ``corners'' of the oval are made with quarter circles with a +maximum radius of 20@dmn{pt}, so large ``ovals'' will look more like +boxes with rounded corners. + + +@node \put +@subsection @code{\put} + +@findex \put + +@code{\put(x coord,y coord)@{ ... @}} + +The @code{\put} command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + + +@node \shortstack +@subsection @code{\shortstack} +@findex \shortstack + +Synopsis: + +@example +\shortstack[@var{position}]@{...\\...\\...@} +@end example + +The @code{\shortstack} command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + +@table @code +@item r +Move the objects to the right of the stack. +@item l +Move the objects to the left of the stack +@item c +Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) +@end table + +@findex \\ @r{(for @code{\shortstack} objects)} +Objects are separated with @code{\\}. + + +@node \vector +@subsection @code{\vector} +@findex \vector + +Synopsis: + +@example +\vector(@var{x-slope},@var{y-slope})@{@var{length}@} +@end example + +The @code{\vector} command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The @math{x} and @math{y} values must lie between +@minus{}4 and +4, inclusive. + + +@node quotation +@section @code{quotation} + +@findex quotation +@cindex quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying +@cindex displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation +@cindex paragraph indentations in quoted text + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{quotation@} +@var{text} +\end@{quotation@} +@end example + +The margins of the @code{quotation} environment are indented on both +the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. +Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + +Unlike the @code{quote} environment, each paragraph is indented +normally. + + +@node quote +@section @code{quote} + +@findex quote +@cindex quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying +@cindex displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation +@cindex paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting + +Snyopsis: + +@example +\begin@{quote@} +@var{text} +\end@{quote@} +@end example + +The margins of the @code{quote} environment are indented on both the +left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a +blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + +Unlike the @code{quotation} environment, paragraphs are not indented. + + +@node tabbing +@section @code{tabbing} + +@findex tabbing @r{environment} +@cindex tab stops, using +@cindex lining text up in columns using tab stops +@cindex alignment via tabbing + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{tabbing@} +@var{row1col1} \= @var{row1col2} \= @var{row1col3} \= @var{row1col4} \\ +@var{row2col1} \> \> @var{row2col3} \\ +... +\end@{tabbing@} +@end example + +The @code{tabbing} environment provides a way to align text in +columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as +was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where +the width of each column is constant and known in advance. + +This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the @code{tabular} +environment. + +The following commands can be used inside a @code{tabbing} enviroment: + +@ftable @code +@item \\ @r{tabbing} +End a line. + +@item \= @r{(tabbing)} +Sets a tab stop at the current position. + +@item \> @r{(tabbing)} +@findex \> +Advances to the next tab stop. + +@item \< +Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing +the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. + +@item \+ +Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if +necessary. + +@item \- +Moves the left margin of the next and all the +following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if +necessary. + +@item \' @r{(tabbing)} +Moves everything that you have typed so far in the +current column, i.e. everything from the most recent @code{\>}, +@code{\<}, @code{\'}, @code{\\}, or @code{\kill} command, to the right +of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. + +@item \` @r{(tabbing)} +Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab +stop@tie{}0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column +because there's no tab stop there. The @code{\`} command moves all the +text that follows it, up to the @code{\\} or @code{\end@{tabbing@}} +command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing +environment. There must be no @code{\>} or @code{\'} command between +the @code{\`} and the command that ends the line. + +@item \a @r{(tabbing)} +@findex \a' @r{(acute accent in tabbing)} +@findex \a` @r{(grave accent in tabbing)} +@findex \a= @r{(macron accent in tabbing)} +In a @code{tabbing} environment, the commands @code{\=}, @code{\'} and +@code{\`} do not produce accents as usual (@pxref{Accents}). Instead, +the commands @code{\a=}, @code{\a'} and @code{\a`} are used. + +@item \kill +Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like @code{\\} +except that it throws away the current line instead of producing +output for it. The effect of any @code{\=}, @code{\+} or @code{\-} +commands in that line remain in effect. + +@item \poptabs +@findex \poptabs +Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last @code{\pushtabs}. + +@item \pushtabs +Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing +tab stop positions in the middle of a @code{tabbing} environment. + +@item \tabbingsep +Distance to left of tab stop moved by @code{\'}. + +@end ftable + +This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + +@example +\begin@{tabbing@} +function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ + \> begin \= \+ \\ + \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ + fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ + else \+ \\ + fact := 1; \-\- \\ + end;\\ +\end@{tabbing@} +@end example + + +@node table +@section @code{table} + +@findex table +@cindex tables, creating +@cindex creating tables + +Synopsis: + +@example + \begin@{table@}[placement] + + body of the table + + \caption@{table title@} + \end@{table@} +@end example + +Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually ``floated'' to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + +The optional argument @code{[placement]} determines where @LaTeX{} will try +to place your table. There are four places where @LaTeX{} can possibly put +a float: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +@code{h}: Here - at the position in the text where the table +environment appears. +@item +@code{t}: Top - at the top of a text page. +@item +@code{b}: Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. +@item +@code{p}: Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page +containing no text, only floats. +@end itemize + +The standard @code{report} and @code{article} classes use the default +placement @code{[tbp]}. + +The body of the table is made up of whatever text, @LaTeX{} commands, etc., +you wish. The @code{\caption} command allows you to title your table. + + +@node tabular +@section @code{tabular} +@findex tabular @r{environment} +@cindex lines in tables +@cindex lining text up in tables + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{tabular@}[pos]@{cols@} +column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ +... +\end@{tabular@} +@end example + + or + +@example +\begin@{tabular*@}@{width@}[pos]@{cols@} +column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ +... +\end@{tabular*@} +@end example + +These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. + +@findex \\ @r{for @code{tabular}} +@code{\\} must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, +except for the last, where it is optional---unless an @code{\hline} +command (to put a rule below the table) follows. + +The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: + +@table @code +@item width +Specifies the width of the @code{tabular*} environment. There must be +rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified +width. +@item pos +Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of +the environment. + +@itemize @bullet +@item +@code{t} - align on top row +@item +@code{b} - align on bottom row +@end itemize + +@item cols +Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the +following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and +intercolumn material. + +@itemize @bullet + +@item +@code{l} - A column of left-aligned items. +@item +@code{r} - A column of right-aligned items. +@item +@code{c} - A column of centred items. +@item +@code{|} - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. +@item +@code{@@@{text@}} - This inserts @code{text} in every row. An @@-expression +suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any +desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be +included in text. An @code{\extracolsep@{wd@}} command in an +@@-expression causes an extra space of width @code{wd} to appear to the +left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another +@code{\extracolsep} command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this +extra space is not suppressed by an @@-expression. An +@code{\extracolsep} command can be used only in an @@-expression in the +@code{cols} argument. +@item +@code{p@{wd@}} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of +width @code{wd}, as if it were the argument of a @code{\parbox[t]@{wd@}} +command. However, a @code{\\} may not appear in the item, except in the +following situations: +@enumerate +@item +inside an environment like @code{minipage}, @code{array}, or @code{tabular}. +@item +inside an explicit @code{\parbox}. +@item +in the scope of a @code{\centering}, @code{\raggedright}, or @code{\raggedleft} +declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an +environment when used in a @code{p}-column element. +@end enumerate +@item +@code{*@{num@}@{cols@}} - Equivalent to @code{num} copies of +@code{cols}, where @code{num} is any positive integer and @code{cols} is +any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another +@code{*-expression}. + +@end itemize + +@end table + +Parameters that control formatting: +@c xx defaults, own node (xref from array)? + +@ftable @code +@item \arrayrulewidth +Thickness of the rule created by @code{|}, @code{\hline}, and +@code{\vline} in the @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments; the +default is @samp{.4pt}. + +@item \arraystretch +Scaling of spacing between rows in the @code{tabular} and @code{array} +environments; default is @samp{1},for no scaling. + +@item \doublerulesep +Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by @code{||} +in the @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments; default is @samp{2pt}. + +@item \tabcolsep +Half the width of the space between columns; default is @samp{6pt}. + +@end ftable + +These commands can be used inside a @code{tabular} environment: + +@menu +* \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns. +* \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. +* \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns. +* \vline:: Draw a vertical line. +@end menu + + +@node \multicolumn +@subsection @code{\multicolumn} +@findex \multicolumn + +Synopsis: +@example +\multicolumn@{@var{cols}@}@{@var{pos}@}@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\multicolumn} command makes an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, @var{cols}, specifies the +number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, @var{pos}, +specifies the formatting of the entry; @code{c} for centered, @code{l} +for flushleft, @code{r} for flushright. The third mandatory argument, +@var{text}, specifies what text to put in the entry. + +Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; +@code{\multicolumn} is used for the heading: + +@example +\begin@{tabular@}@{r@@@{--@}l@} +\multicolumn@{2@}@{c@}@{\bf Unicode@}\cr + 0x80&0x7FF \cr + 0x800&0xFFFF \cr +0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr +\end@{tabular@} +@end example + + +@node \cline +@subsection @code{\cline} +@findex \cline + +Synopsis: + +@example +\cline@{@var{i}-@var{j}@} +@end example + +The @code{\cline} command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column @var{i} and ending in column @var{j}, +which are specified in the mandatory argument. + + +@node \hline +@subsection @code{\hline} +@findex \hline + +The @code{\hline} command draws a horizontal line the width of the +enclosing @code{tabular} or @code{array} environment. It's most +commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows +of a table. + + +@node \vline +@subsection @code{\vline} +@findex \vline + +The @code{\vline} command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An @code{\hfill} command can be used to +move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@@-expression. + + +@node thebibliography +@section @code{thebibliography} + +@findex thebibliography +@cindex bibliography, creating (manually) + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{thebibliography@}@{@var{widest-label}@} +\bibitem[@var{label}]@{@var{cite_key@}} +... +\end@{thebibliography@} +@end example + +The @code{thebibliography} environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. + +In the @code{article} class, this reference list is labelled +``References''; in the @code{report} class, it is labelled +``Bibliography''. You can change the label (in the standard classes) +by redefining the command @code{\refname}. For instance, this +eliminates it entirely: + +@example +\renewcommand@{\refname@}@{@} +@end example + +The mandatory @var{widest-label} argument is text that, when typeset, +is as wide as the widest item label produced by the @code{\bibitem} +commands. It is typically given as @code{9} for bibliographies with +less than 10 references, @code{99} for ones with less than 100, etc. + +@menu +* \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item. +* \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item. +* \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography. +* Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies. +@end menu + + +@node \bibitem +@subsection @code{\bibitem} + +@findex \bibitem + +Synopsis: +@example +\bibitem[@var{label}]@{@var{cite_key}@} +@end example + +The @code{\bibitem} command generates an entry labelled by +@var{label}. If the @var{label} argument is missing, a number is +automatically generated using the @code{enumi} counter. The +@var{cite_key} is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation +symbols not containing a comma. + +This command writes an entry to the @file{.aux} file containing the +item's @var{cite_key} and label. When the @file{.aux} file is read by +the @code{\begin@{document@}} command, the item's @code{label} is +associated with @code{cite_key}, causing references to @var{cite_key} +with a @code{\cite} command (see next section) to produce the +associated label. + + +@node \cite +@subsection @code{\cite} + +@findex \cite + +Synopsis: + +@example +\cite[@var{subcite}]@{@var{keys} +@end example + +The @var{keys} argument is a list of one or more citation keys, +separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to +the references associated with @var{keys} by entries in the +@file{.aux} file. + +The text of the optional @var{subcite} argument appears after the +citation. For example, @code{\cite[p.~314]@{knuth@}} might produce +`[Knuth, p.@tie{}314]'. + + +@node \nocite +@subsection @code{\nocite} +@findex \nocite + +@code{\nocite@{key_list@}} + +The @code{\nocite} command produces no text, but writes @code{key_list}, +which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the @file{.aux} file. + + +@node Using BibTeX +@subsection Using Bib@TeX{} + +@cindex using Bib@TeX{} +@cindex bib@TeX{}, using +@cindex bibliography, creating (automatically) +@findex \bibliographystyle +@findex \bibliography + +If you use the Bib@TeX{} program by Oren Patashnik (highly +recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of +titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the +@code{thebibliography} environment (@pxref{thebibliography}). Instead, +you include the lines + +@example +\bibliographystyle@{@var{bibstyle}@} +\bibliography@{@var{bibfile1},@var{bibfile2}@} +@end example + +The @code{\bibliographystyle} command does not produce any output of +its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will +be produced: @var{bibstyle} refers to a file +@var{bibstyle}@file{.bst}, which defines how your citations will look. +The standard @var{style} names distributed with Bib@TeX{} are: + +@table @code +@item alpha +Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of +publication. +@item plain +Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. +@item unsrt +Like @code{plain}, but entries are in order of citation. +@item abbrv +Like @code{plain}, but more compact labels. +@end table + +In addition, numerous other Bib@TeX{} style files exist tailored to +the demands of various publications. See +@url{http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib}. + +The @code{\bibliography} command is what actually produces the +bibliography. The argument to @code{\bibliography} refers to files +named @file{@var{bibfile}.bib}, which should contain your database in +Bib@TeX{} format. Only the entries referred to via @code{\cite} and +@code{\nocite} will be listed in the bibliography. + + +@node theorem +@section @code{theorem} + +@findex theorem @r{environment} +@cindex theorems, typesetting + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{theorem@} +@var{theorem-text} +\end@{theorem@} +@end example + +The @code{theorem} environment produces ``Theorem @var{n}'' in +boldface followed by @var{theorem-text}, where the numbering +possibilities for @var{n} are described under @code{\newtheorem} +(@pxref{\newtheorem}). + + +@node titlepage +@section @code{titlepage} + +@findex titlepage @r{environment} +@cindex making a title page +@cindex title pages, creating + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{titlepage@} +@var{text} +\end@{titlepage@} +@end example + +The @code{titlepage} environment creates a title page, i.e., a page +with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following +page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to +you. The @code{\today} command may be useful on title pages +(@pxref{\today}). + +You can use the @code{\maketitle} command (@pxref{\maketitle}) to +produce a standard title page without a @code{titlepage} environment. + + +@node verbatim +@section @code{verbatim} + +@findex verbatim @r{environment} +@cindex verbatim text +@cindex simulating typed text +@cindex typed text, simulating +@cindex code, typesetting +@cindex computer programs, typesetting + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{verbatim@} +@var{literal-text} +\end@{verbatim@} +@end example + +The @code{verbatim} environment is a paragraph-making environment in +which @LaTeX{} produces exactly what you type in; for instance the +@code{\} character produces a printed @samp{\}. It turns @LaTeX{} +into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same +effect that they would on a typewriter. + +The @code{verbatim} uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (@code{\tt}). + +@menu +* \verb:: The macro form of the @code{verbatim} environment. +@end menu + +@node \verb +@subsection @code{\verb} + +@findex \verb +@cindex verbatim text, inline + +Synopsis: + +@example +\verb@var{char}@var{literal-text}@var{char} +\verb*@var{char}@var{literal-text}@var{char} +@end example + +The @code{\verb} command typesets @var{literal-text} as it is input, +including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter +(@code{\tt}) font. No spaces are allowed between @code{\verb} or +@code{\verb*} and the delimiter @var{char}, which begins and ends the +verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in @var{literal-text}. + +@cindex visible space +The @code{*}-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a +``visible space'' character. +@tex +(Namely, {\tt\char`\ }.) +@end tex + + +@node verse +@section @code{verse} + +@findex verse @r{environment} +@cindex poetry, an environment for + +Synopsis: + +@example +\begin@{verse@} +@var{line1} \\ +@var{line2} \\ +... +\end@{verse@} +@end example + +The @code{verse} environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + +@findex \\ @r{for @code{verse}} +The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not +indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each +stanza with @code{\\}, and use one or more blank lines to separate the +stanzas. + + +@node Footnotes +@chapter Footnotes +@cindex footnotes, creating + +Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced +with one command, the @code{\footnote} command. They can also be +produced with two commands, the @code{\footnotemark} and the +@code{\footnotetext} commands. + +@menu +* \footnote:: Insert a footnote. +* \footnotemark:: Insert footnote mark only. +* \footnotetext:: Insert footnote text only. +* Footnote parameters:: Parameters for footnote formatting. +@end menu + + +@node \footnote +@section @code{\footnote} +@findex \footnote + +Synopsis: + +@example +\footnote[@var{number}]@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\footnote} command places the numbered footnote @var{text} +at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument @var{number} +changes the default footnote number. + +This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you +cannot use it in sectioning commands like @code{\chapter}, in figures, +tables or in a @code{tabular} environment. (See following sections.) +@c xx mention packages that fix this + + +@node \footnotemark +@section @code{\footnotemark} +@findex \footnotemark + +With no optional argument, the @code{\footnotemark} command puts the +current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in +inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, +with the @code{\footnotetext} command. + +This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote +markers referring to the same footnote with + +@example +\footnotemark[\value@{footnote@}] +@end example + +after the first @code{\footnote} command. + + +@node \footnotetext +@section @code{\footnotetext} +@findex \footnotetext + +Synopsis: + +@example +\footnotetext[@var{number}]@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\footnotetext} command places @var{text} at the bottom of +the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the +@code{\footnotemark} command. The @code{\footnotetext} command must +appear in outer paragraph mode. + +The optional argument @var{number} changes the default footnote number. + + +@node Footnote parameters +@section Footnote parameters + +@cindex footnote parameters + +@ftable @code +@item \footnoterule +Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's +footnotes. Default dimensions: @code{0.4pt} thick (or wide), and +@code{0.4\columnwidth} long in the standard document classes (except +slides, where it does not appear). + +@item \footnotesep +The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By +default, this is set to the normal strut for @code{\footnotesize} +fonts (@pxref{Font sizes}), therefore there is no extra space between +footnotes. This is @samp{6.65pt} for @samp{10pt}, @samp{7.7pt} for +@samp{11pt}, and @samp{8.4pt} for @samp{12pt}. + +@end ftable + + +@node Definitions +@chapter Definitions +@cindex definitions + +@LaTeX{} has support for making new commands of many different kinds. + +@c xx everything in this chapter needs examples. + +@menu +* \newcommand & \renewcommand:: (Re)define a new command. +* \newcounter:: Define a new counter. +* \newlength:: Define a new length. +* \newsavebox:: Define a new box. +* \newenvironment & \renewenvironment:: Define a new environment. +* \newtheorem:: Define a new theorem-like environment. +* \newfont:: Define a new font name. +* \protect:: Using tricky commands. +@end menu + + +@node \newcommand & \renewcommand +@section @code{\newcommand} & @code{\renewcommand} +@findex \newcommand +@cindex commands, defining new ones +@cindex defining a new command +@cindex new commands, defining + +@code{\newcommand} and @code{\renewcommand} define and redefine a +command, respectively. Synopses: + +@example + \newcommand@{@var{cmd}@}[@var{nargs}]@{@var{defn}@} +\renewcommand@{@var{cmd}@}[@var{nargs}]@{@var{defn}@} + \newcommand@{@var{cmd}@}[@var{nargs}][@var{default}]@{@var{defn}@} +\renewcommand@{@var{cmd}@}[@var{nargs}][@var{default}]@{@var{defn}@} +@end example + + +@table @var +@item cmd +The command name beginning with @code{\}. For @code{\newcommand}, it +must not be already defined and must not begin with @code{\end}; for +@code{\renewcommand}, it must already be defined. + +@item nargs +An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments +that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no +arguments. + +@item default +If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's +first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the +default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not specified +in the call) is the string @samp{def}. + +@item defn +The text to be substituted for every occurrence of @code{cmd}; a +construct of the form @code{#@var{n}} in @var{defn} is replaced by the +text of the @var{n}th argument. + +@end table + + +@node \newcounter +@section @code{\newcounter} +@findex \newcounter +@cindex counters, defining new + +Synopsis: + +@example +\newcounter@{@var{cnt}@}[@var{countername}] +@end example + +The @code{\newcounter} command defines a new counter named @var{cnt}. +The new counter is initialized to zero. + +Given the optional argument @code{[@var{countername}]}, @var{cnt} +will be reset whenever @var{countername} is incremented. + +@xref{Counters}, for more information about counters. + + +@node \newlength +@section @code{\newlength} +@findex \newlength +@cindex lengths, defining new + +Synopsis: + +@example +\newlength@{\@var{arg}@} +@end example + +The @code{\newlength} command defines the mandatory argument as a +@code{length} command with a value of @code{0in}. The argument must +be a control sequence, as in @code{\newlength@{\foo@}}. An error +occurs if @code{\foo} is already defined. + +@xref{Lengths}, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and +for more information about lengths in general. + + +@node \newsavebox +@section @code{\newsavebox} +@findex \newsavebox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\newsavebox@{@var{cmd}@} +@end example + +Defines @code{\@var{cmd}}, which must be a command name not already +defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. + + +@node \newenvironment & \renewenvironment +@section @code{\newenvironment} & @code{\renewenvironment} +@findex \newenvironment +@findex \renewenvironment +@cindex environments, defining +@cindex defining new environments +@cindex redefining environments + +Synopses: + +@example + \newenvironment@{@var{env}@}[@var{nargs}]@{@var{begdef}@}@{@var{enddef}@} + \newenvironment@{@var{env}@}[@var{nargs}][@var{default}]@{@var{begdef}@}@{@var{enddef}@} +\renewenvironment@{@var{env}@}[@var{nargs}]@{@var{begdef}@}@{@var{enddef}@} +@end example + +These commands define or redefine an environment @var{env}, that is, +@code{\begin@{@var{env}@} @dots{} \end@{@var{env}@}}. + +@table @var +@item env +The name of the environment. For @code{\newenvironment}, @var{env} +must not be an existing environment, and the command @code{\@var{env}} +must be undefined. For @code{\renewenvironment}, @var{env} must be +the name of an existing environment. + +@item nargs +An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of +the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + +@item default +If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and @var{default} +gives the default value for that argument. + +@item begdef +The text expanded at every occurrence of @code{\begin@{@var{env}@}}; a +construct of the form @code{#@var{n}} in @var{begdef} is replaced by +the text of the @var{n}th argument. + +@item enddef +The text expanded at every occurrence of @code{\end@{@var{env}@}}. It +may not contain any argument parameters. + +@end table + + +@node \newtheorem +@section @code{\newtheorem} +@findex \newtheorem +@cindex theorems, defining +@cindex defining new theorems + +@example +\newtheorem@{@var{newenv}@}@{@var{label}@}[@var{within}] +\newtheorem@{@var{newenv}@}[@var{numbered_like}]@{@var{label}@} +@end example + +This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: + +@table @var +@item newenv +The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an +existing environment or otherwise defined. + +@item label +The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the +number. For example, @samp{Theorem}. + +@item numbered_like +(Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; +the new environment will be numbered just like @var{numbered_like}. + +@item within +(Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. +The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the +@var{within} counter. + +@end table + +At most one of @var{numbered_like} and @var{within} can be specified, +not both. + + +@node \newfont +@section @code{\newfont} +@findex \newfont +@cindex fonts, new commands for +@cindex defining new fonts + +Synopsis: + +@example +\newfont@{@var{cmd}@}@{@var{fontname}@} +@end example + +Defines a control sequence @code{\@var{cmd}}, which must not already +be defined, to make @var{fontname} be the current font. The file +looked for on the system is named @file{@var{fontname}.tfm}. + +This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. +More commonly, fonts are defined in families through @file{.fd} files. + + +@node \protect +@section @code{\protect} +@findex \protect + +@cindex fragile commands +@cindex moving arguments +Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and +many more are so-called @dfn{fragile} commands. When a fragile +command is used in certain contexts, called @dfn{moving arguments}, it +must be preceded by @code{\protect}. In addition, any fragile +commands within the arguments must have their own @code{\protect}. + +Some examples of moving arguments are @code{\caption} +(@pxref{figure}), @code{\thanks} (@pxref{\maketitle}), and +@-expressions in @code{tabular} and @code{array} environments +(@pxref{tabular}). + +@cindex robust commands +Commands which are not fragile are called @dfn{robust}. They must not +be preceded by @code{\protect}. + +See also: + +@smallexample +@exdent @url{http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html} +@exdent @url{http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect} +@end smallexample + +@c xx really need examples. + + +@node Counters +@chapter Counters +@cindex counters, a list of +@cindex variables, a list of + +Everything @LaTeX{} numbers for you has a counter associated with +it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment +or command that produces the number, except with no @code{\}. +(@code{enumi}--@code{enumiv} are used for the nested enumerate +environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in @LaTeX{}'s +standard document classes to control numbering. + +@example +part paragraph figure enumi +chapter subparagraph table enumii +section page footnote enumiii +subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv +subsubsection +@end example + +@menu +* \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter. +* \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment. +* \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression. +* \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter. +* \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter. +* \refstepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. +* \stepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. +* \day \month \year:: Numeric date values. +@end menu + + +@node \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol +@section @code{\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol}: Printing counters + +All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for +instance, @code{\alph@{enumi@}}. + +@ftable @code +@item \alph +prints @var{counter} using lowercase letters: `a', `b', @enddots{} + +@item \Alph +uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', @enddots{} + +@item \arabic +uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', @enddots{} + +@item \roman +uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', @enddots{} + +@item \roman +uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', @enddots{} + +@item \fnsymbol +prints the value of @var{counter} in a specific sequence of nine +symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of +@var{counter} must be between@tie{}1 and@tie{}9, inclusive. + +@tex +Here are the symbols: +$\ast$ $\dagger$ $\ddagger$ $\S$ $\P$ $\parallel$ +$\ast\ast$ $\dagger\dagger$ $\ddagger\ddagger$ +@end tex +@ifnottex +The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the names: +@display +asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel +double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger +@end display +@end ifnottex + +@end ftable + + +@node \usecounter +@section @code{\usecounter@{@var{counter}@}} +@findex \usecounter +@cindex list items, specifying counter +@cindex numbered items, specifying counter + +Synopsis: + +@example +\usecounter@{@var{counter}@} +@end example + +The @code{\usecounter} command is used in the second argument of the +@code{list} environment to specify @var{counter} to be used to number +the list items. + + +@node \value +@section @code{\value@{@var{counter}@}} +@findex \value +@cindex counters, getting value of + +Synopsis: + +@example +\value@{@var{counter}@} +@end example + +The @code{\value} command produces the value of @var{counter}. It can +be used anywhere @LaTeX{} expects a number, for example: + +@example +\setcounter@{myctr@}@{3@} +\addtocounter@{myctr@}@{1@} +\hspace@{\value@{myctr@}\parindent@} +@end example + + +@node \setcounter +@section @code{\setcounter@{@var{counter}@}@{@var{value}@}} +@findex \setcounter +@cindex counters, setting +@cindex setting counters + +Synopsis: + +@example +\setcounter@{@var{\counter}@}@{@var{value}@} +@end example + +The @code{\setcounter} command sets the value of @var{\counter} to the +@var{value} argument. + + +@node \addtocounter +@section @code{\addtocounter@{@var{counter}@}@{@var{value}@}} +@findex \addtocounter + +The @code{\addtocounter} command increments @var{counter} by the +amount specified by the @var{value} argument, which may be negative. + + +@node \refstepcounter +@section @code{\refstepcounter@{@var{counter}@}} +@findex \refstepcounter + +The @code{\refstepcounter} command works in the same way as +@code{\stepcounter} @xref{\stepcounter}, except it also defines the +current @code{\ref} value to be the result of @code{\thecounter}. + + +@node \stepcounter +@section @code{\stepcounter@{@var{counter}@}} +@findex \stepcounter + +The @code{\stepcounter} command adds one to @var{counter} and +resets all subsidiary counters. + + +@node \day \month \year +@section @code{\day \month \year}: Predefined counters +@findex \day +@findex \month +@findex \year + +@LaTeX{} defines counters for the day of the month (@code{\day}, +1--31), month of the year (@code{\month}, 1--12), and year +(@code{\year}, Common Era). When @TeX{} starts up, they are +set to the current values on the system where @TeX{} is running. They +are not updated as the job progresses. + +The related command @code{\today} produces a string representing the +current day (@pxref{\today}). + + +@node Lengths +@chapter Lengths +@cindex lengths, defining and using + +A @code{length} is a measure of distance. Many @LaTeX{} commands take a +length as an argument. + +@menu +* \setlength:: Set the value of a length. +* \addtolength:: Add a quantity to a length. +* \settodepth:: Set a length to the depth of something. +* \settoheight:: Set a length to the height of something. +* \settowidth:: Set a length to the width of something. +* Predefined lengths:: Lengths that are, like, predefined. +@end menu + + +@node \setlength +@section @code{\setlength@{\@var{len}@}@{@var{value}@}} +@findex \setlength +@cindex lengths, setting + +The @code{\setlength} sets the value of @var{\len} to the @var{value} +argument, which can be expressed in any units that @LaTeX{} +understands, i.e., inches (@code{in}), millimeters (@code{mm}), points +(@code{pt}), big points (@code{bp}, etc. + + +@node \addtolength +@section \addtolength@{@var{\len}@}@{@var{amount}@} +@findex \addtolength +@cindex lengths, adding to + +The @code{\addtolength} command increments a ``length command'' +@var{\len} by the amount specified in the @var{amount} argument, which +may be negative. + + +@node \settodepth +@section @code{\settodepth} +@findex \settodepth + +@code{\settodepth@{\gnat@}@{text@}} + +The @code{\settodepth} command sets the value of a @code{length} command +equal to the depth of the @code{text} argument. + + +@node \settoheight +@section @code{\settoheight} +@findex \settoheight + +@code{\settoheight@{\gnat@}@{text@}} + +The @code{\settoheight} command sets the value of a @code{length} command +equal to the height of the @code{text} argument. + + + +@node \settowidth +@section @code{\settowidth@{\@var{len}@}@{@var{text}@}} +@findex \settowidth + +The @code{\settowidth} command sets the value of the command @var{\len} +to the width of the @var{text} argument. + + + +@node Predefined lengths +@section Predefined lengths +@cindex lengths, predefined +@cindex predefined lengths + +@code{\width} +@findex \width + +@code{\height} +@findex \height + +@code{\depth} +@findex \depth + +@code{\totalheight} +@findex \totalheight + +These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making +commands (@pxref{Boxes}). They specify the natural width etc. of the +text in the box. @code{\totalheight} equals @code{\height} + +@code{\depth}. To make a box with the text stretched to double the +natural size, e.g., say + +@code{\makebox[2\width]@{Get a stretcher@}} + + +@node Line breaking +@chapter Line breaking +@cindex line breaking +@cindex breaking lines + +The first thing @LaTeX{} does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines +(and these lines must be broken into pages). + +@LaTeX{} usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in +some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the +@code{\\} command, and you can always manually force breaks. + +@menu +* \\:: Start a new line. +* \obeycr & \restorecr:: Make each input line start a new output line. +* \newline:: Break the line +* \- (hyphenation):: Insert explicit hyphenation. +* \fussy:: Be fussy about line breaking. +* \hyphenation:: Tell @LaTeX{} how to hyphenate a word. +* \linebreak & \nolinebreak:: Forcing & avoiding line breaks. +* \sloppy:: Be sloppy about line breaking. +@end menu + + +@node \\ +@section @code{\\}[*][@var{morespace}] +@findex \\ @r{force line break} +@cindex new line, starting +@cindex line break, forcing + +The @code{\\} command tells @LaTeX{} to start a new line. It has an +optional argument, @var{morespace}, that specifies how much extra +vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a +negative amount. + +The @code{\\*} command is the same as the ordinary @code{\\} command +except that it tells @LaTeX{} not to start a new page after the line. + + +@node \obeycr & \restorecr +@section @code{\obeycr} & @code{\restorecr} +@findex \obeycr +@findex \restorecr +@cindex new line, output as input + +The @code{\obeycr} command makes a return in the input file +(@samp{^^M}, internally) the same as @code{\\} (followed by +@code{\relax}). So each new line in the input will also be a new line +in the output. + +@code{\restorecr} restores normal line-breaking behavior. + + +@node \newline +@section @code{\newline} +@findex \newline +@cindex new line, starting (paragraph mode) + +The @code{\newline} command breaks the line at the present point, with +no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph +mode. + + +@node \- (hyphenation) +@section @code{\-} (discretionary hyphen) +@findex \- @r{(hyphenation)} +@cindex hyphenation, forcing + +The @code{\-} command tells @LaTeX{} that it may hyphenate the word at +that point. @LaTeX{} is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually +find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an +incorrect one. The @code{\-} command is used for the exceptional +cases. + +When you insert @code{\-} commands in a word, the word will only be +hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points +that @LaTeX{} might otherwise have chosen. + + + +@node \fussy +@section @code{\fussy} +@findex \fussy + +The declaration @code{\fussy} (which is the default) makes @TeX{} +picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between +words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. + +This command cancels the effect of a previous @code{\sloppy} command +(@pxref{\sloppy}. + + +@node \sloppy +@section @code{\sloppy} + +The declaration @code{\sloppy} makes @TeX{} less fussy about line +breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose +interword spacing. + +Lasts until a @code{\fussy} command is issued (@pxref{\fussy}). + + +@node \hyphenation +@section @code{\hyphenation} +@findex \hyphenation +@cindex hyphenation, defining + +Synopsis: + +@example +\hyphenation@{@var{word-one} @var{word-two}@} +@end example + +The @code{\hyphenation} command declares allowed hyphenation points +with a @code{-} character in the given words. The words are separated +by spaces. @TeX{} will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no +inflections are tried. Multiple @code{\hyphenation} commands +accumulate. Some examples (the default @TeX{} hyphenation patterns +misses the hyphenations in these words): + +@example +\hyphenation@{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases@} +@end example + + +@node \linebreak & \nolinebreak +@section @code{\linebreak} & @code{\nolinebreak} +@findex \linebreak +@findex \nolinebreak +@cindex line breaks, forcing +@cindex line breaks, preventing + +Synopses: + +@example +\linebreak[@var{priority}] +\nolinebreak[@var{priority}] +@end example + +By default, the @code{\linebreak} (@code{\nolinebreak}) command forces +(prevents) a line break at the current position. For +@code{\linebreak}, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it +extends to the right margin as usual. + +With the optional argument @var{priority}, you can convert the command +from a demand to a request. The @var{priority} must be a number from +0 to@tie{}4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. + + +@node Page breaking +@chapter Page breaking +@cindex page breaking +@cindex breaking pages + +@LaTeX{} starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has +accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, +but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. + +@menu +* \cleardoublepage:: Start a new right-hand page. +* \clearpage:: Start a new page. +* \newpage:: Start a new page. +* \enlargethispage:: Enlarge the current page a bit. +* \pagebreak & \nopagebreak:: Forcing & avoiding page breaks. +@end menu + + +@node \cleardoublepage +@section @code{\cleardoublepage} + +@findex \cleardoublepage +@cindex starting on a right-hand page + +The @code{\cleardoublepage} command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + + +@node \clearpage +@section @code{\clearpage} +@findex \clearpage +@cindex flushing floats and starting a page +@cindex starting a new page and clearing floats + +The @code{\clearpage} command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + + +@node \newpage +@section @code{\newpage} +@findex \newpage +@cindex new page, starting +@cindex starting a new page + +The @code{\newpage} command ends the current page, but does not clear +floats (see @code{\clearpage} above). + + +@node \enlargethispage +@section @code{\enlargethispage} +@findex \enlargethispage +@cindex enlarge current page + +@code{\enlargethispage@{size@}} + +@code{\enlargethispage*@{size@}} + +Enlarge the @code{\textheight} for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. @code{\enlargethispage@{\baselineskip@}} will allow one +additional line. + +The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as +much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +@code{\pagebreak}. + + +@node \pagebreak & \nopagebreak +@section @code{\pagebreak} & @code{\nopagebreak} +@findex \pagebreak +@findex \nopagebreak +@cindex page break, forcing +@cindex page break, preventing + +Synopses: + +@example +\pagebreak[@var{priority}] +\nopagebreak[@var{priority}] +@end example + +By default, the @code{\pagebreak} (@code{\nopagebreak}) command forces +(prevents) a page break at the current position. For +@code{\linebreak}, the vertical space on the page is stretched out +where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. + +With the optional argument @var{priority}, you can convert the +@code{\pagebreak} command from a demand to a request. The number must +be a number from 0 to@tie{}4. The higher the number, the more +insistent the request is. + + +@node Making paragraphs +@chapter Making paragraphs +@cindex making paragraphs +@cindex paragraphs + +A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines---lines not +containing even a @code{%}. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + +@menu +* \indent:: Indent this paragraph. +* \noindent:: Do not indent this paragraph. +* \parskip:: Space added before paragraphs. +* Marginal notes:: Putting remarks in the margin. +@end menu + + +@node \indent +@section @code{\indent} +@findex \indent +@findex \parindent +@cindex indent, forcing + +@code{\indent} produces a horizontal space whose width equals the +width of the @code{\parindent} length, the normal paragraph +indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would +otherwise be suppressed. + +The default value for @code{\parindent} is @code{1em} in two-column +mode, otherwise @code{15pt} for @code{10pt} documents, @code{17pt} for +@code{11pt}, and @code{1.5em} for @code{12pt}. + + +@node \noindent +@section @code{\noindent} +@findex \noindent +@cindex indent, suppressing + +When used at the beginning of the paragraph, @code{\noindent} +suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in +the middle of a paragraph. + + +@node \parskip +@section @code{\parskip} +@findex \parskip +@cindex vertical space before paragraphs + +@code{\parskip} is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added +before each paragraph. The default is @code{0pt plus1pt}. + + +@node Marginal notes +@section Marginal notes +@cindex marginal notes +@cindex notes in the margin +@cindex remarks in the margin +@findex \marginpar + +Synopsis: + +@example +\marginpar[@var{left}]@{@var{right}@} +@end example + +The @code{\marginpar} command creates a note in the margin. The first +line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text +where the @code{\marginpar} occurs. + +When you only specify the mandatory argument @var{right}, the text +will be placed + +@itemize @bullet +@item +in the right margin for one-sided layout; +@item +in the outside margin for two-sided layout; +@item +in the nearest margin for two-column layout. +@end itemize + +@findex \reversemarginpar +@findex \normalmarginpar +The command @code{\reversemarginpar} places subsequent marginal notes +in the opposite (inside) margin. @code{\normalmarginpar} places them +in the default position. + +When you specify both arguments, @var{left} is used for the left +margin, and @var{right} is used for the right margin. + +The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation there by beginning the node with @code{\hspace@{0pt@}}. + +These parameters affect the formatting of the note: + +@ftable @code +@item \marginparpush +Minimum vertical space between notes; default @samp{7pt} for +@samp{12pt} documents, @samp{5pt} else. + +@item \marginparsep +Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default +@samp{11pt} for @samp{10pt} documents, @samp{10pt} else. + +@item \marginparwidth +Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided @samp{10pt} document +is @samp{90pt}, @samp{83pt} for @samp{11pt}, and @samp{68pt} for +@samp{12pt}; @samp{17pt} more in each case for a two-sided document. +In two column mode, the default is @samp{48pt}. + +@end ftable + + +@node Math formulas +@chapter Math formulas +@cindex math formulas +@cindex formulas, math +@cindex math mode, entering + +@findex math @r{environment} +@findex displaymath @r{environment} +@findex equation @r{environment} +There are three environments that put @LaTeX{} in math mode: + +@table @code +@item math +For formulas that appear right in the text. +@item displaymath +For formulas that appear on their own line. +@item equation +The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation +number in the right margin. +@end table + +@findex \( +@findex \) +@findex \[ +@findex \] +The @code{math} environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the @code{displaymath} and @code{equation} environments can be used +only in paragraph mode. The @code{math} and @code{displaymath} +environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: + +@example +\(...\) @r{instead of} \begin@{math@}...\end@{math@} +\[...\] @r{instead of} \begin@{displaymath@}...\end@{displaymath@} +@end example + +@findex $ +In fact, the @code{math} environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + +@example +$ ... $ @r{instead of} \(...\) +@end example + +@findex \boldmath +@findex \unboldmath +The @code{\boldmath} command changes math letters and symbols to be in +a bold font. It is used @emph{outside} of math mode. Conversely, the +@code{\unboldmath} command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; +it too is used @emph{outside} of math mode. + +@c xx own section? Math fonts? +@findex \displaystyle +The @code{\displaystyle} declaration forces the size and style of the +formula to be that of @code{displaymath}, e.g., with limits above and +below summations. For example +@example +$\displaystyle \sum_@{n=0@}^\infty x_n $ +@end example + +@c xx see also \cal, \mathcal + +@menu +* Subscripts & Superscripts:: Also known as exponent or index. +* Math symbols:: Various mathematical squiggles. +* Math functions:: Math function names like sin and exp. +* Math accents:: Accents in math. +* Spacing in math mode:: Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces. +* Math Miscellany:: Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else. +@end menu + + +@node Subscripts & Superscripts +@section Subscripts & Superscripts +@cindex superscript +@cindex subscript +@cindex exponent +@findex _ +@findex ^ + +To get an expression @i{exp} to appear as a subscript, you just type +@code{_@{}@i{exp}@code{@}}. To get @i{exp} to appear as a +superscript, you type @code{^@{}@i{exp}@code{@}}. @LaTeX{} handles +superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. +It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a +superscript. + + +@node Math symbols +@section Math symbols +@cindex math symbols +@cindex symbols, math +@cindex greek letters + +@LaTeX{} provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to +need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. +For example, if you include @code{$\pi$} in your source, you will get +the pi symbol (@math{\pi}) in your output. + +@ftable @code +@item \| +@math{\|} + +@item \aleph +@math{\aleph} + +@item \alpha +@math{\alpha} + +@item \amalg +@math{\amalg} (binary operation) + +@item \angle +@math{\angle} + +@item \approx +@math{\approx} (relation) + +@item \ast +@math{\ast} (binary operation) + +@item \asymp +@math{\asymp} (relation) + +@item \backslash +\ (delimiter) + +@item \beta +@math{\beta} + +@item \bigcap +@math{\bigcap} + +@item \bigcirc +@math{\bigcirc} (binary operation) + +@item \bigcup +@math{\bigcup} + +@item \bigodot +@math{\bigodot} + +@item \bigoplus +@math{\bigoplus} + +@item \bigotimes +@math{\bigotimes} + +@item \bigtriangledown +@math{\bigtriangledown} (binary operation) + +@item \bigtriangleup +@math{\bigtriangleup} (binary operation) + +@item \bigsqcup +@math{\bigsqcup} + +@item \biguplus +@math{\biguplus} + +@item \bigcap +@math{\bigvee} + +@item \bigwedge +@math{\bigwedge} + +@item \bot +@math{\bot} + +@item \bowtie +@math{\bowtie} (relation) + +@item \Box +(square open box symbol) @c xx not in plain + +@item \bullet +@cindex bullet symbol +@math{\bullet} (binary operation) + +@item \cap +@math{\cap} (binary operation) + +@item \cdot +@math{\cdot} (binary operation) + +@item \chi +@math{\chi} + +@item \circ +@math{\circ} (binary operation) + +@item \clubsuit +@math{\clubsuit} + +@item \cong +@math{\cong} (relation) + +@item \coprod +@math{\coprod} + +@item \cup +@math{\cup} (binary operation) + +@item \dagger +@math{\dagger} (binary operation) + +@item \dashv +@math{\dashv} (relation) + +@item \ddagger +@math{\dagger} (binary operation) + +@item \Delta +@math{\Delta} + +@item \delta +@math{\delta} + +@item \Diamond +bigger @math{\diamond} @c xx not in plain + +@item \diamond +@math{\diamond} (binary operation) + +@item \diamondsuit +@math{\diamondsuit} + +@item \div +@math{\div} (binary operation) + +@item \doteq +@math{\doteq} (relation) + +@item \downarrow +@math{\downarrow} (delimiter) + +@item \Downarrow +@math{\Downarrow} (delimiter) + +@item \ell +@math{\ell} + +@item \emptyset +@math{\emptyset} + +@item \epsilon +@math{\epsilon} + +@item \equiv +@math{\equiv} (relation) + +@item \eta +@math{\eta} + +@item \exists +@math{\exists} + +@item \flat +@math{\flat} + +@item \forall +@math{\forall} + +@item \frown +@math{\frown} (relation) + +@item \Gamma +@math{\Gamma} + +@item \gamma +@math{\gamma} + +@item \ge +@math{\ge} + +@item \geq +@math{\geq} (relation) + +@item \gets +@math{\gets} + +@item \gg +@math{\gg} (relation) + +@item \hbar +@math{\hbar} + +@item \heartsuit +@math{\heartsuit} + +@item \hookleftarrow +@math{\hookleftarrow} + +@item \hookrightarrow +@math{\hookrightarrow} + +@item \iff +@math{\iff} + +@item \Im +@math{\Im} + +@item \in +@math{\in} (relation) + +@item \infty +@math{\infty} + +@item \int +@math{\int} + +@item \iota +@math{\iota} + +@item \Join +condensed bowtie symbol (relation) @c xx not in plain + +@item \kappa +@math{\kappa} + +@item \Lambda +@math{\Lambda} + +@item \lambda +@math{\lambda} + +@item \land +@math{\land} + +@item \langle +@math{\langle} (delimiter) + +@item \lbrace +@math{\lbrace} (delimiter) + +@item \lbrack +@math{\lbrack} (delimiter) + +@item \lceil +@math{\lceil} (delimiter) + +@item \le +@math{\le} + +@item \leadsto +@c xx missing from plain + +@item \Leftarrow +@math{\Leftarrow} + +@item \leftarrow +@math{\leftarrow} + +@item \leftharpoondown +@math{\leftharpoondown} + +@item \leftharpoonup +@math{\leftharpoonup} + +@item \Leftrightarrow +@math{\Leftrightarrow} + +@item \leftrightarrow +@math{\leftrightarrow} + +@item \leq +@math{\leq} (relation) + +@item \lfloor +@math{\lfloor} (delimiter) + +@item \lhd +(left-pointing arrow head) @c xx not in plain + +@item \ll +@math{\ll} (relation) + +@item \lnot +@math{\lnot} + +@item \longleftarrow +@math{\longleftarrow} + +@item \longleftrightarrow +@math{\longleftrightarrow} + +@item \longmapsto +@math{\longmapsto} + +@item \longrightarrow +@math{\longrightarrow} + +@item \lor +@math{\lor} + +@item \mapsto +@math{\mapsto} + +@item \mho +@c xx not in plain + +@item \mid +@math{\mid} (relation) + +@item \models +@math{\models} (relation) + +@item \mp +@math{\mp} (binary operation) + +@item \mu +@math{\mu} + +@item \nabla +@math{\nabla} + +@item \natural +@math{\natural} + +@item \ne +@math{\ne} + +@item \nearrow +@math{\nearrow} + +@item \neg +@math{\neg} + +@item \neq +@math{\neq} (relation) + +@item \ni +@math{\ni} (relation) + +@item \not +Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in @math{\not=}. + +@item \notin +@math{\ni} + +@item \nu +@math{\nu} + +@item \nwarrow +@math{\nwarrow} + +@item \odot +@math{\odot} (binary operation) + +@item \oint +@math{\oint} + +@item \Omega +@math{\Omega} + +@item \omega +@math{\omega} + +@item \ominus +@math{\ominus} (binary operation) + +@item \oplus +@math{\oplus} (binary operation) + +@item \oslash +@math{\oslash} (binary operation) + +@item \otimes +@math{\otimes} (binary operation) + +@item \owns +@math{\owns} + +@item \parallel +@math{\parallel} (relation) + +@item \partial +@math{\partial} + +@item \perp +@math{\perp} (relation) + +@item \phi +@math{\phi} + +@item \Pi +@math{\Pi} + +@item \pi +@math{\pi} + +@item \pm +@math{\pm} (binary operation) + +@item \prec +@math{\prec} (relation) + +@item \preceq +@math{\preceq} (relation) + +@item \prime +@math{\prime} + +@item \prod +@math{\prod} + +@item \propto +@math{\propto} (relation) + +@item \Psi +@math{\Psi} + +@item \psi +@math{\psi} + +@item \rangle +@math{\rangle} (delimiter) + +@item \rbrace +@math{\rbrace} (delimiter) + +@item \rbrack +@math{\rbrack} (delimiter) + +@item \rceil +@math{\rceil} (delimiter) + +@item \Re +@math{\Re} + +@item \rfloor +@math{\rfloor} + +@item \rhd +(binary operation) @c xx not in plain @math{\rhd} + +@item \rho +@math{\rho} + +@item \Rightarrow +@math{\Rightarrow} + +@item \rightarrow +@math{\rightarrow} + +@item \rightharpoondown +@math{\rightharpoondown} + +@item \rightharpoonup +@math{\rightharpoonup} + +@item \rightleftharpoons +@math{\rightleftharpoons} + +@item \searrow +@math{\searrow} + +@item \setminus +@math{\setminus} (binary operation) + +@item \sharp +@math{\sharp} + +@item \Sigma +@math{\Sigma} + +@item \sigma +@math{\sigma} + +@item \sim +@math{\sim} (relation) + +@item \simeq +@math{\simeq} (relation) + +@item \smallint +@math{\smallint} + +@item \smile +@math{\smile} (relation) + +@item \spadesuit +@math{\spadesuit} + +@item \sqcap +@math{\sqcap} (binary operation) + +@item \sqcup +@math{\sqcup} (binary operation) + +@item \sqsubset +(relation) @c not in plain (@math{\sqsubset}) + +@item \sqsubseteq +@math{\sqsubseteq} (relation) + +@item \sqsupset +(relation) @c not in plain (@math{\sqsupset}) + +@item \sqsupseteq +@math{\sqsupseteq} (relation) + +@item \star +@math{\star} (binary operation) + +@item \subset +@math{\subset} (relation) + +@item \subseteq +@math{\subseteq} (relation) + +@item \succ +@math{\succ} (relation) + +@item \succeq +@math{\succeq} (relation) + +@item \sum +@math{\sum} + +@item \supset +@math{\supset} (relation) + +@item \supseteq +@math{\supseteq} (relation) + +@item \surd +@math{\surd} + +@item \swarrow +@math{\swarrow} + +@item \tau +@math{\tau} + +@item \theta +@math{\theta} + +@item \times +@math{\times} (binary operation) + +@item \to +@math{\to} + +@item \top +@math{\top} + +@item \triangle +@math{\triangle} + +@item \triangleleft +@math{\triangleleft} (binary operation) + +@item \triangleright +@math{\triangleright} (binary operation) + +@item \unlhd +left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) @c not in plain + +@item \unrhd +right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) @c not in plain + +@item \Uparrow +@math{\Uparrow} (delimiter) + +@item \uparrow +@math{\uparrow} (delimiter) + +@item \Updownarrow +@math{\Updownarrow} (delimiter) + +@item \updownarrow +@math{\updownarrow} (delimiter) + +@item \uplus +@math{\uplus} (binary operation) + +@item \Upsilon +@math{\Upsilon} + +@item \upsilon +@math{\upsilon} + +@item \varepsilon +@math{\varepsilon} + +@item \varphi +@math{\varphi} + +@item \varpi +@math{\varpi} + +@item \varrho +@math{\varrho} + +@item \varsigma +@math{\varsigma} + +@item \vartheta +@math{\vartheta} + +@item \vdash +@math{\vdash} (relation) + +@item \vee +@math{\vee} (binary operation) + +@item \Vert +@math{\Vert} (delimiter) + +@item \vert +@math{\vert} (delimiter) + +@item \wedge +@math{\wedge} (binary operation) + +@item \wp +@math{\wp} + +@item \wr +@math{\wr} (binary operation) + +@item \Xi +@math{\Xi} + +@item \xi +@math{\xi} + +@item \zeta +@math{\zeta} + +@end ftable + + +@node Math functions +@section Math functions +@cindex math functions +@cindex functions, math + +These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper +spacing. + +@ftable @code +@item \arccos +@math{\arccos} + +@item \arcsin +@math{\arcsin} + +@item \arctan +@math{\arctan} + +@item \arg +@math{\arg} + +@item \bmod +Binary modulo operator (@math{x \bmod y}) + +@item \cos +@math{\cos} + +@item \cosh +@math{\cosh} + +@item \cot +@math{\cos} + +@item \coth +@math{\cosh} + +@item \csc +@math{\csc} + +@item \deg +@math{\deg} + +@item \det +@math{\deg} + +@item \dim +@math{\dim} + +@item \exp +@math{\exp} + +@item \gcd +@math{\gcd} + +@item \hom +@math{\hom} + +@item \inf +@math{\inf} + +@item \ker +@math{\ker} + +@item \lg +@math{\lg} + +@item \lim +@math{\lim} + +@item \liminf +@math{\liminf} + +@item \limsup +@math{\limsup} + +@item \ln +@math{\ln} + +@item \log +@math{\log} + +@item \max +@math{\max} + +@item \min +@math{\min} + +@item \pmod +parenthesized modulus, as in (@math{\pmod 2^n - 1}) + +@item \Pr +@math{\Pr} + +@item \sec +@math{\sec} + +@item \sin +@math{\sin} + +@item \sinh +@math{\sinh} + +@item \sup +@math{\sup} + +@item \tan +@math{\tan} + +@item \tanh +@math{\tanh} + +@end ftable + + +@node Math accents +@section Math accents +@cindex math accents +@cindex accents, mathematical + +@LaTeX{} provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters +in math. These are different from accents in normal text +(@pxref{Accents}). + +@ftable @code +@item \acute +@cindex acute accent, math +Math acute accent: @math{\acute{x}}. + +@item \breve +@cindex breve accent, math +Math breve accent: @math{\breve{x}}. + +@item \check +@cindex check accent, math +@cindex h@'a@v{c}ek accent, math +Math h@'a@v{c}ek (check) accent: @math{\check{x}}. + +@item \ddot +@cindex double dot accent, math +Math dieresis accent: @math{\ddot{x}}. + +@item \dot +@cindex overdot accent, math +@cindex dot over accent, math +Math dot accent: @math{\dot{x}}. + +@item \grave +@cindex grave accent, math +Math grave accent: @math{\grave{x}}. + +@item \hat +@cindex hat accent, math +@cindex circumflex accent, math +Math hat (circumflex) accent: @math{\hat{x}}. + +@item \imath +@cindex dotless i, math +Math dotless i. + +@item \jmath +@cindex dotless j, math +Math dotless j. + +@item \tilde +@cindex tilde accent, math +Math tilde accent: @math{\tilde{x}}. + +@item \vec +@cindex vector symbol, math +Math vector symbol: @math{\vec{x}}. + +@item \widehat +@cindex wide hat accent, math +Math wide hat accent: @math{\widehat{x+y}}. + +@item \widehat +@cindex wide tile accent, math +Math wide tilde accent: @math{\widetilde{x+y}}. + +@end ftable + + +@node Spacing in math mode +@section Spacing in math mode +@cindex spacing within math mode +@cindex math mode, spacing + +In a @code{math} environment, @LaTeX{} ignores the spaces you type and +puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics +texts. If you want different spacing, @LaTeX{} provides the following +commands for use in math mode: + +@table @code +@item \; +@findex \; +A thick space (@math{5\over18\,}quad). +@item \: +@itemx \> +@findex \: +@findex \> +Both of these produce a medium space (@math{2\over9\,}quad). +@item \, +@findex \, +A thin space (@math{1\over6\,}quad); not restricted to math mode. +@item \! +A negative thin space (@math{-{1\over6}\,}quad). +@end table + + +@node Math Miscellany +@section Math Miscellany +@cindex math Miscellany + +@ftable @code + +@item \* +@cindex discretionary multiplication +@cindex multiplication symbol, discretionary line break +A ``discretionary'' multiplication symbol, at which a line break is +allowed. + +@item \cdots +A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. +@tex +As in: `$\cdots$'. +@end tex + +@item \ddots +A diagonal ellipsis: @math{\ddots}. + +@item \frac@{num@}@{den@} +@findex \frac +Produces the fraction @code{num} divided by @code{den}. + +@iftex +eg. +@tex +${1}\over{4}$ +@end tex +@end iftex + +@item \left @var{delim1} ... \right @var{delim2} +@findex \right +@cindex null delimiter +The two delimiters need not match; @samp{.} acts as a null delimiter, +producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math +in between. Example: @code{\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]}. + +@item \overbrace@{@var{text}@} +Generates a brace over @var{text}. +For example, @math{\overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}}. + +@item \overline@{@var{text}@} +Generates a horizontal line over @var{tex}. +For exampe, @math{\overline{x+y}}. + +@item \sqrt[@var{root}]@{arg@} +Produces the representation of the square root of @var{arg}. The +optional argument @var{root} determines what root to produce. For +example, the cube root of @code{x+y} would be typed as +@code{$\sqrt[3]@{x+y@}$}. +@tex +In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: +$\root 3 \of x+y$. +@end tex + +@item \stackrel@{@var{text}@}@{@var{relation}@} +Puts @var{text} above @var{relation}. For example, +@code{\stackrel@{f@}@{\longrightarrow@}}. +@tex +In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: +$\buildrel f \over \longrightarrow$. +@end tex + +@item \underbrace@{math@} +Generates @var{math} with a brace underneath. +@tex +In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: +$\underbrace{x+y+z}_{>\,0}$. +@end tex + +@item \underline@{text@} +Causes @var{text}, which may be either math mode or not, to be +underlined. +@tex +In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: +$\underline{z}$ +@end tex + +@item \vdots +@findex \vdots +Produces a vertical ellipsis. +@tex +In @TeX{}, the result looks like this: +$\vdots$. +@end tex + +@end ftable + + +@node Modes +@chapter Modes +@cindex modes +@cindex paragraph mode +@cindex math mode +@cindex left-to-right mode +@cindex lR mode + + +When @LaTeX{} is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +Paragraph mode +@item +Math mode +@item +Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short +@end itemize + +@LaTeX{} changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +@LaTeX{} is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + +``Paragraph mode'' is the most common; it's the one @LaTeX{} is in +when processing ordinary text. In that mode, @LaTeX{} breaks your +text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. @LaTeX{} is in +``math mode'' when it's generating a mathematical formula. In ``LR +mode'', as in paragraph mode, @LaTeX{} considers the output that it +produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, +unlike paragraph mode, @LaTeX{} keeps going from left to right; it +never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words +into an @code{\mbox}, @LaTeX{} would keep typesetting them from left +to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting +box was too wide to fit on the line. + +@LaTeX{} is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an @code{\mbox} +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put @LaTeX{} in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a @code{parbox}. When +@LaTeX{} is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in +``inner paragraph mode''. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out +in, is called ``outer paragraph mode''. + + +@node Page Styles +@chapter Page Styles +@cindex styles, page +@cindex page styles + +The @code{\documentclass} command determines the size and position of +the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + +@menu +* \maketitle:: Generate a title page. +* \pagenumbering:: Set the style used for page numbers. +* \pagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style. +* \thispagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style for this page. +@end menu + + +@node \maketitle +@section @code{\maketitle} +@cindex titles, making +@findex \maketitle + +The @code{\maketitle} command generates a title on a separate title +page---except in the @code{article} class, where the title is placed +at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title +is obtained from the following declarations: + +@ftable @code +@item \author@{@var{name} \and @var{name2}@} +@cindex author, for titlepage +@findex \\ @r{for @code{\author}} +@findex \and @r{for @code{\author}} +The @code{\author} command declares the document author(s), where the +argument is a list of authors separated by @code{\and} commands. Use +@code{\\} to separate lines within a single author's entry---for +example, to give the author's institution or address. + +@item \date@{@var{text}@} +@cindex date, for titlepage +The @code{\date} command declares @var{text} to be the document's +date. With no @code{\date} command, the current date (@pxref{\today}) +is used. + +@item \thanks@{@var{text}@} +@cindex thanks, for titlepage +@cindex credit footnote +The @code{\thanks} command produces a @code{\footnote} to the title, +usually used for credit acknowledgements. + +@item \title@{@var{text}@} +@cindex title, for titlepage +@findex \\ @r{for @code{\title}} +The @code{\title} command declares @var{text} to be the title of the +document. Use @code{\\} to force a line break, as usual. + +@end ftable + + +@node \pagenumbering +@section @code{\pagenumbering} +@findex \pagenumbering +@cindex page numbering style + +Synopsis: + +@example +\pagenumbering@{@var{style}@} +@end example + +Specifies the style of page numbers, according to @var{style}: + +@table @code +@item arabic +arabic numerals +@item roman +lowercase Roman numerals +@item Roman +uppercase Roman numerals +@item alph +lowercase letters +@item Alph +uppercase letters +@end table + + +@node \pagestyle +@section @code{\pagestyle} +@findex \pagestyle +@cindex header style +@cindex footer style +@cindex running header and footer style + +Synopsis: + +@example +\pagestyle@{@var{style}@} +@end example + +The @code{\pagestyle} command specifies how the headers and footers +are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for @var{style}: + +@table @code +@item plain +Just a plain page number. + +@item empty +Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. + +@item headings +Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what +goes in the headers. + +@item myheadings +Custom headers, specified via the @code{\markboth} or the +@code{\markright} commands. + +@end table + +Here are the descriptions of @code{\markboth} and @code{\markright}: + +@ftable @code +@item \markboth@{@var{left}@}@{@var{right}@} +Sets both the left and the right heading. A ``left-hand heading'' +(@var{left}) is generated by the last @code{\markboth} command before +the end of the page, while a ``right-hand heading'' (@var{right} is +generated by the first @code{\markboth} or @code{\markright} that +comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before +the page. + +@item \markright@{@var{right}@} +Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. + +@end ftable + + +@node \thispagestyle +@section @code{\thispagestyle@{@var{style}@}} +@findex \thispagestyle + +The @code{\thispagestyle} command works in the same manner as the +@code{\pagestyle} command (see previous section) except that it +changes to @var{style} for the current page only. + + +@node Spaces +@chapter Spaces +@cindex spaces + +@LaTeX{} has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. + +Another space-producing command is @code{\,} to produce a ``thin'' +space (usually 1/6@dmn{quad}). It can be used in text mode, but is +more often useful in math mode (@pxref{Spacing in math mode}). + +@menu +Horizontal space +* \hspace:: Fixed horizontal space. +* \SPACE:: Normal interword space. +* \AT:: Ending a sentence. +* \thinspace:: One-sixth of an em. +* \/:: Per-character italic correction. +* \hfill:: Stretchable horizontal space. +* \hrulefill:: Stretchable horizontal rule. +* \dotfill:: Stretchable horizontal dots. + +Vertical space +* \addvspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space if needed. +* \bigskip \medskip \smallskip:: Fixed vertical spaces. +* \vfill:: Infinitely stretchable vertical space. +* \vspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space. +@end menu + + +@node \hspace +@section @code{\hspace} +@findex \hspace + +Synopsis: + +@example +\hspace[*]@{@var{length}@} +@end example + +The @code{\hspace} command adds horizontal space. The @var{length} +argument can be expressed in any terms that @LaTeX{} understands: +points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both +negative and positive space with an @code{\hspace} command; adding +negative space is like backspacing. + +@LaTeX{} normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning +or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional @code{*} +form. + + +@node \hfill +@section @code{\hfill} + +@findex \hfill +The @code{\hfill} fill command produces a ``rubber length'' which has +no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as +needed. + +@findex \fill +The @code{\fill} parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, +the glue value @samp{0pt plus1fill}); thus, @code{\hspace\fill} is +equivalent to @code{\hfill}. + + +@node \SPACE +@section @code{\SPACE} +@findex \SPACE +@findex \TAB +@findex \NEWLINE + +The @code{\ } (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's +useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example +@code{Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental}. +It is also often used after control sequences, as in @code{\TeX\ is a +nice system.} + +In normal circumstances, @code{\}@key{tab} and @code{\}@key{newline} +are equivalent to @code{\ }. + + +@node \AT +@section @code{\@@} +@findex \@@ + +The @code{\@@} command makes the following punctuation character end a +sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after +a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without +@code{\@@}: + +@example +@dots{} in C\@@. Pascal, though @dots{} +@dots{} in C. Pascal, though @dots{} +@end example + +@noindent produces + +@c Texinfo does it differently, but the result is the same. +@quotation +@dots{} in C@. Pascal, though @dots{} +@dots{} in C. Pascal, though @dots{} +@end quotation + + +@node \thinspace +@section @code{\thinspace} +@findex \thinspace + +@code{\thinspace} produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that +is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as +in '@dmn{''}. + + +@node \/ +@section @code{\/} +@findex \/ + +The @code{\/} command produces an @dfn{italic correction}. This is a +small space defined by the font designer for a given character, +to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic +@i{f} character typically has a large italic correction value. + +If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to +insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a +very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as +normal letters, it can help. Compare +@tex +{\it f\/: f\/;} +@end tex +@ifnottex +@i{f: f;} (in the @TeX{} output, the `f's are nicely separated) +@end ifnottex +with @i{f: f;}. + +Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic +correction. Compare +@tex +pdf\/\TeX{} +@end tex +@ifnottex +pdf@TeX{} (in the @TeX{} output, there is a small space after the `f') +@end ifnottex +with pdf@TeX{}. + + +@node \hrulefill +@section @code{\hrulefill} +@findex \hrulefill + +The @code{\hrulefill} fill command produces a ``rubber length'' which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + + +@node \dotfill +@section @code{\dotfill} + +@findex \dotfill + +The @code{\dotfill} command produces a ``rubber length'' that fills +with dots instead of just white space. + + +@c xx undone +@node \addvspace +@section @code{\addvspace} +@findex \addvspace +@cindex vertical space +@cindex space, inserting vertical + +@code{\addvspace@{length@}} + +The @code{\addvspace} command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous @code{\addvspace} command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to @code{length}. + + +@node \bigskip \medskip \smallskip +@section @code{\bigskip \medskip \smallskip} + +These commands produce a given amount of space. + +@table @code +@item \bigskip +@findex \bigskip +@findex \bigskipamount +The same as @code{\vspace@{bigskipamount@}}, ordinarily about one line +space (with stretch and shrink). + +@item \medskip +@findex \medskip +@findex \medskipamount +The same as @code{\vspace@{medskipamount@}}, ordinarily +about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + +@item \smallskip +@findex \smallskip +@findex \smallskipamount +The same as @code{\vspace@{smallskipamount@}}, ordinarily about a +quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + +@end table + +The @code{\...amount} parameters are determined by the document class. + + +@node \vfill +@section @code{\vfill} +@findex \vfill + +The @code{\vfill} fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which +can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to +@code{\vspace@{\fill@}} (@pxref{\hfill}). + + +@node \vspace +@section @code{\vspace[*]@{@var{length}@}} +@findex \vspace + +Synopsis: + +@example +\vspace[*]@{@var{length}@} +@end example + +The @code{\vspace} command adds the vertical space @var{length}, i.e., +a rubber length. @var{length} can be negative or positive. + +Ordinarily, @LaTeX{} removes vertical space added by @code{\vspace} at +the top or bottom of a page. With the optional @code{*} argument, the +space is not removed. + + +@node Boxes +@chapter Boxes + +@cindex boxes + +All the predefined length parameters (@pxref{Predefined lengths}) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + +@menu +* \mbox:: Horizontal boxes. +* \fbox and \framebox:: Put a frame around a box. +* lrbox:: An environment like \sbox. +* \makebox:: Box, adjustable position. +* \parbox:: Box with text in paragraph mode. +* \raisebox:: Raise or lower text. +* \savebox:: Like \makebox, but save the text for later use. +* \sbox:: Like \mbox, but save the text for later use. +* \usebox:: Print saved text. +@end menu + + +@node \mbox +@section @code{\mbox@{@var{text@}}} +@findex \mbox + +@cindex hyphenation, preventing +The @code{\mbox} command creates a box just wide enough to hold the +text created by its argument. The @var{text} is not broken into +lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation. + + +@node \fbox and \framebox +@section @code{\fbox} and @code{\framebox} + +@findex \fbox +@findex \framebox + +Synopses: + +@example +\fbox@{@var{text}@} +\framebox[@var{width}][@var{position}]@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\fbox} and @code{\framebox} commands are like @code{\mbox}, +except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. + +In addition, the @code{\framebox} command allows for explicit +specification of the box width with the optional @var{width} argument +(a dimension), and positioning with the optional @var{position} +argument. @c xxref + +@findex \fboxrule +@findex \fboxsep +Both commands produce a rule of thickness @code{\fboxrule} (default +@samp{.4pt}), and leave a space of @code{\fboxsep} (default +@samp{3pt}) between the rule and the contents of the box. + +@xref{\framebox (picture)}, for the @code{\framebox} command in the +@code{picture} environment. + + +@node lrbox +@section @code{lrbox} +@findex lrbox + +@code{\begin@{lrbox@}@{cmd@} text \end@{lrbox@}} + +This is the environment form of @code{\sbox}. + +The text inside the environment is saved in the box @code{cmd}, which +must have been declared with @code{\newsavebox}. + + + +@node \makebox +@section @code{\makebox} +@findex \makebox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\makebox[@var{width}][@var{position}]@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\makebox} command creates a box just wide enough to contain +the @var{text} specified. The width of the box is specified by the +optional @var{width} argument. The position of the text within the box +is determined by the optional @var{position} argument, which may take +the following values: + +@table @code +@item c +Centered (default). +@item l +Flush left. +@item r +Flush right. +@item s +Stretch (justify) across entire @var{width}; @var{text} must contain +stretchable space for this to work. +@end table + +@code{\makebox} is also used within the picture environment +@pxref{\makebox (picture)}. + + +@node \parbox +@section @code{\parbox} +@findex \parbox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\parbox[@var{position}][@var{height}][@var{inner-pos}]@{@var{width}@}@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +The @code{\parbox} command produces a box whose contents are created +in @code{paragraph} mode. It should be used to make a box small +pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you +shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a +@code{\parbox} argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones +containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a +@code{minipage} environment (@pxref{minipage}). + +@code{\parbox} has two mandatory arguments: + +@table @var +@item width +the width of the parbox; +@item text +the text that goes inside the parbox. +@end table + +The optional @var{position} argument allows you to align either the +top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding +text (default is top). + +The optional @var{height} argument overrides the natural height of the box. + +The @var{inner-pos} argument controls the placement of the text inside +the box, as follows; if it is not specified, @var{position} is used. + +@table @code +@item t +text is placed at the top of the box. +@item c +text is centered in the box. +@item b +text is placed at the bottom of the box. +@item s +stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space +for this to work. +@end table + + +@node \raisebox +@section @code{\raisebox} +@findex \raisebox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\raisebox@{distance@}[@var{height}][@var{depth}]@{text@} +@end example + +The @code{\raisebox} command raises or lowers @var{text}. The first +mandatory argument specifies how high @var{text} is to be raised (or +lowered if it is a negative amount). @var{text} itself is processed +in LR mode. + +The optional arguments @var{height} and @var{depth} are dimensions. +If they are specified, @LaTeX{} treats @var{text} as extending a +certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), +ignoring its natural height and depth. + + +@node \savebox +@section @code{\savebox} +@findex \savebox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\savebox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}[@var{width}][@var{pos}]@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +This command typeset @var{text} in a box just as with @code{\makebox} +(@pxref{\makebox}), except that instead of printing the resulting box, +it saves it in the box labeled @var{\boxcmd}, which must have been +declared with @code{\newsavebox} (@pxref{\newsavebox}). + + +@node \sbox +@section @code{\sbox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}@{@var{text}@}} +@findex \sbox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\sbox@{@var{\boxcmd}@}@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +@code{\sbox} types @var{text} in a box just as with @code{\mbox} +(@pxref{\mbox}) except that instead of the resulting box being +included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled +@var{\boxcmd}. @var{\boxcmd} must have been previously declared with +@code{\newsavebox} (@pxref{\newsavebox}). + + +@node \usebox +@section @code{\usebox@{@var{\boxcmd}} +@findex \usebox + +Synopsis: + +@example +\usebox@{@var{\boxcmd}@} +@end example + +@code{\usebox} producesthe box most recently saved in the bin +@var{\boxcmd} by a @code{\savebox} command (@pxref{\savebox}). + + +@node Special insertions +@chapter Special insertions + +@LaTeX{} provides commands for inserting characters that have a +special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. + +@menu +* Reserved characters:: Inserting # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ @{ @} +* Text symbols:: Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. +* Accents:: Inserting accents. +* Non-English characters:: Inserting other non-English characters. +* \rule:: Inserting lines and rectangles. +* \today:: Inserting today's date. +@end menu + + +@node Reserved characters +@section Reserved characters +@cindex reserved characters +@cindex characters, reserved + +The following characters play a special role in @LaTeX{} and are called +``reserved characters'' or ``special characters''. + +@example +# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ @{ @} +@end example + +@findex \# +@findex \$ +@findex \% +@findex \& +@findex \_ +@findex \@{ +@findex \@} +Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, @LaTeX{} +will do something special. If you simply want the character to be +printed as itself, include a @code{\} in front of the character. For +example, @code{\$} will produce @code{$} in your output. + +@findex \backslash +One exception to this rule is @code{\} itself, because @code{\\} has +its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by +typing @code{$\backslash$} in your file, and a typewriter @code{\} is +produced by using @samp{\} in a verbatim command (@pxref{verbatim}). + +@findex \~ +@findex \^ +Also, @code{\~} and @code{\^} place tilde and circumflex accents over +the following letter, as in @~{o} and @^{o} (@pxref{Accents}); to get +a standalone @code{~} or @code{^}, you can again use a verbatim +command. + +@findex \symbol +@cindex accessing any character of a font + +Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you +know its number by using the @code{\symbol} command. For example, the +visible space character used in the @code{\verb*} command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as @code{\symbol@{32@}}. + +You can also specify octal numbers with @code{'} or hexadecimal numbers +with @code{"}, so the previous example could also be written as +@code{\symbol@{'40@}} or @code{\symbol@{"20@}}. + + +@node Text symbols +@section Text symbols + +@cindex text symbols +@LaTeX{} provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols +in running text. + +@ftable @code + +@item \copyright +@cindex copyright symbol +The copyright symbol, @copyright{}. + +@item \dag +@cindex dagger, in text +The dagger symbol (in text). + +@item \ddag +@cindex double dagger, in text +The double dagger symbol (in text). + +@item \LaTeX +@cindex @LaTeX{} logo +@cindex logo, @LaTeX{} +The @LaTeX{} logo. + +@item \ldots +@cindex ellipsis +An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `@dots{}'. This +command also works in math mode. + +@item \lq +@cindex left quote +@cindex opening quote +Left (opening) quote: `. + +@item \P +@cindex paragraph sign +@cindex pilcrow +Paragraph sign (pilcrow). + +@item \pounds +@cindex pounds symbol +@cindex sterling symbol +English pounds sterling. + +@item \rq +@cindex right quote +@cindex closing quote +Right (closing) quote: '. + +@item \S +@cindex section symbol +Section symbol. + +@item \TeX +@cindex @TeX{} logo +@cindex logo, @TeX{} +The @TeX{} logo. + +@end ftable + + +@node Accents +@section Accents + +@cindex accents +@cindex characters, accented +@cindex letters, accented + +@LaTeX{} has wide support for many of the world's scripts and +languages, through the @code{babel} package and related support. This +section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely the +core @LaTeX{} commands for creating accented characters. + +@table @code +@item \" +@findex \" @r{(umlaut accent)} +@cindex umlaut accent +Produces an umlaut, as in @"{o}. + +@item \' +@findex \' @r{(acute accent)} +@cindex acute accent +Produces an acute accent, as in @'{o}. In the @code{tabbing} +environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column +(@pxref{tabbing}). + +@item \. +@findex \. @r{(dot-over accent)} +@cindex dot accent +@cindex dot-over accent +Produces a dot accent over the following, as in @dotaccent{o}. + +@item \= +@findex \= @r{(macron accent)} +@cindex macron accent +@cindex overbar accent +@cindex bar-over accent +Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in @={o}. + +@item \^ +@findex \^ @r{(circumflex accent)} +@cindex circumflex accent +@cindex hat accent +Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in @^{o}. + +@item \` +@findex \` @r{(grave accent)} +@cindex grave accent +Produces a grave accent over the following, as in @`{o}. In the +@code{tabbing} environment, move following text to the right margin +(@pxref{tabbing}). + +@item \~ +@findex \~ @r{(tilde accent)} +@cindex tilde accent +Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in @~{n}. + +@item \b +@findex \b @r{(bar-under accent)} +@cindex bar-under accent +Produces a bar accent under the following, as in @ubaraccent{o}. + +@item \bar +@findex \bar @r{(macron, bar-over accent)} +@cindex bar-over accent +@cindex macron accent +Produces a macron accent over the following, as in @={o}. + +@item \c +@findex \c @r{(cedilla accent)} +@cindex cedilla accent +Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in @c{c}. + +@item \d +@findex \d @r{(dot-under accent)} +@cindex dot-under accent +Produces a dot accent under the following, as in @udotaccent{o}. + +@item \H +@findex \H @r{(Hungarian umlaut accent)} +@cindex hungarian umlaut accent +Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in @H{o}. + +@item \i +@findex \i @r{(dotless i)} +@cindex dotless i +Produces a dotless i, as in `@dotless{i}'. + +@item \j +@findex \j @r{(dotless j)} +@cindex dotless j +Produces a dotless j, as in `@dotless{j}'. + +@item \t +@findex \t @r{(tie-after accent)} +@cindex tie-after accent +Produces a tie-after accent, as in `@tieaccent{oo}'. + +@item \u +@findex \u @r{(breve accent)} +@cindex breve accent +Produces a breve accent, as in `@u{o}'. + +@item \v +@findex \v @r{(breve accent)} +@cindex hacek accent +@cindex check accent +Produces a h@'a@v{c}ek (check) accent, as in `@v{o}'. + +@end table + + +@node Non-English characters +@section Non-English characters + +@cindex special characters +@cindex non-English characters +@cindex characters, non-English +@cindex letters, non-English + +Here are the basic @LaTeX{} commands for inserting characters commonly +used in languages other than English. + +@table @code + +@item \aa +@itemx \AA +@findex \aa (@aa{}) +@findex \AA (@AA{}) +@cindex aring +@aa{} and @AA{}. + +@item \ae +@itemx \AE +@findex \ae (@ae{}) +@findex \AE (@AE{}) +@cindex ae ligature +@ae{} and @AE{}. + +@item \l +@itemx \L +@findex \l (@l{}) +@findex \L (@L{}) +@cindex polish l +@l{} and @L{}. + +@item \o +@itemx \O +@findex \o (@o{}) +@findex \O (@O{}) +@cindex oslash +@o{} and @O{}. + +@item \oe +@itemx \OE +@findex \oe (@oe{}) +@findex \OE (@OE{}) +@cindex oe ligature +@oe{} and @OE{}. + +@item \ss +@findex \ss (@ss{}) +@cindex es-zet German letter +@cindex sharp S letters +@ss{}. + +@end table + + +@node \rule +@section @code{\rule} +@findex \rule + +Synopsis: + +@example +\rule[@var{raise}]@{@var{width}@}@{@var{thickness}@} +@end example + +The @code{\rule} command produces @dfn{rules}, that is, lines or +rectangles. The arguments are: + +@table @var +@item raise +How high to raise the rule (optional). + +@item width +The length of the rule (mandatory). + +@item thickness +The thickness of the rule (mandatory). +@end table + + +@node \today +@section @code{\today} +@findex \today + +The @code{\today} command produces today's date, in the format +@samp{@var{month} @var{dd}, @var{yyyy}}; for example, `July 4, 1976'. +It uses the predefined counters @code{\day}, @code{\month}, and +@code{\year} (@pxref{\day \month \year}) to do this. It is not +updated as the program runs. + +@cindex @code{datetime} package +The @code{datetime} package, among others, can produce a wide variety +of other date formats. + + +@node Splitting the input +@chapter Splitting the input +@cindex splitting the input file +@cindex input file + +A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole +input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into +several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, +there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type +when you run @LaTeX{}. + +@menu +* \include:: Conditionally include a file. +* \includeonly:: Determine which files are included. +* \input:: Unconditionally include a file. +@end menu + + +@node \include +@section @code{\include} +@findex \include + +Synopsis: + +@example +\include@{@var{file}@} +@end example + +If no @code{\includeonly} command is present, the @code{\include} +command executes @code{\clearpage} to start a new page +(@pxref{\clearpage}), then reads @var{file}, then does another +@code{\clearpage}. + +Given an @code{\includeonly} command, the @code{\include} actions are +only run if @var{file} is listed as an argument to +@code{\includeonly}. See the next section. + +@cindex nested @code{\include}, not allowed +The @code{\include} command may not appear in the preamble or in a file +read by another @code{\include} command. + + +@node \includeonly +@section \@code{includeonly} +@findex \includeonly + +Synopsis: + +@example +\includeonly@{@var{file1},@var{file2},...@} +@end example + +The @code{\includeonly} command controls which files will be read by +subsequent @code{\include} commands. The list of filenames is +comma-separated. Each @var{file} must exactly match a filename +specified in a @code{\include} command for the selection to be +effective. + +This command can only appear in the preamble. + + +@node \input +@section \input +@findex \input + +Synopsis: + +@example +\input@{@var{file}@} +@end example + +The @code{\input} command causes the specified @var{file} to be read +and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current +file at that point. + +If @var{file} does not end in @samp{.tex} (e.g., @samp{foo} or +@samp{foo.bar}), it is first tried with that extension (@samp{foo.tex} +or @samp{foo.bar.tex}). If that is not found, the original @var{file} +is tried (@samp{foo} or @samp{foo.bar}). + + +@node Front/back matter +@chapter Front/back matter + +@menu +* Tables of contents:: +* Glossaries:: +* Indexes:: +@end menu + + +@node Tables of contents +@section Tables of contents + +@cindex table of contents, creating + +@findex \tableofcontents +A table of contents is produced with the @code{\tableofcontents} +command. You put the command right where you want the table of +contents to go; @LaTeX{} does the rest for you. A previous run must +have generated a @file{.toc} file. + +The @code{\tableofcontents} command produces a heading, but it does +not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the +table of contents, write a @code{\newpage} command after the +@code{\tableofcontents} command. + +@findex \listoffigures +@findex \listoftables +The analagous commands @code{\listoffigures} and @code{\listoftables} +produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. +Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. + +@findex \nofiles +The command @code{\nofiles} overrides these commands, and +@emph{prevents} any of these lists from being generated. + +@menu +* \addcontentsline:: Add an entry to table of contents etc. +* \addtocontents:: Add text directly to table of contents file etc. +@end menu + + +@node \addcontentsline +@subsection \addcontentsline +@findex \addcontentsline@{@var{ext}@}@{@var{unit}@}@{@var{text}@} +@cindex table of contents entry, manually adding + +The @code{\addcontentsline} command adds an entry to the specified list +or table where: + +@table @var +@item ext +The extension of the file on which information is to be written, +typically one of: @code{toc} (table of contents), @code{lof} (list of +figures), or @code{lot} (list of tables). + +@item unit +The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the +following, matching the value of the @var{ext} argument: + +@table @code +@item toc +The name of the sectional unit: @code{part}, @code{chapter}, +@code{section}, @code{subsection}, @code{subsubsection}. +@item lof +For the list of figures. +@item lot +For the list of tables. +@end table + +@item entry +The actual text of the entry. +@end table + +@findex \contentsline +What is written to the @file{.@var{ext}} file is the +command @code{\contentsline@{@var{unit}@}@{@var{name}@}}. + +@c ?? how hardwired are these values? other unit names? + + +@node \addtocontents +@subsection \addtocontents +@findex \addtocontents@{@var{ext}@}@{@var{text}@} + +The @code{\addtocontents} command adds text (or formatting commands) +directly to the @file{.}@var{ext} file that generates the table of +contents or lists of figures or tables. + +@table @var +@item ext +The extension of the file on which information is to be written: +@file{toc} (table of contents), @file{lof} (list of figures), or +@file{lot} (list of tables). + +@item text +The text to be written. +@end table + + +@node Glossaries +@section Glossaries +@cindex glossaries + +@findex \makeglossary +The command @code{\makeglossary} enables creating glossaries. + +@findex \glossary +@cindex @file{.glo} file +The command @code{\glossary@{@var{text}@}} writes a glossary entry for +@var{text} to an auxiliary file with the @file{.glo} extension. + +@findex \glossaryentry +Specifically, what gets written is the command +@code{\glossaryentry@{@var{text}@}@{@var{pageno}@}}, where +@var{pageno} is the current @code{\thepage} value. + +The @code{glossary} package on CTAN provides support for fancier +glossaries. + + +@node Indexes +@section Indexes +@cindex indexes + +@findex \makeindex +The command @code{\makeindex} enables creating indexes. + +@findex \index +@cindex @file{.idx} file +The command @code{\index@{@var{text}@}} writes a glossary entry for +@var{text} to an auxiliary file with the @file{.idx} extension. + +@findex \indexentry +Specifically, what gets written is the command +@code{\indexentry@{@var{text}@}@{@var{pageno}@}}, where @var{pageno} +is the current @code{\thepage} value. + +The rubber length @code{\indexspace} is inserted before each new +letter in the index; its default value is @samp{10pt plus5pt +minus3pt}. + +@cindex @command{makeindex} program +@cindex @command{xindy} program +@cindex @file{.ind} file + +The @file{.idx} file can then be sorted with an external command, +typically @command{makeindex} or @command{xindy}, resulting in a +@file{.ind} file, which can then be used to typeset the index. + + +@node Letters +@chapter Letters +@cindex letters +@cindex creating letters + +You can use @LaTeX{} to typeset letters, both personal and business. The +@code{letter} document class is designed to make a number of letters at +once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + +Your @file{.tex} source file has the same minimum commands as the other +document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a +minimum: + +@example + \documentclass@{letter@} + \begin@{document@} + ... letters ... + \end@{document@} +@end example + +Each letter is a @code{letter} environment, whose argument is the name +and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + +@example + \begin@{letter@}@{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St. + \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA@} + ... + \end@{letter@} +@end example + +The letter itself begins with the @code{\opening} command. The text of +the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary @LaTeX{} input. Commands that +make no sense in a letter, like @code{\chapter}, do not work. The letter +closes with a @code{\closing} command. + +@findex \\ @r{for letters} +After the @code{closing}, you can have additional material. The +@code{\cc} command produces the usual ``cc: @dots{}''. There's also a +similar @code{\encl} command for a list of enclosures. With both these +commands, use @code{\\} to separate the items. + +These commands are used with the @code{letter} class. + +@menu +* \address:: Your return address. +* \cc:: Cc list. +* \closing:: Saying goodbye. +* \encl:: List of enclosed material. +* \location:: Your organisation's address. +* \makelabels:: Making address labels. +* \name:: Your name, for the return address. +* \opening:: Saying hello. +* \ps:: Adding a postscript. +* \signature:: Your signature. +* \startbreaks:: Allow page breaks. +* \stopbreaks:: Disallow page breaks. +* \telephone:: Your phone number. +@end menu + + +@node \address +@section \address@{@var{return-address@}} +@findex \address + +The @code{\address} specifies the return address of a letter, as it +should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the +address should be separated by @code{\\} commands. + +If you do not make an @code{\address} declaration, then the letter +will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard +letterhead. (@xref{Overview}, for details on your local +implementation). If you give an @code{\address} declaration, then the +letter will be formatted as a personal letter. + + +@node \cc +@section @code{\cc} + +@findex \cc +@cindex cc list, in letters + +Synopsis: + +@example +\cc@{@var{name1}\\@var{name2}@} +@end example + +Produce a list of @var{name}s the letter was copied to. Each name is +printed on a separate line. + + +@node \closing +@section @code{\closing} + +@findex \closing +@cindex letters, ending +@cindex closing letters + +Synopsis: + +@example +\closing@{text@} +@end example + +A letter closes with a @code{\closing} command, for example, +@example +\closing@{Best Regards,@} +@end example + + +@node \encl +@section @code{\encl} + +@findex \encl +@cindex enclosure list + +Synopsis: + +@example +\encl@{@var{line1}\\@var{line2}@} +@end example + +Declare a list of one more enclosures. + + +@node \location +@section @code{\location} +@findex \location + +@code{\location@{address@}} + +This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears +if the @code{firstpage} pagestyle is selected. + + +@node \makelabels +@section @code{\makelabels} +@findex \makelabels + +@code{\makelabels@{number@}} + +If you issue this command in the preamble, @LaTeX{} will create a sheet of +address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. + + + +@node \name +@section @code{\name} +@findex \name + +@code{\name@{June Davenport@}} + +Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return +address. + + +@node \opening +@section @code{\opening@{@var{text}@}} +@findex \opening +@cindex letters, starting + +Synopsis: + +@example +\opening@{@var{text}@} +@end example + +A letter begins with the @code{\opening} command. The mandatory +argument, @var{text}, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. +For instance: + +@example +\opening@{Dear Joe,@} +@end example + + +@node \ps +@section @code{\ps} +@findex \ps +@cindex postscript, in letters + +Use the @code{\ps} command to start a postscript in a letter, after +@code{\closing}. + + +@node \signature +@section @code{\signature@{@var{text}@}} +@findex \signature + +Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the +space for your signature. @code{\\} starts a new line within +@var{text} as usual. + + +@node \startbreaks +@section @code{\startbreaks} +@findex \startbreaks + +@code{\startbreaks} + +Used after a @code{\stopbreaks} command to allow page breaks again. + + + +@node \stopbreaks +@section @code{\stopbreaks} +@findex \stopbreaks + +@code{\stopbreaks} + +Inhibit page breaks until a @code{\startbreaks} command occurs. + + + +@node \telephone +@section @code{\telephone} +@findex \telephone + +@code{\telephone@{number@}} + +This is your telephone number. This only appears if the +@code{firstpage} pagestyle is selected. + + +@node Terminal Input/Output +@chapter Terminal Input/Output +@cindex input/Output +@cindex terminal Input/Output + +@menu +* \typein:: Read text from the terminal. +* \typeout:: Write text to the terminal. +@end menu + + +@node \typein +@section @code{\typein[@var{cmd}]@{@var{msg}@}} +@findex \typein + +Synopsis: + +@example +\typein[@var{\cmd}]@{@var{msg}@} +@end example + +@code{\typein} prints @var{msg} on the terminal and causes @LaTeX{} to +stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If +the optional @var{\cmd} argument is omitted, the typed input is +processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the +@code{\typein} command. If the @var{\cmd} argument is present, it +must be a command name. This command name is then defined or +redefined to be the typed input. + + +@node \typeout +@section @code{\typeout@{@var{msg}@}} +@findex \typeout + +Synopsis: + +@example +\typeout@{@var{msg}@} +@end example + +Prints @code{msg} on the terminal and in the @code{log} file. +Commands in @code{msg} that are defined with @code{\newcommand} or +@code{\renewcommand} (among others) are replaced by their definitions +before being printed. + +@LaTeX{}'s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space +and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to @code{msg}. A +@code{\space} command in @code{msg} causes a single space to be +printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A @code{^^J} in +@code{msg} prints a newline. + + +@node Command Line +@chapter Command Line +@cindex command Line + +The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; +@TeX{} uses @file{.tex} as a default file extension. If you omit the +input file entirely, @TeX{} accepts input from the terminal. You +specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the +command; e.g. + +@example +latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' +@end example + +@noindent +will process @file{foo.tex} without pausing after every error. + +@cindex @samp{*} prompt +@cindex prompt, @samp{*} +@findex \stop +If @LaTeX{} stops in the middle of the document and gives you a +@samp{*} prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type @code{\stop} +(and return) and it will prematurely end the document. + + + +@node Document templates +@appendix Document templates +@cindex document templates + +Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will +be useful. + +@menu +* book template:: +* beamer template:: +* tugboat template:: +@end menu + + +@node book template +@section @code{book} template + +@verbatim +\documentclass{book} +\title{Book Class Template} +\author{Alex Author} + +\begin{document} +\maketitle + +\chapter{First} +Some text. + +\chapter{Second} +Some other text. + +\section{A subtopic} +The end. +\end{document} +@end verbatim + + +@node beamer template +@section @code{beamer} template + +The @code{beamer} class creates slides presentations. + +@verbatim +\documentclass{beamer} + +\title{Beamer Class template} +\author{Alex Author} +\date{July 31, 2007} + +\begin{document} + +\maketitle + +% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. +\begin{frame}[fragile] + \frametitle{First Slide} + +\begin{verbatim} + This is \verbatim! +\end{verbatim} + +\end{frame} + +\end{document} + +@end verbatim + + +@node tugboat template +@section @code{tugboat} template + +@cite{TUGboat} is the journal of the @TeX{} Users Group, +@url{http://tug.org/TUGboat}. + +@verbatim +\documentclass{ltugboat} % ltugproc for proceedings + +\usepackage{graphicx} +\usepackage{ifpdf} +\ifpdf + \usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black, + urlcolor=black]{hyperref} +\else + \usepackage{url} +\fi + +\begin{document} + +\title{Example \TUB\ Regular Article} + +% repeat info for each author. +\author{First Last} +\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} +\netaddress{user (at) example dot org} +\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} + +\maketitle + +% The abstract comes after \maketitle in ltugboat. +\begin{abstract} +This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue. +\end{abstract} + +\section{Introduction} + +This is an example article for \TUB, from +\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. + +We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the hyperref +package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output). \TUB\ is produced +using \acro{PDF} files exclusively, nowadays. + +The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others: + +{\small +\begin{verbatim} +\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW +\BibTeX \CandT \CTAN \DTD \DVItoVDU \HTML +\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \JoT \LAMSTeX \LaTeXe +\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \pcMF \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas +\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS +\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG +\tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \VorTeX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE + +\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag +\careof \thinskip + +\acro{FRED} -> {\sc fred} % please use! +\cs{fred} -> \fred +\env{fred} -> \begin{fred} +\meta{fred} -> +\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... +\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 +\booktitle{Book of Fred} +\end{verbatim} +} + +For more information, see the ltubguid document at: +\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} + +Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. + + +\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style +\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty +\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX + + +\makesignature % not in ltugproc +\end{document} +@end verbatim + + +@node Concept Index +@unnumbered Concept Index + +@printindex cp + +@c The name of the `Command Index' node must NOT be altered for ltx-help.el. +@node Command Index +@unnumbered Command Index + +@printindex fn + +@bye diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..c1e85d52913 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5951 @@ +Short Contents +************** + +LaTeX2e +1 Overview of LaTeX +2 Starting & ending +3 Document classes +4 Typefaces +5 Layout +6 Sectioning +7 Cross references +8 Environments +9 Footnotes +10 Definitions +11 Counters +12 Lengths +13 Line breaking +14 Page breaking +15 Making paragraphs +16 Math formulas +17 Modes +18 Page Styles +19 Spaces +20 Boxes +21 Special insertions +22 Splitting the input +23 Front/back matter +24 Letters +25 Terminal Input/Output +26 Command Line +Appendix A Document templates +Concept Index +Command Index + + +Table of Contents +***************** + +LaTeX2e +1 Overview of LaTeX +2 Starting & ending +3 Document classes + 3.1 Document class options +4 Typefaces + 4.1 Font styles + 4.2 Font sizes + 4.3 Low-level font commands +5 Layout + 5.1 `\onecolumn' + 5.2 `\twocolumn' + 5.3 `\flushbottom' + 5.4 `\raggedbottom' + 5.5 Page layout parameters +6 Sectioning +7 Cross references + 7.1 `\label' + 7.2 `\pageref{KEY}' + 7.3 `\ref{KEY}' +8 Environments + 8.1 `abstract' + 8.2 `array' + 8.3 `center' + 8.3.1 `\centering' + 8.4 `description' + 8.5 `displaymath' + 8.6 `document' + 8.7 `enumerate' + 8.8 `eqnarray' + 8.9 `equation' + 8.10 `figure' + 8.11 `flushleft' + 8.11.1 `\raggedright' + 8.12 `flushright' + 8.12.1 `\raggedleft' + 8.13 `itemize' + 8.14 `letter' environment: writing letters + 8.15 `list' + 8.16 `math' + 8.17 `minipage' + 8.18 `picture' + 8.18.1 `\circle' + 8.18.2 `\makebox' + 8.18.3 `\framebox' + 8.18.4 `\dashbox' + 8.18.5 `\frame' + 8.18.6 `\line' + 8.18.7 `\linethickness' + 8.18.8 `\thicklines' + 8.18.9 `\thinlines' + 8.18.10 `\multiput' + 8.18.11 `\oval' + 8.18.12 `\put' + 8.18.13 `\shortstack' + 8.18.14 `\vector' + 8.19 `quotation' + 8.20 `quote' + 8.21 `tabbing' + 8.22 `table' + 8.23 `tabular' + 8.23.1 `\multicolumn' + 8.23.2 `\cline' + 8.23.3 `\hline' + 8.23.4 `\vline' + 8.24 `thebibliography' + 8.24.1 `\bibitem' + 8.24.2 `\cite' + 8.24.3 `\nocite' + 8.24.4 Using BibTeX + 8.25 `theorem' + 8.26 `titlepage' + 8.27 `verbatim' + 8.27.1 `\verb' + 8.28 `verse' +9 Footnotes + 9.1 `\footnote' + 9.2 `\footnotemark' + 9.3 `\footnotetext' + 9.4 Footnote parameters +10 Definitions + 10.1 `\newcommand' & `\renewcommand' + 10.2 `\newcounter' + 10.3 `\newlength' + 10.4 `\newsavebox' + 10.5 `\newenvironment' & `\renewenvironment' + 10.6 `\newtheorem' + 10.7 `\newfont' + 10.8 `\protect' +11 Counters + 11.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters + 11.2 `\usecounter{COUNTER}' + 11.3 `\value{COUNTER}' + 11.4 `\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' + 11.5 `\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' + 11.6 `\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' + 11.7 `\stepcounter{COUNTER}' + 11.8 `\day \month \year': Predefined counters +12 Lengths + 12.1 `\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' + 12.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} + 12.3 `\settodepth' + 12.4 `\settoheight' + 12.5 `\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' + 12.6 Predefined lengths +13 Line breaking + 13.1 `\\'[*][MORESPACE] + 13.2 `\obeycr' & `\restorecr' + 13.3 `\newline' + 13.4 `\-' (discretionary hyphen) + 13.5 `\fussy' + 13.6 `\sloppy' + 13.7 `\hyphenation' + 13.8 `\linebreak' & `\nolinebreak' +14 Page breaking + 14.1 `\cleardoublepage' + 14.2 `\clearpage' + 14.3 `\newpage' + 14.4 `\enlargethispage' + 14.5 `\pagebreak' & `\nopagebreak' +15 Making paragraphs + 15.1 `\indent' + 15.2 `\noindent' + 15.3 `\parskip' + 15.4 Marginal notes +16 Math formulas + 16.1 Subscripts & Superscripts + 16.2 Math symbols + 16.3 Math functions + 16.4 Math accents + 16.5 Spacing in math mode + 16.6 Math Miscellany +17 Modes +18 Page Styles + 18.1 `\maketitle' + 18.2 `\pagenumbering' + 18.3 `\pagestyle' + 18.4 `\thispagestyle{STYLE}' +19 Spaces + 19.1 `\hspace' + 19.2 `\hfill' + 19.3 `\SPACE' + 19.4 `\@' + 19.5 `\thinspace' + 19.6 `\/' + 19.7 `\hrulefill' + 19.8 `\dotfill' + 19.9 `\addvspace' + 19.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' + 19.11 `\vfill' + 19.12 `\vspace[*]{LENGTH}' +20 Boxes + 20.1 `\mbox{TEXT}' + 20.2 `\fbox' and `\framebox' + 20.3 `lrbox' + 20.4 `\makebox' + 20.5 `\parbox' + 20.6 `\raisebox' + 20.7 `\savebox' + 20.8 `\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' + 20.9 `\usebox{\BOXCMD' +21 Special insertions + 21.1 Reserved characters + 21.2 Text symbols + 21.3 Accents + 21.4 Non-English characters + 21.5 `\rule' + 21.6 `\today' +22 Splitting the input + 22.1 `\include' + 22.2 \`includeonly' + 22.3 \input +23 Front/back matter + 23.1 Tables of contents + 23.1.1 \addcontentsline + 23.1.2 \addtocontents + 23.2 Glossaries + 23.3 Indexes +24 Letters + 24.1 \address{RETURN-ADDRESS} + 24.2 `\cc' + 24.3 `\closing' + 24.4 `\encl' + 24.5 `\location' + 24.6 `\makelabels' + 24.7 `\name' + 24.8 `\opening{TEXT}' + 24.9 `\ps' + 24.10 `\signature{TEXT}' + 24.11 `\startbreaks' + 24.12 `\stopbreaks' + 24.13 `\telephone' +25 Terminal Input/Output + 25.1 `\typein[CMD]{MSG}' + 25.2 `\typeout{MSG}' +26 Command Line +Appendix A Document templates + A.1 `book' template + A.2 `beamer' template + A.3 `tugboat' template +Concept Index +Command Index + + +LaTeX2e +******* + +This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference +manual for LaTeX, a document preparation system. It is intended to +cover LaTeX2e, which has been the standard version of LaTeX for many +years. + + LaTeX is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's TeX +typesetting program. LaTeX was originally created by Leslie Lamport; +it is now maintained by a group of volunteers +(`http://latex-project.org'). The official documentation written by +the LaTeX project is available there. Again, the present document is +unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. + +1 Overview of LaTeX +******************* + +The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the +LaTeX "macro package" for TeX. To be more specific, it processes an +input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands +that describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least +three files as output: + + 1. A main output file, which is one of: + + 1. If invoked as `latex', a "Device Independent" (`.dvi') file. + This contains commands that can be translated into commands + for a variety of output devices. You can view such `.dvi' + output of LaTeX by using a program such as `xdvi' (display + directly) or `dvips' (convert to PostScript). + + 2. If invoked as `pdflatex', a "Portable Document Format" + (`.pdf') file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with + all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but + it does make the output much larger than the `.dvi' produced + from the same document. + + There are other less-common variants of LaTeX (and TeX) as well, + which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. + + 2. A "transcript" or `.log' file that contains summary information and + diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. + + 3. An "auxiliary" or `.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for + things such as sectioning. + + A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a +`\' followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single +non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, `[]', are optional +while arguments contained in braces, `{}', are required. + + LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless +explicitly directed to do otherwise. + +2 Starting & ending +******************* + +A minimal input file looks like the following: + + \documentclass{CLASS} + \begin{document} + YOUR TEXT + \end{document} + +where the CLASS is a valid document class for LaTeX. *Note Document +classes::, for details of the various document classes available +locally. + + You may include other LaTeX commands between the `\documentclass' +and the `\begin{document}' commands (this area is called the +"preamble"). + +3 Document classes +****************** + +The class of a given document is defined with the command: + + \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} + +The `\documentclass' command must be the first command in a LaTeX +source file. + + Built-in LaTeX document CLASS names are (many other document classes +are available as add-ons; *note Overview::): + + article report book letter slides + + Standard OPTIONS are described below. + +3.1 Document class options +========================== + +You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the +`\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual. +To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma: + + \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} + + Here is the list of the standard class options. + + All of the standard classes except `slides' accept the following +options for selecting the typeface size (default is `10pt'): + + 10pt 11pt 12pt + + All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the +paper size (default is `letterpaper'): + + a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper + + Miscellaneous other options: + +`draft, final' + mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is + `final'. + +`fleqn' + Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. + +`landscape' + Selects landscape format; default is portrait. + +`leqno' + Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the + right side. + +`openbib' + Use "open" bibliography format. + +`titlepage, notitlepage' + Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on + the class. + + These options are not available with the slides class: + +`onecolumn' +`twocolumn' + Typeset in one or two columns; default is `onecolumn'. + +`oneside' +`twoside' + Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is `oneside', except for + the `book' class. + + The `\evensidemargin' (`\oddsidemargin' parameter determines the + distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the + page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper + size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For + one-sided printing the text is centered, for two-sided, + `\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between `\paperwidth' + and `\textwidth' with `\evensidemargin' the remainder. + +`openright' +`openany' + Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default + is `openright' for book. + + The `slides' class offers the option `clock' for printing the time +at the bottom of each note. + + Additional packages are loaded like this: + + \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG} + + To specify more than one PKG, you can separate them with a comma, or +use multiple `\usepackage' commands. + + Any options given in the `\documentclass' command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +`\usepackage'. + +4 Typefaces +*********** + +Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a +style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. + +4.1 Font styles +=============== + +The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. + + These commands are used like `\textit{italic text}'. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration form", which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + + The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either +`\sffamily\bfseries' or `\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif. + + You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for +instance, `\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'. + +`\textrm (\rmfamily)' + Roman. + +`\textit (\itshape)' + Italics. + +`\emph' + Emphasis (switches between `\textit' and `\textrm'). + +`\textmd (\mdseries)' + Medium weight (default). + +`\textbf (\bfseries)' + Boldface. + +`\textup (\upshape)' + Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. + +`\textsl (\slshape)' + Slanted. + +`\textsf (\sffamily)' + Sans serif. + +`\textsc (\scshape)' + Small caps. + +`\texttt (\ttfamily)' + Typewriter. + +`\textnormal (\normalfont)' + Main document font. + +`\mathrm' + Roman, for use in math mode. + +`\mathbf' + Boldface, for use in math mode. + +`\mathsf' + Sans serif, for use in math mode. + +`\mathtt' + Typewriter, for use in math mode. + +`\mathit' +`(\mit)' + Italics, for use in math mode. + +`\mathnormal' + For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. + +`\mathcal' + `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. + + In addition, the command `\mathversion{bold}' can be used for +switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. +`\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. + + LaTeX also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to +the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. They are used +differently than the above commands, too: `{\CMD ...}' instead of +`\CMD{...}'. These are two very different things. + +`\bf' + Switch to bold face. + +`\cal' + Switch to calligraphic letters for math. + +`\em' + Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). + +`\it' + Italics. + +`\rm' + Roman. + +`\sc' + Small caps. + +`\sf' + Sans serif. + +`\sl' + Slanted (oblique). + +`\tt' + Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). + + +4.2 Font sizes +============== + +The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The +table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size +used (in points) with the `10pt', `11pt', and `12pt' document size +options, respectively (*note Document class options::). + +Command `10pt' `11pt' `12pt' +-------------------------------------------------- +`\tiny' 5 6 6 +`\scriptsize' 7 8 8 +`\footnotesize' 8 9 10 +`\small' 9 10 10.95 +`\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 +`\large' 12 12 14.4 +`\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 +`\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 +`\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 +`\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 + + The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of +the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end +of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these +commands; for instance, `\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'. + +4.3 Low-level font commands +=========================== + +These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. + +`\fontencoding{enc}' + Select font encoding. Valid encodings include `OT1' and `T1'. + +`\fontfamily{family}' + Select font family. Valid families include: + + * `cmr' for Computer Modern Roman + + * `cmss' for Computer Modern Sans Serif + + * `cmtt' for Computer Modern Typewriter + + and numerous others. + +`\fontseries{series}' + Select font series. Valid series include: + + * `m' Medium (normal) + + * `b' Bold + + * `c' Condensed + + * `bc' Bold condensed + + * `bx' Bold extended + + and various other combinations. + +`\fontshape{shape}' + Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + + * `n' Upright (normal) + + * `it' Italic + + * `sl' Slanted (oblique) + + * `sc' Small caps + + * `ui' Upright italics + + * `ol' Outline + + The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + +`\fontsize{size}{skip}' + Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to + and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a + parameter named `\baselineskip'. The unit of both parameters + defaults to pt. The default `\baselineskip' for the Computer + Modern typeface is 1.2 times the `\fontsize'. + + The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the + `\baselinestretch' parameter when the type size changes; the + default is 1. However, the best way to "double space" a document, + if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use + the `setspace' package; see + `http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace'. + +`\selectfont' + The changes made by calling the four font commands described above + do not come into effect until `\selectfont' is called. + +`\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}' + The same as invoking `\fontencoding', `\fontfamily', `\fontseries' + and `\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by + `\selectfont'. + +5 Layout +******** + +Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + +5.1 `\onecolumn' +================ + +The `\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. This is the default. + +5.2 `\twocolumn' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \twocolumn[TEXT1COL] + + The `\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional TEXT1COL argument is present, it is +typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. + + These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: + +`\columnsep' + The distance between columns (35pt by default). + +`\columnseprule' + The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so + there is no rule. + +`\columnwidth' + The width of the current column; this is equal to `\textwidth' in + single-column text. + + + These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: + +`\dbltopfraction' + Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be + occupied by floats. Default `.7', can be usefully redefined to + (say) `.9' to avoid going to float pages so soon. + +`\dblfloatpagefraction' + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by + floats, for a two-column float page. Default `.5'. + +`\dblfloatsep' + Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float + page. Default `12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' and `11pt' + documents, `14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for `12pt'. + +`\dbltextfloatsep' + Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a + page and the main text. Default `20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. + + +5.3 `\flushbottom' +================== + +The `\flushbottom' declaration makes all text pages the same height, +adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. + + This is the default if `twocolumn' mode is selected (*note Document +class options::). + +5.4 `\raggedbottom' +=================== + +The `\raggedbottom' declaration makes all pages the natural height of +the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched. + +5.5 Page layout parameters +========================== + +`\headheight' + Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is + `30pt', except in the `book' class, where it varies with the type + size. + +`\headsep' + Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the + top of the main text. Default is `25pt', except in the `book' + class, where it varies with the type size. + +`\footskip' + Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the + baseline of the page footer. Default is `30pt', except in the + `book' class, where it varies with the type size. + +`\linewidth' + Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, + paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an `article' document in + `10pt', it's set to `345pt'; in two-column mode, that becomes + `229.5pt'. + +`\textheight' + The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies + with the font size, document class, etc. For an `article' or + `report' document in `10pt', it's set to `43\baselineskip'; for + `book', it's `41\baselineskip'. For `11pt', it's + `38\baselineskip' and for `12pt', `36\baselineskip'. + +`\textwidth' + The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as + usual. For an `article' or `report' document, it's `345pt' at + `10pt', `360pt' at `11pt', and `390pt' at `12pt'. For a `book' + document, it's `4.5in' at `10pt', and `5in' at `11pt' or `12pt'. + +`\topmargin' + Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the + paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is + computed based on many other parameters: `\paperheight - 2in - + \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then + divided by two. + +`\topskip' + Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline + of the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default + is the same as the font size, e.g., `10pt' at `10pt'. + + +6 Sectioning +************ + +Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: + +`\part' + +`\chapter' + (report and book class only) + +`\section' + +`\subsection' + +`\subsubsection' + +`\paragraph' + +`\subparagraph' + + All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., + + \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} + + In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the +section title can appear in two other places: + + 1. The table of contents. + + 2. The running head at the top of the page. + + You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. +To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument +TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. + + Also, all sectioning commands have `*'-forms that print TITLE as +usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the +table of contents. For instance: + + \section*{Preamble} + + The `\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units +are numbered. The `\appendix' command itself generates no text and +does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command +is something like + + \chapter{A Chapter} + ... + \appendix + \chapter{The First Appendix} + +7 Cross references +****************** + +One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details." + +7.1 `\label' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \label{KEY} + + A `\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the +number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered +environment assigns that number to KEY. + + A KEY name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. + + To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a +colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: + +`ch' + for chapters + +`sec' + for lower-level sectioning commands + +`fig' + for figures + +`tab' + for tables + +`eq' + for equations + + Thus, a label for a figure would look like `fig:snark' or +`fig.snark'. + +7.2 `\pageref{KEY}' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \pageref{KEY} + + The `\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in +the text where the corresponding `\label'{KEY} command appears. + +7.3 `\ref{KEY}' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \ref{KEY} + + The `\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding `\label' command +(*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word +`Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. + +8 Environments +************** + +LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each +environment begins and ends in the same manner: + + \begin{ENVNAME} + ... + \end{ENVNAME} + +8.1 `abstract' +============== + +Synopsis: + \begin{abstract} + ... + \end{abstract} + + Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple +paragraphs. + +8.2 `array' +=========== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{array}{TEMPLATE} + COL1 TEXT&COL1 TEXT&COLN}\\ + ... + \end{array} + + Math arrays are produced with the `array' environment, normally +within an `equation' environment (*note equation::). It has a single +mandatory TEMPLATE argument describing the number of columns and the +alignment within them. Each column COL is specified by a single letter +that tells how items in that row should be formatted, as follows: + +`c' + centered + +`l' + flush left + +`r' + flush right + + Column entries are separated by `&'. Column entries may include +other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with `\\'. + + In the template, the construct `@{TEXT}' puts TEXT between columns +in each row. + + Here's an example: + + \begin{equation} + \begin{array}{lrc} + left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ + left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ + \end{array} + \end{equation} + + The `\arraycolsep' parameter defines half the width of the space +separating columns; the default is `5pt'. *Note tabular::, for other +parameters which affect formatting in `array' environments, namely +`\arrayrulewidth' and `\arraystretch'. + + The `array' environment can only be used in math mode. + +8.3 `center' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{center} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + \end{center} + + The `center' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting +of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the +current page. Each line is terminated with the string `\\'. + +8.3.1 `\centering' +------------------ + +The `\centering' declaration corresponds to the `center' environment. +This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote' or +in a `parbox'. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on +the page by putting a `\centering' command at the beginning of the +figure or table environment. + + Unlike the `center' environment, the `\centering' command does not +start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command (of an +environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + Here's an example: + + \begin{quote} + \centering + first line \\ + second line \\ + \end{quote} + +8.4 `description' +================= + +Synopsis: + + \begin{description} + \item [LABEL1] ITEM1 + \item [LABEL2] ITEM2 + ... + \end{description} + + The `description' environment is used to make labelled lists. Each +LABEL is typeset in bold, flush right. The ITEM text may contain +multiple paragraphs. + + Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if +you typeset a label in typewriter using `\texttt', you'll get bold +typewriter: `\item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]'. This may be too +bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use `\tt', which +resets all other style variations: `\item[{\tt plain typewriter}]'. + + For details about list spacing, see *note itemize::. + +8.5 `displaymath' +================= + +Synopsis: + \begin{displaymath} + MATH + \end{displaymath} + +or + + \[MATH\] + + The `displaymath' environment (`\[...\]' is a synonym) typesets the +MATH text on its own line, centered by default. The global `fleqn' +option makes equations flush left; see *note Document class options::. + + No equation number is added to `displaymath' text; to get an +equation number, use the `equation' environment (*note equation::). + +8.6 `document' +============== + +The `document' environment encloses the body of a document. It is +required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting & ending::. + +8.7 `enumerate' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{enumerate} + \item ITEM1 + \item ITEM2 + ... + \end{enumerate} + + The `enumerate' environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as `itemize' +(*note itemize::) and `description' (*note description::). + + Each item of an enumerated list begins with an `\item' command. +There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment. + + By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: + + 1. 1., 2., ... + + 2. (a), (b), ... + + 3. i., ii., ... + + 4. A., B., ... + + The `enumerate' environment uses the counters `\enumi' through +`\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::). If the optional argument to +`\item' is given, the counter is not incremented for that item. + + The `enumerate' environment uses the commands `\labelenumi' through +`\labelenumiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use +`\renewcommand' to change the labels (*note \newcommand & +\renewcommand::). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase +letters: + + \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}} + +8.8 `eqnarray' +============== + + \begin{eqnarray} (or `eqnarray*') + FORMULA1 \\ + FORMULA2 \\ + ... + \end{eqnarray} + + The `eqnarray' environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column `array' +environment, with consecutive rows separated by `\\' and consecutive +items within a row separated by an `&'. + + `\\*' can also be used to separate equations, with its normal +meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. + + An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +`\nonumber' command. Alternatively, The `*'-form of the environment +(`\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}') will omit equation numbering +entirely, while otherwise being the same as `eqnarray'. + + The command `\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + +8.9 `equation' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{equation} + MATH + \end{equation} + + The `equation' environment starts a `displaymath' environment (*note +displaymath::), e.g., centering the MATH text on the page, and also +places an equation number in the right margin. + +8.10 `figure' +============= + + \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT] + FIGBODY + \label{LABEL} + \caption[LOFTITLE]{TEXT} + \end{figure} + + Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +instead "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + + The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try +to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly +put a float: + + 1. `h' (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure + environment appears. + + 2. `t' (Top) - at the top of a text page. + + 3. `b' (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. + + 4. `p' (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page + containing no text, only floats. + + The standard report and article classes use the default placement +`tbp'. + + The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, +etc. you wish. + + The `\caption' command specifies caption TEXT for the figure. The +caption is numbered by default. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in +the list of figures instead of TEXT (*note Tables of contents::). + + The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at + the bottom; default `.3'. + +`\floatpagefraction' + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by + floats; default `.5'. + +`\floatsep' + Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default `12pt + plus2pt minus2pt'. + +`\intextsep' + Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; + default `12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' and `11pt' styles, + `14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for `12pt'. + +`\textfloatsep' + Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; + default `20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. + +`\textfraction' + Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too + much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a + different page. The default is `.2'. + +`\topfraction' + Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before + floats; default is `.7'. + + +8.11 `flushleft' +================ + + \begin{flushleft} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + ... + \end{flushleft} + + The `flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged +right Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. + +8.11.1 `\raggedright' +--------------------- + +The `\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the `flushleft' +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as `quote' or in a `parbox'. + + Unlike the `flushleft' environment, the `\raggedright' command does +not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command that ends the +paragraph unit. + +8.12 `flushright' +================= + + \begin{flushright} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + ... + \end{flushright} + + The `flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged +left. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. + +8.12.1 `\raggedleft' +-------------------- + +The `\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the `flushright' +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as `quote' or in a `parbox'. + + Unlike the `flushright' environment, the `\raggedleft' command does +not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command that ends the +paragraph unit. + +8.13 `itemize' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{itemize} + \item ITEM1 + \item ITEM2 + ... + \end{itemize} + + The `itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list. +Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. +They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, +such as `enumerate' (*note enumerate::). + + Each item of an `itemize' list begins with an `\item' command. +There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment. + + By default, the marks at each level look like this: + + 1. * + + 2. -- (bold en-dash) + + 3. * + + 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) + + The `itemize' environment uses the commands `\labelitemi' through +`\labelitemiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use +`\renewcommand' to change the labels. For instance, to have the first +level use diamonds: + + \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} + + The `\leftmargini' through `\leftmarginvi' parameters define the +distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the +left margin of the list. By convention, `\leftmargin' is set to the +appropriate `\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered. + + The defaults vary from `.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to `2.5em' +(first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example +greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: + + \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em + + Some parameters that affect list formatting: + +`\itemindent' + Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. + +`\labelsep' + Space between the label and text of an item; default `.5em'. + +`\labelwidth' + Width of the label; default `2em', or `1.5em' in two-column mode. + +`\listparindent' + Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within + a list item; default `0pt'. + +`\rightmargin' + Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the + enclosing environment; default `0pt', except in the `quote', + `quotation', and `verse' environments, where it is set equal to + `\leftmargin'. + + + Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather +loose, by default). + +`\itemsep' + Vertical space between items. The default is `2pt plus1pt + minus1pt' for `10pt' documents, `3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for `11pt', + and `4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for `12pt'. + +`\parsep' + Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. + Defaults are the same as `\itemsep'. + +`\topsep' + Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. + The default is `4pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' documents, `6pt + plus2pt minus2pt' for `11pt', and `9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for + `12pt'. + +`\partopsep' + Extra space added to `\topsep' when the list environment starts a + paragraph. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for `10pt' + documents, `3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for `11pt', and `3pt plus2pt + minus2pt' for `12pt'. + +`\topsep' + Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list + item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; + for instance, within a first-level list at `10pt', it is `4pt + plus2pt minus2pt'. + + + Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide +space between items. Here is an example defining an `itemize*' +environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs +within a single item (`\parskip' is not list-specific, *note +\parskip::): + + \newenvironment{itemize*}% + {\begin{itemize}% + \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% + \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% + \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% + {\end{itemize}} + +8.14 `letter' environment: writing letters +========================================== + +This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::. + +8.15 `list' +=========== + +The `list' environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + + \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} + \item ITEM1 + \item ITEM2 + ... + \end{list} + + The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be +labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to `\item'). This +argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. + + The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the +spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be +empty, i.e., `{}', which leaves the default spacing. + +8.16 `math' +=========== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{math} + MATH + \end{math} + + The `math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running +text. `\(...\))' and `$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::. + +8.17 `minipage' +=============== + + \begin{minipage}[POSITION]{WIDTH} + TEXT + \end{minipage} + + The `minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that +will not be broken across pages (similar to the `\parbox' command, +*note \parbox::). You may use other paragraph-making environments +inside a minipage (unlike `\parbox'). + + It takes an optional POSITION argument for placing TEXT, and a +mandatory WIDTH argument for specifying the line width. + + By default, paragraphs are not indented in the `minipage' +environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as +`\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command. + + Footnotes in a `minipage' environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +`\footnote' or `\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom +of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the +`\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary `footnote' counter (*note +Counters::). + + However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using +footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + +8.18 `picture' +============== + + \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) + ... PICTURE COMMANDS ... + \end{picture} + + The `picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind +of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You +tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their +coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point +and a minus sign--a number like `5', `0.3' or `-3.1416'. A coordinate +specifies a length in multiples of the unit length `\unitlength', so if +`\unitlength' has been set to `1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies +a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of +`\unitlength', using the `\setlength' command, outside of a `picture' +environment. + + A position is a pair of coordinates, such as `(2.4,-5)', specifying +the point with x-coordinate `2.4' and y-coordinate `-5'. Coordinates +are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is +normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a +position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the +parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + + The `picture' environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +`position'. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + + The `picture' environment also has an optional `position' argument, +following the `size' argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike +ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square +brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at +the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). +For example, if `\unitlength' has been set to `1mm', the command + \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) + produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 +millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + + The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of +the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture +really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the +picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by +LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it. + + Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the `\put' command. +The command + + \put (11.3,-.3){...} + +puts the object specified by `...' in the picture, with its reference +point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various +objects will be described below. + + The `\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that +can go in an `\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the `\put' +command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left +corner of the box. + + The `picture' commands are described in the following sections. + +8.18.1 `\circle' +---------------- + + \circle[*]{DIAMETER} + + The `\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to +the specified one as possible. The `*'-form of the command draws a +solid circle. + + Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + +8.18.2 `\makebox' +----------------- + +`\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}' + + The `\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the +normal `\makebox' command except that you must specify a `width' and +`height' in multiples of `\unitlength'. + + The optional argument, `[position]', specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + + * `t' - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle + + * `b' - Moves the item to the bottom + + * `l' - Moves the item to the left + + * `r' - Moves the item to the right + + *Note \makebox::. + +8.18.3 `\framebox' +------------------ + +Synopsis: + + \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...} + + The `\framebox' command is like `\makebox' (see previous section), +except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it +creates. + + The `\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule', +and leaves a space `\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the +box. + +8.18.4 `\dashbox' +----------------- + +Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: + + \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT} + + `\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a `picture' +environment. Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall +width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT. The TEXT is positioned at optional +POS. A dashed box looks best when the `rwidth' and `rheight' are +multiples of the `dlen'. + +8.18.5 `\frame' +--------------- + +Synopsis: + + \frame{TEXT} + + The `\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The +reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space +is put between the frame and the object. + +8.18.6 `\line' +-------------- + +Synopsis: + + \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} + + The `\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope +XSLOPE/YSLOPE. + + Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y +have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, not to +mention other shapes, see the `curve2e' and many many other packages on +CTAN. + +8.18.7 `\linethickness' +----------------------- + +The `\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal +and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a +positive length. + + `\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, +circles, or the quarter circles drawn by `\oval'. + +8.18.8 `\thicklines' +-------------------- + +The `\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal +and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: +and *note \thinlines::. + +8.18.9 `\thinlines' +------------------- + +The `\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal +and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: +and *note \thicklines::. + +8.18.10 `\multiput' +------------------- + +Synopsis: + \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ} + + The `\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern +across a picture. OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at +(x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times. + +8.18.11 `\oval' +--------------- + +Synopsis: + + \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] + + The `\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The +optional argument PORTION allows you to select part of the oval via the +following: + +`t' + selects the top portion; + +`b' + selects the bottom portion; + +`r' + selects the right portion; + +`l' + selects the left portion. + + The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a +maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with +rounded corners. + +8.18.12 `\put' +-------------- + +`\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }' + + The `\put' command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + +8.18.13 `\shortstack' +--------------------- + +Synopsis: + + \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...} + + The `\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + +`r' + Move the objects to the right of the stack. + +`l' + Move the objects to the left of the stack + +`c' + Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) + + Objects are separated with `\\'. + +8.18.14 `\vector' +----------------- + +Synopsis: + + \vector(X-SLOPE,Y-SLOPE){LENGTH} + + The `\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The x and y values must lie between -4 and +4, +inclusive. + +8.19 `quotation' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{quotation} + TEXT + \end{quotation} + + The margins of the `quotation' environment are indented on both the +left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a +blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + + Unlike the `quote' environment, each paragraph is indented normally. + +8.20 `quote' +============ + +Snyopsis: + + \begin{quote} + TEXT + \end{quote} + + The margins of the `quote' environment are indented on both the left +and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank +line between text produces a new paragraph. + + Unlike the `quotation' environment, paragraphs are not indented. + +8.21 `tabbing' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{tabbing} + ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 \= ROW1COL3 \= ROW1COL4 \\ + ROW2COL1 \> \> ROW2COL3 \\ + ... + \end{tabbing} + + The `tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns. +It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on +an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of +each column is constant and known in advance. + + This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the `tabular' +environment. + + The following commands can be used inside a `tabbing' enviroment: + +`\\ tabbing' + End a line. + +`\= (tabbing)' + Sets a tab stop at the current position. + +`\> (tabbing)' + Advances to the next tab stop. + +`\<' + Put following text to the left of the local margin (without + changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. + +`\+' + Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands + one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. + +`\-' + Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands + one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. + +`\' (tabbing)' + Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, + i.e. everything from the most recent `\>', `\<', `\'', `\\', or + `\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush + against the current column's tab stop. + +`\` (tabbing)' + Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including + tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last + column because there's no tab stop there. The `\`' command moves + all the text that follows it, up to the `\\' or `\end{tabbing}' + command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing + environment. There must be no `\>' or `\'' command between the + `\`' and the command that ends the line. + +`\a (tabbing)' + In a `tabbing' environment, the commands `\=', `\'' and `\`' do + not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, the + commands `\a=', `\a'' and `\a`' are used. + +`\kill' + Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like `\\' + except that it throws away the current line instead of producing + output for it. The effect of any `\=', `\+' or `\-' commands in + that line remain in effect. + +`\poptabs' + Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last `\pushtabs'. + +`\pushtabs' + Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily + changing tab stop positions in the middle of a `tabbing' + environment. + +`\tabbingsep' + Distance to left of tab stop moved by `\''. + + + This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + + \begin{tabbing} + function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ + \> begin \= \+ \\ + \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ + fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ + else \+ \\ + fact := 1; \-\- \\ + end;\\ + \end{tabbing} + +8.22 `table' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{table}[placement] + + body of the table + + \caption{table title} + \end{table} + + Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + + The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try +to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put +a float: + + * `h': Here - at the position in the text where the table + environment appears. + + * `t': Top - at the top of a text page. + + * `b': Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. + + * `p': Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page + containing no text, only floats. + + The standard `report' and `article' classes use the default +placement `[tbp]'. + + The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, +etc., you wish. The `\caption' command allows you to title your table. + +8.23 `tabular' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} + column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ + ... + \end{tabular} + + or + + \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} + column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ + ... + \end{tabular*} + + These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. + + `\\' must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, +except for the last, where it is optional--unless an `\hline' command +(to put a rule below the table) follows. + + The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: + +`width' + Specifies the width of the `tabular*' environment. There must be + rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the + specified width. + +`pos' + Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the + centre of the environment. + + * `t' - align on top row + + * `b' - align on bottom row + +`cols' + Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the + following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and + intercolumn material. + + * `l' - A column of left-aligned items. + + * `r' - A column of right-aligned items. + + * `c' - A column of centred items. + + * `|' - A vertical line the full height and depth of the + environment. + + * `@{text}' - This inserts `text' in every row. An @-expression + suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between + columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the + adjacent items must be included in text. An + `\extracolsep{wd}' command in an @-expression causes an extra + space of width `wd' to appear to the left of all subsequent + columns, until countermanded by another `\extracolsep' + command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space + is not suppressed by an @-expression. An `\extracolsep' + command can be used only in an @-expression in the `cols' + argument. + + * `p{wd}' - Produces a column with each item typeset in a + parbox of width `wd', as if it were the argument of a + `\parbox[t]{wd}' command. However, a `\\' may not appear in + the item, except in the following situations: + 1. inside an environment like `minipage', `array', or + `tabular'. + + 2. inside an explicit `\parbox'. + + 3. in the scope of a `\centering', `\raggedright', or + `\raggedleft' declaration. The latter declarations must + appear inside braces or an environment when used in a + `p'-column element. + + * `*{num}{cols}' - Equivalent to `num' copies of `cols', where + `num' is any positive integer and `cols' is any list of + column-specifiers, which may contain another `*-expression'. + + + + Parameters that control formatting: + +`\arrayrulewidth' + Thickness of the rule created by `|', `\hline', and `\vline' in + the `tabular' and `array' environments; the default is `.4pt'. + +`\arraystretch' + Scaling of spacing between rows in the `tabular' and `array' + environments; default is `1',for no scaling. + +`\doublerulesep' + Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by `||' in + the `tabular' and `array' environments; default is `2pt'. + +`\tabcolsep' + Half the width of the space between columns; default is `6pt'. + + + These commands can be used inside a `tabular' environment: + +8.23.1 `\multicolumn' +--------------------- + +Synopsis: + \multicolumn{COLS}{POS}{TEXT} + + The `\multicolumn' command makes an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, COLS, specifies the number of +columns to span. The second mandatory argument, POS, specifies the +formatting of the entry; `c' for centered, `l' for flushleft, `r' for +flushright. The third mandatory argument, TEXT, specifies what text to +put in the entry. + + Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; +`\multicolumn' is used for the heading: + + \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l} + \multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr + 0x80&0x7FF \cr + 0x800&0xFFFF \cr + 0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr + \end{tabular} + +8.23.2 `\cline' +--------------- + +Synopsis: + + \cline{I-J} + + The `\cline' command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column I and ending in column J, which are +specified in the mandatory argument. + +8.23.3 `\hline' +--------------- + +The `\hline' command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing +`tabular' or `array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a +line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. + +8.23.4 `\vline' +--------------- + +The `\vline' command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An `\hfill' command can be used to move +the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@-expression. + +8.24 `thebibliography' +====================== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} + \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} + ... + \end{thebibliography} + + The `thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. + + In the `article' class, this reference list is labelled +"References"; in the `report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". +You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the +command `\refname'. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: + + \renewcommand{\refname}{} + + The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is +as wide as the widest item label produced by the `\bibitem' commands. +It is typically given as `9' for bibliographies with less than 10 +references, `99' for ones with less than 100, etc. + +8.24.1 `\bibitem' +----------------- + +Synopsis: + \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} + + The `\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the +LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using +the `enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, +and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. + + This command writes an entry to the `.aux' file containing the +item's CITE_KEY and label. When the `.aux' file is read by the +`\begin{document}' command, the item's `label' is associated with +`cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a `\cite' command (see +next section) to produce the associated label. + +8.24.2 `\cite' +-------------- + +Synopsis: + + \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS + + The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated +by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the +references associated with KEYS by entries in the `.aux' file. + + The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the +citation. For example, `\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce `[Knuth, +p. 314]'. + +8.24.3 `\nocite' +---------------- + +`\nocite{key_list}' + + The `\nocite' command produces no text, but writes `key_list', which +is a list of one or more citation keys, on the `.aux' file. + +8.24.4 Using BibTeX +------------------- + +If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if +you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain +your bibliography, you don't use the `thebibliography' environment +(*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines + + \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} + \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2} + + The `\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its +own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be +produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE`.bst', which defines how +your citations will look. The standard STYLE names distributed with +BibTeX are: + +`alpha' + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and + year of publication. + +`plain' + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. + +`unsrt' + Like `plain', but entries are in order of citation. + +`abbrv' + Like `plain', but more compact labels. + + In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the +demands of various publications. See +`http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib'. + + The `\bibliography' command is what actually produces the +bibliography. The argument to `\bibliography' refers to files named +`BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format. +Only the entries referred to via `\cite' and `\nocite' will be listed +in the bibliography. + +8.25 `theorem' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{theorem} + THEOREM-TEXT + \end{theorem} + + The `theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed +by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described +under `\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::). + +8.26 `titlepage' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{titlepage} + TEXT + \end{titlepage} + + The `titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with +no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page +to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. +The `\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::). + + You can use the `\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce +a standard title page without a `titlepage' environment. + +8.27 `verbatim' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{verbatim} + LITERAL-TEXT + \end{verbatim} + + The `verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in +which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the `\' +character produces a printed `\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter +with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would +on a typewriter. + + The `verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (`\tt'). + +8.27.1 `\verb' +-------------- + +Synopsis: + + \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR + \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR + + The `\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including +special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (`\tt') font. No +spaces are allowed between `\verb' or `\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR, +which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear +in LITERAL-TEXT. + + The `*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible +space" character. + +8.28 `verse' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{verse} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + ... + \end{verse} + + The `verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + + The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are +not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each +stanza with `\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the +stanzas. + +9 Footnotes +*********** + +Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced +with one command, the `\footnote' command. They can also be produced +with two commands, the `\footnotemark' and the `\footnotetext' commands. + +9.1 `\footnote' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} + + The `\footnote' command places the numbered footnote TEXT at the +bottom of the current page. The optional argument NUMBER changes the +default footnote number. + + This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you +cannot use it in sectioning commands like `\chapter', in figures, +tables or in a `tabular' environment. (See following sections.) + +9.2 `\footnotemark' +=================== + +With no optional argument, the `\footnotemark' command puts the current +footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner +paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the +`\footnotetext' command. + + This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote +markers referring to the same footnote with + + \footnotemark[\value{footnote}] + + after the first `\footnote' command. + +9.3 `\footnotetext' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} + + The `\footnotetext' command places TEXT at the bottom of the page as +a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the `\footnotemark' +command. The `\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph +mode. + + The optional argument NUMBER changes the default footnote number. + +9.4 Footnote parameters +======================= + +`\footnoterule' + Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the + page's footnotes. Default dimensions: `0.4pt' thick (or wide), and + `0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except + slides, where it does not appear). + +`\footnotesep' + The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. + By default, this is set to the normal strut for `\footnotesize' + fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space + between footnotes. This is `6.65pt' for `10pt', `7.7pt' for + `11pt', and `8.4pt' for `12pt'. + + +10 Definitions +************** + +LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. + +10.1 `\newcommand' & `\renewcommand' +==================================== + +`\newcommand' and `\renewcommand' define and redefine a command, +respectively. Synopses: + + \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} + \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} + \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{DEFN} + \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{DEFN} + +CMD + The command name beginning with `\'. For `\newcommand', it must + not be already defined and must not begin with `\end'; for + `\renewcommand', it must already be defined. + +NARGS + An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments + that the command will take. The default is for the command to + have no arguments. + +DEFAULT + If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's + first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the + default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not + specified in the call) is the string `def'. + +DEFN + The text to be substituted for every occurrence of `cmd'; a + construct of the form `#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the + Nth argument. + + +10.2 `\newcounter' +================== + +Synopsis: + + \newcounter{CNT}[COUNTERNAME] + + The `\newcounter' command defines a new counter named CNT. The new +counter is initialized to zero. + + Given the optional argument `[COUNTERNAME]', CNT will be reset +whenever COUNTERNAME is incremented. + + *Note Counters::, for more information about counters. + +10.3 `\newlength' +================= + +Synopsis: + + \newlength{\ARG} + + The `\newlength' command defines the mandatory argument as a +`length' command with a value of `0in'. The argument must be a control +sequence, as in `\newlength{\foo}'. An error occurs if `\foo' is +already defined. + + *Note Lengths::, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, +and for more information about lengths in general. + +10.4 `\newsavebox' +================== + +Synopsis: + + \newsavebox{CMD} + + Defines `\CMD', which must be a command name not already defined, to +refer to a new bin for storing boxes. + +10.5 `\newenvironment' & `\renewenvironment' +============================================ + +Synopses: + + \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} + \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} + \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} + + These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is, +`\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'. + +ENV + The name of the environment. For `\newenvironment', ENV must not + be an existing environment, and the command `\ENV' must be + undefined. For `\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an + existing environment. + +NARGS + An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the + newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + +DEFAULT + If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and DEFAULT + gives the default value for that argument. + +BEGDEF + The text expanded at every occurrence of `\begin{ENV}'; a + construct of the form `#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of + the Nth argument. + +ENDDEF + The text expanded at every occurrence of `\end{ENV}'. It may not + contain any argument parameters. + + +10.6 `\newtheorem' +================== + + \newtheorem{NEWENV}{LABEL}[WITHIN] + \newtheorem{NEWENV}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{LABEL} + + This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: + +NEWENV + The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of + an existing environment or otherwise defined. + +LABEL + The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the + number. For example, `Theorem'. + +NUMBERED_LIKE + (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like + environment; the new environment will be numbered just like + NUMBERED_LIKE. + +WITHIN + (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional + unit. The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as + the WITHIN counter. + + + At most one of NUMBERED_LIKE and WITHIN can be specified, not both. + +10.7 `\newfont' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \newfont{CMD}{FONTNAME} + + Defines a control sequence `\CMD', which must not already be +defined, to make FONTNAME be the current font. The file looked for on +the system is named `FONTNAME.tfm'. + + This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. +More commonly, fonts are defined in families through `.fd' files. + +10.8 `\protect' +=============== + +Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and +many more are so-called "fragile" commands. When a fragile command is +used in certain contexts, called "moving arguments", it must be +preceded by `\protect'. In addition, any fragile commands within the +arguments must have their own `\protect'. + + Some examples of moving arguments are `\caption' (*note figure::), +`\thanks' (*note \maketitle::), and expressions in `tabular' and +`array' environments (*note tabular::). + + Commands which are not fragile are called "robust". They must not +be preceded by `\protect'. + + See also: + +`http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html' +`http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect' + + +11 Counters +*********** + +Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The +name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or +command that produces the number, except with no `\'. +(`enumi'-`enumiv' are used for the nested enumerate environment.) +Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document +classes to control numbering. + + part paragraph figure enumi + chapter subparagraph table enumii + section page footnote enumiii + subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv + subsubsection + +11.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters +===================================================================== + +All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for +instance, `\alph{enumi}'. + +`\alph' + prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: `a', `b', ... + +`\Alph' + uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', ... + +`\arabic' + uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', ... + +`\roman' + uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', ... + +`\roman' + uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', ... + +`\fnsymbol' + prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols + (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of + COUNTER must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. + + The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the + names: + asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel + double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger + + +11.2 `\usecounter{COUNTER}' +=========================== + +Synopsis: + + \usecounter{COUNTER} + + The `\usecounter' command is used in the second argument of the +`list' environment to specify COUNTER to be used to number the list +items. + +11.3 `\value{COUNTER}' +====================== + +Synopsis: + + \value{COUNTER} + + The `\value' command produces the value of COUNTER. It can be used +anywhere LaTeX expects a number, for example: + + \setcounter{myctr}{3} + \addtocounter{myctr}{1} + \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent} + +11.4 `\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' +================================== + +Synopsis: + + \setcounter{\COUNTER}{VALUE} + + The `\setcounter' command sets the value of \COUNTER to the VALUE +argument. + +11.5 `\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' +==================================== + +The `\addtocounter' command increments COUNTER by the amount specified +by the VALUE argument, which may be negative. + +11.6 `\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' +=============================== + +The `\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as `\stepcounter' +*Note \stepcounter::, except it also defines the current `\ref' value +to be the result of `\thecounter'. + +11.7 `\stepcounter{COUNTER}' +============================ + +The `\stepcounter' command adds one to COUNTER and resets all +subsidiary counters. + +11.8 `\day \month \year': Predefined counters +============================================= + +LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (`\day', 1-31), month +of the year (`\month', 1-12), and year (`\year', Common Era). When TeX +starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX +is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. + + The related command `\today' produces a string representing the +current day (*note \today::). + +12 Lengths +********** + +A `length' is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length +as an argument. + +12.1 `\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' +============================== + +The `\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which +can be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches +(`in'), millimeters (`mm'), points (`pt'), big points (`bp', etc. + +12.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} +=============================== + +The `\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the +amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative. + +12.3 `\settodepth' +================== + +`\settodepth{\gnat}{text}' + + The `\settodepth' command sets the value of a `length' command equal +to the depth of the `text' argument. + +12.4 `\settoheight' +=================== + +`\settoheight{\gnat}{text}' + + The `\settoheight' command sets the value of a `length' command +equal to the height of the `text' argument. + +12.5 `\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' +============================== + +The `\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the +width of the TEXT argument. + +12.6 Predefined lengths +======================= + +`\width' + + `\height' + + `\depth' + + `\totalheight' + + These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the +box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width +etc. of the text in the box. `\totalheight' equals `\height' + +`\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural +size, e.g., say + + `\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}' + +13 Line breaking +**************** + +The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines +(and these lines must be broken into pages). + + LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some +environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the `\\' command, +and you can always manually force breaks. + +13.1 `\\'[*][MORESPACE] +======================= + +The `\\' command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an optional +argument, MORESPACE, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to +be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount. + + The `\\*' command is the same as the ordinary `\\' command except +that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line. + +13.2 `\obeycr' & `\restorecr' +============================= + +The `\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file (`^^M', +internally) the same as `\\' (followed by `\relax'). So each new line +in the input will also be a new line in the output. + + `\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior. + +13.3 `\newline' +=============== + +The `\newline' command breaks the line at the present point, with no +stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph +mode. + +13.4 `\-' (discretionary hyphen) +================================ + +The `\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that +point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find +most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an +incorrect one. The `\-' command is used for the exceptional cases. + + When you insert `\-' commands in a word, the word will only be +hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points +that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. + +13.5 `\fussy' +============= + +The declaration `\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about +line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at +the cost of an occasional overfull box. + + This command cancels the effect of a previous `\sloppy' command +(*note \sloppy::. + +13.6 `\sloppy' +============== + +The declaration `\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. +This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. + + Lasts until a `\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::). + +13.7 `\hyphenation' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO} + + The `\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with +a `-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. +TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are +tried. Multiple `\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples +(the default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these +words): + + \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases} + +13.8 `\linebreak' & `\nolinebreak' +================================== + +Synopses: + + \linebreak[PRIORITY] + \nolinebreak[PRIORITY] + + By default, the `\linebreak' (`\nolinebreak') command forces +(prevents) a line break at the current position. For `\linebreak', the +spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right +margin as usual. + + With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command +from a demand to a request. The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4. +The higher the number, the more insistent the request. + +14 Page breaking +**************** + +LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has +accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but +sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. + +14.1 `\cleardoublepage' +======================= + +The `\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + +14.2 `\clearpage' +================= + +The `\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all figures +and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + +14.3 `\newpage' +=============== + +The `\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats +(see `\clearpage' above). + +14.4 `\enlargethispage' +======================= + +`\enlargethispage{size}' + + `\enlargethispage*{size}' + + Enlarge the `\textheight' for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. `\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one +additional line. + + The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page +as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +`\pagebreak'. + +14.5 `\pagebreak' & `\nopagebreak' +================================== + +Synopses: + + \pagebreak[PRIORITY] + \nopagebreak[PRIORITY] + + By default, the `\pagebreak' (`\nopagebreak') command forces +(prevents) a page break at the current position. For `\linebreak', the +vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it +extends to the normal bottom margin. + + With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the +`\pagebreak' command from a demand to a request. The number must be a +number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the +request is. + +15 Making paragraphs +******************** + +A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not +containing even a `%'. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + +15.1 `\indent' +============== + +`\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of +the `\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used +to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. + + The default value for `\parindent' is `1em' in two-column mode, +otherwise `15pt' for `10pt' documents, `17pt' for `11pt', and `1.5em' +for `12pt'. + +15.2 `\noindent' +================ + +When used at the beginning of the paragraph, `\noindent' suppresses any +paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a +paragraph. + +15.3 `\parskip' +=============== + +`\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added +before each paragraph. The default is `0pt plus1pt'. + +15.4 Marginal notes +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} + + The `\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first +line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text +where the `\marginpar' occurs. + + When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be +placed + + * in the right margin for one-sided layout; + + * in the outside margin for two-sided layout; + + * in the nearest margin for two-column layout. + + The command `\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in +the opposite (inside) margin. `\normalmarginpar' places them in the +default position. + + When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin, +and RIGHT is used for the right margin. + + The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation there by beginning the node with `\hspace{0pt}'. + + These parameters affect the formatting of the note: + +`\marginparpush' + Minimum vertical space between notes; default `7pt' for `12pt' + documents, `5pt' else. + +`\marginparsep' + Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default + `11pt' for `10pt' documents, `10pt' else. + +`\marginparwidth' + Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided `10pt' document + is `90pt', `83pt' for `11pt', and `68pt' for `12pt'; `17pt' more + in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the + default is `48pt'. + + +16 Math formulas +**************** + +There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: + +`math' + For formulas that appear right in the text. + +`displaymath' + For formulas that appear on their own line. + +`equation' + The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an + equation number in the right margin. + + The `math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the `displaymath' and `equation' environments can be used only in +paragraph mode. The `math' and `displaymath' environments are used so +often that they have the following short forms: + + \(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} + \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} + + In fact, the `math' environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + + $ ... $ instead of \(...\) + + The `\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a +bold font. It is used _outside_ of math mode. Conversely, the +`\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it +too is used _outside_ of math mode. + + The `\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the +formula to be that of `displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below +summations. For example + $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ + +16.1 Subscripts & Superscripts +============================== + +To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type +`_{'exp`}'. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type +`^{'exp`}'. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of that +stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when something +has both a subscript and a superscript. + +16.2 Math symbols +================= + +LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. +The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For +example, if you include `$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi +symbol (\pi) in your output. + +`\|' + \| + +`\aleph' + \aleph + +`\alpha' + \alpha + +`\amalg' + \amalg (binary operation) + +`\angle' + \angle + +`\approx' + \approx (relation) + +`\ast' + \ast (binary operation) + +`\asymp' + \asymp (relation) + +`\backslash' + \ (delimiter) + +`\beta' + \beta + +`\bigcap' + \bigcap + +`\bigcirc' + \bigcirc (binary operation) + +`\bigcup' + \bigcup + +`\bigodot' + \bigodot + +`\bigoplus' + \bigoplus + +`\bigotimes' + \bigotimes + +`\bigtriangledown' + \bigtriangledown (binary operation) + +`\bigtriangleup' + \bigtriangleup (binary operation) + +`\bigsqcup' + \bigsqcup + +`\biguplus' + \biguplus + +`\bigcap' + \bigvee + +`\bigwedge' + \bigwedge + +`\bot' + \bot + +`\bowtie' + \bowtie (relation) + +`\Box' + (square open box symbol) + +`\bullet' + \bullet (binary operation) + +`\cap' + \cap (binary operation) + +`\cdot' + \cdot (binary operation) + +`\chi' + \chi + +`\circ' + \circ (binary operation) + +`\clubsuit' + \clubsuit + +`\cong' + \cong (relation) + +`\coprod' + \coprod + +`\cup' + \cup (binary operation) + +`\dagger' + \dagger (binary operation) + +`\dashv' + \dashv (relation) + +`\ddagger' + \dagger (binary operation) + +`\Delta' + \Delta + +`\delta' + \delta + +`\Diamond' + bigger \diamond + +`\diamond' + \diamond (binary operation) + +`\diamondsuit' + \diamondsuit + +`\div' + \div (binary operation) + +`\doteq' + \doteq (relation) + +`\downarrow' + \downarrow (delimiter) + +`\Downarrow' + \Downarrow (delimiter) + +`\ell' + \ell + +`\emptyset' + \emptyset + +`\epsilon' + \epsilon + +`\equiv' + \equiv (relation) + +`\eta' + \eta + +`\exists' + \exists + +`\flat' + \flat + +`\forall' + \forall + +`\frown' + \frown (relation) + +`\Gamma' + \Gamma + +`\gamma' + \gamma + +`\ge' + \ge + +`\geq' + \geq (relation) + +`\gets' + \gets + +`\gg' + \gg (relation) + +`\hbar' + \hbar + +`\heartsuit' + \heartsuit + +`\hookleftarrow' + \hookleftarrow + +`\hookrightarrow' + \hookrightarrow + +`\iff' + \iff + +`\Im' + \Im + +`\in' + \in (relation) + +`\infty' + \infty + +`\int' + \int + +`\iota' + \iota + +`\Join' + condensed bowtie symbol (relation) + +`\kappa' + \kappa + +`\Lambda' + \Lambda + +`\lambda' + \lambda + +`\land' + \land + +`\langle' + \langle (delimiter) + +`\lbrace' + \lbrace (delimiter) + +`\lbrack' + \lbrack (delimiter) + +`\lceil' + \lceil (delimiter) + +`\le' + \le + +`\leadsto' + +`\Leftarrow' + \Leftarrow + +`\leftarrow' + \leftarrow + +`\leftharpoondown' + \leftharpoondown + +`\leftharpoonup' + \leftharpoonup + +`\Leftrightarrow' + \Leftrightarrow + +`\leftrightarrow' + \leftrightarrow + +`\leq' + \leq (relation) + +`\lfloor' + \lfloor (delimiter) + +`\lhd' + (left-pointing arrow head) + +`\ll' + \ll (relation) + +`\lnot' + \lnot + +`\longleftarrow' + \longleftarrow + +`\longleftrightarrow' + \longleftrightarrow + +`\longmapsto' + \longmapsto + +`\longrightarrow' + \longrightarrow + +`\lor' + \lor + +`\mapsto' + \mapsto + +`\mho' + +`\mid' + \mid (relation) + +`\models' + \models (relation) + +`\mp' + \mp (binary operation) + +`\mu' + \mu + +`\nabla' + \nabla + +`\natural' + \natural + +`\ne' + \ne + +`\nearrow' + \nearrow + +`\neg' + \neg + +`\neq' + \neq (relation) + +`\ni' + \ni (relation) + +`\not' + Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=. + +`\notin' + \ni + +`\nu' + \nu + +`\nwarrow' + \nwarrow + +`\odot' + \odot (binary operation) + +`\oint' + \oint + +`\Omega' + \Omega + +`\omega' + \omega + +`\ominus' + \ominus (binary operation) + +`\oplus' + \oplus (binary operation) + +`\oslash' + \oslash (binary operation) + +`\otimes' + \otimes (binary operation) + +`\owns' + \owns + +`\parallel' + \parallel (relation) + +`\partial' + \partial + +`\perp' + \perp (relation) + +`\phi' + \phi + +`\Pi' + \Pi + +`\pi' + \pi + +`\pm' + \pm (binary operation) + +`\prec' + \prec (relation) + +`\preceq' + \preceq (relation) + +`\prime' + \prime + +`\prod' + \prod + +`\propto' + \propto (relation) + +`\Psi' + \Psi + +`\psi' + \psi + +`\rangle' + \rangle (delimiter) + +`\rbrace' + \rbrace (delimiter) + +`\rbrack' + \rbrack (delimiter) + +`\rceil' + \rceil (delimiter) + +`\Re' + \Re + +`\rfloor' + \rfloor + +`\rhd' + (binary operation) + +`\rho' + \rho + +`\Rightarrow' + \Rightarrow + +`\rightarrow' + \rightarrow + +`\rightharpoondown' + \rightharpoondown + +`\rightharpoonup' + \rightharpoonup + +`\rightleftharpoons' + \rightleftharpoons + +`\searrow' + \searrow + +`\setminus' + \setminus (binary operation) + +`\sharp' + \sharp + +`\Sigma' + \Sigma + +`\sigma' + \sigma + +`\sim' + \sim (relation) + +`\simeq' + \simeq (relation) + +`\smallint' + \smallint + +`\smile' + \smile (relation) + +`\spadesuit' + \spadesuit + +`\sqcap' + \sqcap (binary operation) + +`\sqcup' + \sqcup (binary operation) + +`\sqsubset' + (relation) + +`\sqsubseteq' + \sqsubseteq (relation) + +`\sqsupset' + (relation) + +`\sqsupseteq' + \sqsupseteq (relation) + +`\star' + \star (binary operation) + +`\subset' + \subset (relation) + +`\subseteq' + \subseteq (relation) + +`\succ' + \succ (relation) + +`\succeq' + \succeq (relation) + +`\sum' + \sum + +`\supset' + \supset (relation) + +`\supseteq' + \supseteq (relation) + +`\surd' + \surd + +`\swarrow' + \swarrow + +`\tau' + \tau + +`\theta' + \theta + +`\times' + \times (binary operation) + +`\to' + \to + +`\top' + \top + +`\triangle' + \triangle + +`\triangleleft' + \triangleleft (binary operation) + +`\triangleright' + \triangleright (binary operation) + +`\unlhd' + left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + +`\unrhd' + right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + +`\Uparrow' + \Uparrow (delimiter) + +`\uparrow' + \uparrow (delimiter) + +`\Updownarrow' + \Updownarrow (delimiter) + +`\updownarrow' + \updownarrow (delimiter) + +`\uplus' + \uplus (binary operation) + +`\Upsilon' + \Upsilon + +`\upsilon' + \upsilon + +`\varepsilon' + \varepsilon + +`\varphi' + \varphi + +`\varpi' + \varpi + +`\varrho' + \varrho + +`\varsigma' + \varsigma + +`\vartheta' + \vartheta + +`\vdash' + \vdash (relation) + +`\vee' + \vee (binary operation) + +`\Vert' + \Vert (delimiter) + +`\vert' + \vert (delimiter) + +`\wedge' + \wedge (binary operation) + +`\wp' + \wp + +`\wr' + \wr (binary operation) + +`\Xi' + \Xi + +`\xi' + \xi + +`\zeta' + \zeta + + +16.3 Math functions +=================== + +These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper +spacing. + +`\arccos' + \arccos + +`\arcsin' + \arcsin + +`\arctan' + \arctan + +`\arg' + \arg + +`\bmod' + Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) + +`\cos' + \cos + +`\cosh' + \cosh + +`\cot' + \cos + +`\coth' + \cosh + +`\csc' + \csc + +`\deg' + \deg + +`\det' + \deg + +`\dim' + \dim + +`\exp' + \exp + +`\gcd' + \gcd + +`\hom' + \hom + +`\inf' + \inf + +`\ker' + \ker + +`\lg' + \lg + +`\lim' + \lim + +`\liminf' + \liminf + +`\limsup' + \limsup + +`\ln' + \ln + +`\log' + \log + +`\max' + \max + +`\min' + \min + +`\pmod' + parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) + +`\Pr' + \Pr + +`\sec' + \sec + +`\sin' + \sin + +`\sinh' + \sinh + +`\sup' + \sup + +`\tan' + \tan + +`\tanh' + \tanh + + +16.4 Math accents +================= + +LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in +math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note +Accents::). + +`\acute' + Math acute accent: \acutex. + +`\breve' + Math breve accent: \brevex. + +`\check' + Math ha'c' + Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad). + +`\,' + A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode. + +`\!' + A negative thin space (-1\over6\,quad). + +16.6 Math Miscellany +==================== + +`\*' + A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is + allowed. + +`\cdots' + A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the + line. + +`\ddots' + A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. + +`\frac{num}{den}' + Produces the fraction `num' divided by `den'. + +`\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2' + The two delimiters need not match; `.' acts as a null delimiter, + producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the + math in between. Example: `\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'. + +`\overbrace{TEXT}' + Generates a brace over TEXT. For example, \overbracex+\cdots+x^k + \rm\;times. + +`\overline{TEXT}' + Generates a horizontal line over TEX. For exampe, \overlinex+y. + +`\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}' + Produces the representation of the square root of ARG. The + optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce. For + example, the cube root of `x+y' would be typed as + `$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'. + +`\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}' + Puts TEXT above RELATION. For example, + `\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'. + +`\underbrace{math}' + Generates MATH with a brace underneath. + +`\underline{text}' + Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be + underlined. + +`\vdots' + Produces a vertical ellipsis. + + +17 Modes +******** + +When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + + * Paragraph mode + + * Math mode + + * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short + + LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + + "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when +processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into +lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in "math mode" when +it's generating a mathematical formula. In "LR mode", as in paragraph +mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of +words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX +keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. +Even if you put a hundred words into an `\mbox', LaTeX would keep +typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then +complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line. + + LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an `\mbox' +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a `parbox'. When LaTeX +is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner +paragraph mode". Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is +called "outer paragraph mode". + +18 Page Styles +************** + +The `\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the +page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + +18.1 `\maketitle' +================= + +The `\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title +page--except in the `article' class, where the title is placed at the +top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is +obtained from the following declarations: + +`\author{NAME \and NAME2}' + The `\author' command declares the document author(s), where the + argument is a list of authors separated by `\and' commands. Use + `\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for + example, to give the author's institution or address. + +`\date{TEXT}' + The `\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With + no `\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used. + +`\thanks{TEXT}' + The `\thanks' command produces a `\footnote' to the title, usually + used for credit acknowledgements. + +`\title{TEXT}' + The `\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the + document. Use `\\' to force a line break, as usual. + + +18.2 `\pagenumbering' +===================== + +Synopsis: + + \pagenumbering{STYLE} + + Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE: + +`arabic' + arabic numerals + +`roman' + lowercase Roman numerals + +`Roman' + uppercase Roman numerals + +`alph' + lowercase letters + +`Alph' + uppercase letters + +18.3 `\pagestyle' +================= + +Synopsis: + + \pagestyle{STYLE} + + The `\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are +typeset from the current page onwards. Values for STYLE: + +`plain' + Just a plain page number. + +`empty' + Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. + +`headings' + Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies + what goes in the headers. + +`myheadings' + Custom headers, specified via the `\markboth' or the `\markright' + commands. + + + Here are the descriptions of `\markboth' and `\markright': + +`\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}' + Sets both the left and the right heading. A "left-hand heading" + (LEFT) is generated by the last `\markboth' command before the end + of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT is generated by + the first `\markboth' or `\markright' that comes on the page if + there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + +`\markright{RIGHT}' + Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. + + +18.4 `\thispagestyle{STYLE}' +============================ + +The `\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the +`\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to +STYLE for the current page only. + +19 Spaces +********* + +LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. + + Another space-producing command is `\,' to produce a "thin" space +(usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is more often +useful in math mode (*note Spacing in math mode::). + +19.1 `\hspace' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \hspace[*]{LENGTH} + + The `\hspace' command adds horizontal space. The LENGTH argument +can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands: points, inches, +etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive +space with an `\hspace' command; adding negative space is like +backspacing. + + LaTeX normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning +or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional `*' form. + +19.2 `\hfill' +============= + +The `\hfill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which has no +natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed. + + The `\fill' parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the +glue value `0pt plus1fill'); thus, `\hspace\fill' is equivalent to +`\hfill'. + +19.3 `\SPACE' +============= + +The `\ ' (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's +useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example +`Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental'. It is +also often used after control sequences, as in `\TeX\ is a nice system.' + + In normal circumstances, `\' and `\' are equivalent to +`\ '. + +19.4 `\@' +========= + +The `\@' command makes the following punctuation character end a +sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a +capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without `\@': + + ... in C\@. Pascal, though ... + ... in C. Pascal, though ... + +produces + + ... in C. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ... + +19.5 `\thinspace' +================= + +`\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is +1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as in +'". + +19.6 `\/' +========= + +The `\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small +space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the +character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character +typically has a large italic correction value. + + If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary +to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a +very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as +normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the `f's +are nicely separated) with f: f;. + + Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic +correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space +after the `f') with pdfTeX. + +19.7 `\hrulefill' +================= + +The `\hrulefill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + +19.8 `\dotfill' +=============== + +The `\dotfill' command produces a "rubber length" that fills with dots +instead of just white space. + +19.9 `\addvspace' +================= + +`\addvspace{length}' + + The `\addvspace' command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous `\addvspace' command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to `length'. + +19.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' +==================================== + +These commands produce a given amount of space. + +`\bigskip' + The same as `\vspace{bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line + space (with stretch and shrink). + +`\medskip' + The same as `\vspace{medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a + line space (with stretch and shrink). + +`\smallskip' + The same as `\vspace{smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter + of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + + + The `\...amount' parameters are determined by the document class. + +19.11 `\vfill' +============== + +The `\vfill' fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can +stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to +`\vspace{\fill}' (*note \hfill::). + +19.12 `\vspace[*]{LENGTH}' +========================== + +Synopsis: + + \vspace[*]{LENGTH} + + The `\vspace' command adds the vertical space LENGTH, i.e., a rubber +length. LENGTH can be negative or positive. + + Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by `\vspace' at the +top or bottom of a page. With the optional `*' argument, the space is +not removed. + +20 Boxes +******** + +All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + +20.1 `\mbox{TEXT}' +================== + +The `\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text +created by its argument. The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can +be used to prevent hyphenation. + +20.2 `\fbox' and `\framebox' +============================ + +Synopses: + + \fbox{TEXT} + \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} + + The `\fbox' and `\framebox' commands are like `\mbox', except that +they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. + + In addition, the `\framebox' command allows for explicit +specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a +dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument. Both +commands produce a rule of thickness `\fboxrule' (default `.4pt'), and +leave a space of `\fboxsep' (default `3pt') between the rule and the +contents of the box. + + *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the `\framebox' command in the +`picture' environment. + +20.3 `lrbox' +============ + +`\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}' + + This is the environment form of `\sbox'. + + The text inside the environment is saved in the box `cmd', which +must have been declared with `\newsavebox'. + +20.4 `\makebox' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} + + The `\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the +TEXT specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional +WIDTH argument. The position of the text within the box is determined +by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values: + +`c' + Centered (default). + +`l' + Flush left. + +`r' + Flush right. + +`s' + Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain + stretchable space for this to work. + + `\makebox' is also used within the picture environment *note +\makebox (picture)::. + +20.5 `\parbox' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT} + + The `\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in +`paragraph' mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of +text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any +paragraph-making environments inside a `\parbox' argument. For larger +pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making +environment, you should use a `minipage' environment (*note minipage::). + + `\parbox' has two mandatory arguments: + +WIDTH + the width of the parbox; + +TEXT + the text that goes inside the parbox. + + The optional POSITION argument allows you to align either the top or +bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text +(default is top). + + The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box. + + The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the +box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used. + +`t' + text is placed at the top of the box. + +`c' + text is centered in the box. + +`b' + text is placed at the bottom of the box. + +`s' + stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable + space for this to work. + +20.6 `\raisebox' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text} + + The `\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory +argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a +negative amount). TEXT itself is processed in LR mode. + + The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are +specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the +baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and +depth. + +20.7 `\savebox' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} + + This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with `\makebox' (*note +\makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it +saves it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with +`\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). + +20.8 `\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' +=========================== + +Synopsis: + + \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT} + + `\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with `\mbox' (*note \mbox::) +except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal +output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD. \BOXCMD must have been +previously declared with `\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). + +20.9 `\usebox{\BOXCMD' +====================== + +Synopsis: + + \usebox{\BOXCMD} + + `\usebox' producesthe box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by +a `\savebox' command (*note \savebox::). + +21 Special insertions +********************* + +LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special +meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. + +21.1 Reserved characters +======================== + +The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called +"reserved characters" or "special characters". + + # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } + + Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX +will do something special. If you simply want the character to be +printed as itself, include a `\' in front of the character. For +example, `\$' will produce `$' in your output. + + One exception to this rule is `\' itself, because `\\' has its own +special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing +`$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter `\' is produced by using +`\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::). + + Also, `\~' and `\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the +following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a +standalone `~' or `^', you can again use a verbatim command. + + Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you +know its number by using the `\symbol' command. For example, the +visible space character used in the `\verb*' command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as `\symbol{32}'. + + You can also specify octal numbers with `'' or hexadecimal numbers +with `"', so the previous example could also be written as +`\symbol{'40}' or `\symbol{"20}'. + +21.2 Text symbols +================= + +LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in +running text. + +`\copyright' + The copyright symbol, (C). + +`\dag' + The dagger symbol (in text). + +`\ddag' + The double dagger symbol (in text). + +`\LaTeX' + The LaTeX logo. + +`\ldots' + An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `...'. This command + also works in math mode. + +`\lq' + Left (opening) quote: `. + +`\P' + Paragraph sign (pilcrow). + +`\pounds' + English pounds sterling. + +`\rq' + Right (closing) quote: '. + +`\S' + Section symbol. + +`\TeX' + The TeX logo. + + +21.3 Accents +============ + +LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, +through the `babel' package and related support. This section does not +attempt to cover all that support. It merely the core LaTeX commands +for creating accented characters. + +`\"' + Produces an umlaut, as in o". + +`\'' + Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the `tabbing' environment, + pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note + tabbing::). + +`\.' + Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. + +`\=' + Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=. + +`\^' + Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^. + +`\`' + Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`. In the + `tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin + (*note tabbing::). + +`\~' + Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~. + +`\b' + Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. + +`\bar' + Produces a macron accent over the following, as in o=. + +`\c' + Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in + +`\d' + Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. + +`\H' + Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in + o''. + +`\i' + Produces a dotless i, as in `i'. + +`\j' + Produces a dotless j, as in `j'. + +`\t' + Produces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. + +`\u' + Produces a breve accent, as in `o('. + +`\v' + Produces a ha'c {\sc fred} % please use! +\cs{fred} -> \fred +\env{fred} -> \begin{fred} +\meta{fred} -> +\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... +\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 +\booktitle{Book of Fred} +\end{verbatim} +} + +For more information, see the ltubguid document at: +\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} + +Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. + + +\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style +\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty +\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX + + +\makesignature % not in ltugproc +\end{document} + +Concept Index +************* + +* prompt: See 26. (line 4738) +*-form of sectioning commands: See 6. (line 788) +.glo file: See 23.2. (line 4515) +.idx file: See 23.3. (line 4530) +.ind file: See 23.3. (line 4540) +abstracts: See 8.1. (line 881) +accents: See 21.3. (line 4263) +accents, mathematical: See 16.4. (line 3611) +accessing any character of a font: See 21.1. (line 4210) +acute accent: See 21.3. (line 4272) +acute accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3616) +ae ligature: See 21.4. (line 4337) +aligning Equations: See 8.8. (line 1065) +alignment via tabbing: See 8.21. (line 1688) +appendix, creating: See 6. (line 794) +aring: See 21.4. (line 4333) +arrays, math: See 8.2. (line 892) +author, for titlepage: See 18.1. (line 3779) +bar-over accent: See 21.3. (line 4280) +bar-under accent: See 21.3. (line 4294) +bibliography, creating (automatically): See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +bibliography, creating (manually): See 8.24. (line 1970) +bibTeX, using: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +black boxes, omitting: See 3.1. (line 357) +bold font: See 4.1. (line 502) +bold typewriter, avoiding: See 8.4. (line 988) +boxes: See 20. (line 4019) +breaking lines: See 13. (line 2578) +breaking pages: See 14. (line 2679) +breve accent: See 21.3. (line 4319) +breve accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3619) +bullet symbol: See 16.2. (line 2946) +bulleted lists: See 8.13. (line 1223) +calligraphic letters for math: See 4.1. (line 505) +cc list, in letters: See 24.2. (line 4596) +cedilla accent: See 21.3. (line 4300) +centering text, declaration for: See 8.3.1. (line 953) +centering text, environment for: See 8.3. (line 939) +characters, accented: See 21.3. (line 4263) +characters, non-English: See 21.4. (line 4328) +characters, reserved: See 21.1. (line 4191) +check accent: See 21.3. (line 4322) +check accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3622) +circumflex accent: See 21.3. (line 4283) +circumflex accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3634) +class options: See 3.1. (line 336) +classes of documents: See 3. (line 319) +closing letters: See 24.3. (line 4606) +closing quote: See 21.2. (line 4251) +code, typesetting: See 8.27. (line 2105) +command Line: See 26. (line 4729) +commands, defining new ones: See 10.1. (line 2231) +computer programs, typesetting: See 8.27. (line 2105) +copyright symbol: See 21.2. (line 4226) +counters, a list of: See 11. (line 2405) +counters, defining new: See 10.2. (line 2264) +counters, getting value of: See 11.3. (line 2464) +counters, setting: See 11.4. (line 2478) +creating letters: See 24. (line 4547) +creating pictures: See 8.18. (line 1404) +creating tables: See 8.22. (line 1780) +credit footnote: See 18.1. (line 3789) +cross references: See 7. (line 807) +cross referencing with page number: See 7.2. (line 849) +cross referencing, symbolic: See 7.3. (line 859) +dagger, in text: See 21.2. (line 4229) +date, for titlepage: See 18.1. (line 3785) +datetime package: See 21.6. (line 4382) +defining a new command: See 10.1. (line 2231) +defining new environments: See 10.5. (line 2304) +defining new fonts: See 10.7. (line 2369) +defining new theorems: See 10.6. (line 2340) +definitions: See 10. (line 2226) +description lists, creating: See 8.4. (line 976) +discretionary multiplication: See 16.6. (line 3680) +displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation:See 8.19. (line 1658) +displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation:See 8.20. + (line 1673) +document class options: See 3.1. (line 336) +document classes: See 3. (line 319) +document templates: See Appendix A. + (line 4745) +dot accent: See 21.3. (line 4277) +dot over accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3628) +dot-over accent: See 21.3. (line 4277) +dot-under accent: See 21.3. (line 4303) +dotless i: See 21.3. (line 4310) +dotless i, math: See 16.4. (line 3637) +dotless j: See 21.3. (line 4313) +dotless j, math: See 16.4. (line 3640) +double dagger, in text: See 21.2. (line 4232) +double dot accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3625) +ellipsis: See 21.2. (line 4238) +emphasis: See 4.1. (line 444) +enclosure list: See 24.4. (line 4616) +ending & starting: See 2. (line 301) +enlarge current page: See 14.4. (line 2706) +environments: See 8. (line 871) +environments, defining: See 10.5. (line 2304) +equation number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +equation numbers, omitting: See 8.8. (line 1079) +equations, aligning: See 8.8. (line 1065) +equations, environment for: See 8.9. (line 1091) +es-zet German letter: See 21.4. (line 4352) +exponent: See 16.1. (line 2856) +figure number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +figures, footnotes in: See 8.17. (line 1391) +figures, inserting: See 8.10. (line 1104) +fixed-width font: See 4.1. (line 526) +flushing floats and starting a page: See 14.2. (line 2694) +font commands, low-level: See 4.3. (line 558) +font sizes: See 4.2. (line 532) +font styles: See 4.1. (line 424) +fonts: See 4. (line 418) +fonts, new commands for: See 10.7. (line 2369) +footer style: See 18.3. (line 3824) +footer, parameters for: See 5.5. (line 706) +footnote number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +footnote parameters: See 9.4. (line 2209) +footnotes in figures: See 8.17. (line 1391) +footnotes, creating: See 9. (line 2158) +formulas, environment for: See 8.9. (line 1091) +formulas, math: See 16. (line 2818) +fragile commands: See 10.8. (line 2383) +functions, math: See 16.3. (line 3502) +global options: See 3.1. (line 336) +glossaries: See 23.2. (line 4513) +grave accent: See 21.3. (line 4286) +grave accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3631) +greek letters: See 16.2. (line 2865) +ha'c <1>: See 16.5. (line 3668) +\>: See 8.21. (line 1713) +\> (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1712) +\@: See 19.4. (line 3915) +\[: See 16. (line 2830) +\\ (for \shortstack objects): See 8.18.13. (line 1642) +\\ (for array): See 8.2. (line 914) +\\ (for center): See 8.3. (line 946) +\\ (for eqnarray): See 8.8. (line 1071) +\\ (for flushright): See 8.12. (line 1203) +\\ for \author: See 18.1. (line 3779) +\\ for \title: See 18.1. (line 3793) +\\ for flushleft: See 8.11. (line 1177) +\\ for letters: See 24. (line 4573) +\\ for tabular: See 8.23. (line 1833) +\\ for verse: See 8.28. (line 2150) +\\ force line break: See 13.1. (line 2590) +\\ tabbing: See 8.21. (line 1706) +\\* (for eqnarray): See 8.8. (line 1076) +\]: See 16. (line 2830) +\^: See 21.1. (line 4206) +\^ (circumflex accent): See 21.3. (line 4283) +\_: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\` (grave accent): See 21.3. (line 4286) +\` (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1733) +\a (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1742) +\a' (acute accent in tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1743) +\a= (macron accent in tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1743) +\a` (grave accent in tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1743) +\AA (AA): See 21.4. (line 4333) +\aa (aa): See 21.4. (line 4333) +\acute: See 16.4. (line 3615) +\addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT}: See 23.1.1. (line 4467) +\address: See 24.1. (line 4583) +\addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: See 23.1.2. (line 4498) +\addtocounter: See 11.5. (line 2488) +\addtolength: See 12.2. (line 2531) +\addvspace: See 19.9. (line 3967) +\AE (AE): See 21.4. (line 4337) +\ae (ae): See 21.4. (line 4337) +\aleph: See 16.2. (line 2873) +\Alph: See 11.1. (line 2427) +\alph: See 11.1. (line 2424) +\Alph example: See 8.7. (line 1060) +\alpha: See 16.2. (line 2876) +\amalg: See 16.2. (line 2879) +\and for \author: See 18.1. (line 3779) +\angle: See 16.2. (line 2882) +\appendix: See 6. (line 794) +\approx: See 16.2. (line 2885) +\arabic: See 11.1. (line 2430) +\arccos: See 16.3. (line 3505) +\arcsin: See 16.3. (line 3508) +\arctan: See 16.3. (line 3511) +\arg: See 16.3. (line 3514) +\arraycolsep: See 8.2. (line 929) +\arrayrulewidth: See 8.23. (line 1900) +\arraystretch: See 8.23. (line 1904) +\ast: See 16.2. (line 2888) +\asymp: See 16.2. (line 2891) +\author{NAME \and NAME2}: See 18.1. (line 3778) +\b (bar-under accent): See 21.3. (line 4294) +\backslash <1>: See 21.1. (line 4201) +\backslash: See 16.2. (line 2894) +\bar (macron, bar-over accent): See 21.3. (line 4297) +\baselineskip: See 4.3. (line 609) +\baselinestretch: See 4.3. (line 615) +\begin: See 8. (line 871) +\beta: See 16.2. (line 2897) +\bf: See 4.1. (line 501) +\bfseries: See 4.1. (line 450) +\bibitem: See 8.24.1. (line 1995) +\bibliography: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +\bibliographystyle: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +\bigcap: See 16.2. (line 2900) +\bigcirc: See 16.2. (line 2903) +\bigcup: See 16.2. (line 2906) +\bigodot: See 16.2. (line 2909) +\bigoplus: See 16.2. (line 2912) +\bigotimes: See 16.2. (line 2915) +\bigskip: See 19.10. (line 3981) +\bigskipamount: See 19.10. (line 3981) +\bigsqcup: See 16.2. (line 2924) +\bigtriangledown: See 16.2. (line 2918) +\bigtriangleup: See 16.2. (line 2921) +\biguplus: See 16.2. (line 2927) +\bigwedge: See 16.2. (line 2933) +\bmod: See 16.3. (line 3517) +\boldmath: See 16. (line 2843) +\bot: See 16.2. (line 2936) +\bottomfraction: See 8.10. (line 1138) +\bowtie: See 16.2. (line 2939) +\Box: See 16.2. (line 2942) +\breve: See 16.4. (line 3618) +\bullet: See 16.2. (line 2945) +\c (cedilla accent): See 21.3. (line 4300) +\cal: See 4.1. (line 504) +\cap: See 16.2. (line 2948) +\caption: See 8.10. (line 1134) +\cc: See 24.2. (line 4596) +\cdot: See 16.2. (line 2951) +\cdots: See 16.6. (line 3683) +\centering: See 8.3.1. (line 953) +\chapter: See 6. (line 760) +\check: See 16.4. (line 3621) +\chi: See 16.2. (line 2954) +\circ: See 16.2. (line 2957) +\circle: See 8.18.1. (line 1470) +\cite: See 8.24.2. (line 2012) +\cleardoublepage: See 14.1. (line 2686) +\clearpage: See 14.2. (line 2694) +\cline: See 8.23.2. (line 1944) +\closing: See 24.3. (line 4606) +\clubsuit: See 16.2. (line 2960) +\columnsep: See 5.2. (line 655) +\columnseprule: See 5.2. (line 658) +\columnwidth: See 5.2. (line 662) +\cong: See 16.2. (line 2963) +\contentsline: See 23.1.1. (line 4492) +\coprod: See 16.2. (line 2966) +\copyright: See 21.2. (line 4225) +\cos: See 16.3. (line 3520) +\cosh: See 16.3. (line 3523) +\cot: See 16.3. (line 3526) +\coth: See 16.3. (line 3529) +\csc: See 16.3. (line 3532) +\cup: See 16.2. (line 2969) +\d (dot-under accent): See 21.3. (line 4303) +\dag: See 21.2. (line 4228) +\dagger: See 16.2. (line 2972) +\dashbox: See 8.18.4. (line 1518) +\dashv: See 16.2. (line 2975) +\date{TEXT}: See 18.1. (line 3784) +\day: See 11.8. (line 2507) +\dblfloatpagefraction: See 5.2. (line 674) +\dblfloatsep: See 5.2. (line 678) +\dbltextfloatsep: See 5.2. (line 683) +\dbltopfraction: See 5.2. (line 669) +\ddag: See 21.2. (line 4231) +\ddagger: See 16.2. (line 2978) +\ddot: See 16.4. (line 3624) +\ddots: See 16.6. (line 3687) +\deg: See 16.3. (line 3535) +\delta: See 16.2. (line 2984) +\Delta: See 16.2. (line 2981) +\depth: See 12.6. (line 2563) +\det: See 16.3. (line 3538) +\diamond: See 16.2. (line 2990) +\Diamond: See 16.2. (line 2987) +\diamondsuit: See 16.2. (line 2993) +\dim: See 16.3. (line 3541) +\displaystyle: See 16. (line 2848) +\div: See 16.2. (line 2996) +\documentclass: See 3. (line 319) +\dot: See 16.4. (line 3627) +\doteq: See 16.2. (line 2999) +\dotfill: See 19.8. (line 3961) +\doublerulesep: See 8.23. (line 1908) +\Downarrow: See 16.2. (line 3005) +\downarrow: See 16.2. (line 3002) +\ell: See 16.2. (line 3008) +\em: See 4.1. (line 507) +\emph: See 4.1. (line 444) +\emptyset: See 16.2. (line 3011) +\encl: See 24.4. (line 4616) +\end: See 8. (line 871) +\enlargethispage: See 14.4. (line 2706) +\enumi: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\enumii: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\enumiii: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\enumiv: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\epsilon: See 16.2. (line 3014) +\equiv: See 16.2. (line 3017) +\eta: See 16.2. (line 3020) +\evensidemargin: See 3.1. (line 385) +\exists: See 16.2. (line 3023) +\exp: See 16.3. (line 3544) +\fbox: See 20.2. (line 4032) +\fboxrule <1>: See 20.2. (line 4042) +\fboxrule: See 8.18.3. (line 1511) +\fboxsep <1>: See 20.2. (line 4042) +\fboxsep: See 8.18.3. (line 1511) +\fill: See 19.2. (line 3897) +\flat: See 16.2. (line 3026) +\floatpagefraction: See 8.10. (line 1141) +\floatsep: See 8.10. (line 1145) +\flushbottom: See 5.3. (line 691) +\fnsymbol: See 11.1. (line 2439) +\fontencoding: See 4.3. (line 563) +\fontfamily: See 4.3. (line 566) +\fontseries: See 4.3. (line 577) +\fontshape: See 4.3. (line 592) +\fontsize: See 4.3. (line 609) +\footnote: See 9.1. (line 2165) +\footnotemark: See 9.2. (line 2180) +\footnoterule: See 9.4. (line 2209) +\footnotesep: See 9.4. (line 2215) +\footnotesize: See 4.2. (line 537) +\footnotetext: See 9.3. (line 2195) +\footskip: See 5.5. (line 716) +\forall: See 16.2. (line 3029) +\frac: See 16.6. (line 3691) +\frac{num}{den}: See 16.6. (line 3690) +\frame: See 8.18.5. (line 1531) +\framebox <1>: See 20.2. (line 4032) +\framebox: See 8.18.3. (line 1503) +\frown: See 16.2. (line 3032) +\fussy: See 13.5. (line 2628) +\gamma: See 16.2. (line 3038) +\Gamma: See 16.2. (line 3035) +\gcd: See 16.3. (line 3547) +\ge: See 16.2. (line 3041) +\geq: See 16.2. (line 3044) +\gets: See 16.2. (line 3047) +\gg: See 16.2. (line 3050) +\glossary: See 23.2. (line 4515) +\glossaryentry: See 23.2. (line 4518) +\grave: See 16.4. (line 3630) +\H (Hungarian umlaut accent): See 21.3. (line 4306) +\hat: See 16.4. (line 3633) +\hbar: See 16.2. (line 3053) +\headheight: See 5.5. (line 706) +\headsep: See 5.5. (line 711) +\heartsuit: See 16.2. (line 3056) +\height: See 12.6. (line 2561) +\hfill: See 19.2. (line 3894) +\hline: See 8.23.3. (line 1955) +\hom: See 16.3. (line 3550) +\hookleftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3059) +\hookrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3062) +\hrulefill: See 19.7. (line 3954) +\hspace: See 19.1. (line 3878) +\Huge: See 4.2. (line 537) +\huge: See 4.2. (line 537) +\hyphenation: See 13.7. (line 2646) +\i (dotless i): See 21.3. (line 4310) +\iff: See 16.2. (line 3065) +\Im: See 16.2. (line 3068) +\imath: See 16.4. (line 3636) +\in: See 16.2. (line 3071) +\include: See 22.1. (line 4397) +\includeonly: See 22.2. (line 4415) +\indent: See 15.1. (line 2747) +\index: See 23.3. (line 4530) +\indexentry: See 23.3. (line 4533) +\inf: See 16.3. (line 3553) +\infty: See 16.2. (line 3074) +\input: See 22.3. (line 4429) +\int: See 16.2. (line 3077) +\intextsep: See 8.10. (line 1149) +\iota: See 16.2. (line 3080) +\it: See 4.1. (line 510) +\item <1>: See 8.13. (line 1223) +\item <2>: See 8.7. (line 1037) +\item: See 8.4. (line 984) +\itemindent: See 8.13. (line 1269) +\itemsep: See 8.13. (line 1292) +\itshape: See 4.1. (line 441) +\j (dotless j): See 21.3. (line 4313) +\jmath: See 16.4. (line 3639) +\Join: See 16.2. (line 3083) +\kappa: See 16.2. (line 3086) +\ker: See 16.3. (line 3556) +\kill: See 8.21. (line 1747) +\L (/L): See 21.4. (line 4341) +\l (/l): See 21.4. (line 4341) +\label: See 7.1. (line 813) +\labelenumi: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelenumii: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelenumiii: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelenumiv: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelitemi: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelitemii: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelitemiii: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelitemiv: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelsep: See 8.13. (line 1272) +\labelwidth: See 8.13. (line 1275) +\lambda: See 16.2. (line 3092) +\Lambda: See 16.2. (line 3089) +\land: See 16.2. (line 3095) +\langle: See 16.2. (line 3098) +\LARGE: See 4.2. (line 537) +\Large: See 4.2. (line 537) +\large: See 4.2. (line 537) +\LaTeX: See 21.2. (line 4234) +\lbrace: See 16.2. (line 3101) +\lbrack: See 16.2. (line 3104) +\lceil: See 16.2. (line 3107) +\ldots: See 21.2. (line 4237) +\le: See 16.2. (line 3110) +\leadsto: See 16.2. (line 3113) +\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2: See 16.6. (line 3693) +\leftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3118) +\Leftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3115) +\lefteqn: See 8.8. (line 1084) +\leftharpoondown: See 16.2. (line 3121) +\leftharpoonup: See 16.2. (line 3124) +\leftmargin: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmargini: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginii: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginiii: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginiv: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginv: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginvi: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3130) +\Leftrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3127) +\leq: See 16.2. (line 3133) +\lfloor: See 16.2. (line 3136) +\lg: See 16.3. (line 3559) +\lhd: See 16.2. (line 3139) +\lim: See 16.3. (line 3562) +\liminf: See 16.3. (line 3565) +\limsup: See 16.3. (line 3568) +\line: See 8.18.6. (line 1542) +\linebreak: See 13.8. (line 2662) +\linethickness: See 8.18.7. (line 1557) +\linewidth: See 5.5. (line 721) +\listoffigures: See 23.1. (line 4457) +\listoftables: See 23.1. (line 4457) +\listparindent: See 8.13. (line 1278) +\ll: See 16.2. (line 3142) +\ln: See 16.3. (line 3571) +\lnot: See 16.2. (line 3145) +\location: See 24.5. (line 4625) +\log: See 16.3. (line 3574) +\longleftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3148) +\longleftrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3151) +\longmapsto: See 16.2. (line 3154) +\longrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3157) +\lor: See 16.2. (line 3160) +\lq: See 21.2. (line 4241) +\makebox: See 20.4. (line 4063) +\makebox (picture): See 8.18.2. (line 1481) +\makeglossary: See 23.2. (line 4513) +\makeindex: See 23.3. (line 4528) +\makelabels: See 24.6. (line 4633) +\maketitle: See 18.1. (line 3773) +\mapsto: See 16.2. (line 3163) +\marginpar: See 15.4. (line 2771) +\marginparpush: See 15.4. (line 2800) +\marginparsep: See 15.4. (line 2804) +\marginparwidth: See 15.4. (line 2808) +\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}: See 18.3. (line 3848) +\markright{RIGHT}: See 18.3. (line 3855) +\mathbf: See 4.1. (line 474) +\mathcal: See 4.1. (line 490) +\mathnormal: See 4.1. (line 487) +\mathrm: See 4.1. (line 471) +\mathsf: See 4.1. (line 477) +\mathtt: See 4.1. (line 480) +\mathversion: See 4.1. (line 492) +\max: See 16.3. (line 3577) +\mbox: See 20.1. (line 4025) +\mdseries: See 4.1. (line 447) +\medskip: See 19.10. (line 3985) +\medskipamount: See 19.10. (line 3985) +\mho: See 16.2. (line 3166) +\mid: See 16.2. (line 3168) +\min: See 16.3. (line 3580) +\models: See 16.2. (line 3171) +\month: See 11.8. (line 2507) +\mp: See 16.2. (line 3174) +\mu: See 16.2. (line 3177) +\multicolumn: See 8.23.1. (line 1921) +\multiput: See 8.18.10. (line 1581) +\nabla: See 16.2. (line 3180) +\name: See 24.7. (line 4641) +\natural: See 16.2. (line 3183) +\ne: See 16.2. (line 3186) +\nearrow: See 16.2. (line 3189) +\neg: See 16.2. (line 3192) +\neq: See 16.2. (line 3195) +\newcommand: See 10.1. (line 2231) +\newcounter: See 10.2. (line 2264) +\newenvironment: See 10.5. (line 2304) +\newfont: See 10.7. (line 2369) +\newlength: See 10.3. (line 2279) +\NEWLINE: See 19.3. (line 3904) +\newline: See 13.3. (line 2609) +\newpage: See 14.3. (line 2700) +\newsavebox: See 10.4. (line 2294) +\newtheorem: See 10.6. (line 2340) +\ni: See 16.2. (line 3198) +\nocite: See 8.24.3. (line 2027) +\nofiles: See 23.1. (line 4461) +\noindent: See 15.2. (line 2758) +\nolinebreak: See 13.8. (line 2662) +\nonumber: See 8.8. (line 1079) +\nopagebreak: See 14.5. (line 2721) +\normalfont: See 4.1. (line 468) +\normalmarginpar: See 15.4. (line 2788) +\normalsize: See 4.2. (line 537) +\not: See 16.2. (line 3201) +\notin: See 16.2. (line 3204) +\nu: See 16.2. (line 3207) +\nwarrow: See 16.2. (line 3210) +\O (/O): See 21.4. (line 4345) +\o (/o): See 21.4. (line 4345) +\obeycr: See 13.2. (line 2600) +\oddsidemargin: See 3.1. (line 385) +\odot: See 16.2. (line 3213) +\OE (OE): See 21.4. (line 4349) +\oe (oe): See 21.4. (line 4349) +\oint: See 16.2. (line 3216) +\omega: See 16.2. (line 3222) +\Omega: See 16.2. (line 3219) +\ominus: See 16.2. (line 3225) +\onecolumn: See 5.1. (line 639) +\opening: See 24.8. (line 4649) +\oplus: See 16.2. (line 3228) +\oslash: See 16.2. (line 3231) +\otimes: See 16.2. (line 3234) +\oval: See 8.18.11. (line 1591) +\overbrace{TEXT}: See 16.6. (line 3698) +\overline{TEXT}: See 16.6. (line 3702) +\owns: See 16.2. (line 3237) +\P: See 21.2. (line 4244) +\pagebreak: See 14.5. (line 2721) +\pagenumbering: See 18.2. (line 3800) +\pageref: See 7.2. (line 849) +\pagestyle: See 18.3. (line 3824) +\paragraph: See 6. (line 769) +\parallel: See 16.2. (line 3240) +\parbox: See 20.5. (line 4091) +\parindent <1>: See 15.1. (line 2747) +\parindent: See 8.17. (line 1387) +\parsep: See 8.13. (line 1297) +\parskip: See 15.3. (line 2765) +\parskip example: See 8.13. (line 1320) +\part: See 6. (line 758) +\partial: See 16.2. (line 3243) +\partopsep: See 8.13. (line 1307) +\perp: See 16.2. (line 3246) +\phi: See 16.2. (line 3249) +\pi: See 16.2. (line 3255) +\Pi: See 16.2. (line 3252) +\pm: See 16.2. (line 3258) +\pmod: See 16.3. (line 3583) +\poptabs: See 8.21. (line 1753) +\pounds: See 21.2. (line 4247) +\Pr: See 16.3. (line 3586) +\prec: See 16.2. (line 3261) +\preceq: See 16.2. (line 3264) +\prime: See 16.2. (line 3267) +\prod: See 16.2. (line 3270) +\propto: See 16.2. (line 3273) +\protect: See 10.8. (line 2383) +\ps: See 24.9. (line 4662) +\psi: See 16.2. (line 3279) +\Psi: See 16.2. (line 3276) +\pushtabs: See 8.21. (line 1756) +\put: See 8.18.12. (line 1618) +\raggedbottom: See 5.4. (line 700) +\raggedleft: See 8.12.1. (line 1210) +\raggedright: See 8.11.1. (line 1184) +\raisebox: See 20.6. (line 4135) +\rangle: See 16.2. (line 3282) +\rbrace: See 16.2. (line 3285) +\rbrack: See 16.2. (line 3288) +\rceil: See 16.2. (line 3291) +\Re: See 16.2. (line 3294) +\ref: See 7.3. (line 859) +\refstepcounter: See 11.6. (line 2494) +\renewenvironment: See 10.5. (line 2304) +\restorecr: See 13.2. (line 2600) +\reversemarginpar: See 15.4. (line 2788) +\rfloor: See 16.2. (line 3297) +\rhd: See 16.2. (line 3300) +\rho: See 16.2. (line 3303) +\right: See 16.6. (line 3694) +\rightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3309) +\Rightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3306) +\rightharpoondown: See 16.2. (line 3312) +\rightharpoonup: See 16.2. (line 3315) +\rightleftharpoons: See 16.2. (line 3318) +\rightmargin: See 8.13. (line 1282) +\rm: See 4.1. (line 513) +\rmfamily: See 4.1. (line 438) +\roman: See 11.1. (line 2433) +\rq: See 21.2. (line 4250) +\rule: See 21.5. (line 4358) +\S: See 21.2. (line 4253) +\savebox: See 20.7. (line 4151) +\sbox: See 20.8. (line 4163) +\sc: See 4.1. (line 516) +\scriptsize: See 4.2. (line 537) +\scshape: See 4.1. (line 462) +\searrow: See 16.2. (line 3321) +\sec: See 16.3. (line 3589) +\section: See 6. (line 763) +\selectfont: See 4.3. (line 623) +\setcounter: See 11.4. (line 2478) +\setlength: See 12.1. (line 2524) +\setminus: See 16.2. (line 3324) +\settodepth: See 12.3. (line 2537) +\settoheight: See 12.4. (line 2545) +\settowidth: See 12.5. (line 2553) +\sf: See 4.1. (line 519) +\sffamily: See 4.1. (line 459) +\sharp: See 16.2. (line 3327) +\shortstack: See 8.18.13. (line 1626) +\sigma: See 16.2. (line 3333) +\Sigma: See 16.2. (line 3330) +\signature: See 24.10. (line 4668) +\sim: See 16.2. (line 3336) +\simeq: See 16.2. (line 3339) +\sin: See 16.3. (line 3592) +\sinh: See 16.3. (line 3595) +\sl: See 4.1. (line 522) +\slshape: See 4.1. (line 456) +\small: See 4.2. (line 537) +\smallint: See 16.2. (line 3342) +\smallskip: See 19.10. (line 3989) +\smallskipamount: See 19.10. (line 3989) +\smile: See 16.2. (line 3345) +\SPACE: See 19.3. (line 3904) +\spadesuit: See 16.2. (line 3348) +\sqcap: See 16.2. (line 3351) +\sqcup: See 16.2. (line 3354) +\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}: See 16.6. (line 3705) +\sqsubset: See 16.2. (line 3357) +\sqsubseteq: See 16.2. (line 3360) +\sqsupset: See 16.2. (line 3363) +\sqsupseteq: See 16.2. (line 3366) +\ss (ss): See 21.4. (line 4352) +\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}: See 16.6. (line 3711) +\star: See 16.2. (line 3369) +\startbreaks: See 24.11. (line 4674) +\stepcounter: See 11.7. (line 2501) +\stop: See 26. (line 4738) +\stopbreaks: See 24.12. (line 4681) +\subparagraph: See 6. (line 771) +\subsection: See 6. (line 765) +\subset: See 16.2. (line 3372) +\subseteq: See 16.2. (line 3375) +\subsubsection: See 6. (line 767) +\succ: See 16.2. (line 3378) +\succeq: See 16.2. (line 3381) +\sum: See 16.2. (line 3384) +\sup: See 16.3. (line 3598) +\supset: See 16.2. (line 3387) +\supseteq: See 16.2. (line 3390) +\surd: See 16.2. (line 3393) +\swarrow: See 16.2. (line 3396) +\symbol: See 21.1. (line 4210) +\t (tie-after accent): See 21.3. (line 4316) +\TAB: See 19.3. (line 3904) +\tabbingsep: See 8.21. (line 1761) +\tabcolsep: See 8.23. (line 1912) +\tableofcontents: See 23.1. (line 4447) +\tan: See 16.3. (line 3601) +\tanh: See 16.3. (line 3604) +\tau: See 16.2. (line 3399) +\telephone: See 24.13. (line 4688) +\TeX: See 21.2. (line 4256) +\textbf: See 4.1. (line 450) +\textfloatsep: See 8.10. (line 1154) +\textfraction: See 8.10. (line 1158) +\textheight: See 5.5. (line 727) +\textit: See 4.1. (line 441) +\textmd: See 4.1. (line 447) +\textnormal: See 4.1. (line 468) +\textrm: See 4.1. (line 438) +\textsc: See 4.1. (line 462) +\textsf: See 4.1. (line 459) +\textsl: See 4.1. (line 456) +\texttt: See 4.1. (line 465) +\textup: See 4.1. (line 453) +\textwidth: See 5.5. (line 734) +\thanks{TEXT}: See 18.1. (line 3788) +\theta: See 16.2. (line 3402) +\thicklines: See 8.18.8. (line 1567) +\thinlines: See 8.18.9. (line 1574) +\thinspace: See 19.5. (line 3929) +\thispagestyle: See 18.4. (line 3862) +\tilde: See 16.4. (line 3642) +\times: See 16.2. (line 3405) +\tiny: See 4.2. (line 537) +\title{TEXT}: See 18.1. (line 3792) +\to: See 16.2. (line 3408) +\today: See 21.6. (line 4377) +\top: See 16.2. (line 3411) +\topfraction: See 8.10. (line 1163) +\topmargin: See 5.5. (line 740) +\topsep: See 8.13. (line 1301) +\topskip: See 5.5. (line 747) +\totalheight: See 12.6. (line 2565) +\triangle: See 16.2. (line 3414) +\triangleleft: See 16.2. (line 3417) +\triangleright: See 16.2. (line 3420) +\tt: See 4.1. (line 525) +\ttfamily: See 4.1. (line 465) +\twocolumn: See 5.2. (line 645) +\typein: See 25.1. (line 4699) +\typeout: See 25.2. (line 4713) +\u (breve accent): See 21.3. (line 4319) +\unboldmath: See 16. (line 2843) +\underbrace{math}: See 16.6. (line 3715) +\underline{text}: See 16.6. (line 3718) +\unitlength: See 8.18. (line 1408) +\unlhd: See 16.2. (line 3423) +\unrhd: See 16.2. (line 3426) +\uparrow: See 16.2. (line 3432) +\Uparrow: See 16.2. (line 3429) +\updownarrow: See 16.2. (line 3438) +\Updownarrow: See 16.2. (line 3435) +\uplus: See 16.2. (line 3441) +\upshape: See 4.1. (line 453) +\upsilon: See 16.2. (line 3447) +\Upsilon: See 16.2. (line 3444) +\usebox: See 20.9. (line 4175) +\usecounter: See 11.2. (line 2453) +\usefont: See 4.3. (line 627) +\usepackage: See 3.1. (line 404) +\v (breve accent): See 21.3. (line 4322) +\value: See 11.3. (line 2464) +\varepsilon: See 16.2. (line 3450) +\varphi: See 16.2. (line 3453) +\varpi: See 16.2. (line 3456) +\varrho: See 16.2. (line 3459) +\varsigma: See 16.2. (line 3462) +\vartheta: See 16.2. (line 3465) +\vdash: See 16.2. (line 3468) +\vdots: See 16.6. (line 3722) +\vec: See 16.4. (line 3645) +\vector: See 8.18.14. (line 1647) +\vee: See 16.2. (line 3471) +\verb: See 8.27.1. (line 2122) +\vert: See 16.2. (line 3477) +\Vert: See 16.2. (line 3474) +\vfill: See 19.11. (line 3998) +\vline: See 8.23.4. (line 1962) +\vspace: See 19.12. (line 4005) +\wedge: See 16.2. (line 3480) +\widehat: See 16.4. (line 3648) +\width: See 12.6. (line 2559) +\wp: See 16.2. (line 3483) +\wr: See 16.2. (line 3486) +\xi: See 16.2. (line 3492) +\Xi: See 16.2. (line 3489) +\year: See 11.8. (line 2507) +\zeta: See 16.2. (line 3495) +\{: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\|: See 16.2. (line 2870) +\}: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\~: See 21.1. (line 4206) +\~ (tilde accent): See 21.3. (line 4291) +^: See 16.1. (line 2856) +_: See 16.1. (line 2856) +a4paper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +a5paper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +abstract environment: See 8.1. (line 881) +array environment: See 8.2. (line 892) +article class: See 3. (line 326) +b5paper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +book class: See 3. (line 326) +center environment: See 8.3. (line 939) +description environment: See 8.4. (line 976) +displaymath environment <1>: See 16. (line 2818) +displaymath environment: See 8.5. (line 999) +document environment: See 8.6. (line 1018) +draft option: See 3.1. (line 354) +enumerate environment: See 8.7. (line 1024) +eqnarray environment: See 8.8. (line 1065) +equation environment <1>: See 16. (line 2818) +equation environment: See 8.9. (line 1091) +executivepaper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +figure: See 8.10. (line 1104) +final option: See 3.1. (line 354) +fleqn option: See 3.1. (line 354) +flushleft environment: See 8.11. (line 1171) +flushright environment: See 8.12. (line 1197) +itemize environment: See 8.13. (line 1223) +landscape option: See 3.1. (line 354) +legalpaper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +leqno option: See 3.1. (line 354) +letter: See 8.14. (line 1336) +letter class: See 3. (line 326) +letterpaper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +list: See 8.15. (line 1341) +lR box: See 8.18. (line 1460) +lrbox: See 20.3. (line 4053) +math environment <1>: See 16. (line 2818) +math environment: See 8.16. (line 1363) +minipage environment: See 8.17. (line 1375) +notitlepage option: See 3.1. (line 354) +onecolumn option: See 3.1. (line 379) +oneside option: See 3.1. (line 379) +openany option: See 3.1. (line 379) +openbib option: See 3.1. (line 354) +openright option: See 3.1. (line 379) +picture: See 8.18. (line 1404) +quotation: See 8.19. (line 1658) +quote: See 8.20. (line 1673) +report class: See 3. (line 326) +slides class: See 3. (line 326) +tabbing environment: See 8.21. (line 1688) +table: See 8.22. (line 1780) +tabular environment: See 8.23. (line 1816) +thebibliography: See 8.24. (line 1970) +theorem environment: See 8.25. (line 2075) +titlepage environment: See 8.26. (line 2088) +titlepage option: See 3.1. (line 354) +twocolumn option: See 3.1. (line 379) +twoside option: See 3.1. (line 379) +verbatim environment: See 8.27. (line 2105) +verse environment: See 8.28. (line 2139) diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.xml b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.xml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..2ff958c3e60 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.xml @@ -0,0 +1,7105 @@ + + + + latex2e.xml + June 2008 + 2.0 + &latex;2e reference manual 2.0 + + + + + This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system. &latex; is a macro package for &tex;. + This was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The &latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The &latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and the &latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as &tex;niques number 10), as reference material (text was not directly copied). + Copyright ©right; 2007, 2008 Karl Berry.&linebreak; Copyright ©right; 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.&linebreak; Copyright ©right; 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. + Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. + TeX + + &latex;: Structured documents for &tex; + unofficial &latex; reference manual + version 2.0, June 2008 + + This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system. &latex; is a macro package for &tex;. + This was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The &latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The &latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and the &latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as &tex;niques number 10), as reference material (text was not directly copied). + Copyright ©right; 2007, 2008 Karl Berry.&linebreak; Copyright ©right; 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.&linebreak; Copyright ©right; 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. + Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. + + + + + Top + Overview + (dir) + + &latex;2e + This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system. It is intended to cover &latex;2e, which has been the standard version of &latex; for many years. + Knuth, Donald E.Lamport, Leslie&latex; Project team&latex; is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's &tex; typesetting program. &latex; was originally created by Leslie Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written by the &latex; project is available there. Again, the present document is unofficial and has not been reviewed by the &latex; maintainers. + + + Overview + Overview + What is &latex;? + + + Starting & ending + Starting & ending + The standard beginning and end of a document. + + + Document classes + Document classes + Some of the various classes available. + + + Typefaces + Typefaces + And fonts, such as bold, italics etc. + + + Layout + Layout + Controlling the page layout. + + + Sectioning + Sectioning + How to section properly. + + + Cross references + Cross references + Automatic referencing. + + + Environments + Environments + Such as enumerate & itemize. + + + Line breaking + Line breaking + Influencing line breaks. + + + Page breaking + Page breaking + Influencing page breaks. + + + Footnotes + Footnotes + How to produce footnotes. + + + Definitions + Definitions + Define your own commands etc. + + + Counters + Counters + Internal counters used by &latex;. + + + Lengths + Lengths + The length commands. + + + Making paragraphs + Making paragraphs + Paragraph commands. + + + Math formulas + Math formulas + How to create mathematical formulas. + + + Modes + Modes + Paragraph, Math or LR modes. + + + Page Styles + Page Styles + Various styles of page layout. + + + Spaces + Spaces + Horizontal and vertical space. + + + Boxes + Boxes + Making boxes. + + + Special insertions + Special insertions + Inserting reserved and special characters. + + + Splitting the input + Splitting the input + Dealing with big files by splitting. + + + Front/back matter + Front/back matter + Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes. + + + Letters + Letters + The letter class. + + + Terminal Input/Output + Terminal Input/Output + User interaction. + + + Command Line + Command Line + System-independent command-line behavior. + + + Document templates + Document templates + Starter templates for various document classes. + + + Command Index + Command Index + Alphabetical list of &latex; commands. + + + Concept Index + Concept Index + General index. + + + + + + Overview + Starting & ending + Top + Top + + Overview of &latex; + overview of &latex;&latex; overview The &latex; command typesets a file of text using the &tex; program and the &latex; “macro package” for &tex;. To be more specific, it processes an input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least three files as output: + + + A main output file, which is one of: + + + If invoked as latex, a “Device Independent” (.dvi) file. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for a variety of output devices. You can view such .dvi output of &latex; by using a program such as xdvi (display directly) or dvips (convert to PostScript). + + + If invoked as pdflatex, a “Portable Document Format” (.pdf) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does make the output much larger than the .dvi produced from the same document. + + + There are other less-common variants of &latex; (and &tex;) as well, which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. + + + A “transcript” or .log file that contains summary information and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. + + + An “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by &latex; itself, for things such as sectioning. + + + A &latex; command begins with the command name, which consists of a \ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], are optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are required. + &latex; is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless explicitly directed to do otherwise. + + + + Starting & ending + Document classes + Overview + Top + + Starting & ending + starting & endingending & starting A minimal input file looks like the following: + \documentclass{class} +\begin{document} +your text +\end{document} + where the class is a valid document class for &latex;. See Document classes, for details of the various document classes available locally. + preamble, definedYou may include other &latex; commands between the \documentclass and the \begin{document} commands (this area is called the preamble). + + + + Document classes + Typefaces + Starting & ending + Top + + Document classes + document classesclasses of documents\documentclass The class of a given document is defined with the command: + \documentclass[options]{class} + The \documentclass command must be the first command in a &latex; source file. + article classreport classbook classletter classslides classBuilt-in &latex; document class names are (many other document classes are available as add-ons; see Overview): + article report book letter slides + + Standard options are described below. + + + Document class options + Document class options + Global options. + + + + + + Document class options + Document classes +
+ Document class options + document class optionsoptions, document classclass optionsglobal options You can specify so-called global options or class options to the \documentclass command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate them with a comma: + \documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class} + Here is the list of the standard class options. + 10pt option11pt option12pt optionAll of the standard classes except slides accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt): + 10pt 11pt 12pt + a4paper optiona5paper optionb5paper optionexecutivepaper optionlegalpaper optionletterpaper optionAll of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is letterpaper): + a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper + draft optionfinal optionfleqn optionlandscape optionleqno optionopenbib optiontitlepage optionnotitlepage optionMiscellaneous other options: + + + draft, finalblack boxes, omitting + + mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is final. + + + + fleqn + + Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. + + + + landscape + + Selects landscape format; default is portrait. + + + + leqno + + Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. + + + + openbib + + Use “open” bibliography format. + + + + titlepage, notitlepage + + Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. + + +
+ These options are not available with the slides class: + onecolumn optiontwocolumn optiononeside optiontwoside optionopenright optionopenany option + + + onecolumn + twocolumn + + Typeset in one or two columns; default is onecolumn. + + + + oneside + twoside\evensidemargin\oddsidemargin + + Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is oneside, except for the book class. + The \evensidemargin (\oddsidemargin parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided printing the text is centered, for two-sided, \oddsidemargin is 40% of the difference between \paperwidth and \textwidth with \evensidemargin the remainder. + + + + openright + openany + + Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is openright for book. + + +
+ The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at the bottom of each note. + packages, loadingloading additional packages\usepackageAdditional packages are loaded like this: + \usepackage[options]{pkg} + To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a comma, or use multiple \usepackage commands. + global optionsoptions, globalAny options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with \usepackage. +
+
+ + Typefaces + Layout + Document classes + Top + + Typefaces + typefacesfonts Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The &latex; commands for doing this are described here. + + + Font styles + Font styles + Select roman, italics etc. + + + Font sizes + Font sizes + Select point size. + + + Low-level font commands + Low-level font commands + Select encoding, family, series, shape. + + + + + + Font styles + Font sizes + Typefaces +
+ Font styles + font stylestypeface stylesstyles of text The following type style commands are supported by &latex;. + These commands are used like \textit{italic text}. The corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. + The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either \sffamily\bfseries or \bfseries\sffamily to get bold sans serif. + You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance, \begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}. + + + \textrm (\rmfamily)\textrm\rmfamily + + Roman. + + + + \textit (\itshape)\textit\itshape + + Italics. + + + + \emph\emphemphasis + + Emphasis (switches between \textit and \textrm). + + + + \textmd (\mdseries)\textmd\mdseries + + Medium weight (default). + + + + \textbf (\bfseries)\textbf\bfseries + + Boldface. + + + + \textup (\upshape)\textup\upshape + + Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. + + + + \textsl (\slshape)\textsl\slshape + + Slanted. + + + + \textsf (\sffamily)\textsf\sffamily + + Sans serif. + + + + \textsc (\scshape)\textsc\scshape + + Small caps. + + + + \texttt (\ttfamily)\texttt\ttfamily + + Typewriter. + + + + \textnormal (\normalfont)\textnormal\normalfont + + Main document font. + + + + \mathrm\mathrm + + Roman, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathbf\mathbf + + Boldface, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathsf\mathsf + + Sans serif, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathtt\mathtt + + Typewriter, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathit + (\mit) + + Italics, for use in math mode. + + + + \mathnormal\mathnormal + + For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. + + + + \mathcal\mathcal + + `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. + + +
+ In addition, the command \mathversion{bold} \mathversioncan be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default. + &latex; also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are not cumulative. They are used differently than the above commands, too: {\cmd ...} instead of \cmd{...}. These are two very different things. + + + \bf\bfbold font + + Switch to bold face. + + + + \cal\calscript letters for mathcalligraphic letters for math + + Switch to calligraphic letters for math. + + + + \em\ememphasis + + Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). + + + + \it\ititalic font + + Italics. + + + + \rm\rmroman font + + Roman. + + + + \sc\scsmall caps font + + Small caps. + + + + \sf\sfsans serif font + + Sans serif. + + + + \sl\slslanted fontoblique font + + Slanted (oblique). + + + + \tt\tttypewriter fontmonospace fontfixed-width font + + Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). + + +
+
+
+ + Font sizes + Low-level font commands + Font styles + Typefaces +
+ Font sizes + font sizestypeface sizessizes of text The following standard type size commands are supported by &latex;. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the 10pt, 11pt, and 12pt document size options, respectively (see Document class options). + \tiny\scriptsize\footnotesize\small\normalsize\large\Large\LARGE\huge\Huge + + 36 + 7 + 7 + 7 + + + Command + 10pt + 11pt + 12pt + + + + + \tiny + 5 + 6 + 6 + + + \scriptsize + 7 + 8 + 8 + + + \footnotesize + 8 + 9 + 10 + + + \small + 9 + 10 + 10.95 + + + \normalsize (default) + 10 + 10.95 + 12 + + + \large + 12 + 12 + 14.4 + + + \Large + 14.4 + 14.4 + 17.28 + + + \LARGE + 17.28 + 17.28 + 20.74 + + + \huge + 20.74 + 20.74 + 24.88 + + + \Huge + 24.88 + 24.88 + 24.88 + + + + The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}. +
+
+ + Low-level font commands + Font sizes + Typefaces +
+ Low-level font commands + low-level font commandsfont commands, low-level These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. + + + \fontencoding{enc}\fontencoding + + Select font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1. + + + + \fontfamily{family}\fontfamily + + Select font family. Valid families include: + + + + cmr for Computer Modern Roman + + + cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif + + + cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter + + + and numerous others. + + + + \fontseries{series}\fontseries + + Select font series. Valid series include: + + + + m Medium (normal) + + + b Bold + + + c Condensed + + + bc Bold condensed + + + bx Bold extended + + + and various other combinations. + + + + \fontshape{shape}\fontshape + + Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + + + + n Upright (normal) + + + it Italic + + + sl Slanted (oblique) + + + sc Small caps + + + ui Upright italics + + + ol Outline + + + The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + + + + \fontsize{size}{skip}\fontsize\baselineskip + + Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter named \baselineskip. The unit of both parameters defaults to pt. The default \baselineskip for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the \fontsize. + \baselinestretchsetspace packageThe line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the \baselinestretch parameter when the type size changes; the default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document, if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the setspace package; see http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace. + + + + \selectfont\selectfont + + The changes made by calling the four font commands described above do not come into effect until \selectfont is called. + + + + \usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}\usefont + + The same as invoking \fontencoding, \fontfamily, \fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters, followed by \selectfont. + + +
+
+
+ + Layout + Sectioning + Typefaces + Top + + Layout + layout commands Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + + + \onecolumn + \onecolumn + Use one-column layout. + + + \twocolumn + \twocolumn + Use two-column layout. + + + \flushbottom + \flushbottom + Make all text pages the same height. + + + \raggedbottom + \raggedbottom + Allow text pages of differing height. + + + Page layout parameters + Page layout parameters + \headheight \footskip. + + + + + + \onecolumn + \twocolumn + Layout +
+ <code>\onecolumn</code> + \onecolumnone-column output The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. This is the default. +
+
+ + \twocolumn + \flushbottom + \onecolumn + Layout +
+ <code>\twocolumn</code> + \twocolumnmulticolumn texttwo-column output Synopsis: + \twocolumn[text1col] + The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. + These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: + + + \columnsep\columnsep + + The distance between columns (35pt by default). + + + + \columnseprule\columnseprule + + The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. + + + + \columnwidth\columnwidth + + The width of the current column; this is equal to \textwidth in single-column text. + + +
+ These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: + + + \dbltopfraction\dbltopfraction + + Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by floats. Default .7, can be usefully redefined to (say) .9 to avoid going to float pages so soon. + + + + \dblfloatpagefraction\dblfloatpagefraction + + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, for a two-column float page. Default .5. + + + + \dblfloatsep\dblfloatsep + + Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float page. Default 12pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt and 11pt documents, 14pt plus2pt minus4pt for 12pt. + + + + \dbltextfloatsep\dbltextfloatsep + + Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. Default 20pt plus2pt minus4pt. + + +
+
+
+ + \flushbottom + \raggedbottom + \twocolumn + Layout +
+ <code>\flushbottom</code> + \flushbottom The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. + This is the default if twocolumn mode is selected (see Document class options). +
+
+ + \raggedbottom + Page layout parameters + \flushbottom + Layout +
+ <code>\raggedbottom</code> + \raggedbottomstretch, omitting vertical The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the natural height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched. +
+
+ + Page layout parameters + \raggedbottom + Layout +
+ Page layout parameters + page layout parametersparameters, page layoutlayout, page parameters forheader, parameters forfooter, parameters forrunning header and footer + + + \headheight\headheight + + Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is 30pt, except in the book class, where it varies with the type size. + + + + \headsep\headsep + + Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. Default is 25pt, except in the book class, where it varies with the type size. + + + + \footskip\footskip + + Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. Default is 30pt, except in the book class, where it varies with the type size. + + + + \linewidth\linewidth + + Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an article document in 10pt, it's set to 345pt; in two-column mode, that becomes 229.5pt. + + + + \textheight\textheight + + The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with the font size, document class, etc. For an article or report document in 10pt, it's set to 43\baselineskip; for book, it's 41\baselineskip. For 11pt, it's 38\baselineskip and for 12pt, 36\baselineskip. + + + + \textwidth\textwidth + + The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as usual. For an article or report document, it's 345pt at 10pt, 360pt at 11pt, and 390pt at 12pt. For a book document, it's 4.5in at 10pt, and 5in at 11pt or 12pt. + + + + \topmargin\topmargin + + Space between the top of the &tex; page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed based on many other parameters: \paperheight − 2in − \headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip, and then divided by two. + + + + \topskip\topskip + + Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., 10pt at 10pt. + + +
+
+
+ + Sectioning + Cross references + Layout + Top + + Sectioning + sectioning Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: + + + \part\part + \chapter\chapter + + (report and book class only) + + + + \section\section + \subsection\subsection + \subsubsection\subsubsection + \paragraph\paragraph + \subparagraph\subparagraph + +
+ All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., + \chapter[toctitle]{title} + In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places: + + + The table of contents. + + + The running head at the top of the page. + + + You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. + *-form of sectioning commandsAlso, all sectioning commands have *-forms that print title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance: + \section*{Preamble} + \appendixappendix, creatingThe \appendix command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The \appendix command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like + \chapter{A Chapter} +&dots; +\appendix +\chapter{The First Appendix} +
+
+ + Cross references + Environments + Sectioning + Top + + Cross references + cross references One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.” + + + \label + \label + Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. + + + \pageref + \pageref + Refer to a page number. + + + \ref + \ref + Refer to a section, figure or similar. + + + + + + \label + \pageref + Cross references +
+ <code>\label</code> + \label Synopsis: + \label{key} + A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key. + A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. + To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: + + + ch + + for chapters + + + + sec + + for lower-level sectioning commands + + + + fig + + for figures + + + + tab + + for tables + + + + eq + + for equations + + +
+ Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:snark or fig.snark. +
+
+ + \pageref + \ref + \label + Cross references +
+ <code>\pageref{<var>key</var>}</code> + \pagerefcross referencing with page numberpage number, cross referencing Synopsis: + \pageref{key} + The \pageref{key} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding \label{key} command appears. +
+
+ + \ref + \pageref + Cross references +
+ <code>\ref{<var>key</var>}</code> + \refcross referencing, symbolicsection number, cross referencingequation number, cross referencingfigure number, cross referencingfootnote number, cross referencing Synopsis: + \ref{key} + The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, &dots;, of the corresponding \label command (see \label). It does not produce any text, such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. +
+
+ + Environments + Line breaking + Cross references + Top + + Environments + environments \begin\end &latex; provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: + \begin{envname} +... +\end{envname} + + + abstract + abstract + Produce an abstract. + + + array + array + Math arrays. + + + center + center + Centred lines. + + + description + description + Labelled lists. + + + displaymath + displaymath + Formulas that appear on their own line. + + + document + document + Enclose the whole document. + + + enumerate + enumerate + Numbered lists. + + + eqnarray + eqnarray + Sequences of aligned equations. + + + equation + equation + Displayed equation. + + + figure + figure + Floating figures. + + + flushleft + flushleft + Flushed left lines. + + + flushright + flushright + Flushed right lines. + + + itemize + itemize + Bulleted lists. + + + letter + letter + Letters. + + + list + list + Generic list environment. + + + math + math + In-line math. + + + minipage + minipage + Miniature page. + + + picture + picture + Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. + + + quotation + quotation + Indented environment with paragraph indentation. + + + quote + quote + Indented environment with no paragraph indentation. + + + tabbing + tabbing + Align text arbitrarily. + + + table + table + Floating tables. + + + tabular + tabular + Align text in columns. + + + thebibliography + thebibliography + Bibliography or reference list. + + + theorem + theorem + Theorems, lemmas, etc. + + + titlepage + titlepage + For hand crafted title pages. + + + verbatim + verbatim + Simulating typed input. + + + verse + verse + For poetry and other things. + + + + + + abstract + array + Environments +
+ <code>abstract</code> + abstract environmentabstracts Synopsis: + \begin{abstract} +... +\end{abstract} + Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. +
+
+ + array + center + abstract + Environments +
+ <code>array</code> + array environmentarrays, math Synopsis: + \begin{array}{template} +col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\ +... +\end{array} + Math arrays are produced with the array environment, normally within an equation environment (see equation). It has a single mandatory template argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should be formatted, as follows: + + + c + + centered + + + + l + + flush left + + + + r + + flush right + + +
+ \\ (for array)Column entries are separated by &. Column entries may include other &latex; commands. Each row of the array is terminated with \\. + @{...}In the template, the construct @{text} puts text between columns in each row. + Here's an example: + \begin{equation} + \begin{array}{lrc} + left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ + left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ + \end{array} +\end{equation} + \arraycolsepThe \arraycolsep parameter defines half the width of the space separating columns; the default is 5pt. See tabular, for other parameters which affect formatting in array environments, namely \arrayrulewidth and \arraystretch. + The array environment can only be used in math mode. +
+
+ + center + description + array + Environments +
+ <code>center</code> + center environmentcentering text, environment for Synopsis: + \begin{center} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +\end{center} + \\ (for center)The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the string \\. + + + \centering + \centering + Declaration form of the center environment. + + +
+
+ + \centering + center + + <code>\centering</code> + \centeringcentering text, declaration for The \centering declaration corresponds to the center environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. + Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + Here's an example: + \begin{quote} +\centering +first line \\ +second line \\ +\end{quote} + + + + description + displaymath + center + Environments +
+ <code>description</code> + description environmentlabelled lists, creatingdescription lists, creating Synopsis: + \begin{description} +\item [label1] item1 +\item [label2] item2 +... +\end{description} + \itemThe description environment is used to make labelled lists. Each label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may contain multiple paragraphs. + bold typewriter, avoidingtypewriter labels in listsAnother variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if you typeset a label in typewriter using \texttt, you'll get bold typewriter: \item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]. This may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use \tt, which resets all other style variations: \item[{\tt plain typewriter}]. + For details about list spacing, see itemize. +
+
+ + displaymath + document + description + Environments +
+ <code>displaymath</code> + displaymath environment Synopsis: + \begin{displaymath} +math +\end{displaymath} + or + \[math\] + The displaymath environment (\[...\] is a synonym) typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default. The global fleqn option makes equations flush left; see Document class options. + No equation number is added to displaymath text; to get an equation number, use the equation environment (see equation). +
+
+ + document + enumerate + displaymath + Environments +
+ <code>document</code> + document environment The document environment encloses the body of a document. It is required in every &latex; document. See Starting & ending. +
+
+ + enumerate + eqnarray + document + Environments +
+ <code>enumerate</code> + enumerate environmentlists of items, numbered Synopsis: + \begin{enumerate} +\item item1 +\item item2 +... +\end{enumerate} + The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as itemize (see itemize) and description (see description). + \itemEach item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: + + + 1., 2., &dots; + + + (a), (b), &dots; + + + i., ii., &dots; + + + A., B., &dots; + + + \enumi\enumii\enumiii\enumivThe enumerate environment uses the counters \enumi through \enumiv counters (see Counters). If the optional argument to \item is given, the counter is not incremented for that item. + \labelenumi\labelenumii\labelenumiii\labelenumivThe enumerate environment uses the commands \labelenumi through \labelenumiv to produce the default label. So, you can use \renewcommand to change the labels (see \newcommand & \renewcommand). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase letters: + \Alph example + \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}} +
+
+ + eqnarray + equation + enumerate + Environments +
+ <code>eqnarray</code> + eqnarray environmentequations, aligningaligning Equations + \begin{eqnarray} (or eqnarray*) +formula1 \\ +formula2 \\ +... +\end{eqnarray} + \\ (for eqnarray)The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ and consecutive items within a row separated by an &. + \\* (for eqnarray)\\* can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. + \nonumberequation numbers, omittingAn equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a \nonumber command. Alternatively, The *-form of the environment (\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}) will omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as eqnarray. + \lefteqnThe command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. +
+
+ + equation + figure + eqnarray + Environments +
+ <code>equation</code> + equation environmentequations, environment forformulas, environment for Synopsis: + \begin{equation} +math +\end{equation} + The equation environment starts a displaymath environment (see displaymath), e.g., centering the math text on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin. +
+
+ + figure + flushleft + equation + Environments +
+ <code>figure</code> + figureinserting figuresfigures, inserting + \begin{figure}[placement] +figbody +\label{label} +\caption[loftitle]{text} +\end{figure} + Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages. + The optional argument [placement] determines where &latex; will try to place your figure. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put a float: + + + h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure environment appears. + + + t (Top) - at the top of a text page. + + + b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. + + + p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. + + + The standard report and article classes use the default placement tbp. + The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc. you wish. + \captionThe \caption command specifies caption text for the figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text (see Tables of contents). + + \bottomfractionThe maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats atthe bottom; default .3. + + \floatpagefraction\floatpagefraction + + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default .5. + + + + \floatsep\floatsep + + Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default 12pt plus2pt minus2pt. + + + + \intextsep\intextsep + + Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default 12pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt and 11pt styles, 14pt plus4pt minus4pt for 12pt. + + + + \textfloatsep\textfloatsep + + Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default 20pt plus2pt minus4pt. + + + + \textfraction\textfraction + + Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is .2. + + + + \topfraction\topfraction + + Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default is .7. + + +
+
+
+ + flushleft + flushright + figure + Environments +
+ <code>flushleft</code> + flushleft environmentleft-justifying text, environment forragged right text, environment for + \begin{flushleft} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +... +\end{flushleft} + \\ for flushleftThe flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + + + \raggedright + \raggedright + Declaration form of the flushleft environment. + + +
+
+ + \raggedright + flushleft + + <code>\raggedright</code> + \raggedrightragged right textleft-justifying textjustification, ragged right The \raggedright declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. + Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + flushright + itemize + flushleft + Environments +
+ <code>flushright</code> + flushright environmentragged left text, environment forright-justifying text, environment for + \begin{flushright} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +... +\end{flushright} + \\ (for flushright)The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the string \\. + + + \raggedleft + \raggedleft + Declaration form of the flushright environment. + + +
+
+ + \raggedleft + flushright + + <code>\raggedleft</code> + \raggedleftragged left textjustification, ragged leftright-justifying text The \raggedleft declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. + Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command that ends the paragraph unit. + + + + itemize + letter + flushright + Environments +
+ <code>itemize</code> + itemize environment\itemlists of itemsunordered listsbulleted lists Synopsis: + \begin{itemize} +\item item1 +\item item2 +... +\end{itemize} + The itemize environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted” list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as enumerate (see enumerate). + Each item of an itemize list begins with an \item command. There must be at least one \item command within the environment. + By default, the marks at each level look like this: + + + + + + -- (bold en-dash) + + + * + + + . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) + + + \labelitemi\labelitemii\labelitemiii\labelitemivThe itemize environment uses the commands \labelitemi through \labelitemiv to produce the default label. So, you can use \renewcommand to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds: + \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} + \leftmargin\leftmargini\leftmarginii\leftmarginiii\leftmarginiv\leftmarginv\leftmarginviThe \leftmargini through \leftmarginvi parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin is set to the appropriate \leftmarginN when a new level of nesting is entered. + The defaults vary from .5em (highest levels of nesting) to 2.5em (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: + \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em + + Some parameters that affect list formatting: + + + \itemindent\itemindent + + Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. + + + + \labelsep\labelsep + + Space between the label and text of an item; default .5em. + + + + \labelwidth\labelwidth + + Width of the label; default 2em, or 1.5em in two-column mode. + + + + \listparindent\listparindent + + Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default 0pt. + + + + \rightmargin\rightmargin + + Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default 0pt, except in the quote, quotation, and verse environments, where it is set equal to \leftmargin. + + +
+ Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default). + + + \itemsep\itemsep + + Vertical space between items. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt for 12pt. + + + + \parsep\parsep + + Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as \itemsep. + + + + \topsep\topsep + + Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. The default is 4pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt documents, 6pt plus2pt minus2pt for 11pt, and 9pt plus3pt minus5pt for 12pt. + + + + \partopsep\partopsep + + Extra space added to \topsep when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 3pt plus2pt minus2pt for 12pt. + + + + \topsep\topsep + + Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; for instance, within a first-level list at 10pt, it is 4pt plus2pt minus2pt. + + +
+ \parskip exampleEspecially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize* environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item (\parskip is not list-specific, see \parskip): + \newenvironment{itemize*}% + {\begin{itemize}% + \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% + \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% + \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% + {\end{itemize}} +
+
+ + letter + list + itemize + Environments +
+ <code>letter</code> environment: writing letters + letter This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters. +
+
+ + list + math + letter + Environments +
+ <code>list</code> + listlists of items, generic The list environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros. + \begin{list}{labeling}{spacing} +\item item1 +\item item2 +... +\end{list} + The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other &latex; commands. + The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., {}, which leaves the default spacing. +
+
+ + math + minipage + list + Environments +
+ <code>math</code> + math environmentin-line formulas Synopsis: + \begin{math} +math +\end{math} + The math environment inserts the given math within the running text. \(...\)) and $...$ are synonyms. See Math formulas. +
+
+ + minipage + picture + math + Environments +
+ <code>minipage</code> + minipage environmentminipage, creating a + \begin{minipage}[position]{width} +text +\end{minipage} + The minipage environment typesets its body text in a block that will not be broken across pages (similar to the \parbox command, see \parbox). You may use other paragraph-making environments inside a minipage (unlike \parbox). + + It takes an optional position argument for placing text, and a mandatory width argument for specifying the line width. + indentation of paragraphs, in minipageparagraph indentation, in minipage\parindentBy default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as \setlength{\parindent}{1pc} command. + footnotes in figuresfigures, footnotes inFootnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A \footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the \mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary footnote counter (see Counters). + However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. +
+
+ + picture + quotation + minipage + Environments +
+ <code>picture</code> + picturecreating picturespictures, creating + \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) +&dots; picture commands &dots; +\end{picture} + \unitlengthThe picture environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell &latex; where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign—a number like 5, 0.3 or -3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of \unitlength, using the \setlength command, outside of a picture environment. + A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates. + The picture environment also has an optional position argument, following the size argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength has been set to 1mm, the command + \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) + produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; &latex; will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by &latex; in determining how much room to leave for it. + Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put command. The command + \put (11.3,-.3){...} + puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. + lR boxThe \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything that can go in an \mbox (see \mbox) in the text argument of the \put command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. + The picture commands are described in the following sections. + + + \circle + \circle + Draw a circle. + + + \makebox (picture) + \makebox (picture) + Draw a box of the specified size. + + + \framebox (picture) + \framebox (picture) + Draw a box with a frame around it. + + + \dashbox + \dashbox + Draw a dashed box. + + + \frame + \frame + Draw a frame around an object. + + + \line + \line + Draw a straight line. + + + \linethickness + \linethickness + Set the line thickness. + + + \thicklines + \thicklines + A heavier line thickness. + + + \thinlines + \thinlines + The default line thickness. + + + \multiput + \multiput + Draw multiple instances of an object. + + + \oval + \oval + Draw an ellipse. + + + \put + \put + Place an object at a specified place. + + + \shortstack + \shortstack + Make a pile of objects. + + + \vector + \vector + Draw a line with an arrow. + + +
+
+ + \circle + \makebox (picture) + picture + + <code>\circle</code> + \circle + \circle[*]{diameter} + The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The *-form of the command draws a solid circle. + Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + + + + \makebox (picture) + \framebox (picture) + \circle + picture + + <code>\makebox</code> + \makebox (picture) \makebox(width,height)[position]{...} + The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a width and height in multiples of \unitlength. + The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + + + + t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle + + + b - Moves the item to the bottom + + + l - Moves the item to the left + + + r - Moves the item to the right + + + See \makebox. + + + + \framebox (picture) + \dashbox + \makebox (picture) + picture + + <code>\framebox</code> + \framebox Synopsis: + \framebox(width,height)[pos]{...} + The \framebox command is like \makebox (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. + \fboxrule\fboxsepThe \framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box. + + + + \dashbox + \frame + \framebox (picture) + picture + + <code>\dashbox</code> + \dashbox Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: + \dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text} + \dashbox creates a dashed rectangle around text in a picture environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight. The text is positioned at optional pos. + A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are multiples of the dlen. + + + + \frame + \line + \dashbox + picture + + <code>\frame</code> + \frame Synopsis: + \frame{text} + The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around text. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object. + + + + \line + \linethickness + \frame + picture + + <code>\line</code> + \line Synopsis: + \line(xslope,yslope){length} + The \line command draws a line with the given length and slope xslope/yslope. + Standard &latex; can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y have integer values from −6 through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes, see the curve2e and many many other packages on CTAN. + + + + \linethickness + \thicklines + \line + picture + + <code>\linethickness</code> + \linethickness The \linethickness{dim} command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be dim, which must be a positive length. + \linethickness does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval. + + + + \thicklines + \thinlines + \linethickness + picture + + <code>\thicklines</code> + \thicklines The \thicklines command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. \linethickness and \thinlines. + + + + \thinlines + \multiput + \thicklines + picture + + <code>\thinlines</code> + \thinlines The \thinlines command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. \linethickness and \thicklines. + + + + \multiput + \oval + \thinlines + picture + + <code>\multiput</code> + \multiput Synopsis: + \multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj} + The \multiput command copies the object obj in a regular pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, n times. + + + + \oval + \put + \multiput + picture + + <code>\oval</code> + \oval Synopsis: + \oval(width,height)[portion] + The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the oval via the following: + + + t + + selects the top portion; + + + + b + + selects the bottom portion; + + + + r + + selects the right portion; + + + + l + + selects the left portion. + + +
+ The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes with rounded corners. +
+
+ + \put + \shortstack + \oval + picture + + <code>\put</code> + \put \put(x coord,y coord){ ... } + The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the given coordinates. + + + + \shortstack + \vector + \put + picture + + <code>\shortstack</code> + \shortstack Synopsis: + \shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...} + The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: + + + r + + Move the objects to the right of the stack. + + + + l + + Move the objects to the left of the stack + + + + c + + Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) + + +
+ \\ (for \shortstack objects)Objects are separated with \\. +
+
+ + \vector + \shortstack + picture + + <code>\vector</code> + \vector Synopsis: + \vector(x-slope,y-slope){length} + The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The x and y values must lie between −4 and +4, inclusive. + + + + quotation + quote + picture + Environments +
+ <code>quotation</code> + quotationquoted text with paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text with paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text Synopsis: + \begin{quotation} +text +\end{quotation} + The margins of the quotation environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + Unlike the quote environment, each paragraph is indented normally. +
+
+ + quote + tabbing + quotation + Environments +
+ <code>quote</code> + quotequoted text without paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text without paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text, omitting Snyopsis: + \begin{quote} +text +\end{quote} + The margins of the quote environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + Unlike the quotation environment, paragraphs are not indented. +
+
+ + tabbing + table + quote + Environments +
+ <code>tabbing</code> + tabbing environmenttab stops, usinglining text up in columns using tab stopsalignment via tabbing Synopsis: + \begin{tabbing} +row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\ +row2col1 \> \> row2col3 \\ +... +\end{tabbing} + The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. + This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular environment. + The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment: + + + \\ tabbing\\ tabbing + + End a line. + + + + \= (tabbing)\= (tabbing) + + Sets a tab stop at the current position. + + + + \> (tabbing)\> (tabbing)\> + + Advances to the next tab stop. + + + + \<\< + + Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. + + + + \+\+ + + Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. + + + + \-\- + + Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. + + + + \' (tabbing)\' (tabbing) + + Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. + + + + \` (tabbing)\` (tabbing) + + Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The \` command moves all the text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no \> or \' command between the \` and the command that ends the line. + + + + \a (tabbing)\a (tabbing)\a' (acute accent in tabbing)\a` (grave accent in tabbing)\a= (macron accent in tabbing) + + In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and \` do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead, the commands \a=, \a' and \a` are used. + + + + \kill\kill + + Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\ except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \- commands in that line remain in effect. + + + + \poptabs\poptabs\poptabs + + Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs. + + + + \pushtabs\pushtabs + + Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing environment. + + + + \tabbingsep\tabbingsep + + Distance to left of tab stop moved by \'. + + +
+ This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + \begin{tabbing} +function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ + \> begin \= \+ \\ + \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ + fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ + else \+ \\ + fact := 1; \-\- \\ + end;\\ +\end{tabbing} +
+
+ + table + tabular + tabbing + Environments +
+ <code>table</code> + tabletables, creatingcreating tables Synopsis: + \begin{table}[placement] + + body of the table + + \caption{table title} + \end{table} + Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages. + The optional argument [placement] determines where &latex; will try to place your table. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put a float: + + + + h: Here - at the position in the text where the table environment appears. + + + t: Top - at the top of a text page. + + + b: Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. + + + p: Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. + + + The standard report and article classes use the default placement [tbp]. + The body of the table is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc., you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table. +
+
+ + tabular + thebibliography + table + Environments +
+ <code>tabular</code> + tabular environmentlines in tableslining text up in tables Synopsis: + \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} +column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ +... +\end{tabular} + or + \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} +column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ +... +\end{tabular*} + These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. + \\ for tabular\\ must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except for the last, where it is optional—unless an \hline command (to put a rule below the table) follows. + The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: + + + width + + Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified width. + + + + pos + + Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of the environment. + + + + t - align on top row + + + b - align on bottom row + + + + + + cols + + Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and intercolumn material. + + + + l - A column of left-aligned items. + + + r - A column of right-aligned items. + + + c - A column of centred items. + + + | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. + + + @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be included in text. An \extracolsep{wd} command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An \extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the cols argument. + + + p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} command. However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in the following situations: + + + inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular. + + + inside an explicit \parbox. + + + in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an environment when used in a p-column element. + + + + + *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is any positive integer and cols is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another *-expression. + + + + +
+ Parameters that control formatting: + + + + \arrayrulewidth\arrayrulewidth + + Thickness of the rule created by |, \hline, and \vline in the tabular and array environments; the default is .4pt. + + + + \arraystretch\arraystretch + + Scaling of spacing between rows in the tabular and array environments; default is 1,for no scaling. + + + + \doublerulesep\doublerulesep + + Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by || in the tabular and array environments; default is 2pt. + + + + \tabcolsep\tabcolsep + + Half the width of the space between columns; default is 6pt. + + +
+ These commands can be used inside a tabular environment: + + + \multicolumn + \multicolumn + Make an item spanning several columns. + + + \cline + \cline + Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. + + + \hline + \hline + Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns. + + + \vline + \vline + Draw a vertical line. + + +
+
+ + \multicolumn + \cline + tabular + + <code>\multicolumn</code> + \multicolumn Synopsis: + \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text} + The \multicolumn command makes an entry that spans several columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centered, l for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument, text, specifies what text to put in the entry. + Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; \multicolumn is used for the heading: + \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l} +\multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr + 0x80&0x7FF \cr + 0x800&0xFFFF \cr +0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr +\end{tabular} + + + + \cline + \hline + \multicolumn + tabular + + <code>\cline</code> + \cline Synopsis: + \cline{i-j} + The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, which are specified in the mandatory argument. + + + + \hline + \vline + \cline + tabular + + <code>\hline</code> + \hline The \hline command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing tabular or array environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. + + + + \vline + \hline + tabular + + <code>\vline</code> + \vline The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @-expression. + + + + thebibliography + theorem + tabular + Environments +
+ <code>thebibliography</code> + thebibliographybibliography, creating (manually) Synopsis: + \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label} +\bibitem[label]{cite_key} +... +\end{thebibliography} + The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or reference list. + In the article class, this reference list is labelled “References”; in the report class, it is labelled “Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command \refname. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: + \renewcommand{\refname}{} + The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem commands. It is typically given as 9 for bibliographies with less than 10 references, 99 for ones with less than 100, etc. + + + \bibitem + \bibitem + Specify a bibliography item. + + + \cite + \cite + Refer to a bibliography item. + + + \nocite + \nocite + Include an item in the bibliography. + + + Using BibTeX + Using BibTeX + Automatic generation of bibliographies. + + +
+
+ + \bibitem + \cite + thebibliography + + <code>\bibitem</code> + \bibitem Synopsis: + \bibitem[label]{cite_key} + The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the enumi counter. The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. + This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the item's cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by the \begin{document} command, the item's label is associated with cite_key, causing references to cite_key with a \cite command (see next section) to produce the associated label. + + + + \cite + \nocite + \bibitem + thebibliography + + <code>\cite</code> + \cite Synopsis: + \cite[subcite]{keys + The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with keys by entries in the .aux file. + The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth} might produce `[Knuth, p. 314]'. + + + + \nocite + Using BibTeX + \cite + thebibliography + + <code>\nocite</code> + \nocite \nocite{key_list} + The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file. + + + + Using BibTeX + \nocite + thebibliography + + Using Bib&tex; + using Bib&tex;bib&tex;, usingbibliography, creating (automatically)\bibliographystyle\bibliography If you use the Bib&tex; program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the thebibliography environment (see thebibliography). Instead, you include the lines + \bibliographystyle{bibstyle} +\bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2} + The \bibliographystyle command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: bibstyle refers to a file bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look. The standard style names distributed with Bib&tex; are: + + + alpha + + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. + + + + plain + + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. + + + + unsrt + + Like plain, but entries are in order of citation. + + + + abbrv + + Like plain, but more compact labels. + + +
+ In addition, numerous other Bib&tex; style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib. + The \bibliography command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to \bibliography refers to files named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in Bib&tex; format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and \nocite will be listed in the bibliography. +
+
+ + theorem + titlepage + thebibliography + Environments +
+ <code>theorem</code> + theorem environmenttheorems, typesetting Synopsis: + \begin{theorem} +theorem-text +\end{theorem} + The theorem environment produces “Theorem n” in boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem (see \newtheorem). +
+
+ + titlepage + verbatim + theorem + Environments +
+ <code>titlepage</code> + titlepage environmentmaking a title pagetitle pages, creating Synopsis: + \begin{titlepage} +text +\end{titlepage} + The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The \today command may be useful on title pages (see \today). + You can use the \maketitle command (see \maketitle) to produce a standard title page without a titlepage environment. +
+
+ + verbatim + verse + titlepage + Environments +
+ <code>verbatim</code> + verbatim environmentverbatim textsimulating typed texttyped text, simulatingcode, typesettingcomputer programs, typesetting Synopsis: + \begin{verbatim} +literal-text +\end{verbatim} + The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment in which &latex; produces exactly what you type in; for instance the \ character produces a printed \. It turns &latex; into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter. + The verbatim uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt). + + + \verb + \verb + The macro form of the verbatim environment. + + +
+
+ + \verb + verbatim + + <code>\verb</code> + \verbverbatim text, inline Synopsis: + \verbcharliteral-textchar +\verb*charliteral-textchar + The \verb command typesets literal-text as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (\tt) font. No spaces are allowed between \verb or \verb* and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text. + visible spaceThe *-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a “visible space” character. + + + + verse + verbatim + Environments +
+ <code>verse</code> + verse environmentpoetry, an environment for Synopsis: + \begin{verse} +line1 \\ +line2 \\ +... +\end{verse} + The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it. + \\ for verseThe margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas. +
+
+ + Footnotes + Definitions + Page breaking + Top + + Footnotes + footnotes, creating Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced with one command, the \footnote command. They can also be produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the \footnotetext commands. + + + \footnote + \footnote + Insert a footnote. + + + \footnotemark + \footnotemark + Insert footnote mark only. + + + \footnotetext + \footnotetext + Insert footnote text only. + + + Footnote parameters + Footnote parameters + Parameters for footnote formatting. + + + + + + \footnote + \footnotemark + Footnotes +
+ <code>\footnote</code> + \footnote Synopsis: + \footnote[number]{text} + The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument number changes the default footnote number. + This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning commands like \chapter, in figures, tables or in a tabular environment. (See following sections.) + +
+
+ + \footnotemark + \footnotetext + \footnote + Footnotes +
+ <code>\footnotemark</code> + \footnotemark With no optional argument, the \footnotemark command puts the current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the \footnotetext command. + This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote with + \footnotemark[\value{footnote}] + after the first \footnote command. +
+
+ + \footnotetext + Footnote parameters + \footnotemark + Footnotes +
+ <code>\footnotetext</code> + \footnotetext Synopsis: + \footnotetext[number]{text} + The \footnotetext command places text at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the \footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must appear in outer paragraph mode. + The optional argument number changes the default footnote number. +
+
+ + Footnote parameters + \footnotetext + Footnotes +
+ Footnote parameters + footnote parameters + + + \footnoterule\footnoterule + + Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions: 0.4pt thick (or wide), and 0.4\columnwidth long in the standard document classes (except slides, where it does not appear). + + + + \footnotesep\footnotesep + + The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for \footnotesize fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is 6.65pt for 10pt, 7.7pt for 11pt, and 8.4pt for 12pt. + + +
+
+
+ + Definitions + Counters + Footnotes + Top + + Definitions + definitions &latex; has support for making new commands of many different kinds. + + + + \newcommand & \renewcommand + \newcommand & \renewcommand + (Re)define a new command. + + + \newcounter + \newcounter + Define a new counter. + + + \newlength + \newlength + Define a new length. + + + \newsavebox + \newsavebox + Define a new box. + + + \newenvironment & \renewenvironment + \newenvironment & \renewenvironment + Define a new environment. + + + \newtheorem + \newtheorem + Define a new theorem-like environment. + + + \newfont + \newfont + Define a new font name. + + + \protect + \protect + Using tricky commands. + + + + + + \newcommand & \renewcommand + \newcounter + Definitions +
+ <code>\newcommand</code> & <code>\renewcommand</code> + \newcommandcommands, defining new onesdefining a new commandnew commands, defining \newcommand and \renewcommand define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses: + \newcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn} +\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn} + \newcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn} +\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn} + + + cmd + + The command name beginning with \. For \newcommand, it must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for \renewcommand, it must already be defined. + + + + nargs + + An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no arguments. + + + + default + + If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not specified in the call) is the string def. + + + + defn + + The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a construct of the form #n in defn is replaced by the text of the nth argument. + + +
+
+
+ + \newcounter + \newlength + \newcommand & \renewcommand + Definitions +
+ <code>\newcounter</code> + \newcountercounters, defining new Synopsis: + \newcounter{cnt}[countername] + The \newcounter command defines a new counter named cnt. The new counter is initialized to zero. + Given the optional argument [countername], cnt will be reset whenever countername is incremented. + See Counters, for more information about counters. +
+
+ + \newlength + \newsavebox + \newcounter + Definitions +
+ <code>\newlength</code> + \newlengthlengths, defining new Synopsis: + \newlength{\arg} + The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument as a length command with a value of 0in. The argument must be a control sequence, as in \newlength{\foo}. An error occurs if \foo is already defined. + See Lengths, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and for more information about lengths in general. +
+
+ + \newsavebox + \newenvironment & \renewenvironment + \newlength + Definitions +
+ <code>\newsavebox</code> + \newsavebox Synopsis: + \newsavebox{cmd} + Defines \cmd, which must be a command name not already defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. +
+
+ + \newenvironment & \renewenvironment + \newtheorem + \newsavebox + Definitions +
+ <code>\newenvironment</code> & <code>\renewenvironment</code> + \newenvironment\renewenvironmentenvironments, definingdefining new environmentsredefining environments Synopses: + \newenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef} + \newenvironment{env}[nargs][default]{begdef}{enddef} +\renewenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef} + These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is, \begin{env} &dots; \end{env}. + + + env + + The name of the environment. For \newenvironment, env must not be an existing environment, and the command \env must be undefined. For \renewenvironment, env must be the name of an existing environment. + + + + nargs + + An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + + + + default + + If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default gives the default value for that argument. + + + + begdef + + The text expanded at every occurrence of \begin{env}; a construct of the form #n in begdef is replaced by the text of the nth argument. + + + + enddef + + The text expanded at every occurrence of \end{env}. It may not contain any argument parameters. + + +
+
+
+ + \newtheorem + \newfont + \newenvironment & \renewenvironment + Definitions +
+ <code>\newtheorem</code> + \newtheoremtheorems, definingdefining new theorems + \newtheorem{newenv}{label}[within] +\newtheorem{newenv}[numbered_like]{label} + This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: + + + newenv + + The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an existing environment or otherwise defined. + + + + label + + The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, Theorem. + + + + numbered_like + + (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; the new environment will be numbered just like numbered_like. + + + + within + + (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the within counter. + + +
+ At most one of numbered_like and within can be specified, not both. +
+
+ + \newfont + \protect + \newtheorem + Definitions +
+ <code>\newfont</code> + \newfontfonts, new commands fordefining new fonts Synopsis: + \newfont{cmd}{fontname} + Defines a control sequence \cmd, which must not already be defined, to make fontname be the current font. The file looked for on the system is named fontname.tfm. + This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. More commonly, fonts are defined in families through .fd files. +
+
+ + \protect + \newfont + Definitions +
+ <code>\protect</code> + \protect fragile commandsmoving argumentsFootnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more are so-called fragile commands. When a fragile command is used in certain contexts, called moving arguments, it must be preceded by \protect. In addition, any fragile commands within the arguments must have their own \protect. + Some examples of moving arguments are \caption (see figure), \thanks (see \maketitle), and expressions in tabular and array environments (see tabular). + robust commandsCommands which are not fragile are called robust. They must not be preceded by \protect. + See also: + http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html +http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect + +
+
+ + Counters + Lengths + Definitions + Top + + Counters + counters, a list ofvariables, a list of Everything &latex; numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that produces the number, except with no \. (enumienumiv are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in &latex;'s standard document classes to control numbering. + part paragraph figure enumi +chapter subparagraph table enumii +section page footnote enumiii +subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv +subsubsection + + + \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol + \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol + Print value of a counter. + + + \usecounter + \usecounter + Use a specified counter in a list environment. + + + \value + \value + Use the value of a counter in an expression. + + + \setcounter + \setcounter + Set the value of a counter. + + + \addtocounter + \addtocounter + Add a quantity to a counter. + + + \refstepcounter + \refstepcounter + Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. + + + \stepcounter + \stepcounter + Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. + + + \day \month \year + \day \month \year + Numeric date values. + + + + + + \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol + \usecounter + Counters +
+ <code>\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters + All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, \alph{enumi}. + + + \alph\alph + + prints counter using lowercase letters: `a', `b', &enddots; + + + + \Alph\Alph + + uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', &enddots; + + + + \arabic\arabic + + uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', &enddots; + + + + \roman\roman + + uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', &enddots; + + + + \roman\roman + + uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', &enddots; + + + + \fnsymbol\fnsymbol + + prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. + The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the names: + asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel +double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger + + +
+
+
+ + \usecounter + \value + \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol + Counters +
+ <code>\usecounter{<var>counter</var>}</code> + \usecounterlist items, specifying counternumbered items, specifying counter Synopsis: + \usecounter{counter} + The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the list environment to specify counter to be used to number the list items. +
+
+ + \value + \setcounter + \usecounter + Counters +
+ <code>\value{<var>counter</var>}</code> + \valuecounters, getting value of Synopsis: + \value{counter} + The \value command produces the value of counter. It can be used anywhere &latex; expects a number, for example: + \setcounter{myctr}{3} +\addtocounter{myctr}{1} +\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent} +
+
+ + \setcounter + \addtocounter + \value + Counters +
+ <code>\setcounter{<var>counter</var>}{<var>value</var>}</code> + \setcountercounters, settingsetting counters Synopsis: + \setcounter{\counter}{value} + The \setcounter command sets the value of \counter to the value argument. +
+
+ + \addtocounter + \refstepcounter + \setcounter + Counters +
+ <code>\addtocounter{<var>counter</var>}{<var>value</var>}</code> + \addtocounter The \addtocounter command increments counter by the amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative. +
+
+ + \refstepcounter + \stepcounter + \addtocounter + Counters +
+ <code>\refstepcounter{<var>counter</var>}</code> + \refstepcounter The \refstepcounter command works in the same way as \stepcounter See \stepcounter, except it also defines the current \ref value to be the result of \thecounter. +
+
+ + \stepcounter + \day \month \year + \refstepcounter + Counters +
+ <code>\stepcounter{<var>counter</var>}</code> + \stepcounter The \stepcounter command adds one to counter and resets all subsidiary counters. +
+
+ + \day \month \year + \stepcounter + Counters +
+ <code>\day \month \year</code>: Predefined counters + \day\month\year &latex; defines counters for the day of the month (\day, 1–31), month of the year (\month, 1–12), and year (\year, Common Era). When &tex; starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where &tex; is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. + The related command \today produces a string representing the current day (see \today). +
+
+ + Lengths + Making paragraphs + Counters + Top + + Lengths + lengths, defining and using A length is a measure of distance. Many &latex; commands take a length as an argument. + + + \setlength + \setlength + Set the value of a length. + + + \addtolength + \addtolength + Add a quantity to a length. + + + \settodepth + \settodepth + Set a length to the depth of something. + + + \settoheight + \settoheight + Set a length to the height of something. + + + \settowidth + \settowidth + Set a length to the width of something. + + + Predefined lengths + Predefined lengths + Lengths that are, like, predefined. + + + + + + \setlength + \addtolength + Lengths +
+ <code>\setlength{\<var>len</var>}{<var>value</var>}</code> + \setlengthlengths, setting The \setlength sets the value of \len to the value argument, which can be expressed in any units that &latex; understands, i.e., inches (in), millimeters (mm), points (pt), big points (bp, etc. +
+
+ + \addtolength + \settodepth + \setlength + Lengths +
+ \addtolength{<var>\len</var>}{<var>amount</var>} + \addtolengthlengths, adding to The \addtolength command increments a “length command” \len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which may be negative. +
+
+ + \settodepth + \settoheight + \addtolength + Lengths +
+ <code>\settodepth</code> + \settodepth \settodepth{\gnat}{text} + The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command equal to the depth of the text argument. +
+
+ + \settoheight + \settowidth + \settodepth + Lengths +
+ <code>\settoheight</code> + \settoheight \settoheight{\gnat}{text} + The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command equal to the height of the text argument. +
+
+ + \settowidth + Predefined lengths + \settoheight + Lengths +
+ <code>\settowidth{\<var>len</var>}{<var>text</var>}</code> + \settowidth The \settowidth command sets the value of the command \len to the width of the text argument. +
+
+ + Predefined lengths + \settowidth + Lengths +
+ Predefined lengths + lengths, predefinedpredefined lengths \width \width \height \height \depth \depth \totalheight \totalheight These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width etc. of the text in the box. \totalheight equals \height + \depth. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say + \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} +
+
+ + Line breaking + Page breaking + Environments + Top + + Line breaking + line breakingbreaking lines The first thing &latex; does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). + &latex; usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the \\ command, and you can always manually force breaks. + + + \\ + \\ + Start a new line. + + + \obeycr & \restorecr + \obeycr & \restorecr + Make each input line start a new output line. + + + \newline + \newline + Break the line + + + \- (hyphenation) + \- (hyphenation) + Insert explicit hyphenation. + + + \fussy + \fussy + Be fussy about line breaking. + + + \hyphenation + \hyphenation + Tell &latex; how to hyphenate a word. + + + \linebreak & \nolinebreak + \linebreak & \nolinebreak + Forcing & avoiding line breaks. + + + \sloppy + \sloppy + Be sloppy about line breaking. + + + + + + \\ + \obeycr & \restorecr + Line breaking +
+ <code>\\</code>[*][<var>morespace</var>] + \\ force line breaknew line, startingline break, forcing The \\ command tells &latex; to start a new line. It has an optional argument, morespace, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount. + The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command except that it tells &latex; not to start a new page after the line. +
+
+ + \obeycr & \restorecr + \newline + \\ + Line breaking +
+ <code>\obeycr</code> & <code>\restorecr</code> + \obeycr\restorecrnew line, output as input The \obeycr command makes a return in the input file (^^M, internally) the same as \\ (followed by \relax). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. + \restorecr restores normal line-breaking behavior. +
+
+ + \newline + \- (hyphenation) + \obeycr & \restorecr + Line breaking +
+ <code>\newline</code> + \newlinenew line, starting (paragraph mode) The \newline command breaks the line at the present point, with no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph mode. +
+
+ + \- (hyphenation) + \fussy + \newline + Line breaking +
+ <code>\-</code> (discretionary hyphen) + \- (hyphenation)hyphenation, forcing The \- command tells &latex; that it may hyphenate the word at that point. &latex; is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an incorrect one. The \- command is used for the exceptional cases. + When you insert \- commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that &latex; might otherwise have chosen. +
+
+ + \fussy + \hyphenation + \- (hyphenation) + Line breaking +
+ <code>\fussy</code> + \fussy The declaration \fussy (which is the default) makes &tex; picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. + This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command (see \sloppy. +
+
+ + \sloppy + \linebreak & \nolinebreak + Line breaking +
+ <code>\sloppy</code> + The declaration \sloppy makes &tex; less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. + Lasts until a \fussy command is issued (see \fussy). +
+
+ + \hyphenation + \linebreak & \nolinebreak + \fussy + Line breaking +
+ <code>\hyphenation</code> + \hyphenationhyphenation, defining Synopsis: + \hyphenation{word-one word-two} + The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points with a - character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. &tex; will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple \hyphenation commands accumulate. Some examples (the default &tex; hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words): + \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases} +
+
+ + \linebreak & \nolinebreak + \sloppy + \hyphenation + Line breaking +
+ <code>\linebreak</code> & <code>\nolinebreak</code> + \linebreak\nolinebreakline breaks, forcingline breaks, preventing Synopses: + \linebreak[priority] +\nolinebreak[priority] + By default, the \linebreak (\nolinebreak) command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For \linebreak, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual. + With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. +
+
+ + Page breaking + Footnotes + Line breaking + Top + + Page breaking + page breakingbreaking pages &latex; starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. + + + \cleardoublepage + \cleardoublepage + Start a new right-hand page. + + + \clearpage + \clearpage + Start a new page. + + + \newpage + \newpage + Start a new page. + + + \enlargethispage + \enlargethispage + Enlarge the current page a bit. + + + \pagebreak & \nopagebreak + \pagebreak & \nopagebreak + Forcing & avoiding page breaks. + + + + + + \cleardoublepage + \clearpage + Page breaking +
+ <code>\cleardoublepage</code> + \cleardoublepagestarting on a right-hand page The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. +
+
+ + \clearpage + \newpage + \cleardoublepage + Page breaking +
+ <code>\clearpage</code> + \clearpageflushing floats and starting a pagestarting a new page and clearing floats The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +
+
+ + \newpage + \enlargethispage + \clearpage + Page breaking +
+ <code>\newpage</code> + \newpagenew page, startingstarting a new page The \newpage command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (see \clearpage above). +
+
+ + \enlargethispage + \pagebreak & \nopagebreak + \newpage + Page breaking +
+ <code>\enlargethispage</code> + \enlargethispageenlarge current page \enlargethispage{size} + \enlargethispage*{size} + Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one additional line. + The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit \pagebreak. +
+
+ + \pagebreak & \nopagebreak + \enlargethispage + Page breaking +
+ <code>\pagebreak</code> & <code>\nopagebreak</code> + \pagebreak\nopagebreakpage break, forcingpage break, preventing Synopses: + \pagebreak[priority] +\nopagebreak[priority] + By default, the \pagebreak (\nopagebreak) command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. For \linebreak, the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. + With the optional argument priority, you can convert the \pagebreak command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is. +
+
+ + Making paragraphs + Math formulas + Lengths + Top + + Making paragraphs + making paragraphsparagraphs A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not containing even a %. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command. + + + \indent + \indent + Indent this paragraph. + + + \noindent + \noindent + Do not indent this paragraph. + + + \parskip + \parskip + Space added before paragraphs. + + + Marginal notes + Marginal notes + Putting remarks in the margin. + + + + + + \indent + \noindent + Making paragraphs +
+ <code>\indent</code> + \indent\parindentindent, forcing \indent produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the \parindent length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. + The default value for \parindent is 1em in two-column mode, otherwise 15pt for 10pt documents, 17pt for 11pt, and 1.5em for 12pt. +
+
+ + \noindent + \parskip + \indent + Making paragraphs +
+ <code>\noindent</code> + \noindentindent, suppressing When used at the beginning of the paragraph, \noindent suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph. +
+
+ + \parskip + Marginal notes + \noindent + Making paragraphs +
+ <code>\parskip</code> + \parskipvertical space before paragraphs \parskip is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is 0pt plus1pt. +
+
+ + Marginal notes + \parskip + Making paragraphs +
+ Marginal notes + marginal notesnotes in the marginremarks in the margin\marginpar Synopsis: + \marginpar[left]{right} + The \marginpar command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the \marginpar occurs. + When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will be placed + + + + in the right margin for one-sided layout; + + + in the outside margin for two-sided layout; + + + in the nearest margin for two-column layout. + + + \reversemarginpar\normalmarginparThe command \reversemarginpar places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. \normalmarginpar places them in the default position. + When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left margin, and right is used for the right margin. + The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with \hspace{0pt}. + These parameters affect the formatting of the note: + + + \marginparpush\marginparpush + + Minimum vertical space between notes; default 7pt for 12pt documents, 5pt else. + + + + \marginparsep\marginparsep + + Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default 11pt for 10pt documents, 10pt else. + + + + \marginparwidth\marginparwidth + + Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided 10pt document is 90pt, 83pt for 11pt, and 68pt for 12pt; 17pt more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is 48pt. + + +
+
+
+ + Math formulas + Modes + Making paragraphs + Top + + Math formulas + math formulasformulas, mathmath mode, entering math environmentdisplaymath environmentequation environmentThere are three environments that put &latex; in math mode: + + + math + + For formulas that appear right in the text. + + + + displaymath + + For formulas that appear on their own line. + + + + equation + + The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin. + + +
+ \(\)\[\]The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the displaymath and equation environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath environments are used so often that they have the following short forms: + \(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} +\[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} + $In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even shorter form: + $ ... $ instead of \(...\) + \boldmath\unboldmathThe \boldmath command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the \unboldmath command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used outside of math mode. + + \displaystyleThe \displaystyle declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of displaymath, e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example + $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ + + + + Subscripts & Superscripts + Subscripts & Superscripts + Also known as exponent or index. + + + Math symbols + Math symbols + Various mathematical squiggles. + + + Math functions + Math functions + Math function names like sin and exp. + + + Math accents + Math accents + Accents in math. + + + Spacing in math mode + Spacing in math mode + Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces. + + + Math Miscellany + Math Miscellany + Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else. + + +
+
+ + Subscripts & Superscripts + Math symbols + Math formulas +
+ Subscripts & Superscripts + superscriptsubscriptexponent_^ To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type _{exp}. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type ^{exp}. &latex; handles superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. +
+
+ + Math symbols + Math functions + Subscripts & Superscripts + Math formulas +
+ Math symbols + math symbolssymbols, mathgreek letters &latex; provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For example, if you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get the pi symbol (\pi) in your output. + + + \|\| + + \| + + + + \aleph\aleph + + \aleph + + + + \alpha\alpha + + \alpha + + + + \amalg\amalg + + \amalg (binary operation) + + + + \angle\angle + + \angle + + + + \approx\approx + + \approx (relation) + + + + \ast\ast + + \ast (binary operation) + + + + \asymp\asymp + + \asymp (relation) + + + + \backslash\backslash + + \ (delimiter) + + + + \beta\beta + + \beta + + + + \bigcap\bigcap + + \bigcap + + + + \bigcirc\bigcirc + + \bigcirc (binary operation) + + + + \bigcup\bigcup + + \bigcup + + + + \bigodot\bigodot + + \bigodot + + + + \bigoplus\bigoplus + + \bigoplus + + + + \bigotimes\bigotimes + + \bigotimes + + + + \bigtriangledown\bigtriangledown + + \bigtriangledown (binary operation) + + + + \bigtriangleup\bigtriangleup + + \bigtriangleup (binary operation) + + + + \bigsqcup\bigsqcup + + \bigsqcup + + + + \biguplus\biguplus + + \biguplus + + + + \bigcap\bigcap + + \bigvee + + + + \bigwedge\bigwedge + + \bigwedge + + + + \bot\bot + + \bot + + + + \bowtie\bowtie + + \bowtie (relation) + + + + \Box\Box + + (square open box symbol) + + + + + \bullet\bulletbullet symbol + + \bullet (binary operation) + + + + \cap\cap + + \cap (binary operation) + + + + \cdot\cdot + + \cdot (binary operation) + + + + \chi\chi + + \chi + + + + \circ\circ + + \circ (binary operation) + + + + \clubsuit\clubsuit + + \clubsuit + + + + \cong\cong + + \cong (relation) + + + + \coprod\coprod + + \coprod + + + + \cup\cup + + \cup (binary operation) + + + + \dagger\dagger + + \dagger (binary operation) + + + + \dashv\dashv + + \dashv (relation) + + + + \ddagger\ddagger + + \dagger (binary operation) + + + + \Delta\Delta + + \Delta + + + + \delta\delta + + \delta + + + + \Diamond\Diamond + + bigger \diamond + + + + + \diamond\diamond + + \diamond (binary operation) + + + + \diamondsuit\diamondsuit + + \diamondsuit + + + + \div\div + + \div (binary operation) + + + + \doteq\doteq + + \doteq (relation) + + + + \downarrow\downarrow + + \downarrow (delimiter) + + + + \Downarrow\Downarrow + + \Downarrow (delimiter) + + + + \ell\ell + + \ell + + + + \emptyset\emptyset + + \emptyset + + + + \epsilon\epsilon + + \epsilon + + + + \equiv\equiv + + \equiv (relation) + + + + \eta\eta + + \eta + + + + \exists\exists + + \exists + + + + \flat\flat + + \flat + + + + \forall\forall + + \forall + + + + \frown\frown + + \frown (relation) + + + + \Gamma\Gamma + + \Gamma + + + + \gamma\gamma + + \gamma + + + + \ge\ge + + \ge + + + + \geq\geq + + \geq (relation) + + + + \gets\gets + + \gets + + + + \gg\gg + + \gg (relation) + + + + \hbar\hbar + + \hbar + + + + \heartsuit\heartsuit + + \heartsuit + + + + \hookleftarrow\hookleftarrow + + \hookleftarrow + + + + \hookrightarrow\hookrightarrow + + \hookrightarrow + + + + \iff\iff + + \iff + + + + \Im\Im + + \Im + + + + \in\in + + \in (relation) + + + + \infty\infty + + \infty + + + + \int\int + + \int + + + + \iota\iota + + \iota + + + + \Join\Join + + condensed bowtie symbol (relation) + + + + + \kappa\kappa + + \kappa + + + + \Lambda\Lambda + + \Lambda + + + + \lambda\lambda + + \lambda + + + + \land\land + + \land + + + + \langle\langle + + \langle (delimiter) + + + + \lbrace\lbrace + + \lbrace (delimiter) + + + + \lbrack\lbrack + + \lbrack (delimiter) + + + + \lceil\lceil + + \lceil (delimiter) + + + + \le\le + + \le + + + + \leadsto\leadsto + + + + + + \Leftarrow\Leftarrow + + \Leftarrow + + + + \leftarrow\leftarrow + + \leftarrow + + + + \leftharpoondown\leftharpoondown + + \leftharpoondown + + + + \leftharpoonup\leftharpoonup + + \leftharpoonup + + + + \Leftrightarrow\Leftrightarrow + + \Leftrightarrow + + + + \leftrightarrow\leftrightarrow + + \leftrightarrow + + + + \leq\leq + + \leq (relation) + + + + \lfloor\lfloor + + \lfloor (delimiter) + + + + \lhd\lhd + + (left-pointing arrow head) + + + + + \ll\ll + + \ll (relation) + + + + \lnot\lnot + + \lnot + + + + \longleftarrow\longleftarrow + + \longleftarrow + + + + \longleftrightarrow\longleftrightarrow + + \longleftrightarrow + + + + \longmapsto\longmapsto + + \longmapsto + + + + \longrightarrow\longrightarrow + + \longrightarrow + + + + \lor\lor + + \lor + + + + \mapsto\mapsto + + \mapsto + + + + \mho\mho + + + + + + \mid\mid + + \mid (relation) + + + + \models\models + + \models (relation) + + + + \mp\mp + + \mp (binary operation) + + + + \mu\mu + + \mu + + + + \nabla\nabla + + \nabla + + + + \natural\natural + + \natural + + + + \ne\ne + + \ne + + + + \nearrow\nearrow + + \nearrow + + + + \neg\neg + + \neg + + + + \neq\neq + + \neq (relation) + + + + \ni\ni + + \ni (relation) + + + + \not\not + + Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=. + + + + \notin\notin + + \ni + + + + \nu\nu + + \nu + + + + \nwarrow\nwarrow + + \nwarrow + + + + \odot\odot + + \odot (binary operation) + + + + \oint\oint + + \oint + + + + \Omega\Omega + + \Omega + + + + \omega\omega + + \omega + + + + \ominus\ominus + + \ominus (binary operation) + + + + \oplus\oplus + + \oplus (binary operation) + + + + \oslash\oslash + + \oslash (binary operation) + + + + \otimes\otimes + + \otimes (binary operation) + + + + \owns\owns + + \owns + + + + \parallel\parallel + + \parallel (relation) + + + + \partial\partial + + \partial + + + + \perp\perp + + \perp (relation) + + + + \phi\phi + + \phi + + + + \Pi\Pi + + \Pi + + + + \pi\pi + + \pi + + + + \pm\pm + + \pm (binary operation) + + + + \prec\prec + + \prec (relation) + + + + \preceq\preceq + + \preceq (relation) + + + + \prime\prime + + \prime + + + + \prod\prod + + \prod + + + + \propto\propto + + \propto (relation) + + + + \Psi\Psi + + \Psi + + + + \psi\psi + + \psi + + + + \rangle\rangle + + \rangle (delimiter) + + + + \rbrace\rbrace + + \rbrace (delimiter) + + + + \rbrack\rbrack + + \rbrack (delimiter) + + + + \rceil\rceil + + \rceil (delimiter) + + + + \Re\Re + + \Re + + + + \rfloor\rfloor + + \rfloor + + + + \rhd\rhd + + (binary operation) + + + + + \rho\rho + + \rho + + + + \Rightarrow\Rightarrow + + \Rightarrow + + + + \rightarrow\rightarrow + + \rightarrow + + + + \rightharpoondown\rightharpoondown + + \rightharpoondown + + + + \rightharpoonup\rightharpoonup + + \rightharpoonup + + + + \rightleftharpoons\rightleftharpoons + + \rightleftharpoons + + + + \searrow\searrow + + \searrow + + + + \setminus\setminus + + \setminus (binary operation) + + + + \sharp\sharp + + \sharp + + + + \Sigma\Sigma + + \Sigma + + + + \sigma\sigma + + \sigma + + + + \sim\sim + + \sim (relation) + + + + \simeq\simeq + + \simeq (relation) + + + + \smallint\smallint + + \smallint + + + + \smile\smile + + \smile (relation) + + + + \spadesuit\spadesuit + + \spadesuit + + + + \sqcap\sqcap + + \sqcap (binary operation) + + + + \sqcup\sqcup + + \sqcup (binary operation) + + + + \sqsubset\sqsubset + + (relation) + + + + + \sqsubseteq\sqsubseteq + + \sqsubseteq (relation) + + + + \sqsupset\sqsupset + + (relation) + + + + + \sqsupseteq\sqsupseteq + + \sqsupseteq (relation) + + + + \star\star + + \star (binary operation) + + + + \subset\subset + + \subset (relation) + + + + \subseteq\subseteq + + \subseteq (relation) + + + + \succ\succ + + \succ (relation) + + + + \succeq\succeq + + \succeq (relation) + + + + \sum\sum + + \sum + + + + \supset\supset + + \supset (relation) + + + + \supseteq\supseteq + + \supseteq (relation) + + + + \surd\surd + + \surd + + + + \swarrow\swarrow + + \swarrow + + + + \tau\tau + + \tau + + + + \theta\theta + + \theta + + + + \times\times + + \times (binary operation) + + + + \to\to + + \to + + + + \top\top + + \top + + + + \triangle\triangle + + \triangle + + + + \triangleleft\triangleleft + + \triangleleft (binary operation) + + + + \triangleright\triangleright + + \triangleright (binary operation) + + + + \unlhd\unlhd + + left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + + + + + \unrhd\unrhd + + right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + + + + + \Uparrow\Uparrow + + \Uparrow (delimiter) + + + + \uparrow\uparrow + + \uparrow (delimiter) + + + + \Updownarrow\Updownarrow + + \Updownarrow (delimiter) + + + + \updownarrow\updownarrow + + \updownarrow (delimiter) + + + + \uplus\uplus + + \uplus (binary operation) + + + + \Upsilon\Upsilon + + \Upsilon + + + + \upsilon\upsilon + + \upsilon + + + + \varepsilon\varepsilon + + \varepsilon + + + + \varphi\varphi + + \varphi + + + + \varpi\varpi + + \varpi + + + + \varrho\varrho + + \varrho + + + + \varsigma\varsigma + + \varsigma + + + + \vartheta\vartheta + + \vartheta + + + + \vdash\vdash + + \vdash (relation) + + + + \vee\vee + + \vee (binary operation) + + + + \Vert\Vert + + \Vert (delimiter) + + + + \vert\vert + + \vert (delimiter) + + + + \wedge\wedge + + \wedge (binary operation) + + + + \wp\wp + + \wp + + + + \wr\wr + + \wr (binary operation) + + + + \Xi\Xi + + \Xi + + + + \xi\xi + + \xi + + + + \zeta\zeta + + \zeta + + +
+
+
+ + Math functions + Math accents + Math symbols + Math formulas +
+ Math functions + math functionsfunctions, math These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing. + + + \arccos\arccos + + \arccos + + + + \arcsin\arcsin + + \arcsin + + + + \arctan\arctan + + \arctan + + + + \arg\arg + + \arg + + + + \bmod\bmod + + Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) + + + + \cos\cos + + \cos + + + + \cosh\cosh + + \cosh + + + + \cot\cot + + \cos + + + + \coth\coth + + \cosh + + + + \csc\csc + + \csc + + + + \deg\deg + + \deg + + + + \det\det + + \deg + + + + \dim\dim + + \dim + + + + \exp\exp + + \exp + + + + \gcd\gcd + + \gcd + + + + \hom\hom + + \hom + + + + \inf\inf + + \inf + + + + \ker\ker + + \ker + + + + \lg\lg + + \lg + + + + \lim\lim + + \lim + + + + \liminf\liminf + + \liminf + + + + \limsup\limsup + + \limsup + + + + \ln\ln + + \ln + + + + \log\log + + \log + + + + \max\max + + \max + + + + \min\min + + \min + + + + \pmod\pmod + + parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) + + + + \Pr\Pr + + \Pr + + + + \sec\sec + + \sec + + + + \sin\sin + + \sin + + + + \sinh\sinh + + \sinh + + + + \sup\sup + + \sup + + + + \tan\tan + + \tan + + + + \tanh\tanh + + \tanh + + +
+
+
+ + Math accents + Spacing in math mode + Math functions + Math formulas +
+ Math accents + math accentsaccents, mathematical &latex; provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (see Accents). + + + \acute\acuteacute accent, math + + Math acute accent: \acutex. + + + + \breve\brevebreve accent, math + + Math breve accent: \brevex. + + + + \check\checkcheck accent, mathhác<ek accent, math + + Math hác<ek (check) accent: \checkx. + + + + \ddot\ddotdouble dot accent, math + + Math dieresis accent: \ddotx. + + + + \dot\dotoverdot accent, mathdot over accent, math + + Math dot accent: \dotx. + + + + \grave\gravegrave accent, math + + Math grave accent: \gravex. + + + + \hat\hathat accent, mathcircumflex accent, math + + Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hatx. + + + + \imath\imathdotless i, math + + Math dotless i. + + + + \jmath\jmathdotless j, math + + Math dotless j. + + + + \tilde\tildetilde accent, math + + Math tilde accent: \tildex. + + + + \vec\vecvector symbol, math + + Math vector symbol: \vecx. + + + + \widehat\widehatwide hat accent, math + + Math wide hat accent: \widehatx+y. + + + + \widehat\widehatwide tile accent, math + + Math wide tilde accent: \widetildex+y. + + +
+
+
+ + Spacing in math mode + Math Miscellany + Math accents + Math formulas +
+ Spacing in math mode + spacing within math modemath mode, spacing In a math environment, &latex; ignores the spaces you type and puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If you want different spacing, &latex; provides the following commands for use in math mode: + + + \;\; + + A thick space (5\over18\,quad). + + + + \: + \>\:\> + + Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad). + + + + \,\, + + A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode. + + + + \! + + A negative thin space (-1\over6\,quad). + + +
+
+
+ + Math Miscellany + Spacing in math mode + Math formulas +
+ Math Miscellany + math Miscellany + + + \*\*discretionary multiplicationmultiplication symbol, discretionary line break + + A “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed. + + + + \cdots\cdots + + A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line. + + + + \ddots\ddots + + A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. + + + + \frac{num}{den}\frac{num}{den}\frac + + Produces the fraction num divided by den. + + + + \left delim1 ... \right delim2\left delim1 ... \right delim2\rightnull delimiter + + The two delimiters need not match; . acts as a null delimiter, producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: \left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]. + + + + \overbrace{text}\overbrace{text} + + Generates a brace over text. For example, \overbracex+\cdots+x^k \rm\;times. + + + + \overline{text}\overline{text} + + Generates a horizontal line over tex. For exampe, \overlinex+y. + + + + \sqrt[root]{arg}\sqrt[root]{arg} + + Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The optional argument root determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of x+y would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$. + + + + \stackrel{text}{relation}\stackrel{text}{relation} + + Puts text above relation. For example, \stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}. + + + + \underbrace{math}\underbrace{math} + + Generates math with a brace underneath. + + + + \underline{text}\underline{text} + + Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. + + + + \vdots\vdots\vdots + + Produces a vertical ellipsis. + + +
+
+
+ + Modes + Page Styles + Math formulas + Top + + Modes + modesparagraph modemath modeleft-to-right modelR mode + When &latex; is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes: + + + + Paragraph mode + + + Math mode + + + Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short + + + &latex; changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when &latex; is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + “Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one &latex; is in when processing ordinary text. In that mode, &latex; breaks your text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. &latex; is in “math mode” when it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR mode”, as in paragraph mode, &latex; considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, &latex; keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an \mbox, &latex; would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line. + &latex; is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put &latex; in paragraph mode. The box make by one of these commands or environments will be called a parbox. When &latex; is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in “inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called “outer paragraph mode”. + + + + Page Styles + Spaces + Modes + Top + + Page Styles + styles, pagepage styles The \documentclass command determines the size and position of the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + + + \maketitle + \maketitle + Generate a title page. + + + \pagenumbering + \pagenumbering + Set the style used for page numbers. + + + \pagestyle + \pagestyle + Change the headings/footings style. + + + \thispagestyle + \thispagestyle + Change the headings/footings style for this page. + + + + + + \maketitle + \pagenumbering + Page Styles +
+ <code>\maketitle</code> + titles, making\maketitle The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title page—except in the article class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations: + + + \author{name \and name2}\author{name \and name2}author, for titlepage\\ for \author\and for \author + + The \author command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by \and commands. Use \\ to separate lines within a single author's entry—for example, to give the author's institution or address. + + + + \date{text}\date{text}date, for titlepage + + The \date command declares text to be the document's date. With no \date command, the current date (see \today) is used. + + + + \thanks{text}\thanks{text}thanks, for titlepagecredit footnote + + The \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements. + + + + \title{text}\title{text}title, for titlepage\\ for \title + + The \title command declares text to be the title of the document. Use \\ to force a line break, as usual. + + +
+
+
+ + \pagenumbering + \pagestyle + \maketitle + Page Styles +
+ <code>\pagenumbering</code> + \pagenumberingpage numbering style Synopsis: + \pagenumbering{style} + Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style: + + + arabic + + arabic numerals + + + + roman + + lowercase Roman numerals + + + + Roman + + uppercase Roman numerals + + + + alph + + lowercase letters + + + + Alph + + uppercase letters + + +
+
+
+ + \pagestyle + \thispagestyle + \pagenumbering + Page Styles +
+ <code>\pagestyle</code> + \pagestyleheader stylefooter stylerunning header and footer style Synopsis: + \pagestyle{style} + The \pagestyle command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style: + + + plain + + Just a plain page number. + + + + empty + + Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. + + + + headings + + Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers. + + + + myheadings + + Custom headers, specified via the \markboth or the \markright commands. + + +
+ Here are the descriptions of \markboth and \markright: + + + \markboth{left}{right}\markboth{left}{right} + + Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading” (left) is generated by the last \markboth command before the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right is generated by the first \markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + + + + \markright{right}\markright{right} + + Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. + + +
+
+
+ + \thispagestyle + \pagestyle + Page Styles +
+ <code>\thispagestyle{<var>style</var>}</code> + \thispagestyle The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the \pagestyle command (see previous section) except that it changes to style for the current page only. +
+
+ + Spaces + Boxes + Page Styles + Top + + Spaces + spaces &latex; has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. + Another space-producing command is \, to produce a “thin” space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is more often useful in math mode (see Spacing in math mode). + + Horizontal space + + \hspace + \hspace + Fixed horizontal space. + + + \SPACE + \SPACE + Normal interword space. + + + \AT + \AT + Ending a sentence. + + + \thinspace + \thinspace + One-sixth of an em. + + + \/ + \/ + Per-character italic correction. + + + \hfill + \hfill + Stretchable horizontal space. + + + \hrulefill + \hrulefill + Stretchable horizontal rule. + + + \dotfill + \dotfill + Stretchable horizontal dots. + + Vertical space + + \addvspace + \addvspace + Add arbitrary vertical space if needed. + + + \bigskip \medskip \smallskip + \bigskip \medskip \smallskip + Fixed vertical spaces. + + + \vfill + \vfill + Infinitely stretchable vertical space. + + + \vspace + \vspace + Add arbitrary vertical space. + + + + + + \hspace + \SPACE + Spaces +
+ <code>\hspace</code> + \hspace Synopsis: + \hspace[*]{length} + The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length argument can be expressed in any terms that &latex; understands: points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive space with an \hspace command; adding negative space is like backspacing. + &latex; normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional * form. +
+
+ + \hfill + \hrulefill + \/ + Spaces +
+ <code>\hfill</code> + \hfillThe \hfill fill command produces a “rubber length” which has no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed. + \fillThe \fill parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the glue value 0pt plus1fill); thus, \hspace\fill is equivalent to \hfill. +
+
+ + \SPACE + \AT + \hspace + Spaces +
+ <code>\SPACE</code> + \SPACE\TAB\NEWLINE The \ (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental. It is also often used after control sequences, as in \TeX\ is a nice system. + In normal circumstances, \tab and \newline are equivalent to \ . +
+
+ + \AT + \thinspace + \SPACE + Spaces +
+ <code>\@</code> + \@ The \@ command makes the following punctuation character end a sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without \@: + &dots; in C\@. Pascal, though &dots; +&dots; in C. Pascal, though &dots; + produces + + + &dots; in C&eosperiod; Pascal, though &dots; &dots; in C. Pascal, though &dots; + +
+
+ + \thinspace + \/ + \AT + Spaces +
+ <code>\thinspace</code> + \thinspace \thinspace produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as in '. +
+
+ + \/ + \hfill + \thinspace + Spaces +
+ <code>\/</code> + \/ The \/ command produces an italic correction. This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character typically has a large italic correction value. + If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the &tex; output, the `f's are nicely separated) with f: f;. + Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdf&tex; (in the &tex; output, there is a small space after the `f') with pdf&tex;. +
+
+ + \hrulefill + \dotfill + \hfill + Spaces +
+ <code>\hrulefill</code> + \hrulefill The \hrulefill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal rule. +
+
+ + \dotfill + \addvspace + \hrulefill + Spaces +
+ <code>\dotfill</code> + \dotfill The \dotfill command produces a “rubber length” that fills with dots instead of just white space. + +
+
+ + \addvspace + \bigskip \medskip \smallskip + \dotfill + Spaces +
+ <code>\addvspace</code> + \addvspacevertical spacespace, inserting vertical \addvspace{length} + The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to length. +
+
+ + \bigskip \medskip \smallskip + \vfill + \addvspace + Spaces +
+ <code>\bigskip \medskip \smallskip</code> + These commands produce a given amount of space. + + + \bigskip\bigskip\bigskipamount + + The same as \vspace{bigskipamount}, ordinarily about one line space (with stretch and shrink). + + + + \medskip\medskip\medskipamount + + The same as \vspace{medskipamount}, ordinarily about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + + + + \smallskip\smallskip\smallskipamount + + The same as \vspace{smallskipamount}, ordinarily about a quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + + +
+ The \...amount parameters are determined by the document class. +
+
+ + \vfill + \vspace + \bigskip \medskip \smallskip + Spaces +
+ <code>\vfill</code> + \vfill The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to \vspace{\fill} (see \hfill). +
+
+ + \vspace + \vfill + Spaces +
+ <code>\vspace[*]{<var>length</var>}</code> + \vspace Synopsis: + \vspace[*]{length} + The \vspace command adds the vertical space length, i.e., a rubber length. length can be negative or positive. + Ordinarily, &latex; removes vertical space added by \vspace at the top or bottom of a page. With the optional * argument, the space is not removed. +
+
+ + Boxes + Special insertions + Spaces + Top + + Boxes + boxes All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + + + \mbox + \mbox + Horizontal boxes. + + + \fbox and \framebox + \fbox and \framebox + Put a frame around a box. + + + lrbox + lrbox + An environment like \sbox. + + + \makebox + \makebox + Box, adjustable position. + + + \parbox + \parbox + Box with text in paragraph mode. + + + \raisebox + \raisebox + Raise or lower text. + + + \savebox + \savebox + Like \makebox, but save the text for later use. + + + \sbox + \sbox + Like \mbox, but save the text for later use. + + + \usebox + \usebox + Print saved text. + + + + + + \mbox + \fbox and \framebox + Boxes +
+ <code>\mbox{<var>text}</var></code> + \mbox hyphenation, preventingThe \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The text is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation. +
+
+ + \fbox and \framebox + lrbox + \mbox + Boxes +
+ <code>\fbox</code> and <code>\framebox</code> + \fbox\framebox Synopses: + \fbox{text} +\framebox[width][position]{text} + The \fbox and \framebox commands are like \mbox, except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. + In addition, the \framebox command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional width argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional position argument. + \fboxrule\fboxsepBoth commands produce a rule of thickness \fboxrule (default .4pt), and leave a space of \fboxsep (default 3pt) between the rule and the contents of the box. + See \framebox (picture), for the \framebox command in the picture environment. +
+
+ + lrbox + \makebox + \fbox and \framebox + Boxes +
+ <code>lrbox</code> + lrbox \begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox} + This is the environment form of \sbox. + The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox. +
+
+ + \makebox + \parbox + lrbox + Boxes +
+ <code>\makebox</code> + \makebox Synopsis: + \makebox[width][position]{text} + The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional width argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional position argument, which may take the following values: + + + c + + Centered (default). + + + + l + + Flush left. + + + + r + + Flush right. + + + + s + + Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain stretchable space for this to work. + + +
+ \makebox is also used within the picture environment see \makebox (picture). +
+
+ + \parbox + \raisebox + \makebox + Boxes +
+ <code>\parbox</code> + \parbox Synopsis: + \parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text} + The \parbox command produces a box whose contents are created in paragraph mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a minipage environment (see minipage). + \parbox has two mandatory arguments: + + + width + + the width of the parbox; + + + + text + + the text that goes inside the parbox. + + +
+ The optional position argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top). + The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box. + The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used. + + + t + + text is placed at the top of the box. + + + + c + + text is centered in the box. + + + + b + + text is placed at the bottom of the box. + + + + s + + stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work. + + +
+
+
+ + \raisebox + \savebox + \parbox + Boxes +
+ <code>\raisebox</code> + \raisebox Synopsis: + \raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text} + The \raisebox command raises or lowers text. The first mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed in LR mode. + The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. If they are specified, &latex; treats text as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth. +
+
+ + \savebox + \sbox + \raisebox + Boxes +
+ <code>\savebox</code> + \savebox Synopsis: + \savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text} + This command typeset text in a box just as with \makebox (see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been declared with \newsavebox (see \newsavebox). +
+
+ + \sbox + \usebox + \savebox + Boxes +
+ <code>\sbox{<var>\boxcmd</var>}{<var>text</var>}</code> + \sbox Synopsis: + \sbox{\boxcmd}{text} + \sbox types text in a box just as with \mbox (see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled \boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with \newsavebox (see \newsavebox). +
+
+ + \usebox + \sbox + Boxes +
+ <code>\usebox{<var>\boxcmd</var></code> + \usebox Synopsis: + \usebox{\boxcmd} + \usebox producesthe box most recently saved in the bin \boxcmd by a \savebox command (see \savebox). +
+
+ + Special insertions + Splitting the input + Boxes + Top + + Special insertions + &latex; provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. + + + Reserved characters + Reserved characters + Inserting # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } + + + Text symbols + Text symbols + Inserting other non-letter symbols in text. + + + Accents + Accents + Inserting accents. + + + Non-English characters + Non-English characters + Inserting other non-English characters. + + + \rule + \rule + Inserting lines and rectangles. + + + \today + \today + Inserting today's date. + + + + + + Reserved characters + Text symbols + Special insertions +
+ Reserved characters + reserved characterscharacters, reserved The following characters play a special role in &latex; and are called “reserved characters” or “special characters”. + # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } + \#\$\%\&\_\{\}Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, &latex; will do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as itself, include a \ in front of the character. For example, \$ will produce $ in your output. + \backslashOne exception to this rule is \ itself, because \\ has its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing $\backslash$ in your file, and a typewriter \ is produced by using \ in a verbatim command (see verbatim). + \~\^Also, \~ and \^ place tilde and circumflex accents over the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get a standalone ~ or ^, you can again use a verbatim command. + \symbolaccessing any character of a font Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you know its number by using the \symbol command. For example, the visible space character used in the \verb* command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}. + You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers with ", so the previous example could also be written as \symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}. +
+
+ + Text symbols + Accents + Reserved characters + Special insertions +
+ Text symbols + text symbols&latex; provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. + + + \copyright\copyrightcopyright symbol + + The copyright symbol, ©right;. + + + + \dag\dagdagger, in text + + The dagger symbol (in text). + + + + \ddag\ddagdouble dagger, in text + + The double dagger symbol (in text). + + + + \LaTeX\LaTeX&latex; logologo, &latex; + + The &latex; logo. + + + + \ldots\ldotsellipsis + + An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `&dots;'. This command also works in math mode. + + + + \lq\lqleft quoteopening quote + + Left (opening) quote: `. + + + + \P\Pparagraph signpilcrow + + Paragraph sign (pilcrow). + + + + \pounds\poundspounds symbolsterling symbol + + English pounds sterling. + + + + \rq\rqright quoteclosing quote + + Right (closing) quote: '. + + + + \S\Ssection symbol + + Section symbol. + + + + \TeX\TeX&tex; logologo, &tex; + + The &tex; logo. + + +
+
+
+ + Accents + Non-English characters + Text symbols + Special insertions +
+ Accents + accentscharacters, accentedletters, accented &latex; has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, through the babel package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely the core &latex; commands for creating accented characters. + + + \"\" (umlaut accent)umlaut accent + + Produces an umlaut, as in ö. + + + + \'\' (acute accent)acute accent + + Produces an acute accent, as in ó. In the tabbing environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (see tabbing). + + + + \.\. (dot-over accent)dot accentdot-over accent + + Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. + + + + \=\= (macron accent)macron accentoverbar accentbar-over accent + + Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o¯. + + + + \^\^ (circumflex accent)circumflex accenthat accent + + Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô. + + + + \`\` (grave accent)grave accent + + Produces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the tabbing environment, move following text to the right margin (see tabbing). + + + + \~\~ (tilde accent)tilde accent + + Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ. + + + + \b\b (bar-under accent)bar-under accent + + Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. + + + + \bar\bar (macron, bar-over accent)bar-over accentmacron accent + + Produces a macron accent over the following, as in o¯. + + + + \c\c (cedilla accent)cedilla accent + + Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in + + + + + \d\d (dot-under accent)dot-under accent + + Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. + + + + \H\H (Hungarian umlaut accent)hungarian umlaut accent + + Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in o''. + + + + \i\i (dotless i)dotless i + + Produces a dotless i, as in `i'. + + + + \j\j (dotless j)dotless j + + Produces a dotless j, as in `j'. + + + + \t\t (tie-after accent)tie-after accent + + Produces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. + + + + \u\u (breve accent)breve accent + + Produces a breve accent, as in `o('. + + + + \v\v (breve accent)hacek accentcheck accent + + Produces a hác<ek (check) accent, as in `o<'. + + +
+
+
+ + Non-English characters + \rule + Accents + Special insertions +
+ Non-English characters + special charactersnon-English characterscharacters, non-Englishletters, non-English Here are the basic &latex; commands for inserting characters commonly used in languages other than English. + + + \aa + \AA\aa (å)\AA (Å)aring + + å and Å. + + + + \ae + \AE\ae (æ)\AE (Æ)ae ligature + + æ and Æ. + + + + \l + \L\l (/l)\L (/L)polish l + + /l and /L. + + + + \o + \O\o (ø)\O (Ø)oslash + + ø and Ø. + + + + \oe + \OE\oe (œ)\OE (Œ)oe ligature + + œ and Œ. + + + + \ss\ss (ß)es-zet German lettersharp S letters + + ß. + + +
+
+
+ + \rule + \today + Non-English characters + Special insertions +
+ <code>\rule</code> + \rule Synopsis: + \rule[raise]{width}{thickness} + The \rule command produces rules, that is, lines or rectangles. The arguments are: + + + raise + + How high to raise the rule (optional). + + + + width + + The length of the rule (mandatory). + + + + thickness + + The thickness of the rule (mandatory). + + +
+
+
+ + \today + \rule + Special insertions +
+ <code>\today</code> + \today The \today command produces today's date, in the format month dd, yyyy; for example, `July 4, 1976'. It uses the predefined counters \day, \month, and \year (see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not updated as the program runs. + datetime packageThe datetime package, among others, can produce a wide variety of other date formats. +
+
+ + Splitting the input + Front/back matter + Special insertions + Top + + Splitting the input + splitting the input fileinput file A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run &latex;. + + + \include + \include + Conditionally include a file. + + + \includeonly + \includeonly + Determine which files are included. + + + \input + \input + Unconditionally include a file. + + + + + + \include + \includeonly + Splitting the input +
+ <code>\include</code> + \include Synopsis: + \include{file} + If no \includeonly command is present, the \include command executes \clearpage to start a new page (see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another \clearpage. + Given an \includeonly command, the \include actions are only run if file is listed as an argument to \includeonly. See the next section. + nested \include, not allowedThe \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by another \include command. +
+
+ + \includeonly + \input + \include + Splitting the input +
+ \<code>includeonly</code> + \includeonly Synopsis: + \includeonly{file1,file2,...} + The \includeonly command controls which files will be read by subsequent \include commands. The list of filenames is comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename specified in a \include command for the selection to be effective. + This command can only appear in the preamble. +
+
+ + \input + \includeonly + Splitting the input +
+ \input + \input Synopsis: + \input{file} + The \input command causes the specified file to be read and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point. + If file does not end in .tex (e.g., foo or foo.bar), it is first tried with that extension (foo.tex or foo.bar.tex). If that is not found, the original file is tried (foo or foo.bar). +
+
+ + Front/back matter + Letters + Splitting the input + Top + + Front/back matter + + + Tables of contents + Tables of contents + + + + Glossaries + Glossaries + + + + Indexes + Indexes + + + + + + + Tables of contents + Glossaries + Front/back matter +
+ Tables of contents + table of contents, creating \tableofcontentsA table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents command. You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go; &latex; does the rest for you. A previous run must have generated a .toc file. + The \tableofcontents command produces a heading, but it does not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the table of contents, write a \newpage command after the \tableofcontents command. + \listoffigures\listoftablesThe analagous commands \listoffigures and \listoftables produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents. + \nofilesThe command \nofiles overrides these commands, and prevents any of these lists from being generated. + + + \addcontentsline + \addcontentsline + Add an entry to table of contents etc. + + + \addtocontents + \addtocontents + Add text directly to table of contents file etc. + + +
+
+ + \addcontentsline + \addtocontents + Tables of contents + + \addcontentsline + \addcontentsline{ext}{unit}{text}table of contents entry, manually adding The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list or table where: + + + ext + + The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables). + + + + unit + + The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the following, matching the value of the ext argument: +
+ + toc + + The name of the sectional unit: part, chapter, section, subsection, subsubsection. + + + + lof + + For the list of figures. + + + + lot + + For the list of tables. + + +
+ + + + entry + + The actual text of the entry. + + + + \contentslineWhat is written to the .ext file is the command \contentsline{unit}{name}. + +
+
+ + \addtocontents + \addcontentsline + Tables of contents + + \addtocontents + \addtocontents{ext}{text} The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the .ext file that generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables. + + + ext + + The extension of the file on which information is to be written: toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables). + + + + text + + The text to be written. + + +
+
+
+ + Glossaries + Indexes + Tables of contents + Front/back matter +
+ Glossaries + glossaries \makeglossaryThe command \makeglossary enables creating glossaries. + \glossary.glo fileThe command \glossary{text} writes a glossary entry for text to an auxiliary file with the .glo extension. + \glossaryentrySpecifically, what gets written is the command \glossaryentry{text}{pageno}, where pageno is the current \thepage value. + The glossary package on CTAN provides support for fancier glossaries. +
+
+ + Indexes + Glossaries + Front/back matter +
+ Indexes + indexes \makeindexThe command \makeindex enables creating indexes. + \index.idx fileThe command \index{text} writes a glossary entry for text to an auxiliary file with the .idx extension. + \indexentrySpecifically, what gets written is the command \indexentry{text}{pageno}, where pageno is the current \thepage value. + The rubber length \indexspace is inserted before each new letter in the index; its default value is 10pt plus5pt minus3pt. + makeindex programxindy program.ind file The .idx file can then be sorted with an external command, typically makeindex or xindy, resulting in a .ind file, which can then be used to typeset the index. +
+
+ + Letters + Terminal Input/Output + Front/back matter + Top + + Letters + letterscreating letters You can use &latex; to typeset letters, both personal and business. The letter document class is designed to make a number of letters at once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum: + \documentclass{letter} + \begin{document} + ... letters ... + \end{document} + Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St. + \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} + ... + \end{letter} + The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary &latex; input. Commands that make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not work. The letter closes with a \closing command. + \\ for lettersAfter the closing, you can have additional material. The \cc command produces the usual “cc: &dots;”. There's also a similar \encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use \\ to separate the items. + These commands are used with the letter class. + + + \address + \address + Your return address. + + + \cc + \cc + Cc list. + + + \closing + \closing + Saying goodbye. + + + \encl + \encl + List of enclosed material. + + + \location + \location + Your organisation's address. + + + \makelabels + \makelabels + Making address labels. + + + \name + \name + Your name, for the return address. + + + \opening + \opening + Saying hello. + + + \ps + \ps + Adding a postscript. + + + \signature + \signature + Your signature. + + + \startbreaks + \startbreaks + Allow page breaks. + + + \stopbreaks + \stopbreaks + Disallow page breaks. + + + \telephone + \telephone + Your phone number. + + + + + + \address + \cc + Letters +
+ \address{<var>return-address}</var> + \address The \address specifies the return address of a letter, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands. + If you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead. (See Overview, for details on your local implementation). If you give an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a personal letter. +
+
+ + \cc + \closing + \address + Letters +
+ <code>\cc</code> + \cccc list, in letters Synopsis: + \cc{name1\\name2} + Produce a list of names the letter was copied to. Each name is printed on a separate line. +
+
+ + \closing + \encl + \cc + Letters +
+ <code>\closing</code> + \closingletters, endingclosing letters Synopsis: + \closing{text} + A letter closes with a \closing command, for example, + \closing{Best Regards,} +
+
+ + \encl + \location + \closing + Letters +
+ <code>\encl</code> + \enclenclosure list Synopsis: + \encl{line1\\line2} + Declare a list of one more enclosures. +
+
+ + \location + \makelabels + \encl + Letters +
+ <code>\location</code> + \location \location{address} + This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. +
+
+ + \makelabels + \name + \location + Letters +
+ <code>\makelabels</code> + \makelabels \makelabels{number} + If you issue this command in the preamble, &latex; will create a sheet of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. +
+
+ + \name + \opening + \makelabels + Letters +
+ <code>\name</code> + \name \name{June Davenport} + Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address. +
+
+ + \opening + \ps + \name + Letters +
+ <code>\opening{<var>text</var>}</code> + \openingletters, starting Synopsis: + \opening{text} + A letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. For instance: + \opening{Dear Joe,} +
+
+ + \ps + \signature + \opening + Letters +
+ <code>\ps</code> + \pspostscript, in letters Use the \ps command to start a postscript in a letter, after \closing. +
+
+ + \signature + \startbreaks + \ps + Letters +
+ <code>\signature{<var>text</var>}</code> + \signature Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space for your signature. \\ starts a new line within text as usual. +
+
+ + \startbreaks + \stopbreaks + \signature + Letters +
+ <code>\startbreaks</code> + \startbreaks \startbreaks + Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again. +
+
+ + \stopbreaks + \telephone + \startbreaks + Letters +
+ <code>\stopbreaks</code> + \stopbreaks \stopbreaks + Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs. +
+
+ + \telephone + \stopbreaks + Letters +
+ <code>\telephone</code> + \telephone \telephone{number} + This is your telephone number. This only appears if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. +
+
+ + Terminal Input/Output + Command Line + Letters + Top + + Terminal Input/Output + input/Outputterminal Input/Output + + + \typein + \typein + Read text from the terminal. + + + \typeout + \typeout + Write text to the terminal. + + + + + + \typein + \typeout + Terminal Input/Output +
+ <code>\typein[<var>cmd</var>]{<var>msg</var>}</code> + \typein Synopsis: + \typein[\cmd]{msg} + \typein prints msg on the terminal and causes &latex; to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the \typein command. If the \cmd argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input. +
+
+ + \typeout + \typein + Terminal Input/Output +
+ <code>\typeout{<var>msg</var>}</code> + \typeout Synopsis: + \typeout{msg} + Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file. Commands in msg that are defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. + &latex;'s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg. A \space command in msg causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A ^^J in msg prints a newline. +
+
+ + Command Line + Document templates + Terminal Input/Output + Top + + Command Line + command Line The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; &tex; uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, &tex; accepts input from the terminal. You specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g. + latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' + will process foo.tex without pausing after every error. + * promptprompt, *\stopIf &latex; stops in the middle of the document and gives you a * prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type \stop (and return) and it will prematurely end the document. + + + + Document templates + Command Index + Command Line + Top + + Document templates + document templates Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. + + + book template + book template + + + + beamer template + beamer template + + + + tugboat template + tugboat template + + + + + + + book template + beamer template + Document templates +
+ <code>book</code> template + \documentclass{book} +\title{Book Class Template} +\author{Alex Author} + +\begin{document} +\maketitle + +\chapter{First} +Some text. + +\chapter{Second} +Some other text. + +\section{A subtopic} +The end. +\end{document} +
+
+ + beamer template + tugboat template + book template + Document templates +
+ <code>beamer</code> template + The beamer class creates slides presentations. + \documentclass{beamer} + +\title{Beamer Class template} +\author{Alex Author} +\date{July 31, 2007} + +\begin{document} + +\maketitle + +% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. +\begin{frame}[fragile] + \frametitle{First Slide} + +\begin{verbatim} + This is \verbatim! +\end{verbatim} + +\end{frame} + +\end{document} + +
+
+ + tugboat template + beamer template + Document templates +
+ <code>tugboat</code> template + TUGboat is the journal of the &tex; Users Group, http://tug.org/TUGboat. + \documentclass{ltugboat} % ltugproc for proceedings + +\usepackage{graphicx} +\usepackage{ifpdf} +\ifpdf + \usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black, + urlcolor=black]{hyperref} +\else + \usepackage{url} +\fi + +\begin{document} + +\title{Example \TUB\ Regular Article} + +% repeat info for each author. +\author{First Last} +\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} +\netaddress{user (at) example dot org} +\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} + +\maketitle + +% The abstract comes after \maketitle in ltugboat. +\begin{abstract} +This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue. +\end{abstract} + +\section{Introduction} + +This is an example article for \TUB, from +\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. + +We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the hyperref +package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output). \TUB\ is produced +using \acro{PDF} files exclusively, nowadays. + +The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others: + +{\small +\begin{verbatim} +\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW +\BibTeX \CandT \CTAN \DTD \DVItoVDU \HTML +\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \JoT \LAMSTeX \LaTeXe +\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \pcMF \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas +\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS +\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG +\tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \VorTeX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE + +\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag +\careof \thinskip + +\acro{FRED} -> {\sc fred} % please use! +\cs{fred} -> \fred +\env{fred} -> \begin{fred} +\meta{fred} -> <fred> +\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... +\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 +\booktitle{Book of Fred} +\end{verbatim} +} + +For more information, see the ltubguid document at: +\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} + +Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. + + +\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style +\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty +\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX + + +\makesignature % not in ltugproc +\end{document} +
+
+ + Concept Index + Command Index + Top + + Concept Index + cp + + + + + Command Index + Concept Index + Document templates + Top + + Command Index + fn + + +
+ diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ltx-help.el b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ltx-help.el new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..89175d29637 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/latex2e-help-texinfo/ltx-help.el @@ -0,0 +1,270 @@ +;;; ltx-help.el --- Lookup latex commands in info pages. + +;; Author: Peter Galbraith or +;; Christian Lynbech +;; Martin Sjolin +;; Boris Goldowsky +;; Maintainer: Torsten Martinsen +;; Updated: 12 June 2008 +;; Keywords: help, latex, info + + +;;; Commentary: + +;; Use the function latex-help to look up a latex command or +;; environment in the latex online manual. If point is at such a +;; command, this will be the default. + +;; Installation: +;; +;; Add the following piece of code to your .emacs +;; +;; (define-key help-map "\C-l" 'latex-help) +;; +;; to bind latex-help to C-h C-l. To load latex-help when loading AUC-TeX or +;; some other LaTeX/TeX mode and bind the it to C-C i key, add the the following +;; to you .emacs: +;; +;; (add-hook 'Latex-mode-hook +;; (function (lambda () +;; (define-key LaTeX-mode-map "\C-ci" 'latex-help)))) +;; +;; or if you do not have add-hook (a very nice package): +;; +;; (setq Latex-mode-hook +;; (function (lambda () +;; (define-key LaTeX-mode-map "\C-ci" 'latex-help)))) +;; +;; + +;; The info document that this code works with is at +;; http://ctan.org/get/info/latex2e-help-texinfo. + +;;; Change Log: + +;;Mar 4, 1994 : +;; Changed to my personal preferences. I have changed the function +;; names. I have changed it to take a parameter, rather than just +;; taking the current word. I am also basing it on the index rather +;; than the node names. +;; +;;Mar 10, 1994 : +;; Added definition of current-word if not present. +;; Made default value pick up a leading \ if apropriate +;; +;;Mar 11, 1994 : +;; Changed the name of current-word into latex-help-guess. This +;; eliminates the need for the embedded defun. +;; Also made describe-latex work more like describe-function in its +;; way of using default values. Now you must press return at an +;; empty prompt to get the listed default (if any). +;; +;;Mar 10, 1994 : +;; Rewrote part of the describe-latex command to use the prefix +;; argument, changed latex-help-get-cmd-obarray to return the +;; the new array and test if it is empty or not. Add information +;; concerning where to find the latex.texi file and emacs 18 info.el +;; +;;Mar 28, 1994 : +;; * rewrote describe-latex's command-reading code; it did not +;; default correctly on my system. +;; * Added latex-help-hist, for completion history. +;; * Modified it to use show-temp-buffer, if defined, so that it will +;; display the help buffer in accord with user preferences. +;; * Renamed describe-latex to latex-help, for consistency with other names. +;; * Removed unneeded (interactive) specs for latex-help-guess and +;; latex-help-get-cmd-obarray. +;; * Added autoload cookies. +;; * Doc fix. +;; +;;Mar 29, 1994 : +;; * made it working under epoch/emacs-18 by calling +;; completion-read without the last argument. +;; * made prompting similar to emacs help +;; * moved add-hook and define keys to installation section, since +;; the settings conflict with my own keybindings. Also, the key +;; binding should be chosen by the end user. +;; +;; Wed Mar 30 08:45:50 1994 LYNBECH +;; * Changed file layout to conform to FSF's standards +;; * Tweaked latex-help-guess to include any leading backslashes +;; * Inversed the meaning of the prefix argument. Now default is +;; to switch buffers. Also added new variable `latex-help-split-window' +;; to allow window splitting always. +;; * Minor doc fixes +;; +;; Wed Apr 6 08:34:08 1994 LYNBECH +;; * fixed latex-help-guess to be more faithful to the lexical rules +;; of TeX. The result is not especially elegant. +;; +;;Apr 16, 1994 : +;; Changed the name to `ltx-help.el'. +;; +;; Sat Apr 1 1995 Torsten Martinsen (torsten@kom.auc.dk) +;; Changed obarray to an alist where the car of each cons cell is the +;; command name, and the cdr is the Info node describing that +;; command. This implementation has the following advantages: +;; - we don't need to have a lot of small redundant Info nodes; instead, +;; we can use the Texinfo function index mechanism. +;; - the alist is dynamically sized, so this version will work regardless +;; of how many LaTeX commands the Info file contains. +;; Added info on LaTeX2e Info file. +;; +;; Mon Apr 15 1996 Torsten Martinsen (bullestock@dk-online.dk) +;; Changed node 'List of Commands' to 'Command Index' as suggested by +;; Ralf Fassel . +;; +;; Mon Apr 22 1996 Torsten Martinsen (bullestock@dk-online.dk) +;; When running under FSF Emacs, use (buffer-substring-no-properties) +;; instead of (buffer-substring) as suggested by Kurt Hornik +;; . Also removed Emacs 18 support. +;; +;; Thu Jun 12 2008 Karl Berry (karl@freefriends.org) +;; Change latex-help-file to "(latex2e)", so our names are consistent. +;; Doc updates. +;; +;;; Code: + +(require 'info) + +(if (string-match "XEmacs\\|Lucid" emacs-version) + ; XEmacs + (fset 'ltxh-buffer-substring (symbol-function 'buffer-substring)) + ; FSFmacs + (fset 'ltxh-buffer-substring (symbol-function 'buffer-substring-no-properties))) + +(defvar latex-help-file "(latex2e)") + +(defvar latex-help-split-window nil + "*When this is non-nil, `latex-help' will always pop up the info +buffer, rather than just switch to it.") + +(defvar latex-help-hist nil + "History for latex command help") + +(defconst latex-help-cmd-alist nil + "Alist of the commands in the index of the latex info manual, +used for validation and completion.") + +;;;###autoload +(defun latex-help (cmd split) + "Try to find info entry about LaTeX entity CMD. +CMD may be either a command or an environment. +If CMD is not a string, this function will prompt for it, eventually +with completion. If SPLIT (prefix arg.) is non-nil, latex-help will +pop up the Info buffer, rather than just switch to it. See also +variable `latex-help-split-window'." + (interactive + (list + (let* ((cw (latex-help-guess)) + (cww (concat "\\" cw)) + (cmd-alist (latex-help-get-cmd-alist)) + (guess (cond ((try-completion cw cmd-alist) cw) + ((try-completion cww cmd-alist) cww) + (t nil))) + (val (completing-read (if guess + (format "Describe LaTeX command (default %s): " guess) + "Describe LaTeX command: ") + cmd-alist nil t nil + 'latex-help-hist))) + (cdr (assoc (if (equal val "") + guess + val) cmd-alist))) + current-prefix-arg)) + (if (not (or split latex-help-split-window)) + (Info-goto-node (concat latex-help-file cmd)) + (save-excursion + (let ((pop-up-windows t) + (buffer (current-buffer))) + (pop-to-buffer nil) + (Info-goto-node (concat latex-help-file cmd)) + (if (fboundp 'show-temp-buffer) + (show-temp-buffer (current-buffer) t) + (pop-to-buffer buffer)))))) + +(defun latex-help-guess () + "Return the word point is on as a string, if it's between two +word-constituent characters. If not, but it immediately follows one, +move back first. Otherwise, if point precedes a word constituent, +move forward first. Otherwise, move backwards until a word constituent +is found and get that word; if you reach a newline first, move forward +instead. + +This function has been tweaked to deal better with latex commands. + +Return the LaTeX command point is on as a string. +" + ;; cl: I am not claiming this to be neither elegant nor fast. + (save-excursion + (let ((oldpoint (point)) (start (point)) (end (point)) + (wc "A-Za-z") (nwc "^A-Za-z")) + + (cond + ((looking-at "\\\\[^A-Za-z]") + (setq start (point) + end (+ 2 (point)))) + + ((looking-at "\\\\[A-Za-z]+") + (setq start (match-beginning 0) + end (match-end 0))) + + (t + (skip-chars-backward wc) + (skip-chars-backward "\\\\" (1- (point))) + (setq start (point)) + + (goto-char oldpoint) + + (skip-chars-forward "\\\\" (1+ (point))) + (skip-chars-forward wc) + (setq end (point)) + + (if (and (eq start oldpoint) (eq end oldpoint)) + (progn + (skip-chars-backward nwc + (save-excursion (beginning-of-line) (point))) + (if (eq (preceding-char) ?\n) + (progn + (skip-chars-forward nwc) + (setq start (point)) + (skip-chars-forward "\\\\" (1+ (point))) + (skip-chars-forward wc) + (setq end (point))) + (setq end (point)) + (skip-chars-backward wc) + (skip-chars-backward "\\\\" (1- (point))) + (setq start (point))))) + ) + ) + (ltxh-buffer-substring start end))) + ) + +(defun latex-help-get-cmd-alist () + "Scoop up the commands in the index of the latex info manual. +The values are saved in `latex-help-cmd-alist' for speed." + ;; mm, does it contain any cached entries + (if (not (assoc "\\begin" latex-help-cmd-alist)) + (save-window-excursion + (setq latex-help-cmd-alist nil) + (Info-goto-node (concat latex-help-file "Command Index")) + (if (search-forward "::" nil t) + (progn + (end-of-buffer) + (while (re-search-backward "^\\* \\(.+\\)::$" nil t) + (setq key (ltxh-buffer-substring (match-beginning 1) (match-end 1))) + (setq latex-help-cmd-alist + (cons (cons key key) latex-help-cmd-alist)))) + (end-of-buffer) + (while (re-search-backward "^\\* \\(.+\\): *\\(.+\\)\\.$" nil t) + (setq key (ltxh-buffer-substring (match-beginning 1) (match-end 1))) + (setq value (ltxh-buffer-substring (match-beginning 2) (match-end 2))) + (setq latex-help-cmd-alist + (cons (cons key value) latex-help-cmd-alist)))) + )) + ;; and return the alist. + latex-help-cmd-alist + ) + +(provide 'ltx-help) + +;;; ltx-help.el ends here -- cgit v1.2.3