From 1e748bf04d4470ebb06521adedd4d3f5c7f3c45e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Karl Berry Date: Sat, 23 May 2009 00:04:36 +0000 Subject: move gentle out of texmf-doc git-svn-id: svn://tug.org/texlive/trunk@13405 c570f23f-e606-0410-a88d-b1316a301751 --- Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.pdf | Bin 391046 -> 0 bytes Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.tex | 5397 ------------------------ 2 files changed, 5397 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.pdf delete mode 100644 Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.tex (limited to 'Master/texmf-doc/doc') diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.pdf b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index 83c3f5f0a21..00000000000 Binary files a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.tex b/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.tex deleted file mode 100644 index a03678d4bf5..00000000000 --- a/Master/texmf-doc/doc/english/gentle/gentle.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5397 +0,0 @@ - - -%% Thanks for your interest in A Gentle Introduction to TeX. -%% Any comments on this manual would be appreciated. These may -%% be typesetting, English, or TeX criticisms. If you decide to -%% translate this document into another language, I'd appreciate -%% receiving a copy. -%% -%% This file is a complete TeX input file. Just run it -%% through TeX and print out the resulting "DVI" file. If you are -%% familiar with TeX, the macros at the top of the file have a few -%% switches which you may want to set. If you have problems or -%% can't run TeX at all, write to me and I'll send you a hard copy. -%% You can get a bound copy from the TeX Users Group at the address -%% given below. -%% -%% You should feel free to photocopy and/or distribute this manual. -%% My only request is that it remain in one piece and not be chopped -%% up. The only machine dependent section (#1.2) may need to be -%% rewritten for your local site, of course. -%% -%%% Michael Doob -%% Department of Mathematics -%% The University of Manitoba -%% Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2 -%% Canada -%% mdoob@uofmcc (bitnet) -%% mdoob@ccu.umanitoba.ca (internet) -%% -%% Here is a character listing to check to be sure that no -%% unwanted translations took place within the bowels of the net. -%% Upper case letters: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ -%% Lower case letters: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz -%% round parentheses, square brackets, curly braces: () [] {} -%% Exclaim, at, sharp, dollar, percent: ! @ # $ % -%% Caret, ampersand, star, underscore, hyphen: ^ & * _ - -%% vertical bar, backslash, tilde, backprime, plus: | \ ~ ` + -%% plus, equal, prime, quote, colon: + = ' " : -%% less than, greater than, slash, question, comma: < > / ? , -%% period, semicolon: . ; -%% -%% -%% -%% Now here come the macros used in this manual. If you are -%% already familiar with TeX, you may want to fiddle with them. -%% In particular, the hooks are left to generate a new control -%% word index and table of contents if you change section 1.2. -%% -%% - - - -%%%%%%%% Here are the fonts other than the sixteen defined in %%%%%%%% -%%%%%%%%%%%%% plain.tex that are used %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - - %%%% first, choose between amr or cmr fonts %%% -\newif \ifamrfonts -\amrfontsfalse % use this line if you use the cmr fonts -%\amrfontstrue % use this line if you use the old amr fonts - -\ifamrfonts \font\brm=amr10 scaled \magstep1 - \else \font\brm=cmr10 scaled \magstep1 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\halfrm=amr10 scaled \magstephalf - \else \font\halfrm=cmr10 scaled \magstephalf \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\bbrm=amr10 scaled \magstep2 - \else \font\bbrm=cmr10 scaled \magstep2 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\bbbrm=amr10 scaled \magstep3 - \else \font\bbbrm=cmr10 scaled \magstep3 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\bbbbrm=amr10 scaled \magstep4 - \else\font \bbbbrm=cmr10 scaled \magstep4 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\bbbbbrm=amr10 scaled \magstep5 - \else \font\bbbbbrm=cmr10 scaled \magstep5 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\sf = amssmc10 - \else \font\sf = cmss10 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\chapfont=ambx10 scaled \magstep2 - \else \font\chapfont=cmbx10 scaled \magstep2 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\secfont=ambx10 scaled \magstep1 - \else \font\secfont=cmbx10 scaled \magstep1 \fi -\ifamrfonts \font\sc= amcsc10 - \else \font\sc= cmcsc10 \fi -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - - -%%%%\vbadness=10000 %%%%%% I don't want to hear about underfull vboxes -\raggedbottom %%%%% delete this line for aligned page bottoms -\hsize=5.5in -\vsize=7in -\voffset=.75in -\parskip=\baselineskip -\widowpenalty=1000 \clubpenalty=1000 %%% I hate widows and orphans! %%% - -%%%%%%%%% choosing between Canadian and American spellings %%%%%%%%% -\newif \ifcanspell -\canspelltrue %%%% Canadian spelling -%\canspellfalse %%% use this line for American spelling - -\def\aesthetic{\ifcanspell \ae{}sthetic\else esthetic\fi} -\def\analogue{\ifcanspell analogue\else analog\fi} - \let\analog=\analogue -\def\cancelled{\ifcanspell cancelled\else canceled\fi} - \let\canceled=\cancelled -\def\centimetre{\ifcanspell centimetre\else centimeter\fi} - \let\centimeter=\centimetre -\def\centre{\ifcanspell centre\else center\fi} - \let\center=\centre -\def\centred{\ifcanspell centred\else centered\fi} - \let\centered=\centred -\def\our{\ifcanspell our\else or\fi} -\def\postcode{\ifcanspell postalcode\else zipcode\fi} -\def\province{\ifcanspell province\else state\fi} -\def\theatre{\ifcanspell theatre\else theater\fi} - \let\theater=\theatre -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -%%%%%%%%%% First check to see if using plain format %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\def\shouldbefmt{plain} -\ifx\shouldbefmt\fmtname -\else -\immediate\write16{} -\immediate\write16{***** WARNING WARNING WARNING *****} -\immediate\write16{You probably need to use the command} -\immediate\write16{tex \string} -\immediate\write16{to make your dvi file (not latex).} -\immediate\write16{***** WARNING WARNING WARNING *****} -\immediate\write16{} -\fi - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% headline routines %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\def\gentleheadline{% - \vbox {\hrule% - \line {\strut \vrule \quad \tenrm A \TeX{} intro - \ifcanspell (Canadian \else (U.S. \fi spelling) - \hfil - \ifnum \secnum > 0 Section \the\secnum: \fi \sectiontitle \quad - \vrule}% - \hrule}% -} - -\newif \iftitlepage \titlepagetrue -\headline= - {\iftitlepage \hfil \global\titlepagefalse \else \gentleheadline \fi} -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% define contents and index files %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -%%% Normally the contents and index are hard coded into the input file. %%% -%% To generate new ones, use \writingcontentstrue and \writingindextrue. %% - -\newif \ifwritingcontents -\newif \ifwritingindex -\newwrite\contents \newwrite\index - -\writingcontentsfalse \writingindexfalse -%%% \writingcontentstrue %%% use this line to make the contents -%%% \writingindextrue %%% use this line to make the index - -\ifwritingcontents \openout\contents=contents.tex \fi -\ifwritingindex \openout\index=index.tex - \def\toindex#1{\immediate\write\index{#1 \the\pageno}} - \else \def\toindex#1{} \fi -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% determine whether answers are printed %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\newif \ifwritinganswers -\writinganswersfalse %%% use this line to suppress answer section -\writinganswerstrue %%% use this line to include answer section -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% footnote macro with counter %%%%%%%%%%%% -\newcount\footnotenum \footnotenum=0 -\def\fnote#1{\advance \footnotenum by 1% -\footnote{$^{\the\footnotenum}$}{#1}} -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - - - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% exercise, section, and subsection macros %%%%%%%%%%%% -\newcount\exno %%%%%% counter for exercises %%%%%%%% -\newcount\secnum \secnum=0 %%%% counter for section numbers %%%% -\newcount\subsecnum - -\def\section#1{ - \vfill\eject %%%%% new section starts on a new page - %%%\ifodd\pageno \else\ \vfill\eject \fi %start on an odd page - \advance\secnum by 1 \subsecnum=0 \exno=0 - \ifnum \secnum = 1 \pageno=1 \fi - \ifnum \secnum > 0 - \leftline{\chapfont Section \the\secnum} - \vskip 3pt \fi - \leftline{\chapfont #1} - \def\sectiontitle{#1} - \vskip\baselineskip - \hrule - \vskip 1cm - \ifwritingcontents \write\contents{\string\line\string{#1 - \string\dotfill{} - \ifnum \pageno < 0 \romannumeral-\pageno - \else \the\pageno \fi - \string}}\fi - \titlepagetrue} - -\def\subsection#1{\advance\subsecnum by 1 - \vskip 30pt - \leftline{\secfont \the\secnum .\the\subsecnum\ #1} - \nobreak - \ifwritingcontents - \write\contents{\string\line\string{\string\qquad{}#1 - \string\dotfill{} \the\pageno\string}}\fi - } - -\def\exercise{\global\advance \exno by 1 - \vskip\baselineskip - \noindent $\triangleright$ Exercise \the\secnum.\the\exno\quad - } -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - - -%% definitions of control sequences for characters in the typewriter font %%% -%%%% for short phrases this is easier than using a literal construction %%%% -\def\\{\char92{}} %%%%% backslash %%%%% -\def\lb{\char'173{}} %%%%% left brace %%%%% -\def\rb{\char'175{}} %%%%% right brace %%%%% -\def\sp{\char32{}} %%%%% special space symbol %%%%% - -\def\beginliteral{ -\vskip\baselineskip -\begingroup -\tt -\obeylines -%{\obeyspaces\global\let =\ } -\catcode`\@=0 -\parskip=0pt\parindent=0pt -\catcode`\$=12\catcode`\&=12\catcode`\^=12\catcode`\#=12 -\catcode`\_=12\catcode`\~=12 -\def\par{\leavevmode\endgraf} -\catcode`\{=12\catcode`\}=12\catcode`\%=12\catcode`\\=12 -} - -\def\endliteral{\endgroup} -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%% inhibit hyphenation of typewriter text %%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\hyphenchar\tentt=-1 - - -%%%%%%%%%%%% grouping to make input listing in typewriter type %%%%%%% -\def\beginuser{\vskip\parskip - \everypar={\nobreak} - \begingroup - \tt \obeylines \parskip=0pt \parindent=0pt} - -\def\enduser{\endgroup} - - -%%%%%%%%%%% macro to construct tables (easily) %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -%%% parameters: title goes between brackets, rest of the -%%% paragraph is the table -\def\maketable[#1]#2\par{ -\setbox1=\vbox{#2} -$$\vbox{ - \hbox to \wd1{\bf \hss #1 \hss} - \vskip 12pt - \box1 - } -$$ -} -%%%%%%%%%%% end of macro to construct tables %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - - - -%%%%%%%%%%% macro to put a box around the text %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\def\makebox#1#2#3% vsize, hsize, inserted text -{\hbox{\vrule - \vbox to #1{\hrule \vss - \hbox to #2{\hss#3\hss}\vss - \hrule}\vrule}} - -\def\displaytext#1{$$\hbox{#1}$$} - -\def\LaTeX{{\rm L\kern-.36em\raise.3ex\hbox{\sc a}\kern-.15em - T\kern-.1667em\lower.7ex\hbox{E}\kern-.125emX}} - -\def\AMSTeX{{$\cal A$}\kern-.1667em\lower.5ex\hbox - {$\cal M$}\kern-.125em{$\cal S$}-\TeX} - - -%%%%%%%%%%%% macro to put TeX references in right margin %%%%%%%% -\newdimen\theight -\def \TeXref#1{% - \vadjust{\setbox0=\hbox{\sevenrm\quad\quad\TeX book: #1}% - \theight=\ht0 - \advance\theight by \dp0 \advance\theight by \lineskip - \kern -\theight \vbox to \theight{\rightline{\rlap{\box0}}% - \vss}% - }}% -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\def\version{1.1} - -%%%%%%%%%%%% macro to write the date out the date and time %%%%%%%%%%% -%%%%%%%%%%%% TeXbook p. 406 for date %%%%%%%%%%% -\def\today{\ifcase\month\or January\or February\or March\or April\or -May\or June\or July\or August\or September\or October\or November\or -December\fi \space\number\day, \number\year} - -\newcount\hour \newcount\minute -\hour=\time \divide \hour by 60 -\minute=\time -\loop \ifnum \minute > 59 \advance \minute by -60 \repeat -\def\writetime{\ifnum \hour<13 \number\hour:% % supresses leading 0's - \ifnum \minute<10 0\fi% % so add it it - \number\minute - \ifnum \hour < 12 \ A.M. \else \ P.M. \fi - \else \advance \hour by -12 \number\hour:% % supresses leading 0's - \ifnum \minute<10 0\fi% % add it in - \number\minute \ P.M. \fi} - -\def\datestamp{\vfill - \rightline{\sevenrm Gentle Intro \version{} run through \TeX{} - on \today{} at \writetime}} -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\titlepagetrue -{\nopagenumbers -\def\sectiontitle{Introduction} -\topinsert \vskip 6 cm \endinsert -\centerline{\chapfont A Gentle Introduction to \TeX{}} -\vskip 15 pt -\centerline{\secfont A Manual for Self-study} -\vskip 3cm -\leftline{Michael Doob} -\leftline{Department of Mathematics} -\leftline{The University of Manitoba} -\leftline{Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2} -\vskip\baselineskip -\leftline{MDOOB@UOFMCC.BITNET} -\leftline{MDOOB@CCU.UMANITOBA.CA} - -\vfill\eject -\titlepagetrue. -\vfill\eject -} -\secnum=-2 \pageno=-1 - -\section{Introduction} - -First the bad news: \TeX{} is a large and complicated program that -goes to extraordinary lengths to produce attractive typeset material. -This very complication can cause unexpected things to happen at times. -Now the good news: straightforward text is very easy to typeset using -\TeX\null. So it's possible to start with easier text and work up to -more complicated situations. - -The purpose of this manual is to start from the very beginning and -to move towards these more complicated situations. No previous knowledge -of \TeX{} is assumed. By proceeding a section at a time, greater -varieties of text can be produced. - -Here are a few suggestions: there are some exercises in each -section. Be sure and do them! The only way to learn \TeX{} is -by using it. Better yet, experiment on your own; try to make -some variations on the exercises. There is no way that you can -damage the \TeX{} program with your experiments. You can find a -complete answer to most exercises by looking at the \TeX{} source -file that was used to produce this document. You'll notice that -there are references in the right margin to {\bf The \TeX -book}\fnote{Addison-Wesley, Reading,Massachusetts, 1984, ISBN -0-201-13488-9}\null. When you feel that you want more -information on a topic, that's where to look. - -Incidentally, there are a few fibs that appear in this manual; -they are used to hide complications (I look at this as something -like poetic license). As you become more experienced at using -\TeX{}, you'll be able to find them. - -\TeX{} is a public domain program that is available for no -license fee. It was developed by Donald Knuth at Stanford -University as a major project. In the profit-oriented market -place, the program would certainly cost many thousands of -dollars. The \TeX{} Users Group (TUG) is a nonprofit -organization which distributes copies of \TeX{}, this manual, -updates software, and gives information about new developments in -both hardware and software in its publications TUGboat and \TeX -niques. Joining this users group is inexpensive; please consider -doing so. The address is: -\vskip\baselineskip -\centerline{\TeX{} Users Group} -\centerline{P.O. Box 869} -\centerline{Santa Barbara, CA 93102} -\centerline{U.S.A.} - -This manual would not have come into being without the aid of others. -In particular the proofreading and suggestions of the following -people have been invaluable: -\begingroup -\frenchspacing -Waleed A.~Al-Salam (University of Alberta), -Debbie L.~Alspaugh (University of California), -Nelson H.~F.~Beebe (University of Utah), -Barbara Beeton (American Mathematical Society), -Anne Br\"uggemann-Klein (University of Freiburg), -Bart Childs (Texas A.~\&~M\null. University), -Mary Coventry (University of Washington), -Dimitrios Diamantaras (Temple University), -Roberto Dominimanni (Naval Underwater Systems Center), -Lincoln Durst (Providence, RI), -Victor Eijkhout (University of Nijmegen), -Moshe Feder (St. Lawrence University), -Josep~M.~Font (Universidad Barcelona), -Jonas de Miranda Gomes - (Instituto de Matematica Pura e Aplicada - Brazil), -Rob Gross (Boston College), -Klaus Hahn (University of Marburg), -Anita Hoover (University of Delaware), -J\"urgen Koslowski (Macalester College), -Kees van der Laan (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen), -John Lee (Northrop Corporation), -Silvio Levy (Princeton University), -Robert Messer (Albion College), -Emily H.~Moore (Grinnell College), -Young Park (University of Maryland), -Craig Platt (University of Manitoba), -Kauko Saarinen (University of Jyv\"askyl\"a), -Jim Wright (Iowa State University), -and -Dominik Wujastyk (Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine). - \endgroup - -In addition several people have sent me parts or all of their local -manuals. I have received a few others on the rebound. -In particular -\begingroup -\frenchspacing -Elizabeth Barnhart (TV Guide), -Stephan v.~Bechtolsheim (Purdue University), -Nelson H.~F.~Beebe (University of Utah) - and Leslie Lamport (Digital Equipment Corporation), -Marie McPartland-Conn and Laurie Mann (Stratus Computer), -Robert Messer (Albion College), -Noel Peterson (Library of Congress), -Craig Platt (University of Manitoba), -Alan Spragens (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, now of Apple Computers), -Christina Thiele (Carleton University), -and Daniel M.~Zirin (California Institute of Technology) -\endgroup -have written various types of lecture notes that have been most helpful. - -\vfill \eject -\section{Contents} - -\line{Introduction \dotfill{} i} -\line{Contents \dotfill{} iii} -\line{1.~Getting Started \dotfill{} 1} -\line{\qquad{}1.1 What \TeX{} is and what \TeX{} isn't \dotfill{} 1} -\line{\qquad{}1.2 From \TeX{} file to readable output, - the big set up \dotfill{} 2} -\line{\qquad{}1.3 Let's do it! \dotfill{} 4} -\line{\qquad{}1.4 \TeX{} has everything under control \dotfill{} 7} -\line{\qquad{}1.5 What \TeX{} won't do \dotfill{} 8} -\line{2.~All characters great and small \dotfill{} 9} -\line{\qquad{}2.1 Some characters are more special than others \dotfill{} 9} -\line{\qquad{}2.2 Typesetting with an accent \dotfill{} 10} -\line{\qquad{}2.3 Dots, dashes, quotes, - $\textfont0=\tenbf \mathinner {\ldotp \ldotp \ldotp }$ \dotfill{} 13} -\line{\qquad{}2.4 Different fonts \dotfill{} 15} -\line{3.~The shape of things to come \dotfill{} 19} -\line{\qquad{}3.1 Units, units, units \dotfill{} 19} -\line{\qquad{}3.2 Page shape \dotfill{} 20} -\line{\qquad{}3.3 Paragraph shape \dotfill{} 22} -\line{\qquad{}3.4 Line shape \dotfill{} 26} -\line{\qquad{}3.5 Footnotes \dotfill{} 27} -\line{\qquad{}3.6 Headlines and footlines \dotfill{} 28} -\line{\qquad{}3.7 Overfull and underfull boxes \dotfill{} 29} -\line{4.~$\Bigl\{$Groups, $\bigl\{$Groups, $\{$and More% - \setbox0=\hbox{$\biggl\{$} \vrule height \ht0 depth \dp0 width 0pt - Groups$\}\bigr\}\Bigr\}$ \dotfill{} 31} -\line{5.~No math anxiety here! \dotfill{} 33} -\line{\qquad{}5.1 Lots of new symbols \dotfill{} 33} -\line{\qquad{}5.2 Fractions \dotfill{} 37} -\line{\qquad{}5.3 Subscripts and superscripts \dotfill{} 38} -\line{\qquad{}5.4 Roots, square and otherwise \dotfill{} 39} -\line{\qquad{}5.5 Lines, above and below \dotfill{} 39} -\line{\qquad{}5.6 Delimiters large and small \dotfill{} 40} -\line{\qquad{}5.7 Those special functions \dotfill{} 41} -\line{\qquad{}5.8 Hear ye, hear ye! \dotfill{} 42} -\line{\qquad{}5.9 Matrices \dotfill{} 43} -\line{\qquad{}5.10 Displayed equations \dotfill{} 45} -\line{6.~All in a row \dotfill{} 48} -\line{\qquad{}6.1 Picking up the tab \dotfill{} 48} -\line{\qquad{}6.2 Horizontal alignment with more sophisticated patterns - \dotfill{} 51} -\line{7.~Rolling your own \dotfill{} 55} -\line{\qquad{}7.1 The long and short of it \dotfill{} 55} -\line{\qquad{}7.2 Filling in with parameters \dotfill{} 57} -\line{\qquad{}7.3 By any other name \dotfill{} 60} -\line{8.~To err is human \dotfill{} 62} -\line{\qquad{}8.1 The forgotten bye \dotfill{} 62} -\line{\qquad{}8.2 The misspelled or unknown control sequence \dotfill{} 62} -\line{\qquad{}8.3 The misnamed font \dotfill{} 64} -\line{\qquad{}8.4 Mismatched mathematics \dotfill{} 64} -\line{\qquad{}8.5 Mismatched braces \dotfill{} 65} -\line{9.~Digging a little deeper \dotfill{} 68} -\line{\qquad{}9.1 Big files, little files \dotfill{} 68} -\line{\qquad{}9.2 Larger macro packages \dotfill{} 69} -\line{\qquad{}9.3 Horizontal and vertical lines \dotfill{} 70} -\line{\qquad{}9.4 Boxes within boxes \dotfill{} 72} -\line{10.~Control word list \dotfill{} 77} -\ifwritinganswers - \line{11.~I get by with a little help\dotfill{} 80} -\fi - - - -\section{Getting Started} - -\subsection{What \TeX{} is and what \TeX{} isn't} - -First of all, let's see what steps are necessary to produce a -document using \TeX\null. The first step is to type the file -that \TeX{} reads. This is usually called the \TeX{} file or the -input file, and it can be created using a simple text editor (in -fact, if you're using a fancy word processor, you have to be sure -that your file is saved in ASCII or nondocument mode without any -special control characters). The \TeX{} program then reads your -input file and produces what is called a DVI file (DVI stands for -DeVice Independent). This file is not readable, at least not by -humans. The DVI file is then read by another program (called a -device driver) that produces the output that is readable by -humans\TeXref{23}. Why the extra file? The same DVI file can be -read by different device drivers to produce output on a dot -matrix printer, a laser printer, a screen viewer, or a -phototypesetter. Once you have produced a DVI file that gives -the right output on, say, a screen viewer, you can be assured -that you will get exactly the same output on a laser printer -without running the \TeX{} program again. - -The process may be thought of as proceeding in the following way: -$$ -{\hbox{edit text\quad} \atop \longrightarrow} -\lower .6cm \makebox{1.5cm}{1.8cm}% -{\vbox{\hbox{\TeX{}} - \hbox{input} - \hbox{file} - }% -}% -{\hbox{\quad \TeX{} program\quad} \atop \longrightarrow} -\lower .6cm \makebox{1.5cm}{1.8cm}% -{\vbox{\hbox{DVI} - \hbox{file}} -}% -{\hbox{\quad device driver\quad} \atop \longrightarrow} -\lower .6cm \makebox{1.5cm}{1.8cm}% -{\vbox{\hbox{readable} - \hbox{output}} -}% -$$ - -This means that we don't see our output in its final form when it -is being typed at the terminal. But in this case a little -patience is amply rewarded, for a large number of symbols not -available in most word processing programs become available. In -addition, the typesetting is done with more precision, and the -input files are easily sent between different computers by -electronic mail or on a magnetic medium. - -Our focus will be on the first step, that is, creating the \TeX{} -input file and then running the \TeX{} program to produce -appropriate results. There are two ways of running the \TeX{} -program; it can be run in batch mode or interactively. In -batch mode you submit your \TeX{} input file to your computer; -it then runs the \TeX{} program without further intervention and -gives you the result when it is finished. In interactive mode -the program can stop and get further input from the user, that -is, the user can interact with the program. Using \TeX{} -interactively allows some errors to be corrected by the user, -while the \TeX{} program makes the corrections in batch mode as -best it can. Interactive is the preferred mode, of course. All -personal computer and many mainframe implementations are -interactive. On some mainframes, however, the only practical -method of running \TeX{} is in batch mode. - - -\subsection{From \TeX{} file to readable output, the big set up} -\vskip\baselineskip - -{\parskip = 0pt \noindent -[Note from MD: -{\sl This is the only system dependent section in the manual and -may be replaced by a local guide. No reference is made to it -outside of the section itself. The following local information -should be included: -\item{$\bullet$} What initial steps, if any, should be taken by the reader -to permit the running of \TeX{} and your local device driver(s). -\item{$\bullet$} How to run \TeX\null. -\item{$\bullet$} How to read the log file. -\item{$\bullet$} How to preview and/or print the dvi file. - -The following sample is applicable here at the University of -Manitoba. We use a locally written editor (MANTES) on an -Amdahl running MVS; I'm fairly certain that it's the worst possible case.}] -} - - -In this section we'll see how to run \TeX{} at the University of -Manitoba. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with MANTES -and can create text files using it. - -First, there are several things that must be done {\bf one time -only}. To start you must do the following (you type in the -material that looks like typewriter type): -\item{(1)} allocate the files that \TeX{} will use by typing the -following lines (while in MANTES): -\itemitem{} C: {\tt alloc da=source.tex format=vb,256,6144} -\itemitem{} C: {\tt alloc da=dvi format=fb,1024,6144} - -\item{(2)} Create a file called RUNTEX in your MANTES aggregate -containing the following JCL: - -\beginuser -// JOB ,'RUN TEX' -// EXEC TEXC -//SRC DD DSN=.SOURCE.TEX,DISP=SHR -//DVI DD DSN=.DVI,DISP=OLD -\enduser - - -The name {\tt } is replaced by your own user id, of -course. The use of upper case and the spaces must be followed -exactly. - -\item{(3)} Create a file called PRINTTEX in your MANTES aggregate -containing the following JCL: - -\beginuser -// JOB ,'PRINT TEX' -// EXEC TEXP -//DVIFILE DD DSN=.DVI,DISP=SHR -\enduser - - -Once you have completed these three steps, you are ready to run a -\TeX{} job. The files you have created will allow you to produce -about ten pages of ordinary text. - -Here are the steps you use {\bf each time you run a job}. - -\item{(1)} create a MANTES file containing your \TeX{} input. -\item{(2)} save and submit your file using the commands -\itemitem{} C: {\tt save f/l to da=source.tex noseq} -\itemitem{} C: {\tt submit runtex} -\item{(3)} when you get a message saying that your job is finished, -enter the command -\itemitem{} C: {\tt out ; list ttyout} - -In this command, {\tt } is replaced by your user id with -a dollar sign appended. This file listing will tell you of any -errors that might have occurred. It is an abbreviated version of -what is called the ``log file''; we will use the term ``log -file'' to refer to the ttyout file produced by \TeX\null. - -If you want, you can check on the status of your job while it is -executing by using the command -\itemitem{} C: {\tt q } - -When you are finished looking at the log file, the command {\tt -end scratch} will throw away the log file while the command {\tt -end release} will send the log file to the printer, and it can -then be picked up with your \TeX{} output. - -\item{(4)} when your output from RUNTEX program is error free, \TeX{} -will have created a legal DVI file. To print it, use the -command -\itemitem{} C: {\tt submit printtex nohold} - -As in (3), you can check on the status of your job while it is -executing. -\item{(5)} Pick up your output at the I/O window, sixth floor -Engineering building. It usually takes about twenty minutes for the -output to be ready. Ask for it by ``{\tt }''. - -The files created are large enough for running \TeX{} jobs of about -10 pages. A job of that size will take about one second of CPU time -to run through \TeX\null. It will take about 15 seconds of CPU time to -print 10 pages on the Xerox 8600 using the current device driver. - -You can print your own copy of this manual using the command -{\tt \%docu tex}. You can also find lots of other useful -online information about \TeX{} by using {\tt \%texinfo}. - -\subsection{Let's do it!} - -So, from our viewpoint, the name of the game is to create the \TeX{} -file that produces the right readable output. What does -a \TeX{} file look like? It consists of characters from an -ordinary terminal, that is, upper and lower case letters, -numbers, and the usual punctuation and accent characters (these -are the usual ASCII characters). Text, for the most part, is just -typed normally. Special instructions usually start with one of a -few special symbols such as {\tt \#} or {\tt \&} (these will be -described in more detail later). Here is an example of a \TeX{} -input file: - -\beginuser -Here is my first \\TeX\\ sentence. -\\bye -\enduser -\toindex{TeX{} } \toindex{ } - - -First note that the characters in this example look like -typewriter type. We use these characters with all examples that -are meant to be typed from the computer terminal. Second, note -that the backslash appears three times in the text. We'll soon -see that this is one of the special symbols mentioned -previously, and it is used very frequently when making \TeX{} -documents. Make a file containing this example. Use the \TeX{} -program to make a DVI file and a device driver to see what you -have produced. If all goes well, you'll have a single page with -the following single sentence: - -Here is my first \TeX\ sentence. - - There will also be a page number at the bottom of the page. If -you've gotten this far, congratulations! Once you can produce one -\TeX{} document, it's just a matter of time before you can do -more complicated ones. Now let's compare what we typed in with -what we got out. The straightforward words were just typed in -normally, and \TeX{} set them in ordinary type. But the word ``\TeX'', -which can't be typed in on a terminal because the letters -aren't on the same line, is entered by using a word starting with -a backslash, and \TeX{} made the proper interpretation. Most -symbols that are not ordinary letters, numbers, or punctuation -are typeset by entering a word starting with a backslash. If we -look a little closer, we'll note that the word ``first'' is also -changed. -\TeXref{4} -The first two letters have been joined together and there isn't -a separate dot over the letter ``i''. This is standard -typesetting practice: certain letter combinations are joined up -to form what are called {\sl ligatures}. There is actually a good -\aesthetic{} reason for this. Compare the first two letters of -``first'' and ``{f}irst'' to see the difference. We note that -{\tt \\bye} appears in the input file with no corresponding word -in the final copy. -\toindex{bye} -This a typesetting instruction that tells \TeX{} that the input -is finished. We'll learn about lots of different typesetting -instructions as we go along. - -Let's look at the log file that was created when we ran \TeX -\null. It may vary slightly at your site, but should look -something like this: -\beginuser - 1. - 2. This is TeX, MVS Version 2.9 (no format preloaded) - 3. ** File PLAIN.FMT <-- DD=FMTLIB MEM=PLAIN - 4. - 5. ** File SRC.TEX <-- DD=SRC - 6. (src.tex [1] - 7. Output written on DVI (1 page, 256 bytes). - 8. Transcript written on TEXLOG. -\enduser - - -This is the file that will contain any error messages. On line 6, -{\tt (src.tex\ } indicated that \TeX{} has started reading that -file. The appearance of {\tt [1]} indicates that page 1 has been -processed. If there were errors on page 1, they would be listed -at that point. - -\vskip .5cm -\exercise Add a second sentence to your original \TeX{} file to get: -\beginuser -Here is my first \\TeX\\ sentence. -I was the one who typeset it! -\\bye -\enduser - -Use \TeX{} and look at your output. Is the second sentence on a -new line? - - -\exercise Now add this line to the beginning of your file: -\beginuser -\\nopagenumbers -\enduser -\noindent -Guess what will happen when you run the new file through -\TeX\null. Now try it and see what happens. -\toindex{nopagenumbers} - -\exercise Add three or four more sentences to your file. -Use letters, numbers, periods, commas, question marks, -and exclamation points, but don't use any other symbols. - - -\exercise Leave a blank line and add some more sentences. -You can now get new paragraphs. -\medskip - -We have now seen a major principle concerning the preparation of -\TeX{} input files. The placement of the text on your computer -terminal does not necessarily correspond to the placement of the -text on your output. You can not, for example, add space between -words in your output by adding spaces in your input file. Several -consecutive spaces and one space will produce exactly the same -output. As would be expected, a word at the end of one line will -be separated from the first word of the following line. In fact, -sometimes when working on a file that will be heavily edited, it -is convenient to start each sentence on a separate line. Spaces -at the beginning of a line, however, are always ignored. - -\exercise Add the following sentence as a new paragraph, and then -typeset it: -\beginuser -Congratulations! You received a grade of 100\% on your latest -examination. -\enduser -\noindent -The {\tt\%} sign is used for comments in your input file. -Everything on a line following this symbol is ignored. Notice -that even the space that normally separates the last word on one -line from the first word on the next line is lost. Now put a -backslash in front of the {\tt\%} sign to correct the -sentence. \toindex{\$} \toindex{\%} - -\exercise Add the following sentence as a new paragraph: -\beginuser -You owe me \$10.00 and it's about time you sent it to me! -\enduser -\noindent -This will produce an error in your log file (if your -implementation of \TeX{} is interactive, that is, sends you -messages and waits for answers, just hit the carriage return or -enter key when you get the error message). You will get output, -but not what you might expect. Look at the log file and see -where the error messages are listed. Don't worry about the -actual messages. We'll have a lot more to say about errors -(including this one) later. Now fix the error by putting a -backslash in front of the {\tt \$} sign, and typeset the result -(there are a small number of characters like the per cent and -dollar signs that \TeX{} uses for its own purposes. A table of -these characters will be provided shortly). - -\subsection{\TeX{} has everything under control} - -We have seen that the backslash has a special role. Any word -starting with a backslash will be given a special interpretation -when \TeX{} reads it from your input file. Such a word is called -a {\sl control sequence}. There are, in fact, two types of -control sequences: a {\sl control word\/} is a backslash followed -by letters only (for example, {\tt \\TeX}) and a {\sl control -symbol\/} is a backslash followed by a single nonletter (for -example, {\tt \\\$})\null. Since a space is a nonletter, a -backslash followed by a space is a legitimate control symbol. -\TeXref{7--8} -When we want to emphasize that a space is present, we will use a -special symbol {\tt\sp} to indicate the space, as in the control -symbol {\tt\\\sp}. This convention is used in {\bf The \TeX -book} as well as in this manual. - -When \TeX{} is reading your input file and comes to a backslash -followed by a letter, it knows that a control word is being -read. So it continues reading the name of the control word until -a nonletter is read. So if your file contains - -\displaytext{\tt I like \\TeX!} - -\noindent -the control word {\tt \\TeX} is terminated by the exclamation -point. But this presents a problem if you want to have a space -after a control word. If you have, for example, the sentence - -\displaytext{\tt I like \\TeX and use it all the time.} - -\noindent -in your input file, the control word {\tt\\TeX} is terminated by -the space (which is, of course, a nonletter). But then you won't -have a space between the words ``\TeX{}'' and ``and''; inserting -more spaces won't help, since \TeX{} doesn't distinguish between -one space and several consecutive spaces. But if you put the -control symbol {\tt\\\sp} after a control word, you will both -terminate the control word and insert a space. It's really easy -to forget to put in something like {\tt\\\sp} after a control -word. I promise you that you will do it at least once while -you're learning to use \TeX\null. - -\exercise Make an input file that will produce the following -paragraph: - -I like \TeX! Once you get the hang of it, \TeX{} is really easy -to use. You just have to master the \TeX nical aspects. - -Most control words are named so as to give a hint of their uses. -You can use {\tt \\par} to make a new paragraph, for example, -instead of putting in a blank line. -\toindex{par} - -\subsection{What \TeX{} won't do} - -\TeX{} is very good at setting type, but there are things that \TeX{} -can't do well. One is making figures. Space can be left -to insert figures, but there are no graphic procedures built into -the language (at present). Some implementations allow graphic -instructions to be inserted using the {\tt \\special} control -word but these are exceptional and definitely site dependent. - -\TeX{} sets type in horizontal straight lines and not in -straight lines at other angles. In particular, it is generally -not possible to make insertions in ``landscape mode'', that is, -with the text rotated so that the baseline is parallel with -the long edge of the paper, or to include text that has a curve for -a baseline. Perspective type (gradually increasing or -decreasing in height) is not handled well by \TeX\null. - -We have seen that there is an ``edit, \TeX{}, driver'' cycle that -is necessary for each different copy of output. This is true -even when the output device is a terminal. In particular, it's -not possible to type the input file and see the results on the -screen immediately without going through the full cycle. Some -implementations have both text and graphics displays with -reasonably quick turnaround (a few seconds for a single page); as -hardware becomes less expensive and processors become faster, we -may see improvement. - - - - - - -\section{All characters great and small} - -\subsection{Some characters are more special than others} - -We saw in the last section that most text is entered at the -terminal as sentences of ordinary words just as when typing with -a typewriter. But we also saw that, in particular, the backslash -could be used for at least two different purposes. It can be -used for symbols (or combinations of symbols) that don't appear -on the keyboard such as typing {\tt \\TeX} to get \TeX\null. It -can also be used to give \TeX{} special instructions such as -typing {\tt \\bye} to indicate the end of the input file. In -general, a word starting with a backslash will be interpreted by -\TeX{} as one requiring special attention. There are several -hundred words that \TeX{} knows, and you can define more -yourself, and so the backslash is very important. We'll spend a -lot of time as we proceed learning some of these words; -fortunately we'll only need to use a small number of them most of -the time. - -There are ten characters which, like the backslash, are used -by \TeX{} for special purposes, and we now want to give the -complete list. -\TeXref{37--38}What if we want to use a sentence with one of these -special characters in it? With this in mind we'll ask the following -questions: -\item{(1)} What are the different special characters? -\item{(2)} How do we use a special character if we really want to -typeset it in our text? - -Here is a table of each special character, its purpose, and the -method of typesetting the special character itself if you need -it: - - -\maketable [Characters requiring special input] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil#\hfil & \quad # \hfil & \quad\tt # \hfil\cr - \bf Character & \bf Purpose & \bf Input for literal output \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - $\backslash$ & Special symbols and instructions & \$\\backslash\$ \cr - $\{$ & Open group & \$\\\lb\$ \cr - $\}$ & Close group & \$\\\rb\$ \cr - \% & Comments & \\\% \cr - \& & Tabs and table alignments & \\\& \cr - \~{} & Unbreakable space & \\\~{}\lb\rb \cr - \$ & Starting or ending math text & \\\$ \cr - \^{} & Math superscripts & \\\^{}\lb\rb \cr - \_{} & Math subscripts & \\\_{}\lb\rb \cr - \# & Defining replacement symbols & \\\# \cr - } - -\toindex{\lb} -\toindex{\rb} -\toindex{\%} -\toindex{\&} -\toindex{\~{}} -\toindex{\$} -\toindex{\^{}} -\toindex{\_{}} -\toindex{\#} - -\subsection{Typesetting with an accent} - -Now we're going to start using some of \TeX{}'s goodies! So far -we've just been using \TeX{} to make our output look attractive, -but now we'll start to do things that are difficult or impossible -on the typewriter. In particular, we're going to look at accents -now. How do you produce an accent when the symbol doesn't appear on -the keyboard? Just as with the symbol \TeX{}, it is necessary to -enter a word starting with a backslash. For the word ``premi\`ere'', -as a first example, you need to type in {\tt premi\\`ere} -(you may have to hunt around to find the ``back prime'' -or ``grave'' symbol {\tt `} on your keyboard, but it's there -somewhere\fnote{If you have a very old or obscure -keyboard and the back prime is {\it really\/} not there, you can -use {\tt \\lq\lb\rb} instead. Similarly {\tt \\rq\lb\rb} can be -used for the symbol {\tt '}. You can think of the symbols as -being abbreviations for ``left quote'' and ``right quote.'' In -addition, {\tt \\lq\\lq\lb\rb} and {\tt \\rq\\rq\lb\rb} give the -usual quotation marks. But this won't work as a method to produce -an accent over the following letter, so you're really better off -with a proper keyboard.}). In general, to put an accent -on a letter, the appropriate control sequence precedes the letter. - -Here are some examples: -$$\vbox{ - -\halign{ -\strut \hfil\tt # & \quad # \hfil\cr -\bf \TeX{} input & \bf \TeX{} output \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -\\`a la mode & \`a la mode \cr -r\\'esum\\'e & r\'esum\'e \cr -soup\\c{\sp}con & soup\c con \cr -No\\"el & No\"el \cr -na\\"\\i{\sp}ve & na\"\i ve \cr -} -}$$ - - -We see several principles illustrated by these examples. Most -accents are produced by using a control symbol with a similar -shape. A few of them are produced by control words containing a -single letter. Some care must be used in this case, for a space -must be used to terminate the control word. If you have {\tt -soup\\ccon} in your file, for example, \TeX{} will look for the -control word {\tt\\ccon}\fnote{We'll see that there is another -method when we look at the grouping concept in Section~4.}. -\TeXref{52--53} - -Notice that there is a control word {\tt\\i} also. This produces -the letter ``i'' without the dot over it; this allows an accent -to be put over the lower part of the letter. There is an -analogous control word {\tt\\j} that produces a dotless ``j'' -for accenting purposes. - -\maketable [Accents that may be immediately followed by a letter] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # \hfil & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil\cr - \bf Name & \bf \TeX{} input & \bf \TeX{} output \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - grave & \\`o & \`o \cr - acute & \\'o & \'o \cr - circumflex & \\\^{}o & \^o \cr - umlaut/dieresis/tr\'emat & \\"{}o & \"o \cr - tilde & \\\~{}o & \~o \cr - macron & \\={}o & \=o \cr - dot & \\\char'056{}o & \.o \cr - } - -\toindex{`} -\toindex{'} -\toindex{\^{}} -\toindex{"} -\toindex{i} -\toindex{j} -\toindex{=} -\toindex{.} - -\maketable [Accents requiring an intervening space] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # \hfil & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil\cr - \bf Name & \bf \TeX{} input & \bf \TeX{} output \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - cedilla & \\c o & \c{o} \cr - underdot & \\d o & \d{o} \cr - underbar & \\b o & \b{o} \cr - h\'a\v{c}ek & \\v o & \v{o} \cr - breve & \\u o & \u{o} \cr - tie & \\t oo & \t oo \cr - Hungarian umlaut& \\H o & \H{o} \cr - } - -\toindex{c} -\toindex{d} -\toindex{b} -\toindex{v} -\toindex{u} -\toindex{t} -\toindex{H} - -\TeX{} also allows some letters from languages other than English to -be typeset. - -\maketable [A\kern-1pt vailable foreign language symbols] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # \hfil & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil\cr - \bf Example& \bf \TeX{} input & \bf \TeX{} output \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - \AE gean, \ae sthetics & \\AE, \\ae & \AE, \ae \cr - \OE uvres, hors d'\oe uvre & \\OE \\oe & \OE, \oe \cr - \AA ngstrom & \\AA, \\aa & \AA, \aa \cr - \O re, K\o benhavn & \\O, \\o & \O, \o \cr - \L odz, \l\'odka & \\L, \\l & \L, \l \cr - Nu\ss & \\ss & \ss \cr - ?`Si? & {?}{`} & ?` \cr - !`Si! & {!}{`} & !` \cr - Se\~nor & \\\~{} & \~{} \cr - & \lb\\it\\\$\rb & {\it\$} \cr - } - -\toindex{AE} -\toindex{ae} -\toindex{OE} -\toindex{oe} -\toindex{AA} -\toindex{aa} -\toindex{O} -\toindex{o} -\toindex{L} -\toindex{l} -\toindex{ss} - -Typeset the sentence in each of the following exercises: - -\exercise Does \AE schylus understand \OE dipus? - -\exercise The smallest internal unit of \TeX{} is about 53.63\AA. - -\exercise They took some honey and plenty of money wrapped up in a -{\it \$}5 note. - -\exercise \'El\`eves, refusez vos le\c cons! Jetez vos cha\^\i nes! - -\exercise Za\v sto tako polako pijete \v caj? - -\exercise Mein Tee ist hei\ss. - -\exercise Peut-\^etre qu'il pr\'ef\`ere le caf\'e glac\'e. - -\exercise ?`Por qu\'e no bebes vino blanco? !`Porque est\'a avinagrado! - -\exercise M\'\i\'\j n idee\"en worden niet be\"\i nvloed. - -\exercise Can you take a ferry from \"Oland to \AA land? - -\exercise T\"urk\c ce konu\c san ye\u genler nasillar? - - -\def\bdots{$\textfont0=\tenbf \ldots$} %%% boldface version of \ldots - -\subsection{Dots, dashes, quotes, \bdots} - -Typing has always been a compromise: the small number of keys -(compared to the number of typeset symbols available) has forced -some changes on the typist. When preparing material using \TeX{}, -there is no need to be so restricted. In this section we'll look -at some differences between typing and using \TeX\null. - -There are four types of dashes that are used. The hyphen is used -for combining words into one unit as with mother-in-law. -\TeXref{3--5} -The en-dash is used to indicate a sequence of page numbers, years -or such things. The em-dash is a grammatical symbol. The minus -sign is used for negative numbers. Here they are with their uses: - -\maketable [Different types of dashes] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # \hfil & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil - & \hfil # \hfil\cr - \bf Name& \bf \TeX{} input & \bf \TeX{} output & \bf Example\cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - hyphen & - & - & The space is 3-dimensional. \cr - en-dash & {-}{-} & -- & Read pages 3--4. \cr - em-dash & {-}{-}{-} & --- & I saw them---there were 3 men alive. \cr - minus sign & \$-\$ & $-$ & The temperature dropped to $-$3 degrees. \cr - } - -\exercise I entered the room and---horrors---I saw both my -father-in-law and my mother-in-law. - -\exercise The winter of 1484--1485 was one of discontent. -\bigskip - - -Another difference between typing and using \TeX{} is the use of -quotation marks. Opening and closing quotation marks are the -same on a typewriter. They are produced in \TeX{} by using the -apostrophe or prime key {\tt '} and backprime key {\tt `}\null. -An open quote is produced by {\tt ``} and the -close quote by {\tt ''}\null.\TeXref{3} Similarly the -opening single quote is produced by {\tt `} and the closing -single quote by {\tt '}\null. Notice that there is no need -to use the usual typing quotation mark (it normally gives a close -quote, but don't count on it). - -\exercise His ``thoughtfulness'' was impressive. - -\exercise Frank wondered, ``Is this a girl that can't say `No!'?'' -\bigskip - -Sometimes ellipses (three dots) are used to indicate a passage -of time or missing material. Typing three periods will give -three dots very close together. The dots with proper spacing will -be produced by having {\tt \\dots} in your input file. -\TeXref{173} -\toindex{dots} - -\exercise He thought, ``\dots and this goes on forever, perhaps to the -last recorded syllable.'' - -Another problem with dots is that the period after an -abbreviation normally has less space after it than does the -period at the end of a sentence. There are two ways to solve this -problem: the dot can be followed by either {\tt\\\sp} or {\tt\~{}} -to change the spacing. -\TeXref{91--92} -The second alternative will give an unbreakable space; when such -a space is between two words, these words must typeset on the -same line. The input {\tt Prof.\~{}Knuth} would cause those two -words to be typeset on one line. This is desirable for names -like Vancouver, B.~C. and Mr.~Jones so that ``Mr.'' and ``Jones'' -do not end up on separate lines. Notice that no backslash is used -with the unbreakable space. - -\exercise Have you seen Ms.~Jones? - -\exercise Prof.~Smith and Dr.~Gold flew from -\ifcanspell -Halifax N.~S. to Montr\'eal, P.~Q. via Moncton, N.~B. -\else -L.~A. to Washington, D.~C., via Fargo, N.~D. -\fi - - -\subsection{Different fonts} - -The most obvious difference between typewritten text and \TeX{} -output is undoubtedly the different fonts or types of symbols -used. When \TeX{} starts up it has sixteen fonts available. Some -of these are used for technical purposes, but even so there are -several different typefaces available as can be seen in the -following table. A complete list of the sixteen fonts is given in -Appendix F of {\bf The \TeX{}book}. -\TeXref{427--432} -Most of them are used automatically; a mathematical subscript, -for example, is put in smaller type by \TeX{} with no special -user intervention. - -To change from the usual (roman) typeface to italic, the control -word {\tt \\it} is used. To change back to the usual roman -typeface, use {\tt \\rm}. For example, you could have the -following sentence: {\tt I started with roman type, \\it switched -to italic type, \\rm and returned to roman type}. This would give -the following: I started with roman type, \it switched to italic -type,\fnote{Notice that the comma and this footnote are in -italic type, and this looks a little funny. We'll see that there -is another method for changing fonts when we talk about grouping -in Section 4.} -\rm and returned to roman type. - -Typefaces other than italic are also available. Those given below -are the ones most commonly used. They are available immediately -when \TeX{} starts. A little later we'll see how to use other -typefaces that aren't available when \TeX{} starts. - -\global\advance\footnotenum by 1 -\maketable [Font Samples] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # \hfil & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil\cr - \bf Font name & \bf \TeX{} switch sequence & \bf Sample of typeface \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - Roman & \\rm & \rm This is roman type. \cr - Boldface & \\bf & \bf This is boldface type. \cr - Italic & \\it & \it This is italic type. \cr - Slanted & \\sl & \sl This is slanted type. \cr - Typewriter & \\tt & \tt This is typewriter type. \cr - Math symbol${}^\the\footnotenum$ & \\cal & $\cal SOME\hbox{\quad}SCRIPT - \hbox{\quad}LETTERS$\rm. \cr - } - -\footnote{}{\llap{$^\the\footnotenum$}% -This example is cheating since you need to know a little about -mathematics input to use it, but I wanted to include it anyway. -You'll be able to use these letters after you study the use of -mathematical symbols.} -\nobreak -\toindex{it} -\toindex{rm} -\toindex{bf} -\toindex{sl} -\toindex{tt} - -The slanted and italic fonts seem quite similar at first. It is -easy to see the difference between the letter ``a'' in each -sample. When changing from a slanted or italic font to a roman -font, the last letter in the first font will lean towards the -first letter of the roman font; this looks cramped, and to -compensate there is a little extra space that can be added called -the {\sl italic correction}. This is done using the control -symbol {\tt \\/}. -\toindex{/} -In the following sentence, there is no italic correction after -the first sequence of italic letters but there is after the -second sequence; see the difference: {\it If} the italic -correction is not used the letters are too close together, but -{\it if\/} the correction is used, the spacing is better. There -is no need for the italic correction when the italic characters -are followed by a comma or a period, but your text will -definitely look better if you use it before quotation marks or -parentheses. - - -It is possible to use fonts other than those initially defined in -\TeX{} when desired (assuming that they are available on -your computer system, of course). Different sizes can be used -with the aid of the control word {\tt \\magstep}. To define your -new font you will have to know its name on your computer system. -For example, the roman typeface is called ``cmr10'' on most -systems. If you use {\tt \\font\\bigrm = cmr10 scaled \\magstep -1}, you can then use {\tt\\bigrm} in exactly the same way as you -use {\tt\\it} or {\tt\\rm}. -\TeXref{13--17} -\toindex{magstep} -\toindex{font} -\toindex{scaled} - -Switching via {\tt\\bigrm} will give roman type that is larger -than the usual by 20\%\null. {\tt \\font\\bigbigrm = cmr10 -scaled \\magstep 2} will define a font that is about 44\% larger -than the usual roman typeface. The sizes {\tt \\magstep~0} to -{\tt \\magstep~5} are available. On most computers {\tt \\magstephalf} -is also available; this represents an enlargement of -about 9.5\%\null. Here are some samples at various sizes: - -\maketable [Different Font Magnifications] -\halign{ - \strut \tt # \hfil & \quad # \hfil \cr - \bf Magnification & \bf Sample \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - \\magstep 0 & \rm Sample text at magstep 0. \cr - \\magstephalf & \halfrm Sample text at magstephalf. \cr - \\magstep 1 & \brm Sample text at magstep 1. \cr - \\magstep 2 & \bbrm Sample text at magstep 2. \cr - \\magstep 3 & \bbbrm Sample text at magstep 3. \cr - \\magstep 4 & \bbbbrm Sample text at magstep 4. \cr - \\magstep 5 & \bbbbbrm Sample text at magstep 5. \cr - } -\bigskip - -It's also possible to use completely new typefaces. These -are dependent on system availability, of course. Many systems -have a file called CMSS10 which is a font that contains sans -serif letters. Using {\tt \\font\\sf = cmss10} will allow the -control word {\tt\\sf} to be used in the same manner as {\tt\\bf}. -Having made this definition, the input -\displaytext{\tt \\sf Here is a sample of our new Sans Serif font.} -will produce -\displaytext{\sf Here is a sample of our new Sans Serif font.} - -\exercise What problem might have arisen if we had used {\tt \\ss} -instead of {\tt \\sf} to turn on the Sans Serif font? Hint: if -the answer doesn't occur to you at first, think about the German -alphabet and it will finally come to you. - -\exercise Typeset a paragraph of magnified sans serif text. - -The extra fonts available may vary from site to site. The ones -in the following table are available at most places. - -\maketable [External Fonts Names] -\halign{ -\strut \tt # \hfil & \quad \tt # \hfil & \quad \tt # \hfil - & \quad \tt # \hfil & \quad \tt # \hfil - & \quad \tt # \hfil \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -CMBSY10 &CMBXSL10 &CMBXTI10 &CMBX10 &CMBX12 &CMBX5 \cr -CMBX6 &CMBX7 &CMBX8 &CMBX9 &CMB10 &CMCSC10 \cr -CMDUNH10 &CMEX10 &CMFF10 &CMFIB8 &CMFI10 &CMITT10 \cr -CMMIB10 &CMMI10 &CMMI12 &CMMI5 &CMMI6 &CMMI7 \cr -CMMI8 &CMMI9 &CMR10 &CMR12 &CMR17 &CMR5 \cr -CMR6 &CMR7 &CMR8 &CMR9 &CMSLTT10 &CMSL10 \cr -CMSL12 &CMSL8 &CMSL9 &CMSSBX10 &CMSSDC10 &CMSSI10 \cr -CMSSI12 &CMSSI17 &CMSSI8 &CMSSI9 &CMSSQI8 &CMSSQ8 \cr -CMSS10 &CMSS12 &CMSS17 &CMSS8 &CMSS9 &CMSY10 \cr -CMSY5 &CMSY6 &CMSY7 &CMSY8 &CMSY9 &CMTCSC10 \cr -CMTEX10 &CMTEX8 &CMTEX9 &CMTI10 &CMTI12 &CMTI7 \cr -CMTI8 &CMTI9 &CMTT10 &CMTT12 &CMTT8 &CMTT9 \cr -CMU10 &CMVTT10 \cr -} -\bigskip - -Here's a little background about these names. The first two -letters {\tt CM} stands for Computer Modern, the name given to -this font family by the designer. The number at the end is the -point size: 10 point type is the normal size, 7 point is the -normal size for subscripts, and 5 point is the normal size for -subscripts of subscripts, 12 point is 20\% larger than 10 point, -etc. If the letters {\tt CM} are followed by {\tt B}, it is a -boldface type. Similarly {\tt R} indicates roman, {\tt I} is for -italics, {\tt CSC} is for small caps, {\tt SL} is for slanted, -{\tt SS} is for sans serif, {\tt SY} is for symbols, -and {\tt TT} is for typewriter type. - -\exercise Find the fonts available on your system, and print out -all the letters and numbers in several of them. - -\exercise The font {\tt CMR12} is 20\% larger than {\tt CMR10}. -Also {\tt \\magstep~1} magnifies the type by 20\%. Take some -text and print it using {\tt CMR12} then using {\tt CMR10} scaled -by {\tt \\magstep~1}. The results are quite different! - - - - -\section{The shape of things to come} - -In this section we want to see how to make text have different -shapes or sizes. One may use \TeX{} with the default sizes, of -course, just as we have been doing so far. We'll now become more -creative with our output. In discussing the size of various -parts of a page of text, there are several units of measure we -can use. - -\subsection{Units, units, units} - -\TeX{} can measure length using many types of units. The most -common are the inch, the \centimeter, the point, the pica. The -abbreviations for these units are {\tt in}, {\tt cm}, {\tt pt}, -and {\tt pc} respectively. The point is defined by the equation 1 -inch = 72.27 points, and the pica by 1 pica = 12 points. Thus a -point is rather small and is about the size of a decimal point. -Here is a sample to give an idea of the comparative sizes: -\def\pip{\vrule height 4 true pt } -\TeXref{57} - -$$ \hbox{1 inch: } \hbox to 1 true in{\pip\hrulefill\pip}$$ -$$ \hbox{1 \centimeter: }\hbox to 1 true cm{\pip\hrulefill\pip}$$ -$$ \hbox{20 points: }\hbox to 20 true pt{\pip\hrulefill\pip}$$ -$$ \hbox{1 pica: } \hbox to 1 true pc{\pip\hrulefill\pip}$$ - -Thus points are used to make fine changes; a pica is about the -distance between the baselines of two consecutive lines of -(unmagnified) normal text. \TeX{} is quite exact about -dimensions; internally its smallest unit is less than one -four-millionth of an inch. Hence it is the resolution of the -output device that will determine the accuracy of the output. - -There are two other units that are sometimes useful that have -different sizes in different fonts. The {\tt ex} is about the -height of a small ``x'' and the {\tt em} is a little smaller than -the width of a capital ``M''\null. -\TeXref{60} - -The shape of the output is generally determined by control -words. There are many such words; these allow very fine control -of the resulting text. But most of the time only a small number -of them are necessary. - -\subsection{Page shape} - -The text on a page consists of three basic parts. There is the -headline above the main text; this often contains a chapter -title, section title, or a page number, and may differ on odd and -even pages. Below this is the main text, which includes any -footnotes. And finally there is the footline that might contain a -page number. - -In the examples we have seen so far, the headline has been blank. -The footline has contained either a \centred{} number or, if {\tt -\\nopagenumbers} had been used, has also been blank. We'll have -more to say about headlines and footlines later in this section. -For the moment let's concentrate on the main text. - -To finish one page and start a new one, {\tt \\vfill \\eject} can -be used. The control word {\tt \\eject} forces the completion of -the current page, while {\tt \\vfill} causes any left over -vertical space to be gathered at the bottom of the page (you might -try leaving out the {\tt \\vfill} as an experiment to see how the -vertical \analog{} of justified horizontal lines of text works). -\toindex{vfill} -\toindex{eject} - - -{\hsize=4in -The current horizontal width of the text on the page is described -by the control word {\tt \\hsize}. It can be changed, say to 4 -inches, by {\tt \\hsize = 4 in\ } at any desired time using -methods to be described in the next few sections. The value of -{\tt \\hsize} in effect when the paragraph is completed -determines the width of the paragraph. As can be seen in this -paragraph, the text width can be changed (in this case to 4 -inches) for a single paragraph. Because it represents the -current value of the horizontal width, expressions such as {\tt - \\hsize = 0.75\\hsize} can make a new value that is relative -to the old one. \par} -\toindex{hsize} - -The vertical \analog{} of {\tt \\hsize} is {\tt \\vsize}, which -is the current height of the main text. It can be reset, just -like {\tt \\hsize}. Thus, {\tt \\vsize = 8 in\ } can be used to -change the vertical height of the main text. Note that {\tt \\vsize} -is the size of the text exclusive of any headline or -footline material. -\toindex{vsize} - -Text can also be shifted across the page. The upper left corner -of the text is one inch down and one inch in from the upper left -corner of the page. The control words {\tt \\hoffset} and {\tt \\voffset} -are used to shift the text horizontally and -vertically. Thus {\tt \\hoffset = .75 in} and {\tt \\voffset = --.5 in} would shift the text an additional .75 inches to the -right and .5 inches up. Most of the time you'll need to set {\tt -\\hoffset}, {\tt \\voffset}, and {\tt \\vsize} at the beginning -of your document only. -\TeXref{251} -\toindex{hoffset} -\toindex{voffset} - -\global\advance\footnotenum by 1 -\maketable [Control words for page sizes] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil\cr - \bf Name & \bf \TeX{} Control Word & \bf \TeX{} default value (inches)\cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - horizontal width & \\hsize & 6.5 \cr - vertical width & \\vsize & 8.9 \cr - horizontal offset${}^\the\footnotenum$ & \\hoffset & 0 \cr - vertical offset${}^\the\footnotenum$ & \\voffset & 0 \cr - } - -\footnote{}{\llap{$^\the\footnotenum$}The text is initially 1 inch -down and 1 inch in from upper left corner of the page.} -\nobreak - -\exercise Enter a paragraph of text that is a few lines long. -Take several copies of your paragraph and put {\tt \\hsize = 5 -in\ } before one and {\tt \\hsize = 10 cm\ } in front of a second -one. Try a few other values for {\tt \\hsize}. - -\exercise Put {\tt \\hoffset = .5 in\ } and {\tt \\voffset = 1 -in\ } before the first paragraph of your previous exercise. - -\exercise Take your previous exercise and put {\tt \\vsize = 2 -in\ } before the first paragraph. -\bigskip - -In the previous section we saw that it is possible to use fonts -of larger size by using the {\tt \\magstep} control word. It's -also possible to magnify the entire document at once. If {\tt -\\magnification = \\magstep 1} appears at the top of your document, -then all of your output is magnified by 20\%\null. The other -values of {\tt \\magstep} can be used, too. {\bf It should be -emphasized that {\tt \\magnification} can only be used before -even a single character is typeset.} This magnification creates -a problem in units; if the document is to be magnified by 20\% -and {\tt \\hsize = 5 in} appears in the \TeX{} input file, should -the final output have an {\tt \\hsize} of 5 inches or should it -be magnified by 20\% to 6 inches? Unless told otherwise, all the -dimensions will be magnified so that, in this case, {\tt \\hsize} -would be 6 inches in the final output. This means that all the -dimensions will increase uniformly when {\tt \\magnification} is -used. But for some special situations it might not be desirable -for this to happen; for example, you might want to leave a space -of exactly 3 inches to insert a figure. In this case any unit -can be modified by {\tt true} so that {\tt \\hsize = 5 true in} -will always set the line width to 5 inches, regardless of -magnification. \TeXref{59--60} \toindex{magnification} - -\exercise Put {\tt \\magnification = \\magstep 1} as the first -line in one of your input files and see how the output changes. - -\subsection{Paragraph shape} - -When \TeX{} is reading the text to be typeset from your input -file, it reads in a paragraph at a time and then typesets it. -This means that there is a lot of control over paragraph shapes, -but also that some care must be taken. We've already seen that -{\tt \\hsize} can be used to control the width of a single -paragraph. But suppose the following appeared as part of your -input file: - -\beginuser -\\hsize = 5 in -Four score and seven years $\ldots$ -$\vdots$ -$\ldots$ from this earth. -\\hsize = 6.5 in - -\enduser - -What is the width of the paragraph? The {\tt \\hsize} was -changed at the start of the paragraph and again at the end. -Since the paragraph was not completed (by putting in a blank line -or {\tt \\par}) until after the second change, the paragraph -would be typeset with a width of 6.5 inches. However, if a blank -line were inserted before {\tt \\hsize = 6.5 in}, then the -paragraph would be typeset with a width of 5 inches. So, in -general, when a paragraph is set, the values of the parameters -that are in effect when the paragraph is completed are the ones -that are used. - -Here is a table with some paragraph parameters: - -\maketable [Some paragraph shape parameters] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil # & \quad \hfil \tt # \hfil & \hfil \quad # \hfil\cr - \bf Function & \bf \TeX{} Control Word & \bf \TeX{} default\cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - width & \\hsize & 6.5 inches \cr - indentation on first line & \\parindent & 20 points\cr - distance between lines & \\baselineskip & 12 points\cr - distance between paragraphs & \\parskip & 0 points \cr - } - -\toindex{parindent} -\toindex{parskip} -\toindex{baselineskip} - -The control word {\tt \\noindent} may be used at the beginning of -a paragraph to avoid the automatic indentation on the first line. -This control word will only affect the paragraph being set when -it is invoked (of course {\tt \\parindent = 0 pt} will cause no -indentation for all paragraphs). -\toindex{noindent} - -{\narrower -A more flexible way to control the width of a paragraph is to use -{\tt \\rightskip} and {\tt \\leftskip}. Setting {\tt \\leftskip -= 20 pt} causes the left margin of the paragraph to be moved in -an extra twenty points. Negative values may be assigned to {\tt -\\leftskip} to move the left margin out. The control word {\tt -\\rightskip} does the same to the right side of the paragraph. -The single control word {\tt \\narrower} is the equivalent of -setting both {\tt \\leftskip} and {\tt \\rightskip} equal to {\tt -\\parindent}. This is quite useful for long quotations, and -this paragraph is an example of its use. As with {\tt \\hsize}, -the value of {\tt \\leftskip} and {\tt \\rightskip} in effect -when the paragraph is completed is the one which will apply to -the whole paragraph. -\TeXref{100} - -} -\toindex{leftskip} -\toindex{rightskip} -\toindex{narrower} - -\exercise Make two paragraphs with the following specifications: -the left margin of both paragraphs is indented by 1.5 inches, -the right margin of the first paragraph is indented by 0.75 -inches, and the right margin of the second paragraph is indented -by 1.75 inches. -\bigskip - -\def\hangparagraph{ Lines can be made with different lengths -within one paragraph by using {\tt \\hangindent} and {\tt -\\hangafter}. The amount of the indentation is determined by value -of {\tt \\hangindent}. If {\tt \\hangindent} is positive, the -indentation is made from the left, and if it is negative it is -made from the right. The lines on which the indentation occurs is -controlled by {\tt \\hangafter}. If {\tt \\hangafter} is -positive then it determines the number of lines at full width -before the indentation starts. Thus if {\tt \\hangindent = 1.75 -in} and {\tt \\hangafter = 6}, then the first six lines will be -at full width and the rest will be indented by 1.75 inches from -the left. On the other hand if {\tt \\hangindent = \hbox{-1.75} -in} and {\tt \\hangafter = -6}, then the first six lines will be -indented by 1.75 inches from the right and the rest will be at -full width. \TeX{} resets to the default values {\tt \\hangindent -= 0 pt} and {\tt \\hangafter = 1} after each paragraph. These -control words are useful for paragraphs with ``hanging indents'' -and for flowing a paragraph around space reserved for a figure. -\TeXref{355}The control word {\tt \\hang} at the beginning of the -paragraph will cause the first line to be of full width ({\tt -\\hangafter=1}) and the rest of the paragraph to be indented by -the current value of {\tt \\parindent}. But you do have to use -{\tt \\noindent} if you want the first line to extend all the way -to the left margin. -\TeXref{102} -\par} - -\hangafter=6 \hangindent=1.75in -\hangparagraph -\toindex{hangindent} -\toindex{hangafter} -\toindex{hang} - -Here is the previous paragraph repeated with {\tt \\hangafter = -6} -and {\tt \\hangindent = -1.75 in}. - -\hangafter=-6 \hangindent=-1.75in \hangparagraph - - -The control word {\tt \\parshape} can be used to make paragraphs with -a greater variety of shapes. -\TeXref{101} -\toindex{parshape} - -Another useful control word for setting paragraphs is {\tt \\item}. -It can be used to make various types of itemized lists, -and is invoked using the pattern {\tt \\item\lb$\ldots$\rb}\null. -This causes the next paragraph to be formed with every line -indented by {\tt \\parindent} and, in addition, the first line -labeled on the left by whatever is between the braces. It is -usually used with {\tt \\parskip = 0 pt}, since that control word -determines the vertical space between the different items. The control -word {\tt \\itemitem} is the same as {\tt \\item} except that the -indentation is twice as far, that is, twice the value of -{\tt \\parindent}. -\TeXref{102}Here is an example: -\toindex{item} -\toindex{itemitem} - -\beginliteral -\parskip = 0pt \parindent = 30 pt -\noindent -Answer all the following questions: -\item{(1)} What is question 1? -\item{(2)} What is question 2? -\item{(3)} What is question 3? -\itemitem{(3a)} What is question 3a? -\itemitem{(3b)} What is question 3b? -@endliteral - - -\noindent -will produce -\vfill\eject - -{\parskip = 0pt \parindent = 30 pt -\noindent -Answer all the following questions: -\item{(1)} What is question 1? -\item{(2)} What is question 2? -\item{(3)} What is question 3? -\itemitem{(3a)} What is question 3a? -\itemitem{(3b)} What is question 3b? - -} - -\exercise Make a paragraph several lines long and use it with -the {\tt \\item} control word to see the ``hanging indent.'' Now -take the same paragraph and use it with different values of {\tt -\\parindent} and {\tt \\hsize}. -\bigskip - -Now let's see how to put space between paragraphs. The control -word {\tt \\parskip} is used to determine how much space is -normally left between paragraphs. So if you put {\tt \\parskip = -12 pt} at the beginning of your \TeX{} source file, there will be -12 points between paragraphs unless other instructions are -given. The control word {\tt \\vskip} can be used to insert extra -vertical space between paragraphs. If {\tt \\vskip 1 in} or {\tt -\\vskip 20 pt} appears between two paragraphs, then the extra -space is inserted. - -There are a couple of peculiarities of {\tt \\vskip} that seem -quite strange at first. If you have {\tt \\vskip 3 in} and the -skip starts two inches from the bottom of the page, the rest of -the page is skipped, but the extra one inch is {\it not\/} -skipped at the top of the next page. In other words, {\tt \\vskip} -{\bf will not insert space across page boundaries}. In -fact, {\tt \\vskip~1~in} will have no effect at all if it happens -to appear at the top of a page! For many types of vertical -spacing this is quite appropriate. The space before a section -heading, for example, should not continue across page boundaries. - -A similar phenomenon occurs at the beginning of your document. -If, for example, you want a title page with the title about half -way down the page, you can not insert the space at the top of the -page using {\tt \\vskip}. - -But what if you really want some blank space at the top of a -page? You could start the page with {\tt\\\sp} but this in effect -typesets a one line paragraph containing a blank. So while -nothing is typeset, the extra space due to the values of {\tt -\\baselineskip} and {\tt \\parskip} will add extra space. An easier -method is to use {\tt \\vglue} instead of {\tt \\vskip} to get -the desired result. Thus {\tt \\vglue 1 in\ }will leave one inch -of blank space at the top of the page.\TeXref{352} -\toindex{vglue} - - -We can note in passing that there is another more general method -to put material at the top of a page using the control words {\tt -\\topinsert} and {\tt \\endinsert}. If {\tt \\topinsert $\ldots$ -\\endinsert} is used within a page, the material between -{\tt \\topinsert} and {\tt \\endinsert} will appear at the top -of the page, if possible. For example: - -\vbox{ - \beginuser - \\topinsert - \\vskip 1 in - \\centerline\lb Figure 1\rb - \\endinsert - \enduser -} -\noindent -is useful for inserting figures of a prescribed size. -\TeXref{115} -\toindex{topinsert} -\toindex{endinsert} - -There are also some special control words for making small -vertical skips. They are {\tt \\smallskip}, {\tt \\medskip}, and -{\tt \\bigskip}. Here is the size of each one: - -\def\hrl{\hrule width .5 in} - -\centerline{{\tt \\smallskip}: \vbox{\hrl \smallskip \hrl} \quad - {\tt \\medskip}: \vbox{\hrl \medskip \hrl} \quad - {\tt \\bigskip}: \vbox{\hrl \bigskip \hrl} - } -\toindex{smallskip} -\toindex{medskip} -\toindex{bigskip} - -\subsection{Line shape} - -For most material \TeX{} does a good job of breaking up a -paragraph into lines. But sometimes it's necessary to add -further instructions. It's possible to force a new line by -inserting {\tt \\hfill \\break} in your input file. It's also -possible to put some text on a line by itself using the control -word {\tt \\line\lb $\ldots$\rb}; then the material between the -braces will be restricted to one line (although the result will -be spread out over the whole line and may be horrible). The -control words {\tt \\leftline\lb $\ldots$\rb}, {\tt \\rightline\lb -$\ldots$\rb}, and {\tt \\centerline\lb $\ldots$\rb} will, -respectively, set the material between the braces on a single -line on the left margin, on the right margin, or \centred. Thus -\toindex{hfill} -\toindex{break} -\toindex{centerline} -\toindex{leftline} -\toindex{rightline} -\toindex{line} - - -\beginliteral -\leftline{I'm over on the left.} -\centerline{I'm in the @centre.} -\rightline{I'm on the right.} -\line{I just seem to be spread out all over the place.} -@endliteral - -\noindent -produces the four lines: -\vskip\baselineskip - - -{ -\hbadness = 10000 -\leftline{I'm over on the left.} -\centerline{I'm in the \center.} -\rightline{I'm on the right.} -\line{I just seem to be spread out all over the place.} - -Other types of spacing can be obtained by using the control word {\tt -\\hfil}. This causes all the extra space in the line to be -accumulated at the position where {\tt \\hfil} appears. -Thus if we alter our last example to -{\tt \\line\lb I just seem to be spread out \\hfil all over the place.\rb} -we will get \hfil\break -\medskip -\line{I just seem to be spread out \hfil all over the place.} -\medskip -If we have more than one {\tt \\hfil}, they will divide any extra -space among themselves equally. Hence -{\tt \\line\lb left text \\hfil \centre{} text \\hfil right text.\rb} -will produce -\medskip -\line{left text \hfil \centre{} text \hfil right text.} -\toindex{hfil} -} - -\exercise Typeset the following line: - -\line{left end \hfil left tackle \hfil left guard \hfil \centre{} \hfil -right guard \hfil right tackle \hfil right end} - -\exercise Typeset the following line with twice as much space between -``left'' and ``right-\centre{}'' as between ``right-\centre{}'' and -``right'': - -\line{left \hfil \hfil right-\centre{} \hfil right} - -It's possible to move horizontally using {\tt \\hskip} in a -manner analogous with {\tt \\vskip}. -\toindex{hskip} - -\exercise What happens with the following input:\hfil\break -{\tt \\line\lb\\hskip 1 in ONE \\hfil TWO \\hfil THREE\rb} -\bigskip - -The right justification can be canceled by using the -control word {\tt \\raggedright}. -\toindex{raggedright} - -\subsection{Footnotes} - -The general pattern to make footnotes using \TeX{} is -{\tt \\footnote\lb$\ldots$\rb\lb$\ldots$\rb}\null. - -The footnote mark goes in between the first set of braces. Some -available marks are {\tt \\dag (\dag)}, {\tt \\ddag (\ddag)}, {\tt \\S -(\S)}, and {\tt \\P (\P)}\null. The text of the footnote -goes between the second set of braces. The use of numbers as -marks is a little less straightforward. The footnote% -\footnote{${}^{21}$}{This is the footnote at the bottom of the page.} -at the bottom of the page was produced by using {\tt \\footnote\lb\$\lb -\rb\^{}\lb{21}\rb\$\rb\lb This is the footnote at the -bottom of the page.\rb} after the word ``footnote'' in the -text. This construction is somewhat complicated; we'll see why -it's this way when we know a little more about typesetting -mathematics. But for the moment we can look at it as a way of -getting the job done. You may want to use {\tt \\rm} within the -footnote to ensure that the right font appears. Usually you will -not want a space between the text and the control word {\tt -footnote}.\TeXref{117} -\toindex{footnote} -\toindex{ddag} -\toindex{S} -\toindex{P} - -\exercise Make up a page with a relatively long footnote spanning -several lines. - -\exercise Make up a page with two different footnotes on it. - -\subsection{Headlines and Footlines} - -\headline={\hfil \tenrm Page \the\pageno} %example for this section - -The lines for title and page numbers that go above and below the -main text are produced by using {\tt \\headline=\lb$\dots$\rb} -and {\tt \\footline=\lb$\dots$\rb}\null. -\TeXref{252--253} - -The principle is the same as using the control word {\tt \\line\lb -$\dots$\rb} within the usual text on the page. A helpful -control word is {\tt \\pageno} which represents the current page -number. Thus {\tt \\headline=\lb\\hfil \\tenrm Page \\the\\pageno\rb} -would cause the page number to appear in the upper -right corner preceded by the word ``Page'' (now look at the upper -right corner of this page). It is safer to explicitly name the -font that you want to use (in this case {\tt \\tenrm} to use the -10 point roman font), since you are never guaranteed that a -particular font will be in use when the headline or footline is -set. The control word {\tt \\the} takes the internal value of the -next word if it is an appropriate control word and prints it as -text. You can also use the control word {\tt \\folio} instead of -{\tt \\the \\pageno}. The difference is that {\tt \\folio} will -give roman numerals when {\tt \\pageno} is negative. -\toindex{headline} -\toindex{footline} -\toindex{pageno} -\toindex{the} -\toindex{folio} - -You can also assign values to {\tt \\pageno} if you want your -document to use a different sequence of page numbers from the -usual. Roman numerals can be produced by using negative numbers; -{\tt \\pageno=-1} at the beginning of a document will cause page -numbers to be in roman numerals. -\TeXref{252} - -Different headlines can be produced for even and odd pages in -the following manner: - -{\tt -\\headline=\lb\\ifodd \\pageno \lb$\dots$\rb \\else \lb$\dots$\rb -\\fi\rb} - -\noindent -where the material between the first set of braces is for the -right-hand pages and the material between the second set of -braces is for the left-hand pages. - -\exercise Change the footline so that the page number is \centred{} -with an en-dash on either side. - -\subsection{Overfull and underfull boxes} - -One of the most frustrating experiences for the new \TeX{} user -is the occurrence of overfull and underfull boxes. They are duly -noted in the log file and are also written to the screen when \TeX{} -is being run interactively. Overfull boxes are also marked -on the output by a slug (a large filled-in black rectangle that -looks like this: \vrule width \overfullrule) in the right -margin. Various obscene terms are applied to this slug. It -appears even though there is nothing wrong with the \TeX{} input. -So why is the slug there and what can be done about it? - -A good way to visualize the way \TeX{} organizes a page is to -think of the printed material as being put into boxes. There are -two types of boxes: {\sl hboxes\/} and {\sl vboxes}. Most of the -time these correspond to the organization of horizontal text -into lines and vertical paragraphs into pages. In particular, it -is the spacing of the words in a hbox corresponding to a line of -text that causes the slug to appear. - -Recall that \TeX{} reads in the complete paragraph before -deciding how to break it up into lines. This is better than -working a line at a time, since a slight improvement in one line -might cause catastrophic changes farther down in the paragraph. -When words are gathered together to form a line, space is added -between the words to justify the right margin. Very large spaces -between words is obviously undesirable; the badness of the line -is a measure of how badly the words are spaced. An underfull -hbox means that there is too much space between words. More -specifically, the badness of any line is a number between 0 -(perfect) and 10000 (horrible). There is a parameter called {\tt -\\hbadness} whose default value is 1000\null. Any line whose -badness is greater than {\tt \\hbadness} is reported as an -underfull hbox. If the value of {\tt \\hbadness} is increased, -then fewer underfull hboxes will be reported. In fact {\tt -\\hbadness = 10000} will suppress the reporting of underfull -hboxes altogether. Similarly, if the words must be squeezed into -a line so that the spaces are very small or even so the words -extend a little into the right margin, then an overfull hbox -results. \toindex{hbadness} - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%% restore original headline %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\headline={\iftitlepage \hfil \global\titlepagefalse - \else \gentleheadline \fi} - -In a similar way, sometimes \TeX{} allows a line to be slightly -longer than {\tt \\hsize} in order to achieve a more balanced -appearance. The control word {\tt \\tolerance} determines when -this happens. If the badness of a line is greater than {\tt -\\tolerance}, \TeX{} will make the line longer by adding a new word -at the end of the line, even though it might exceed the value of -{\tt \\hsize}. A line which is only slightly longer is set -without being reported. The control word {\tt \\hfuzz} determines -how much excess is allowed; the default is {\tt \\hfuzz -=~0.1~pt}. A line that is more than slightly longer than {\tt \\hsize} -is obviously a serious problem; \TeX{} puts a slug in -the margin to make its point forcefully. It's possible to avoid -overfull hboxes altogether by increasing the value of {\tt \\tolerance}. -With {\tt \\tolerance = 10000} there will never be -overfull boxes or slugs. The default is {\tt \\tolerance = 200}\null. -\TeXref{29} -\toindex{hfuzz} -\toindex{tolerance} - -The width of the slug is determined by the control word {\tt -\\overfullrule}. Including {\tt \\overfullrule = 0 pt} in your -file will delete any further printing of the slugs. The -overfull boxes will still be there, of course, and they will -probably be harder to spot. -\toindex{overfullrule} - -So we see why overfull boxes and underfull boxes are reported; we -can also change the reporting by changing the values of {\tt -\\badness}, {\tt \\hfuzz}, and {\tt \\tolerance}. In addition, a -small value of {\tt \\hsize} obviously makes it more difficult to -set lines and causes more overfull and underfull hboxes to be -reported. These are warnings that you ignore at your own peril! - -Adding new possibilities of hyphenation will sometimes eliminate -an overfull box. \TeX{} has automatic hyphenation and usually -finds good places to hyphenate a word; however, it's possible to -add hyphenations to let lines break at new places. For example, -the automatic hyphenation will never put a hyphen in the word -``database''. If you type in {\tt data\\-base}, it will allow a -hyphen to be inserted after the second letter ``a'' in the word. -More generally, if you put {\tt \\hyphenation\lb data-base\rb} in -the beginning of your input file, then all occurrences of the -word ``database'' will allow hyphenation after the letter ``a''. -\TeXref{28} The log file will show the possible hyphenations on -the line containing the overfull or underfull box. Sometimes the -best solution to an overfull or underfull hbox is a little -judicious editing of the original document. -\toindex{hyphenation} - -Our discussion has involved the setting of type into lines, that is, -the horizontal page structure. There are several vertical \analog{}s. -Overfull and underfull hboxes indicate how well words are gathered -into lines. Similarly, overfull and underfull vboxes are reported -when paragraphs are gathered to form pages. A large table that -can't be broken in the middle, for example, can produce an underfull -vbox that is reported in the log file when the page being typeset is -completed. The control word {\tt \\vbadness} works for the vertical -placement of text in the same way as {\tt \\hbadness} works for -horizontal text. -\toindex{vbadness} - -\exercise Take a few paragraphs and print them using various (small) -values of {\tt \\hsize} to see what kind of overfull boxes result. -Repeat with various values of {\tt \\hbadness}, {\tt \\hfuzz}, and -{\tt \\tolerance}. - - - - - - -\section{$\Bigl\{$Groups, $\bigl\{$Groups, - $\{$and More Groups$\}\bigr\}\Bigr\}$} - -The concept of gathering text into groups allows \TeX{} input -files to be greatly simplified. A new group is started by the -character {\tt\lb} and terminated by the character {\tt \rb}\null. -Changes made within a group will lose their effect when the -group terminates. So, for example if {\tt \lb \\bf three -boldface words\rb} appears in your text, the opening brace starts -the group, the {\tt \\bf} control word changes to a boldface -font, and the closing brace finishes up the group. Upon -completion of the group the font being used is the one in effect -before the group started. This is the (easier) way of having a -few words in a different font. It's also possible to have groups -nested within groups. - - -As another example, size changes can be made in the text that are -only temporary. For example -\beginuser -\lb -\\hsize = 4 in -\\parindent = 0 pt -\\leftskip = 1 in -will produce a paragraph that is four -$\vdots$ -(this is an easy mistake to make). -\\par -\rb -\enduser - -{\hsize = 4 in -\parindent = 0 pt -\leftskip = 1 in -will produce a paragraph that is four inches wide with the text -offset into the paragraph by one inch regardless of the settings -in effect before the start of the group. This paragraph is set -with those values. After the end of the group, the old settings -are in effect again. Note that it is necessary to include -{\tt \\par} or to use a blank line before the closing brace to end -the paragraph, since otherwise the group will end and \TeX{} will -go back to the old parameters before the paragraph is actually -typeset (this is an easy mistake to make). \par} - -When line-spacing control words (like {\tt \\centerline}) act on text -following it in braces, that text is implicitly in a group. Thus -{\tt \\centerline\lb\\bf A bold title\rb} will produce a \centred{} -boldface line, and the text following that line will be in -whatever font was in effect before the {\tt \\centerline} was -invoked. - -The empty group {\tt\lb\rb} is useful. One use allows accents to be -typeset with no accompanying letter. For example, {\tt \\\~{}\lb\rb} -will print a tilde with no letter under it. It can also be used to -stop \TeX{} from eating up consecutive spaces. Hence {\tt I use -\\TeX\lb\rb{} all the time} will leave a space after ``\TeX'' in the -output. This is an alternative to using {\tt \\\sp} as we did in -Section~1. -\TeXref{19--21} - -Grouping can also be used to avoid spaces in the middle of a word -when including accents. Either {\tt soup\\c\sp con} or {\tt -soup\\c\lb c\rb on} will produce the word soup\c{c}on. - -\exercise Change the dimensions of one paragraph on a page using the -grouping idea. - -\exercise Mathematicians sometime use the word ``i{f}f'' as an -abbreviation for ``if and only if''\null. In this case it looks -better if the first and second letter ``f'' are {\sl not\/} -joined as a ligature. How do you do this (there are several -solutions)? - -It's really easy to forget to match braces properly. The effect -can be dramatic; if you get output that suddenly changes to an -italic font for the rest of the document, a mismatched brace is -probably the cause. If you have an extra {\tt \lb} \TeX{} will -give a message in the log file: {\tt (\\end occurred inside a -group at level 1)}. An extra {\tt\rb} will result in the message -\hbox{\tt! Too many \rb's.} - -Here's a little hint to help you keep track of the braces in more -complicated groups: put the opening brace on a line by itself and -do the same for the closing brace. If there are braces nested -within the original ones, put them on separate lines also, but -indent them a few spaces. The text within the nested braces can -also be indented since \TeX{} ignores all spaces at the beginning -of a line. The matching braces will then stand out when you look -at your \TeX{} source file. In fact, if your editor is smart -enough, you can create the two lines with the braces first and -then insert the appropriate material within them with automatic -indenting. - -\exercise In section 2 we changed fonts the following method: -{\tt I started with roman type, \\it switched to italic type, -\\rm and returned to roman type}. Get the same result using the -idea of grouping. - - -\section{No math anxiety here!} - -\TeX{} is at its best when typesetting mathematics. The -conventions for doing this are many and complex, and the ability -of \TeX{} to take them into account makes the production of high -quality, attractive mathematical output possible. If you plan to -produce papers with mathematical symbols in them, this section -will give you all the basics necessary for creating beautiful -output in almost all circumstances; \TeX{} may be used without -any mathematics, of course, and if this is your goal, then the -following two subsections are probably sufficient for your needs. - -\subsection{Lots of new symbols} - -Mathematical text is inserted into normal text in two possible -ways: it can be {\sl in-line\/}, that is, as part of the usual -lines of text. It can also be {\sl displayed}, that is, \centred{} -in a gap between the usual text. The results in the spacing and -placement of symbols can be quite different in each case. The -in-line equation $\sum_{k=1}^{\infty} {1\over k^2} = {\pi^2\over6}$ -is easily seen to be different from the same equation when -displayed: -$$\sum_{k=1}^{\infty} {1\over k^2} = {\pi^2\over6}.$$ - -Since the spacing and the fonts used for mathematics are quite -different from those of ordinary text, \TeX{} needs to be told -when mathematics rather than normal text is being typeset. This -is done using the {\tt\$} symbol. More specifically, mathematics -is typeset in-line by surrounding the symbols to be entered by -single dollar signs: {\tt \$$\ldots$\$}, and is typeset displayed -by surrounding the symbols to be entered by double dollar signs: -{\tt \$\$$\ldots$\$\$}\null. Hence {\tt \$x = y+1\$} will give -$x=y+1$ in-line while {\tt \$\$x = y+1.\$\$} will display -$$x=y+1.$$ - -The spacing for both in-line and displayed mathematics is -completely controlled by \TeX\null. Adding spaces to your input -has no effect at all. What if you need a space or some text in -the middle of some mathematics? You can insert text by inserting -it into an hbox (don't worry about the definition of an hbox for -now): {\tt \\hbox\lb$\ldots$\rb}\null. This is particularly -useful for displayed mathematics. Hence ``$x=y+1 \hbox{ whenever -} y=x-1$'' can be typeset using {\tt \$x=y+1 \\hbox\lb\ whenever -\rb y=x-1\$}. Note the spaces on either side of the word within -the braces. Usually it isn't necessary to insert spaces into -mathematical text, but here are the control sequences that do the -job. -\TeXref{167} - -\maketable [Adding space to mathematical text] -\halign{ -\strut \hfil # & \quad \hfil\tt# \hfil \quad - & \hbox to 2cm{\hrulefill\vrule height 8pt#\vrule height 8pt\hrulefill} \cr - Name & \rm Control Sequence & \hfil{}$\gets$Size$\to$\cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - Double quad & \\qquad &\qquad \cr - Quad & \\quad &\quad \cr - Space & \\\sp\ &\ \cr - Thick space & \\; &$\;$\cr - Medium space & \\> &$\>$\cr - Thin space & \\, &$\,$\cr - Negative thin space & \ \\!\ &$\!$\cr - } - -\toindex{quad} -\toindex{qquad} -\toindex{\sp} -\toindex{;} -\toindex{>} -\toindex{,} -\toindex{!} - -If you look closely at the negative thin space, you'll notice -that, unlike the other entries, the two arms overlap. This is -because the negative space is one in the opposite direction, that -is, while the other control sequences increase the amount of -space between two symbols being typeset, the negative thin space -decreases the space between them, even if it causes them to -overlap. - -\exercise Typeset the following: $C(n,r) = n!/(r!\,(n-r)!)$\null. Note the -spacing in the denominator. -\bigskip - -You shouldn't have any blank lines between the dollar signs -delimiting the mathematical text. \TeX{} assumes that all the -mathematical text being typeset is in one paragraph, and a blank -line starts a new paragraph; consequently, this will generate an -error message. This turns out to be useful, for one of the -easiest errors to make is to forget to put in the trailing dollar -sign(s) after the mathematical input (I promise that you'll do it -at least once while learning \TeX{}); if \TeX{} allowed more than -one paragraph to be between the dollars signs, then one omitted -trailing dollar sign might cause the rest of the document to be -typeset as mathematics. - -Most mathematical text is entered in exactly the same way for -in-line typesetting as for displayed typesetting (except for the -surrounding dollar signs, of course). The exceptions, such as -aligning multiline displays and placing equation numbers at the -left or right margin will be discussed in the last part of this -section. - -Many new symbols can appear when typesetting mathematics. Most -of the ones that actually appear on the keyboard can be used -directly. The symbols {\tt + - / * = ' | < > (} and {\tt )} are -all entered directly. Here they are as mathematics: $+ - / * =\> -'\> | <\> >\> ( \> )$. - -\exercise Typeset the equation $a+b=c-d=xy=w/z$ as in-line and -displayed mathematical text. - -\exercise Typeset the equation $(fg)' = f'g + fg'$ as in-line and -displayed mathematical text. -\bigskip - -Many other symbols, as you would expect, are predefined control -words. All Greek letters are available. Here is a table of them: -\TeXref{434} - -\maketable [Greek letters] -\halign{ -\strut \hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -\alpha & \\alpha &\beta & \\beta &\gamma & \\gamma &\delta & \\delta \cr -\epsilon & \\epsilon & \varepsilon & \\varepsilon & \zeta & \\zeta & -\eta & \\eta \cr -\theta & \\theta & \vartheta & \\vartheta & \iota & \\iota & \kappa & -\\kappa \cr -\lambda & \\lambda & \mu & \\mu & \nu & \\nu & \xi & \\xi \cr -o & o & \pi & \\pi & \rho & \\rho & \varrho & \\varrho \cr -\sigma & \\sigma & \varsigma & \\varsigma & \tau & \\tau & \upsilon & -\\upsilon \cr -\phi & \\phi & \varphi & \\varphi & \chi & \\chi & \psi & \\psi \cr -\omega & \\omega & \Gamma & \\Gamma & \Delta & \\Delta & \Theta & -\\Theta \cr -\Lambda & \\Lambda & \Xi & \\Xi & \Pi & \\Pi & \Sigma & \\Sigma \cr -\Upsilon & \\Upsilon & \Phi & \\Phi & \Psi & \\Psi & \Omega & \\Omega \cr - } - -\toindex{alpha} -\toindex{beta} -\toindex{gamma} -\toindex{delta} -\toindex{epsilon} -\toindex{varepsilon} -\toindex{zeta} -\toindex{eta} -\toindex{theta} -\toindex{vartheta} -\toindex{iota} -\toindex{kappa} -\toindex{lambda} -\toindex{mu} -\toindex{nu} -\toindex{xi} -\toindex{pi} -\toindex{rho} -\toindex{varrho} -\toindex{sigma} -\toindex{varsigma} -\toindex{tau} -\toindex{upsilon} -\toindex{phi} -\toindex{varphi} -\toindex{chi} -\toindex{psi} -\toindex{omega} -\toindex{Gamma} -\toindex{Delta} -\toindex{Theta} -\toindex{Lambda} -\toindex{Xi} -\toindex{Pi} -\toindex{Sigma} -\toindex{Upsilon} -\toindex{Phi} -\toindex{Psi} -\toindex{Omega} - - -\exercise Typeset $\alpha\beta=\gamma+\delta$ as in-line and displayed -mathematical text. - -\exercise Typeset $\Gamma(n) = (n-1)!$ as in-line and displayed -mathematical text. - -Sometimes accents are put above or below symbols. The control -words used for accents in mathematics are different from those -used for normal text. The normal text control words may not be -used for mathematics and vice-versa. -\TeXref{135--136} - -\maketable [Mathematical accents] -\halign{ - \strut \hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & - \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - \hat o & \\hat o & \check o & \\check o & \tilde o & \\tilde o \cr - \acute o & \\acute o & \grave o & \\grave o & \dot o & \\dot o \cr - \ddot o & \\ddot o &\breve o & \\breve o & \bar o & \\bar o \cr - \vec o & \\vec o & \widehat {abc} & \\widehat \lb abc\rb - & \widetilde {abc} & \\widetilde \lb abc\rb\cr - } - -\toindex{hat} -\toindex{check} -\toindex{tilde} -\toindex{acute} -\toindex{grave} -\toindex{dot} -\toindex{ddot} -\toindex{breve} -\toindex{bar} -\toindex{vec} -\toindex{widehat} -\toindex{widetilde} - - - -Binary operators combine two mathematical objects to get another -object. Ordinary addition and multiplication, for example, -combine two numbers to get another number, and so they are binary -operators. When a binary operator such as $+$ or $\times$ is -typeset, a little extra space is put around it. Here is a list of -some of the available binary operators: -\TeXref{436} - -\maketable [Binary operators] -\halign{ -\strut \hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -\cdot & \\cdot &\times & \\times &\ast & \\ast &\star & \\star \cr -\circ & \\circ & \bullet & \\bullet & \div & \\div & \diamond & \\diamond \cr -\cap & \\cap & \cup & \\cup & \vee & \\vee & \wedge & \\wedge \cr -\oplus & \\oplus &\ominus & \\ominus & \otimes &\\otimes &\odot &\\odot \cr - } - -\toindex{cdot} -\toindex{times} -\toindex{ast} -\toindex{star} -\toindex{circ} -\toindex{bullet} -\toindex{div} -\toindex{diamond} -\toindex{cap} -\toindex{cup} -\toindex{vee} -\toindex{wedge} -\toindex{oplus} -\toindex{ominus} -\toindex{otimes} -\toindex{odot} - -Ellipses are commonly used with binary operators. The control -word {\tt \\cdots} will raise the dots so that they are level -with the binary operator. Thus {\tt \$a + \\cdots + z\$} will -produce $a + \cdots + z$. The control word {\tt \\ldots} will -put the dots on the baseline, and so {\tt \$1\\ldots n\$} -produces $1\ldots n$. -\toindex{cdots} -\toindex{ldots} - -\exercise Typeset: $x\wedge (y\vee z) = (x\wedge y) \vee (x\wedge z)$. - -\exercise Typeset: $2+4+6+\cdots +2n = n(n+1)$. -\bigskip - -A relation indicates a property of two mathematical objects. We -already know how to show two objects equal, or how to show one -number less than or greater than another number (since these are -symbols on most terminal keyboards). To negate a relation, the -control word {\tt \\not} is put in front of the relation. Here -are some relations: -\TeXref{436} -\toindex{not} - -\maketable [Relations ] -\halign{ -\strut \hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -\leq & \\leq &\not\leq & \\not \\leq - & \geq & \\geq & \not\geq & \\not \\geq \cr -\equiv & \\equiv & \not\equiv & \\not \\equiv - & \sim & \\sim & \not\sim & \\not \\sim \cr -\simeq & \\simeq & \not\simeq & \\not \\simeq - & \approx & \\approx & \not\approx & \\not \\approx \cr -\subset & \\subset & \subseteq & \\subseteq - & \supset & \\supset & \supseteq & \\supseteq \cr -\in & \\in & \ni & \\ni & \parallel & \\parallel & \perp & \\perp \cr - } - -\toindex{leq} -\toindex{geq} -\toindex{equiv} -\toindex{sim} -\toindex{simeq} -\toindex{approx} -\toindex{subset} -\toindex{subseteq} -\toindex{supset} -\toindex{supseteq} -\toindex{in} -\toindex{ni} -\toindex{parallel} -\toindex{perp} - - -\exercise -Typeset: $\vec x\cdot \vec y = 0$ if and only if $\vec x \perp \vec y$. - -\exercise -Typeset: $\vec x\cdot \vec y \not= 0$ if and only if $\vec x \not\perp \vec y$. - -Here are some other available mathematical symbols:\TeXref{435--438} - -\maketable [Miscellaneous symbols ] -\halign{ -\strut \hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \qquad &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -\aleph & \\aleph & \ell & \\ell & \Re & \\Re & \Im & \\Im \cr -\partial & \\partial & \infty & \\infty & \| & \\| & \angle & \\angle \cr -\nabla & \\nabla & \backslash &\\backslash & \forall & \\forall - & \exists & \\exists \cr -\neg & \\neg & \flat & \\flat & \sharp & \\sharp & \natural & \\natural \cr - } - -\toindex{aleph} -\toindex{ell} -\toindex{Re} -\toindex{Im} -\toindex{partial} -\toindex{infty} -\toindex{|} -\toindex{angle} -\toindex{nabla} -\toindex{backslash} -\toindex{forall} -\toindex{exists} -\toindex{neg} -\toindex{flat} -\toindex{sharp} -\toindex{natural} - -\exercise Typeset: $(\forall x\in \Re)(\exists y\in\Re)$ $y>x$. - -\subsection{Fractions} - -There are two methods of typesetting a fraction: it can be -typeset either in the form $1/2$ or in the form ${1\over2}$\null. -The first case is just entered with no special control sequences, -that is, {\tt \$1/2\$}\null. The second case uses the control -word {\tt \\over} and the following pattern: {\tt \lb - \\over \rb}\null. Hence {\tt \$\$\lb a+b -\\over c+d\rb.\$\$} gives \TeXref{139--140} -\toindex{over} $${a+b\over c+d}.$$ - -\exercise Typeset the following: ${a+b\over c}\quad {a\over b+c} -\quad {1\over a+b+c} \not= {1\over a}+{1\over b}+{1\over c}$. - -\exercise Typeset: What are the points where -${\partial \over \partial x} f(x,y) = {\partial \over \partial y} -f(x,y) = 0$? - -\subsection{Subscripts and superscripts} - -Subscripts and superscripts are particularly easy to enter using -\TeX\null. The characters {\tt \_{}} and {\tt \^{}} are used to -indicate that the next character is a subscript or a superscript. -Thus {\tt \$x\^{}2\$} gives $x^2$ and {\tt \$x\_{}2\$} gives -$x_2$\null. To get several characters as a subscript or -superscript, they are grouped together within braces. Hence we -can use {\tt \$x\^{}\lb 21\rb\$} to get $x^{21}$ and {\tt \$x\_{}\lb -21\rb\$} to get $x_{21}$\null. Notice that the -superscripts and subscripts are automatically typeset in a -smaller type size. The situation is only slightly more -complicated for a second layer of subscripts or superscripts. -You can {\sl not\/} use {\tt \$x\_{}2\_{}3\$} since this could -have two possible interpretations, namely, {\tt \$x\_{}\lb 2\_{}3\rb\$} -or {\tt \$\lb x\_{}2\rb\_{}3\$}; this gives two -different results: $x_{2_3}$ and ${x_2}_3$, the first of which is -the usual mathematical subscript notation. Thus you must put in -the complete braces to describe multiple layers of subscripts and -superscripts. They may be done to any level. -\TeXref{128--130} - -To use both subscripts and superscripts on one symbol, you use -both the {\tt \_{}} and {\tt \^{}} in either order. Thus either -{\tt \$x\_{}2\^{}1\$} or {\tt\$x\^{}1\_{}2\$} will give $x_2^1$. - -\exercise -Typeset each of the following: $e^x \quad e^{-x} \quad -e^{i\pi}+1=0 \quad x_0 \quad x_0^2 \quad {x_0}^2 \quad 2^{x^x}$. - -\exercise Typeset: -$\nabla^2 f(x,y) = {\partial^2 f \over\partial x^2} -+ {\partial^2 f \over\partial y^2}$. -\bigskip - -A similar method is used for summations and integrals. The input -of {\tt \$\\sum\_{}\lb k=1\rb\^{}n k\^{}2\$} will give $\sum_{k=1}^n -k^2$, and {\tt \$\\int\_{}0\^{}x f(t) dt\$} will -give $\int_0^x f(t) dt$. -\TeXref{144--145} -\toindex{sum} -\toindex{int} - -Another use of this type of input is for expressions -involving limits. You can use -{\tt \$\\lim\_\lb n\\to \\infty\rb (\lb n+1 \\over n\rb)\^{}n = e\$} -to get $\lim_{n\to \infty} ({n+1\over n})^n = e$. -\toindex{lim} - -\exercise Typeset the following expression: $\lim_{x\to 0} -(1+x)^{1\over x}=e$. - -\exercise Typeset: The cardinality of $(-\infty, \infty)$ is $\aleph_1$. - -\exercise Typeset: $\lim_{x\to {0^+}} x^x = 1$. -\bigskip - -Here's a hint to make integrals look a little nicer: look at the -difference between $\int_0^x f(t) dt$ and $\int_0^x f(t)\, dt$\null. -In the second case there is a little extra space after -$f(t)$, and it looks nicer; {\tt \\,} was used to add the -additional space. -\toindex{,} - -\exercise Typeset the following integral: $\int_0^1 3x^2\,dx = 1$. - -\subsection{Roots, square and otherwise} - -To typeset a square root it is only necessary to use the construction -{\tt \\sqrt\lb$\ldots$\rb}\null. Hence {\tt \$\\sqrt\lb x\^{}2+y\^{}2\rb\$} -will give $\sqrt{x^2+y^2}$\null. Notice that \TeX{} takes care of the -placement of symbols and the height and length of the radical. -To make cube or other roots, the control words {\tt \\root} and {\tt -\\of} are used. You get $\root n \of {1+x^n}$ from the -input\TeXref{130--131} {\tt \$\\root n \\of \lb1+x\^{}n\rb\$}. -\toindex{root} -\toindex{sqroot} - -A possible alternative is to use the control word {\tt \\surd}; the -input {\tt \$\\surd 2\$} will produce $\surd 2$. -\toindex{surd} - -\exercise Typeset the following: $\sqrt2 \quad \sqrt {x+y\over x-y} -\quad \root 3 \of {10}$ \quad $e^{\sqrt x}$. - -\exercise Typeset: $\|x\| = \sqrt{x\cdot x}$. - -\exercise Typeset: -$\phi(t) = {1 \over \sqrt{2\pi}} \int_0^t e^{-x^2/2}\,dx$. - - -\subsection{Lines, above and below} - -Use the constructions {\tt \\overline\lb$\ldots$\rb} and -{\tt \\underline\lb$\ldots$\rb} to put lines above or below mathematical -expressions. Hence {\tt \$\\overline\lb x+y\rb=\\overline x + \\overline -y\$} gives $\overline{x+y}=\overline x + \overline y$\null. -But notice that the lines over the letters are at -different heights, and so some care is necessary. The use of {\tt -\\overline\lb\\strut x\rb} will raise the height of the line -over\TeXref{130--131} $x$\null. -\toindex{overline} -\toindex{underline} - -To underline non-mathematical text, use {\tt \\underbar\lb$\dots$\rb}. -\toindex{underbar} - -\exercise Typeset the following: $\underline x \quad \overline y -\quad \underline{\overline{x+y}}$. - - -\subsection{Delimiters large and small} - -The most commonly used mathematical delimiters are brackets, -braces, and parentheses. As we have seen, they may be produced -by using {\tt [ ] \\\lb\ \\\rb\ ( )} to get -$[\>]\>\{\>\}\>(\>)\>$. Sometimes larger delimiters increase the -clarity of mathematical expressions, as in -$$\bigl(a\times(b+c)\bigr) \bigl((a\times b)+c\bigr).$$ To make -larger left delimiters the control words {\tt \\bigl}, {\tt -\\Bigl}, {\tt \\biggl}, and {\tt \\Biggl} are used in front of -the delimiter; similarly, {\tt \\bigr}, {\tt \\Bigr}, {\tt -\\biggr}, and {\tt \\Biggr} are used\TeXref{145--147} for the -right delimiters. Hence {\tt \$\\Bigl[\$} and {\tt \$\\Bigr]\$} -will produce $\Bigl[$ and $\Bigr]$. - -\toindex{bigl} -\toindex{Bigl} -\toindex{biggl} -\toindex{Biggl} -\toindex{bigr} -\toindex{Bigr} -\toindex{biggr} -\toindex{Biggr} - -Here is a table to compare the size of some of the delimiters. - -%% \everycr can add 4 points between lines in the following table %% -\everycr={\noalign{\vskip 4 pt}} -\maketable [Delimiters of various sizes] -\halign{ -\strut \hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \quad\qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \quad\qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \quad\qquad - &\hfil$#$ & \quad \tt# \hfil \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -\{ & \\\lb & \} & \\\rb & ( & ( & ) & )\cr -\bigl\{ & \\bigl\\\lb & \bigr\} & \\bigr\\\rb & \bigl( & \\bigl( & \bigr) & -\\bigr)\cr -\Bigl\{ & \\Bigl\\\lb & \Bigr\} & \\Bigr\\\rb & \Bigl( & \\Bigl( & \Bigr) & -\\Bigr)\cr -\biggl\{ & \\biggl\\\lb & \biggr\} & \\biggr\\\rb & \biggl( - & \\biggl( & \biggr) & \\biggr) \cr -\Biggl\{ & \\Biggl\\\lb & \Biggr\} & \\Biggr\\\rb & \Biggl( - & \\Biggl( & \Biggr) & \\Biggr)\cr - } - -\everycr={} - -If you want, you can let \TeX{} choose the size of delimiter by -using the control words {\tt \\left} and {\tt \\right} before -your delimiters. -\TeXref{148}Thus {\tt \\left[$\ldots$\\right]} will cause the material -to be enclosed by brackets that are appropriately big. {\bf Note -well:} each use of a {\tt \\left} delimiter must have a matching -{\tt \\right} delimiter (although the delimiters themselves may be -different). Hence {\tt \$\$\\left|\lb a+b \\over -c+d\rb\\right|.\$\$} gives $$\left|{a+b \over c+d}\right|.$$ - -\maketable [Mathematical delimiters] -\halign{ -\strut \hfill$#$ & \quad \tt # \qquad\qquad & - \hfill$#$ & \quad \tt # \qquad\qquad & - \hfill$#$ & \quad \tt # \cr -\noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} -( & ( & ) & ) & [ & [ \cr -] & ] &\{ & \\\lb & \} & \\\rb \cr -\lfloor & \\lfloor &\rfloor &\\rfloor & \lceil & \\lceil \cr -\rceil & \\rceil &\langle & \\langle & \rangle & \\rangle \cr -/ & / & \backslash & \\backslash &| & | \cr -\| & \\| &\uparrow & \\uparrow & \Uparrow & \\Uparrow \cr -\downarrow & \\downarrow & \Downarrow & \\Downarrow - & \updownarrow & \\updownarrow \cr -\Updownarrow & \\Updownarrow \cr - } - -\toindex{lfloor} -\toindex{rfloor} -\toindex{lceil} -\toindex{rceil} -\toindex{langle} -\toindex{rangle} -\toindex{|} -\toindex{uparrow} -\toindex{Uparrow} -\toindex{downarrow} -\toindex{Downarrow} -\toindex{updownarrow} -\toindex{Updownarrow} - -\exercise Typeset $\bigl \lceil \lfloor x \rfloor \bigr \rceil - \leq \bigl \lfloor \lceil x \rceil \bigr \rfloor$. - -\subsection{Those special functions} - -There are several types of functions that appear frequently in -mathematical text. In an equation like ``$\sin^2x + \cos^2x = -1$'' the trigonometric functions ``sin'' and ``cos'' are in roman -rather than italic type. This is the usual mathematical -convention to indicate that it is a function being described and -not the product of three variables. The control words {\tt -\\sin} and {\tt \\cos} will use the right typeface automatically. -Here is a table of these and some other special functions: -\TeXref{162} - -\maketable [Special mathematical functions] -\halign{ - \strut \tt {\\}#\hfil && \quad \tt {\\}#\hfil \cr - \noalign{\hrule} \noalign{\smallskip} - sin & cos & tan & cot & sec & csc & arcsin & arccos \cr - arctan & sinh & cosh & tanh & coth & lim & sup & inf \cr - limsup & liminf & log & ln & lg & exp & det & deg \cr - dim & hom & ker & max & min & arg & gcd & Pr \cr - } - -\toindex{sin} -\toindex{cos} -\toindex{tan} -\toindex{cot} -\toindex{sec} -\toindex{csc} -\toindex{arcsin} -\toindex{arccos} -\toindex{arctan} -\toindex{sinh} -\toindex{cosh} -\toindex{tanh} -\toindex{coth} -\toindex{lim} -\toindex{sup} -\toindex{inf} -\toindex{limsup} -\toindex{liminf} -\toindex{log} -\toindex{ln} -\toindex{lg} -\toindex{exp} -\toindex{det} -\toindex{deg} -\toindex{dim} -\toindex{hom} -\toindex{ker} -\toindex{max} -\toindex{min} -\toindex{arg} -\toindex{gcd} -\toindex{Pr} - -\exercise Typeset: $\sin(2\theta) = 2\sin\theta\cos\theta \quad -\cos(2\theta) = 2\cos^2\theta - 1 $. - -\exercise Typeset: $$\int \csc^2x\, dx = -\cot x+ C -\qquad \lim_{\alpha\to 0} {\sin\alpha \over \alpha} = 1 -\qquad \lim_{\alpha\to \infty} {\sin\alpha \over \alpha} = 0.$$ - -\exercise Typeset: $$\tan(2\theta) = {2\tan\theta \over -1-\tan^2\theta}.$$ - - -\subsection{Hear ye, hear ye!} - -There is a particular macro that is used in almost every -mathematical paper, and is different enough to require a special -explanation. This is the {\tt \\proclaim} macro. It is used when -stating theorems, corollaries, propositions, and the like. The -paragraph following {\tt \\proclaim} is broken into two parts: -the first part goes up to and including the first period that is -followed by a space, and the second part is the rest of the -paragraph. \TeXref{202--203}The idea is that the first part -should be something like ``Theorem 1.'' or ``Corollary B.'' The -second part is the statement of the theorem or corollary. Here -is an example: -\toindex{proclaim} - -\beginliteral -\proclaim Theorem 1 (H.~G.~Wells). In the country of the blind, -the one-eyed man is king. -@endliteral - -\noindent gives - -\proclaim Theorem 1 (H.~G.~Wells). In the country of the blind, -the one-eyed man is king. - -The statement of the theorem may contain mathematical expressions, of -course. - -\vfill\eject -\exercise Typeset: -\nobreak -\proclaim Theorem (Euclid). There exist an infinite number of -primes. - -\exercise Typeset: -\proclaim Proposition 1. -$\root n \of {\prod_{i=1}^n X_i} \leq {1 \over n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i$ -with equality if and only if $X_1=\cdots=X_n$. - -\subsection{Matrices} - -Matrices are typeset using combinations of the alignment -character {\tt \&} and the control word {\tt \\cr} to indicate -the end of the line. Start with {\tt \$\$\\pmatrix\lb$\dots$\rb\$\$}. -Into the space between the braces go the rows of the matrix, each -one ended by {\tt \\cr}. The entries are separated by the -{\tt \&}\null. For example the input -\TeXref{176--178} - -\beginliteral -$$\pmatrix{ -a & b & c & d \cr -b & a & c+d & c-d \cr -0 & 0 & a+b & a-b \cr -0 & 0 & ab & cd \cr -}.$$ -@endliteral - -\noindent -gives as printed output -$$\pmatrix{ -a & b & c & d \cr -b & a & c+d & c-d \cr -0 & 0 & a+b & a-b \cr -0 & 0 & ab & cd \cr -}.$$ -\toindex{pmatrix} - -The matrix entries in our examples have all been \centred{} -within their columns with a little space on each side. They can -be made flush right or flush left by inserting {\tt \\hfill} -before or after the entry. Notice the differences between the -following example and the previous one. - -\beginliteral -$$\pmatrix{ -a & b & c \hfill & \hfill d \cr -b & a & c+d & c-d \cr -0 & 0 & a+b & a-b \cr -0 & 0 & ab \hfill & \hfill cd \cr -}.$$ -@endliteral - -\noindent -gives as printed output - -$$\pmatrix{ -a & b & c \hfill & \hfill d \cr -b & a & c+d & c-d \cr -0 & 0 & a+b & a-b \cr -0 & 0 & ab \hfill & \hfill cd \cr -}.$$ - - -\vbox{ -\exercise Typeset -$$ I_4 = \pmatrix{ 1 &0 &0 &0 \cr - 0 &1 &0 &0 \cr - 0 &0 &1 &0 \cr - 0 &0 &0 &1 \cr}$$ -} - -It's possible to have matrices that use other delimiters. Using -{\tt \\matrix} instead of {\tt \\pmatrix} will leave off the -parentheses, so the delimiters must be explicitly included using -{\tt \\left} and {\tt \\right}. Here is how we can change the -matrix of our first example. -\toindex{matrix} -\toindex{left} -\toindex{right} - -\beginliteral -$$ \left | -\matrix{ -a & b & c & d \cr -b & a & c+d & c-d \cr -0 & 0 & a+b & a-b \cr -0 & 0 & ab & cd \cr -} -\right | $$ -@endliteral - -\noindent -gives as printed output -$$ \left | -\matrix{ -a & b & c & d \cr -b & a & c+d & c-d \cr -0 & 0 & a+b & a-b \cr -0 & 0 & ab & cd \cr -} -\right | $$ - -It's even possible to use {\tt \\left.} and {\tt \\right.} to -indicate that the opening or closing delimiter is deleted (note -the use of the period). - -\exercise Use a matrix construction to typeset - -$$ |x| = \left\{ \matrix{ x & x \ge 0 \cr - -x & x \le 0 \cr} \right.$$ - -This exercise and more general constructions of this type -may also be typeset using the {\tt \\cases} macro. -\TeXref{175} - -Sometimes ellipses are used within matrices. The control words -{\tt \\cdots}, {\tt \\vdots}, and {\tt \\ddots} can be used to -insert horizontal, vertical, and diagonal dots. - -Thus we can use -\beginliteral -$$ \left [ -\matrix{ -aa & \cdots & az \cr -\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \cr -za & \cdots & zz \cr -} -\right ] $$ -@endliteral - -\noindent -to get as printed output -$$ \left [ -\matrix{ -aa & \cdots & az \cr -\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \cr -za & \cdots & zz \cr -} -\right ] $$ - - -Matrices may also be typeset in-line, but they are pretty ugly -unless they have a small number of rows. - - -\subsection{Displayed equations} - -All of the mathematics covered so far has identical input whether -it is to be typeset in-line or displayed. At this point we'll -look at some situations that apply to displayed equations only. - -The first is that of aligning multiline displays. This is done with -the alignment character {\tt \&} and the control words {\tt \\cr} and -{\tt \\eqalign}. Starting with {\tt \$\$\\eqalign\lb$\dots$\rb\$\$}, -the equations to be aligned are entered with each one terminated by -{\tt \\cr}. In each equation there should be one alignment symbol -{\tt \&} to indicate where the alignment should take place. This is -usually done at the equal signs, although it is not necessary to do -so. For example -\TeXref{190--192} -\toindex{eqalign} - -\beginliteral -$$\eqalign{ -a+b &= c+d \cr -x &= w + y + z \cr -m + n + o + p &= q \cr -}$$ -@endliteral - - -\noindent -yields -$$\eqalign{ -a+b &= c+d \cr -x &= w + y + z \cr -m + n + o + p &= q \cr -}$$ - -Displayed equations can be numbered at either the right or left -margin. When the control word {\tt \\eqno} appears in a displayed -equation, everything after the control word is put at the right -margin. Hence {\tt \$\$ x+y=z. \\eqno (1)\$\$} yields -$$ x+y=z. \eqno (1)$$ -To number an equation at the left margin, use {\tt \\leqno} -in place of {\tt \\eqno}. -\toindex{eqno} -\toindex{leqno} - -It's possible to number aligned equations by using the control -word {\tt \\eqalignno}. The alignment character {\tt \&} is -used to separate the equation from the equation number. -\beginliteral -$$\eqalignno{ -a+b &= c+d & (1) \cr -x &= w + y + z \cr -m + n + o + p &= q & * \cr -}$$ -@endliteral - -\noindent -yields -$$\eqalignno{ -a+b &= c+d & (1) \cr -x &= w + y + z \cr -m + n + o + p &= q & * \cr -}$$ - -Use {\tt \\leqalignno} to put the equation numbers on the left. -\TeXref{192--193} -\toindex{eqalignno} -\toindex{leqalignno} - -Finally, suppose some text needs to appear in the middle of a -displayed equation. This can be done by putting it in an hbox. -We will describe hboxes in more detail in the next section. -For now we want to use them to temporarily resume using ordinary -roman type and to also allow the insertion of space between -words (remember that all spaces are ignored when typesetting -mathematics). Hence -{\tt \$\$X=Y \\hbox\lb{} if and only if \rb x=y.\$\$} will give -$$X=Y \hbox{ if and only if } x=y.$$ -Note carefully the spaces in the hbox. - -\exercise Do some of the challenge problems on pages 180--181 of The -\TeX book. - - - - -\section{All in a row} - -It's not uncommon to want to put a table in the middle of some -text. Fortunately \TeX{} makes it easy to do this. In fact there -are two separate methods of aligning text. The first is by using -the tabbing environment. This is similar to setting the tab -stops on a typewriter. Each line is handled individually, -according to set tab columns, but with greater flexibility than -that provided by a typewriter. The second is the horizontal -alignment environment which typesets the whole table at once -using a prescribed pattern. - -\subsection{Picking up the tab} - -To align material using the tabbing environment, you must first -set the tab positions using the {\tt \\settabs} control word. -Having done this, a line to use these tabs starts with the -control symbol {\tt \\+ } and ends with {\tt \\cr } (remember -that the actual spacing on lines in the input file in -unimportant). \toindex{settabs} - -The easiest way to use the {\tt \\settabs} control word is to put -the text into equal columns. -\TeXref{231} -Using {\tt \\settabs 4 \\columns} will set the tabs that will -produce four equal columns. The tabbing is then done by using -the alignment character {\tt \&} to move to the next tab stop. -So, for example, \toindex{columns} - -\beginliteral -\settabs 4 \columns -\+ British Columbia & Alberta & Saskatchewan & Manitoba \cr -\+ Ontario & Quebec & New Brunswick & Nova Scotia \cr -\+ & Prince Edward Island & Newfoundland \cr -@endliteral - - -\noindent -will produce the table -\vskip\baselineskip - -\settabs 4 \columns -\+ British Columbia & Alberta & Saskatchewan & Manitoba \cr -\+ Ontario & Quebec & New Brunswick & Nova Scotia \cr -\+ & Prince Edward Island & Newfoundland \cr - -Notice that it is possible to skip over some tab positions, and -it is not necessary to use all of the tabs in a given line. To -make the same table using five columns, it is only necessary to -use {\tt \\settabs 5 \\columns} to reset the tab stops; then the -same three lines from the last example will produce: -\vskip\baselineskip - -\settabs 5 \columns -\+ British Columbia & Alberta & Saskatchewan & Manitoba \cr -\+ Ontario & Quebec & New Brunswick & Nova Scotia \cr -\+ & Prince Edward Island & Newfoundland \cr - -In this example, the columns are smaller, of course. In fact -there are two overlapping entries in the last row. This is -because \TeX{} will tab to the next tab position even if (unlike -a typewriter) it means going backward on the page. - -There is an interesting relationship between grouping and -tabbing. The {\tt \\settabs} values are only applicable to the -group in which it is defined, as would be expected. Thus it is -possible to temporarily change the tab settings by grouping -within braces. In addition, each table entry is in a group of -its own. Hence we may make a single entry boldface, for example, -by using {\tt \\bf} without braces. In addition, for any column -but the last one it is possible to \centre{} the entry or to -align it either on the left or on the right, or to fill a column -with a line or dots. Each entry has an implicit {\tt \\hfil} at -the end so that it will be at the left of the column by default. -Adding {\tt \\hfil} at the beginning of the entry will then cause -it to be \centred{}, just as with the {\tt \\line} control word. -Adding {\tt \\hfill} to the beginning will cause the entries to -be pushed to the right ({\tt \\hfill} acts just like {\tt \\hfil} -in that it absorbs excess space; when both {\tt \\hfil} and {\tt -\\hfill} appear, the {\tt \\hfill} takes precedence). -\toindex{hfill} - -\beginliteral -\settabs 4 \columns -\+ \hfil British Columbia & \hfill Alberta \qquad & \bf Saskatchewan -@hskip 2.5in & Manitoba \cr -\+ \hfil Ontario & \hfill Quebec \qquad & \bf New Brunswick -@hskip 2.5in & Nova Scotia \cr -\+ \hfil --- & \hfill * \qquad & \bf Newfoundland -@hskip 2.5in & Prince Edward Island \cr -\+ \dotfill && \hrulefill & \cr -@endliteral - -\noindent -will produce a table with the first column \centred{}, the second -column flush right with a {\tt \\qquad} of padding, and the third -column boldface. The control words {\tt \\dotfill} and {\tt \\hrulefill} -give alternative column entries. -\toindex{dotfill} -\toindex{hrulefill} -\vskip\baselineskip - -\settabs 4 \columns -\+ \hfil British Columbia & \hfill Alberta \qquad & \bf Saskatchewan - & Manitoba \cr -\+ \hfil Ontario & \hfill Quebec \qquad & \bf New Brunswick - & Nova Scotia \cr -\+ \hfil --- & \hfill * \qquad & \bf Newfoundland & - Prince Edward Island \cr -\+ \dotfill && \hrulefill & \cr - -\exercise Take the table of Canadian provinces above and \centre{} each -entry within its column. - -The tab positions can be set with much more flexibility than just -in equal columns. The general pattern is to use a sample line of -the form {\tt \\settabs \\+ $\ldots$ \& $\ldots$ \& $\ldots$ \\cr}. -The spacing between the alignment characters {\tt \&} -determines the position of the tabs. For example, {\tt \\settabs -\\+ \\hskip 1 in \& \\hskip 2 in \& \\hskip 1.5 in \& \\cr} would -set the first tab one inch from the left margin, the next another -two inches further in, and the third 1.5 inches more. It's also -possible to use text to determine the distance between tabs. So, -for example, another possible sample line is -{\tt \\settabs \\+ \\quad Province \\quad \& \\quad Population \\quad -\& \\quad Area \\quad \& \\cr}. -The tab column would then be just wide enough to accept the headings -with a quad of space on each side. Here's a more complete example: - -\beginuser \obeyspaces -\\settabs \\+ \\quad Year \\quad \& \\quad Price \\quad - \& \\quad Dividend \& \\cr -\\+ \\hfill Year \\quad \& \\quad Price \\quad \& \\quad Dividend \\cr -\\+ \\hfill 1971 \\quad \& \\quad 41--54 \\quad \& \\qquad \\\$2.60 \\cr -\\+ \\hfill 2 \\quad \& \\quad 41--54 \\quad \& \\qquad \\\$2.70 \\cr -\\+ \\hfill 3 \\quad \& \\quad 46--55 \\quad \& \\qquad \\\$2.87 \\cr -\\+ \\hfill 4 \\quad \& \\quad 40--53 \\quad \& \\qquad \\\$3.24 \\cr -\\+ \\hfill 5 \\quad \& \\quad 45--52 \\quad \& \\qquad \\\$3.40 \\cr -\enduser - -\noindent -gives \TeXref{247} -\vskip\baselineskip - -\settabs \+ \quad Year \quad & \quad Price \quad & \quad -Dividend \quad & \cr -\+ \hfill Year \quad & \quad Price \quad & \quad Dividend \cr -\+ \hfill 1971 \quad & \quad 41--54 \quad & \qquad \$2.60 \cr -\+ \hfill 2 \quad & \quad 41--54 \quad & \qquad \$2.70 \cr -\+ \hfill 3 \quad & \quad 46--55 \quad & \qquad \$2.87 \cr -\+ \hfill 4 \quad & \quad 40--53 \quad & \qquad \$3.24 \cr -\+ \hfill 5 \quad & \quad 45--52 \quad & \qquad \$3.40 \cr - -\exercise Take the table given above and move it closer to the -\centre{} of the page. - -\exercise One way to \centre{} a block of text, possibly several -lines long, is to use: {\tt \$\$\\vbox\lb$\ldots$\rb\$\$}. Use -this to \centre{} the table given above. Does the -{\tt \\settabs} line need to be included in the {\tt \\vbox}? - -\exercise Improve your last result by putting a line under the -column heads. The control word {\tt \\hrule} will insert a -horizontal line if introduced between two rows of a table. Now -repeat with the control word {\tt \\strut} after the {\tt \\+ } -of the line containing the column heads. (A {\tt \\strut} -effectively makes the spacing between lines a little greater. The -size can be altered from the default.)\TeXref{82} Note the extra -space that results. -\toindex{strut} - -\exercise Make the following table with decimal alignment, that -is, with the decimal points above each other (think of the dollar -figure as being right aligned and the cents figure as being left -aligned against the decimal point): -\medskip -\settabs \+ \hskip 2 in & \hskip .75in & \hskip 1cm& \cr -\+ &Plums &\hfill\$1&.22 \cr -\+ &Coffee &\hfill1&.78 \cr -\+ &Granola &\hfill1&.98 \cr -\+ &Mushrooms & &.63 \cr -\+ &{Kiwi fruit} & &.39 \cr -\+ &{Orange juice} &\hfill1&.09 \cr -\+ &Tuna &\hfill1&.29 \cr -\+ &Zucchini & &.64 \cr -\+ &Grapes &\hfill1&.69 \cr -\+ &{Smoked beef} & &.75 \cr -\+ &Broccoli &\hfill\underbar{\ \ 1}&\underbar{.09} \cr -\+ &Total &\hfill \$12&.55 \cr - - -\exercise Devise a method to make a rough table of contents by using -{\tt \\settabs} and having entries looking something like:\hfil\break -\leftline{\tt Getting Started \\dotfill \& \\hfill 1} -\leftline{\tt All Characters Great and Small \\dotfill \& \\hfill 9.} - -\subsection{Horizontal alignment with more sophisticated patterns} - -The {\tt \\settabs} environment is not difficult to use, and once -the pattern is set, it can be used repeatedly in different -portions of the text that follows. It does have some drawbacks, -however. For one, the column size must be set before the entries -are known. Also, even though in one case we wanted the third -column to be boldface, it had to be specified in each line. -These problems can be handled more easily by using the {\tt -\\halign} environment. -\TeXref{235--238} -\toindex{halign} - - -The general pattern in the {\tt \\halign} is as follows: -\beginuser -\\halign\lb{}