From 9edaf8cb54cb95b68a38e1242c116c0ca0985195 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Karl Berry <karl@freefriends.org>
Date: Tue, 10 May 2016 21:28:54 +0000
Subject: acmart (10may16)

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+
+\section{Introduction}
+
+As a new technology, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has a wide
+range of applications \cite{Culler-01, Bahl-02, Akyildiz-01}, including
+environment monitoring, smart buildings, medical care, industrial and
+military applications. Among them, a recent trend is to develop
+commercial sensor networks that require pervasive sensing of both
+environment and human beings, for example, assisted living
+\cite{Akyildiz-02, Harvard-01,CROSSBOW} and smart homes
+\cite{Harvard-01, Adya-01,CROSSBOW}.
+% quote
+\begin{quote}
+  ``For these applications, sensor devices are incorporated into human
+  cloths \cite{Natarajan-01, Zhou-06, Bahl-02, Adya-01} for monitoring
+  health related information like EKG readings, fall detection, and
+  voice recognition''.
+\end{quote}
+While collecting all these multimedia information
+\cite{Akyildiz-02} requires a high network throughput, off-the-shelf
+sensor devices only provide very limited bandwidth in a single
+channel: 19.2\,Kbps in MICA2 \cite{Bahl-02} and 250\,Kbps in MICAz.
+
+In this article, we propose MMSN, abbreviation for Multifrequency
+Media access control for wireless Sensor Networks. The main
+contributions of this work can be summarized as follows.
+% itemize
+\begin{itemize}
+\item To the best of our knowledge, the MMSN protocol is the first
+multifrequency MAC protocol especially designed for WSNs, in which
+each device is equipped with a single radio transceiver and
+the MAC layer packet size is very small.
+\item Instead of using pairwise RTS/CTS frequency negotiation
+\cite{Adya-01, Culler-01, Tzamaloukas-01, Zhou-06},
+we propose lightweight frequency assignments, which are good choices
+for many deployed comparatively static WSNs.
+\item We develop new toggle transmission and snooping techniques to
+enable a single radio transceiver in a sensor device to achieve
+scalable performance, avoiding the nonscalable ``one
+control channel + multiple data channels'' design \cite{Natarajan-01}.
+\end{itemize}
+
+% Head 1
+\section{MMSN Protocol}
+
+% Head 2
+\subsection{Frequency Assignment}
+
+We propose a suboptimal distribution to be used by each node, which is
+easy to compute and does not depend on the number of competing
+nodes. A natural candidate is an increasing geometric sequence, in
+which
+% Numbered Equation
+\begin{equation}
+\label{eqn:01}
+P(t)=\frac{b^{\frac{t+1}{T+1}}-b^{\frac{t}{T+1}}}{b-1},
+\end{equation}
+where $t=0,{\ldots}\,,T$, and $b$ is a number greater than $1$.
+
+In our algorithm, we use the suboptimal approach for simplicity and
+generality. We need to make the distribution of the selected back-off
+time slice at each node conform to what is shown in
+Equation~\eqref{eqn:01}. It is implemented as follows: First, a random
+variable $\alpha$ with a uniform distribution within the interval $(0,
+1)$ is generated on each node, then time slice $i$ is selected
+according to the following equation:
+% Unnumbered Equation
+\[
+i=\lfloor(T+1)\log_b[\alpha(b-1)+1]\rfloor.
+\]
+It can be easily proven that the distribution of $i$ conforms to Equation
+(\ref{eqn:01}).
+
+So protocols \cite{Bahl-02, Culler-01,Zhou-06,Adya-01,
+Tzamaloukas-01, Akyildiz-01} that use RTS/CTS
+controls\footnote{RTS/CTS controls are required to be implemented by
+802.11-compliant devices. They can be used as an optional mechanism
+to avoid Hidden Terminal Problems in the 802.11 standard and
+protocols based on those similar to \cite{Akyildiz-01} and
+\cite{Adya-01}.} for frequency negotiation and reservation are not
+suitable for WSN applications, even though they exhibit good
+performance in general wireless ad hoc
+networks.
+
+% Head 3
+\subsubsection{Exclusive Frequency Assignment}
+
+
+In exclusive frequency assignment, nodes first exchange their IDs
+among two communication hops so that each node knows its two-hop
+neighbors' IDs. In the second broadcast, each node beacons all
+neighbors' IDs it has collected during the first broadcast period.
+
+% Head 4
+\paragraph{Eavesdropping}
+
+Even though the even selection scheme leads to even sharing of
+available frequencies among any two-hop neighborhood, it involves a
+number of two-hop broadcasts. To reduce the communication cost, we
+propose a lightweight eavesdropping scheme.
+
+\subsection{Basic Notations}
+
+As Algorithm~\ref{alg:one} states, for each frequency
+number, each node calculates a random number (${\textit{Rnd}}_{\alpha}$) for
+itself and a random number (${\textit{Rnd}}_{\beta}$) for each of its two-hop
+neighbors with the same pseudorandom number generator.
+
+% Algorithm
+\begin{algorithm}[t]
+\SetAlgoNoLine
+\KwIn{Node $\alpha$'s ID ($ID_{\alpha}$), and node $\alpha$'s
+neighbors' IDs within two communication hops.}
+\KwOut{The frequency number ($FreNum_{\alpha}$) node $\alpha$ gets assigned.}
+$index$ = 0; $FreNum_{\alpha}$ = -1\;
+\Repeat{$FreNum_{\alpha} > -1$}{
+        $Rnd_{\alpha}$ = Random($ID_{\alpha}$, $index$)\;
+        $Found$ = $TRUE$\;
+        \For{each node $\beta$ in $\alpha$'s two communication hops
+    }{
+      $Rnd_{\beta}$ = Random($ID_{\beta}$, $index$)\;
+      \If{($Rnd_{\alpha} < Rnd_{\beta}$) \text{or} ($Rnd_{\alpha}$ ==
+          $Rnd_{\beta}$ \text{and} $ID_{\alpha} < ID_{\beta}$)\;
+      }{
+        $Found$ = $FALSE$; break\;
+      }
+        }
+     \eIf{$Found$}{
+           $FreNum_{\alpha}$ = $index$\;
+         }{
+           $index$ ++\;
+     }
+      }
+\caption{Frequency Number Computation}
+\label{alg:one}
+\end{algorithm}
+
+
+Bus masters are divided into two disjoint sets, $\mathcal{M}_{RT}$
+and $\mathcal{M}_{NRT}$.
+% description
+\begin{description}
+\item[RT Masters]
+$\mathcal{M}_{RT}=\{ \vec{m}_{1},\dots,\vec{m}_{n}\}$ denotes the
+$n$ RT masters issuing real-time constrained requests. To model the
+current request issued by an $\vec{m}_{i}$ in $\mathcal{M}_{RT}$,
+three parameters---the recurrence time $(r_i)$, the service cycle
+$(c_i)$, and the relative deadline $(d_i)$---are used, with their
+relationships.
+\item[NRT Masters]
+$\mathcal{M}_{NRT}=\{ \vec{m}_{n+1},\dots,\vec{m}_{n+m}\}$ is a set
+of $m$ masters issuing nonreal-time constrained requests. In our
+model, each $\vec{m}_{j}$ in $\mathcal{M}_{NRT}$ needs only one
+parameter, the service cycle, to model the current request it
+issues.
+\end{description}
+
+Here, a question may arise, since each node has a global ID. Why
+don't we just map nodes' IDs within two hops into a group of
+frequency numbers and assign those numbers to all nodes within two
+hops?
+
+\section{Simulator}
+\label{sec:sim}
+
+If the model checker requests successors of a state which are not
+created yet, the state space uses the simulator to create the
+successors on-the-fly. To create successor states the simulator
+conducts the following steps.
+% enumerate
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item Load state into microcontroller model.
+\item Determine assignments needed for resolving nondeterminism.
+\item For each assignment.
+      \begin{enumerate}
+      \item either call interrupt handler or simulate effect of next instruction, or
+      \item evaluate truth values of atomic propositions.
+      \end{enumerate}
+\item Return resulting states.
+\end{enumerate}
+Figure~\ref{fig:one} shows a typical microcontroller C program that
+controls an automotive power window lift. The program is one of the
+programs used in the case study described in Section~\ref{sec:sim}.
+At first sight, the programs looks like an ANSI~C program. It
+contains function calls, assignments, if clauses, and while loops.
+% Figure
+\begin{figure}
+  \centering
+  \includegraphics{mouse}
+  \caption{Code before preprocessing.}
+  \label{fig:one}
+\end{figure}
+
+\subsection{Problem Formulation}
+
+The objective of variable coalescence-based offset assignment is to find
+both the coalescence scheme and the MWPC on the coalesced graph. We start
+with a few definitions and lemmas for variable coalescence.
+
+% Enunciations
+\begin{definition}[Coalesced Node (C-Node)]A C-node is a set of
+live ranges (webs) in the AG or IG that are coalesced. Nodes within the same
+C-node cannot interfere with each other on the IG. Before any coalescing is
+done, each live range is a C-node by itself.
+\end{definition}
+
+\begin{definition}[C-AG (Coalesced Access Graph)]The C-AG is the access
+graph after node coalescence, which is composed of all C-nodes and C-edges.
+\end{definition}
+
+\begin{lemma}
+The C-MWPC problem is NP-complete.
+\end{lemma}
+\begin{proof} C-MWPC can be easily reduced to the MWPC problem assuming a
+coalescence graph without any edge or a fully connected interference graph.
+Therefore, each C-node is an uncoalesced live range after value separation
+and C-PC is equivalent to PC. A fully connected interference graph is made
+possible when all live ranges interfere with each other. Thus, the C-MWPC
+problem is NP-complete.
+\end{proof}
+
+\begin{lemma}[Lemma Subhead]The solution to the C-MWPC problem is no
+worse than the solution to the MWPC.
+\end{lemma}
+\begin{proof}
+Simply, any solution to the MWPC is also a solution to the
+C-MWPC. But some solutions to C-MWPC may not apply to the MWPC (if any
+coalescing were made).
+\end{proof}
+
+\section{Performance Evaluation}
+
+During all the experiments, the Geographic Forwarding (GF)
+\cite{Akyildiz-01} routing protocol is used. GF exploits geographic
+information of nodes and conducts local data-forwarding to achieve
+end-to-end routing. Our simulation is configured according to the
+settings in Table~\ref{tab:one}. Each run lasts for 2 minutes and
+repeated 100 times. For each data value we present in the results, we
+also give its 90\% confidence interval.
+
+% Table
+\begin{table}%
+\caption{Simulation Configuration}
+\label{tab:one}
+\begin{minipage}{\columnwidth}
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{ll}
+  \toprule
+  TERRAIN\footnote{This is a table footnote. This is a
+    table footnote. This is a table footnote.}   & (200m$\times$200m) Square\\
+  Node Number     & 289\\
+  Node Placement  & Uniform\\
+  Application     & Many-to-Many/Gossip CBR Streams\\
+  Payload Size    & 32 bytes\\
+  Routing Layer   & GF\\
+  MAC Layer       & CSMA/MMSN\\
+  Radio Layer     & RADIO-ACCNOISE\\
+  Radio Bandwidth & 250Kbps\\
+  Radio Range     & 20m--45m\\
+  \bottomrule
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+\bigskip
+\footnotesize\emph{Source:} This is a table
+ sourcenote. This is a table sourcenote. This is a table
+ sourcenote.
+
+ \emph{Note:} This is a table footnote.
+\end{minipage}
+\end{table}%
+
+
+\section{Conclusions}
+
+In this article, we develop the first multifrequency MAC protocol for
+WSN applications in which each device adopts a
+single radio transceiver. The different MAC design requirements for
+WSNs and general wireless ad-hoc networks are
+compared, and a complete WSN multifrequency MAC design (MMSN) is
+put forth. During the MMSN design, we analyze and evaluate different
+choices for frequency assignments and also discuss the nonuniform
+back-off algorithms for the slotted media access design.
+
+% Start of "Sample References" section
+
+\section{Typical references in new ACM Reference Format}
+A paginated journal article \cite{Abril07}, an enumerated
+journal article \cite{Cohen07}, a reference to an entire issue \cite{JCohen96},
+a monograph (whole book) \cite{Kosiur01}, a monograph/whole book in a series (see 2a in spec. document)
+\cite{Harel79}, a divisible-book such as an anthology or compilation \cite{Editor00}
+followed by the same example, however we only output the series if the volume number is given
+\cite{Editor00a} (so Editor00a's series should NOT be present since it has no vol. no.),
+a chapter in a divisible book \cite{Spector90}, a chapter in a divisible book
+in a series \cite{Douglass98}, a multi-volume work as book \cite{Knuth97},
+an article in a proceedings (of a conference, symposium, workshop for example)
+(paginated proceedings article) \cite{Andler79}, a proceedings article
+with all possible elements \cite{Smith10}, an example of an enumerated
+proceedings article \cite{VanGundy07},
+an informally published work \cite{Harel78}, a doctoral dissertation \cite{Clarkson85},
+a master's thesis: \cite{anisi03}, an online document / world wide web
+resource \cite{Thornburg01, Ablamowicz07, Poker06}, a video game (Case 1) \cite{Obama08} and (Case 2) \cite{Novak03}
+and \cite{Lee05} and (Case 3) a patent \cite{JoeScientist001},
+work accepted for publication \cite{rous08}, 'YYYYb'-test for prolific author
+\cite{SaeediMEJ10} and \cite{SaeediJETC10}. Other cites might contain
+'duplicate' DOI and URLs (some SIAM articles) \cite{Kirschmer:2010:AEI:1958016.1958018}.
+Boris / Barbara Beeton: multi-volume works as books
+\cite{MR781536} and \cite{MR781537}.
+
+% Appendix
+\appendix
+\section{Switching times}
+
+In this appendix, we measure the channel switching time of Micaz
+\cite{CROSSBOW} sensor devices.  In our experiments, one mote
+alternatingly switches between Channels~11 and~12. Every time after
+the node switches to a channel, it sends out a packet immediately and
+then changes to a new channel as soon as the transmission is finished.
+We measure the number of packets the test mote can send in 10 seconds,
+denoted as $N_{1}$. In contrast, we also measure the same value of the
+test mote without switching channels, denoted as $N_{2}$. We calculate
+the channel-switching time $s$ as
+\begin{displaymath}%
+s=\frac{10}{N_{1}}-\frac{10}{N_{2}}/
+\end{displaymath}%
+By repeating the experiments 100 times, we get the average
+channel-switching time of Micaz motes: 24.3\,$\mu$s.
+
+\section{Supplementary materials}
+
+
+\begin{printonly}
+  See the supplementary materials in the online version
+\end{printonly}
+
+\begin{screenonly}
+\subsection{This is an example of Appendix subsection head}
+
+Channel-switching time is measured as the time length it takes for
+motes to successfully switch from one channel to another. This
+parameter impacts the maximum network throughput, because motes
+cannot receive or send any packet during this period of time, and it
+also affects the efficiency of toggle snooping in MMSN, where motes
+need to sense through channels rapidly.
+
+By repeating experiments 100 times, we get the average
+channel-switching time of Micaz motes: 24.3 $\mu$s. We then conduct
+the same experiments with different Micaz motes, as well as
+experiments with the transmitter switching from Channel 11 to other
+channels. In both scenarios, the channel-switching time does not have
+obvious changes. (In our experiments, all values are in the range of
+23.6 $\mu$s to 24.9 $\mu$s.)
+
+\subsection{Appendix subsection head}
+
+The primary consumer of energy in WSNs is idle listening. The key to
+reduce idle listening is executing low duty-cycle on nodes. Two
+primary approaches are considered in controlling duty-cycles in the
+MAC layer.
+  
+\end{screenonly}
+
+\section*{Acknowledgements}
+
+The authors would like to thank Dr. Maura Turolla of Telecom
+Italia for providing specifications about the application scenario.
+
+
+% Bibliography
+\bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format-Journals}
+\bibliography{sample-bibliography}
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