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Diffstat (limited to 'Master/tlpkg/tlperl.straw/lib/overload.pm')
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diff --git a/Master/tlpkg/tlperl.straw/lib/overload.pm b/Master/tlpkg/tlperl.straw/lib/overload.pm new file mode 100755 index 00000000000..f83191b5cd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/tlpkg/tlperl.straw/lib/overload.pm @@ -0,0 +1,1499 @@ +package overload; + +our $VERSION = '1.07'; + +sub nil {} + +sub OVERLOAD { + $package = shift; + my %arg = @_; + my ($sub, $fb); + $ {$package . "::OVERLOAD"}{dummy}++; # Register with magic by touching. + *{$package . "::()"} = \&nil; # Make it findable via fetchmethod. + for (keys %arg) { + if ($_ eq 'fallback') { + $fb = $arg{$_}; + } else { + $sub = $arg{$_}; + if (not ref $sub and $sub !~ /::/) { + $ {$package . "::(" . $_} = $sub; + $sub = \&nil; + } + #print STDERR "Setting `$ {'package'}::\cO$_' to \\&`$sub'.\n"; + *{$package . "::(" . $_} = \&{ $sub }; + } + } + ${$package . "::()"} = $fb; # Make it findable too (fallback only). +} + +sub import { + $package = (caller())[0]; + # *{$package . "::OVERLOAD"} = \&OVERLOAD; + shift; + $package->overload::OVERLOAD(@_); +} + +sub unimport { + $package = (caller())[0]; + ${$package . "::OVERLOAD"}{dummy}++; # Upgrade the table + shift; + for (@_) { + if ($_ eq 'fallback') { + undef $ {$package . "::()"}; + } else { + delete $ {$package . "::"}{"(" . $_}; + } + } +} + +sub Overloaded { + my $package = shift; + $package = ref $package if ref $package; + $package->can('()'); +} + +sub ov_method { + my $globref = shift; + return undef unless $globref; + my $sub = \&{*$globref}; + return $sub if $sub ne \&nil; + return shift->can($ {*$globref}); +} + +sub OverloadedStringify { + my $package = shift; + $package = ref $package if ref $package; + #$package->can('(""') + ov_method mycan($package, '(""'), $package + or ov_method mycan($package, '(0+'), $package + or ov_method mycan($package, '(bool'), $package + or ov_method mycan($package, '(nomethod'), $package; +} + +sub Method { + my $package = shift; + if(ref $package) { + local $@; + local $!; + require Scalar::Util; + $package = Scalar::Util::blessed($package); + return undef if !defined $package; + } + #my $meth = $package->can('(' . shift); + ov_method mycan($package, '(' . shift), $package; + #return $meth if $meth ne \&nil; + #return $ {*{$meth}}; +} + +sub AddrRef { + my $package = ref $_[0]; + return "$_[0]" unless $package; + + local $@; + local $!; + require Scalar::Util; + my $class = Scalar::Util::blessed($_[0]); + my $class_prefix = defined($class) ? "$class=" : ""; + my $type = Scalar::Util::reftype($_[0]); + my $addr = Scalar::Util::refaddr($_[0]); + return sprintf("$class_prefix$type(0x%x)", $addr); +} + +*StrVal = *AddrRef; + +sub mycan { # Real can would leave stubs. + my ($package, $meth) = @_; + + my $mro = mro::get_linear_isa($package); + foreach my $p (@$mro) { + my $fqmeth = $p . q{::} . $meth; + return \*{$fqmeth} if defined &{$fqmeth}; + } + + return undef; +} + +%constants = ( + 'integer' => 0x1000, # HINT_NEW_INTEGER + 'float' => 0x2000, # HINT_NEW_FLOAT + 'binary' => 0x4000, # HINT_NEW_BINARY + 'q' => 0x8000, # HINT_NEW_STRING + 'qr' => 0x10000, # HINT_NEW_RE + ); + +%ops = ( with_assign => "+ - * / % ** << >> x .", + assign => "+= -= *= /= %= **= <<= >>= x= .=", + num_comparison => "< <= > >= == !=", + '3way_comparison'=> "<=> cmp", + str_comparison => "lt le gt ge eq ne", + binary => '& &= | |= ^ ^=', + unary => "neg ! ~", + mutators => '++ --', + func => "atan2 cos sin exp abs log sqrt int", + conversion => 'bool "" 0+', + iterators => '<>', + dereferencing => '${} @{} %{} &{} *{}', + matching => '~~', + special => 'nomethod fallback ='); + +use warnings::register; +sub constant { + # Arguments: what, sub + while (@_) { + if (@_ == 1) { + warnings::warnif ("Odd number of arguments for overload::constant"); + last; + } + elsif (!exists $constants {$_ [0]}) { + warnings::warnif ("`$_[0]' is not an overloadable type"); + } + elsif (!ref $_ [1] || "$_[1]" !~ /(^|=)CODE\(0x[0-9a-f]+\)$/) { + # Can't use C<ref $_[1] eq "CODE"> above as code references can be + # blessed, and C<ref> would return the package the ref is blessed into. + if (warnings::enabled) { + $_ [1] = "undef" unless defined $_ [1]; + warnings::warn ("`$_[1]' is not a code reference"); + } + } + else { + $^H{$_[0]} = $_[1]; + $^H |= $constants{$_[0]}; + } + shift, shift; + } +} + +sub remove_constant { + # Arguments: what, sub + while (@_) { + delete $^H{$_[0]}; + $^H &= ~ $constants{$_[0]}; + shift, shift; + } +} + +1; + +__END__ + +=head1 NAME + +overload - Package for overloading Perl operations + +=head1 SYNOPSIS + + package SomeThing; + + use overload + '+' => \&myadd, + '-' => \&mysub; + # etc + ... + + package main; + $a = SomeThing->new( 57 ); + $b=5+$a; + ... + if (overload::Overloaded $b) {...} + ... + $strval = overload::StrVal $b; + +=head1 DESCRIPTION + +This pragma allows overloading of Perl's operators for a class. +To overload built-in functions, see L<perlsub/Overriding Built-in Functions> instead. + +=head2 Declaration of overloaded functions + +The compilation directive + + package Number; + use overload + "+" => \&add, + "*=" => "muas"; + +declares function Number::add() for addition, and method muas() in +the "class" C<Number> (or one of its base classes) +for the assignment form C<*=> of multiplication. + +Arguments of this directive come in (key, value) pairs. Legal values +are values legal inside a C<&{ ... }> call, so the name of a +subroutine, a reference to a subroutine, or an anonymous subroutine +will all work. Note that values specified as strings are +interpreted as methods, not subroutines. Legal keys are listed below. + +The subroutine C<add> will be called to execute C<$a+$b> if $a +is a reference to an object blessed into the package C<Number>, or if $a is +not an object from a package with defined mathemagic addition, but $b is a +reference to a C<Number>. It can also be called in other situations, like +C<$a+=7>, or C<$a++>. See L<MAGIC AUTOGENERATION>. (Mathemagical +methods refer to methods triggered by an overloaded mathematical +operator.) + +Since overloading respects inheritance via the @ISA hierarchy, the +above declaration would also trigger overloading of C<+> and C<*=> in +all the packages which inherit from C<Number>. + +=head2 Calling Conventions for Binary Operations + +The functions specified in the C<use overload ...> directive are called +with three (in one particular case with four, see L<Last Resort>) +arguments. If the corresponding operation is binary, then the first +two arguments are the two arguments of the operation. However, due to +general object calling conventions, the first argument should always be +an object in the package, so in the situation of C<7+$a>, the +order of the arguments is interchanged. It probably does not matter +when implementing the addition method, but whether the arguments +are reversed is vital to the subtraction method. The method can +query this information by examining the third argument, which can take +three different values: + +=over 7 + +=item FALSE + +the order of arguments is as in the current operation. + +=item TRUE + +the arguments are reversed. + +=item C<undef> + +the current operation is an assignment variant (as in +C<$a+=7>), but the usual function is called instead. This additional +information can be used to generate some optimizations. Compare +L<Calling Conventions for Mutators>. + +=back + +=head2 Calling Conventions for Unary Operations + +Unary operation are considered binary operations with the second +argument being C<undef>. Thus the functions that overloads C<{"++"}> +is called with arguments C<($a,undef,'')> when $a++ is executed. + +=head2 Calling Conventions for Mutators + +Two types of mutators have different calling conventions: + +=over + +=item C<++> and C<--> + +The routines which implement these operators are expected to actually +I<mutate> their arguments. So, assuming that $obj is a reference to a +number, + + sub incr { my $n = $ {$_[0]}; ++$n; $_[0] = bless \$n} + +is an appropriate implementation of overloaded C<++>. Note that + + sub incr { ++$ {$_[0]} ; shift } + +is OK if used with preincrement and with postincrement. (In the case +of postincrement a copying will be performed, see L<Copy Constructor>.) + +=item C<x=> and other assignment versions + +There is nothing special about these methods. They may change the +value of their arguments, and may leave it as is. The result is going +to be assigned to the value in the left-hand-side if different from +this value. + +This allows for the same method to be used as overloaded C<+=> and +C<+>. Note that this is I<allowed>, but not recommended, since by the +semantic of L<"Fallback"> Perl will call the method for C<+> anyway, +if C<+=> is not overloaded. + +=back + +B<Warning.> Due to the presence of assignment versions of operations, +routines which may be called in assignment context may create +self-referential structures. Currently Perl will not free self-referential +structures until cycles are C<explicitly> broken. You may get problems +when traversing your structures too. + +Say, + + use overload '+' => sub { bless [ \$_[0], \$_[1] ] }; + +is asking for trouble, since for code C<$obj += $foo> the subroutine +is called as C<$obj = add($obj, $foo, undef)>, or C<$obj = [\$obj, +\$foo]>. If using such a subroutine is an important optimization, one +can overload C<+=> explicitly by a non-"optimized" version, or switch +to non-optimized version if C<not defined $_[2]> (see +L<Calling Conventions for Binary Operations>). + +Even if no I<explicit> assignment-variants of operators are present in +the script, they may be generated by the optimizer. Say, C<",$obj,"> or +C<',' . $obj . ','> may be both optimized to + + my $tmp = ',' . $obj; $tmp .= ','; + +=head2 Overloadable Operations + +The following symbols can be specified in C<use overload> directive: + +=over 5 + +=item * I<Arithmetic operations> + + "+", "+=", "-", "-=", "*", "*=", "/", "/=", "%", "%=", + "**", "**=", "<<", "<<=", ">>", ">>=", "x", "x=", ".", ".=", + +For these operations a substituted non-assignment variant can be called if +the assignment variant is not available. Methods for operations C<+>, +C<->, C<+=>, and C<-=> can be called to automatically generate +increment and decrement methods. The operation C<-> can be used to +autogenerate missing methods for unary minus or C<abs>. + +See L<"MAGIC AUTOGENERATION">, L<"Calling Conventions for Mutators"> and +L<"Calling Conventions for Binary Operations">) for details of these +substitutions. + +=item * I<Comparison operations> + + "<", "<=", ">", ">=", "==", "!=", "<=>", + "lt", "le", "gt", "ge", "eq", "ne", "cmp", + +If the corresponding "spaceship" variant is available, it can be +used to substitute for the missing operation. During C<sort>ing +arrays, C<cmp> is used to compare values subject to C<use overload>. + +=item * I<Bit operations> + + "&", "&=", "^", "^=", "|", "|=", "neg", "!", "~", + +C<neg> stands for unary minus. If the method for C<neg> is not +specified, it can be autogenerated using the method for +subtraction. If the method for C<!> is not specified, it can be +autogenerated using the methods for C<bool>, or C<"">, or C<0+>. + +The same remarks in L<"Arithmetic operations"> about +assignment-variants and autogeneration apply for +bit operations C<"&">, C<"^">, and C<"|"> as well. + +=item * I<Increment and decrement> + + "++", "--", + +If undefined, addition and subtraction methods can be +used instead. These operations are called both in prefix and +postfix form. + +=item * I<Transcendental functions> + + "atan2", "cos", "sin", "exp", "abs", "log", "sqrt", "int" + +If C<abs> is unavailable, it can be autogenerated using methods +for "E<lt>" or "E<lt>=E<gt>" combined with either unary minus or subtraction. + +Note that traditionally the Perl function L<int> rounds to 0, thus for +floating-point-like types one should follow the same semantic. If +C<int> is unavailable, it can be autogenerated using the overloading of +C<0+>. + +=item * I<Boolean, string and numeric conversion> + + 'bool', '""', '0+', + +If one or two of these operations are not overloaded, the remaining ones can +be used instead. C<bool> is used in the flow control operators +(like C<while>) and for the ternary C<?:> operation. These functions can +return any arbitrary Perl value. If the corresponding operation for this value +is overloaded too, that operation will be called again with this value. + +As a special case if the overload returns the object itself then it will +be used directly. An overloaded conversion returning the object is +probably a bug, because you're likely to get something that looks like +C<YourPackage=HASH(0x8172b34)>. + +=item * I<Iteration> + + "<>" + +If not overloaded, the argument will be converted to a filehandle or +glob (which may require a stringification). The same overloading +happens both for the I<read-filehandle> syntax C<E<lt>$varE<gt>> and +I<globbing> syntax C<E<lt>${var}E<gt>>. + +B<BUGS> Even in list context, the iterator is currently called only +once and with scalar context. + +=item * I<Matching> + +The key C<"~~"> allows you to override the smart matching logic used by +the C<~~> operator and the switch construct (C<given>/C<when>). See +L<perlsyn/switch> and L<feature>. + +Unusually, overloading of the smart match operator does not automatically +take precedence over normal smart match behaviour. In particular, in the +following code: + + package Foo; + use overload '~~' => 'match'; + + my $obj = Foo->new(); + $obj ~~ [ 1,2,3 ]; + +the smart match does I<not> invoke the method call like this: + + $obj->match([1,2,3],0); + +rather, the smart match distributive rule takes precedence, so $obj is +smart matched against each array element in turn until a match is found, +so you may see between one and three of these calls instead: + + $obj->match(1,0); + $obj->match(2,0); + $obj->match(3,0); + +Consult the match table in L<perlsyn/"Smart matching in detail"> for +details of when overloading is invoked. + +=item * I<Dereferencing> + + '${}', '@{}', '%{}', '&{}', '*{}'. + +If not overloaded, the argument will be dereferenced I<as is>, thus +should be of correct type. These functions should return a reference +of correct type, or another object with overloaded dereferencing. + +As a special case if the overload returns the object itself then it +will be used directly (provided it is the correct type). + +The dereference operators must be specified explicitly they will not be passed to +"nomethod". + +=item * I<Special> + + "nomethod", "fallback", "=". + +see L<SPECIAL SYMBOLS FOR C<use overload>>. + +=back + +See L<"Fallback"> for an explanation of when a missing method can be +autogenerated. + +A computer-readable form of the above table is available in the hash +%overload::ops, with values being space-separated lists of names: + + with_assign => '+ - * / % ** << >> x .', + assign => '+= -= *= /= %= **= <<= >>= x= .=', + num_comparison => '< <= > >= == !=', + '3way_comparison'=> '<=> cmp', + str_comparison => 'lt le gt ge eq ne', + binary => '& &= | |= ^ ^=', + unary => 'neg ! ~', + mutators => '++ --', + func => 'atan2 cos sin exp abs log sqrt', + conversion => 'bool "" 0+', + iterators => '<>', + dereferencing => '${} @{} %{} &{} *{}', + matching => '~~', + special => 'nomethod fallback =' + +=head2 Inheritance and overloading + +Inheritance interacts with overloading in two ways. + +=over + +=item Strings as values of C<use overload> directive + +If C<value> in + + use overload key => value; + +is a string, it is interpreted as a method name. + +=item Overloading of an operation is inherited by derived classes + +Any class derived from an overloaded class is also overloaded. The +set of overloaded methods is the union of overloaded methods of all +the ancestors. If some method is overloaded in several ancestor, then +which description will be used is decided by the usual inheritance +rules: + +If C<A> inherits from C<B> and C<C> (in this order), C<B> overloads +C<+> with C<\&D::plus_sub>, and C<C> overloads C<+> by C<"plus_meth">, +then the subroutine C<D::plus_sub> will be called to implement +operation C<+> for an object in package C<A>. + +=back + +Note that since the value of the C<fallback> key is not a subroutine, +its inheritance is not governed by the above rules. In the current +implementation, the value of C<fallback> in the first overloaded +ancestor is used, but this is accidental and subject to change. + +=head1 SPECIAL SYMBOLS FOR C<use overload> + +Three keys are recognized by Perl that are not covered by the above +description. + +=head2 Last Resort + +C<"nomethod"> should be followed by a reference to a function of four +parameters. If defined, it is called when the overloading mechanism +cannot find a method for some operation. The first three arguments of +this function coincide with the arguments for the corresponding method if +it were found, the fourth argument is the symbol +corresponding to the missing method. If several methods are tried, +the last one is used. Say, C<1-$a> can be equivalent to + + &nomethodMethod($a,1,1,"-") + +if the pair C<"nomethod" =E<gt> "nomethodMethod"> was specified in the +C<use overload> directive. + +The C<"nomethod"> mechanism is I<not> used for the dereference operators +( ${} @{} %{} &{} *{} ). + + +If some operation cannot be resolved, and there is no function +assigned to C<"nomethod">, then an exception will be raised via die()-- +unless C<"fallback"> was specified as a key in C<use overload> directive. + + +=head2 Fallback + +The key C<"fallback"> governs what to do if a method for a particular +operation is not found. Three different cases are possible depending on +the value of C<"fallback">: + +=over 16 + +=item * C<undef> + +Perl tries to use a +substituted method (see L<MAGIC AUTOGENERATION>). If this fails, it +then tries to calls C<"nomethod"> value; if missing, an exception +will be raised. + +=item * TRUE + +The same as for the C<undef> value, but no exception is raised. Instead, +it silently reverts to what it would have done were there no C<use overload> +present. + +=item * defined, but FALSE + +No autogeneration is tried. Perl tries to call +C<"nomethod"> value, and if this is missing, raises an exception. + +=back + +B<Note.> C<"fallback"> inheritance via @ISA is not carved in stone +yet, see L<"Inheritance and overloading">. + +=head2 Copy Constructor + +The value for C<"="> is a reference to a function with three +arguments, i.e., it looks like the other values in C<use +overload>. However, it does not overload the Perl assignment +operator. This would go against Camel hair. + +This operation is called in the situations when a mutator is applied +to a reference that shares its object with some other reference, such +as + + $a=$b; + ++$a; + +To make this change $a and not change $b, a copy of C<$$a> is made, +and $a is assigned a reference to this new object. This operation is +done during execution of the C<++$a>, and not during the assignment, +(so before the increment C<$$a> coincides with C<$$b>). This is only +done if C<++> is expressed via a method for C<'++'> or C<'+='> (or +C<nomethod>). Note that if this operation is expressed via C<'+'> +a nonmutator, i.e., as in + + $a=$b; + $a=$a+1; + +then C<$a> does not reference a new copy of C<$$a>, since $$a does not +appear as lvalue when the above code is executed. + +If the copy constructor is required during the execution of some mutator, +but a method for C<'='> was not specified, it can be autogenerated as a +string copy if the object is a plain scalar or a simple assignment if it +is not. + +=over 5 + +=item B<Example> + +The actually executed code for + + $a=$b; + Something else which does not modify $a or $b.... + ++$a; + +may be + + $a=$b; + Something else which does not modify $a or $b.... + $a = $a->clone(undef,""); + $a->incr(undef,""); + +if $b was mathemagical, and C<'++'> was overloaded with C<\&incr>, +C<'='> was overloaded with C<\&clone>. + +=back + +Same behaviour is triggered by C<$b = $a++>, which is consider a synonym for +C<$b = $a; ++$a>. + +=head1 MAGIC AUTOGENERATION + +If a method for an operation is not found, and the value for C<"fallback"> is +TRUE or undefined, Perl tries to autogenerate a substitute method for +the missing operation based on the defined operations. Autogenerated method +substitutions are possible for the following operations: + +=over 16 + +=item I<Assignment forms of arithmetic operations> + +C<$a+=$b> can use the method for C<"+"> if the method for C<"+="> +is not defined. + +=item I<Conversion operations> + +String, numeric, and boolean conversion are calculated in terms of one +another if not all of them are defined. + +=item I<Increment and decrement> + +The C<++$a> operation can be expressed in terms of C<$a+=1> or C<$a+1>, +and C<$a--> in terms of C<$a-=1> and C<$a-1>. + +=item C<abs($a)> + +can be expressed in terms of C<$aE<lt>0> and C<-$a> (or C<0-$a>). + +=item I<Unary minus> + +can be expressed in terms of subtraction. + +=item I<Negation> + +C<!> and C<not> can be expressed in terms of boolean conversion, or +string or numerical conversion. + +=item I<Concatenation> + +can be expressed in terms of string conversion. + +=item I<Comparison operations> + +can be expressed in terms of its "spaceship" counterpart: either +C<E<lt>=E<gt>> or C<cmp>: + + <, >, <=, >=, ==, != in terms of <=> + lt, gt, le, ge, eq, ne in terms of cmp + +=item I<Iterator> + + <> in terms of builtin operations + +=item I<Dereferencing> + + ${} @{} %{} &{} *{} in terms of builtin operations + +=item I<Copy operator> + +can be expressed in terms of an assignment to the dereferenced value, if this +value is a scalar and not a reference, or simply a reference assignment +otherwise. + +=back + +=head1 Minimal set of overloaded operations + +Since some operations can be automatically generated from others, there is +a minimal set of operations that need to be overloaded in order to have +the complete set of overloaded operations at one's disposal. +Of course, the autogenerated operations may not do exactly what the user +expects. See L<MAGIC AUTOGENERATION> above. The minimal set is: + + + - * / % ** << >> x + <=> cmp + & | ^ ~ + atan2 cos sin exp log sqrt int + +Additionally, you need to define at least one of string, boolean or +numeric conversions because any one can be used to emulate the others. +The string conversion can also be used to emulate concatenation. + +=head1 Losing overloading + +The restriction for the comparison operation is that even if, for example, +`C<cmp>' should return a blessed reference, the autogenerated `C<lt>' +function will produce only a standard logical value based on the +numerical value of the result of `C<cmp>'. In particular, a working +numeric conversion is needed in this case (possibly expressed in terms of +other conversions). + +Similarly, C<.=> and C<x=> operators lose their mathemagical properties +if the string conversion substitution is applied. + +When you chop() a mathemagical object it is promoted to a string and its +mathemagical properties are lost. The same can happen with other +operations as well. + +=head1 Run-time Overloading + +Since all C<use> directives are executed at compile-time, the only way to +change overloading during run-time is to + + eval 'use overload "+" => \&addmethod'; + +You can also use + + eval 'no overload "+", "--", "<="'; + +though the use of these constructs during run-time is questionable. + +=head1 Public functions + +Package C<overload.pm> provides the following public functions: + +=over 5 + +=item overload::StrVal(arg) + +Gives string value of C<arg> as in absence of stringify overloading. If you +are using this to get the address of a reference (useful for checking if two +references point to the same thing) then you may be better off using +C<Scalar::Util::refaddr()>, which is faster. + +=item overload::Overloaded(arg) + +Returns true if C<arg> is subject to overloading of some operations. + +=item overload::Method(obj,op) + +Returns C<undef> or a reference to the method that implements C<op>. + +=back + +=head1 Overloading constants + +For some applications, the Perl parser mangles constants too much. +It is possible to hook into this process via C<overload::constant()> +and C<overload::remove_constant()> functions. + +These functions take a hash as an argument. The recognized keys of this hash +are: + +=over 8 + +=item integer + +to overload integer constants, + +=item float + +to overload floating point constants, + +=item binary + +to overload octal and hexadecimal constants, + +=item q + +to overload C<q>-quoted strings, constant pieces of C<qq>- and C<qx>-quoted +strings and here-documents, + +=item qr + +to overload constant pieces of regular expressions. + +=back + +The corresponding values are references to functions which take three arguments: +the first one is the I<initial> string form of the constant, the second one +is how Perl interprets this constant, the third one is how the constant is used. +Note that the initial string form does not +contain string delimiters, and has backslashes in backslash-delimiter +combinations stripped (thus the value of delimiter is not relevant for +processing of this string). The return value of this function is how this +constant is going to be interpreted by Perl. The third argument is undefined +unless for overloaded C<q>- and C<qr>- constants, it is C<q> in single-quote +context (comes from strings, regular expressions, and single-quote HERE +documents), it is C<tr> for arguments of C<tr>/C<y> operators, +it is C<s> for right-hand side of C<s>-operator, and it is C<qq> otherwise. + +Since an expression C<"ab$cd,,"> is just a shortcut for C<'ab' . $cd . ',,'>, +it is expected that overloaded constant strings are equipped with reasonable +overloaded catenation operator, otherwise absurd results will result. +Similarly, negative numbers are considered as negations of positive constants. + +Note that it is probably meaningless to call the functions overload::constant() +and overload::remove_constant() from anywhere but import() and unimport() methods. +From these methods they may be called as + + sub import { + shift; + return unless @_; + die "unknown import: @_" unless @_ == 1 and $_[0] eq ':constant'; + overload::constant integer => sub {Math::BigInt->new(shift)}; + } + +=head1 IMPLEMENTATION + +What follows is subject to change RSN. + +The table of methods for all operations is cached in magic for the +symbol table hash for the package. The cache is invalidated during +processing of C<use overload>, C<no overload>, new function +definitions, and changes in @ISA. However, this invalidation remains +unprocessed until the next C<bless>ing into the package. Hence if you +want to change overloading structure dynamically, you'll need an +additional (fake) C<bless>ing to update the table. + +(Every SVish thing has a magic queue, and magic is an entry in that +queue. This is how a single variable may participate in multiple +forms of magic simultaneously. For instance, environment variables +regularly have two forms at once: their %ENV magic and their taint +magic. However, the magic which implements overloading is applied to +the stashes, which are rarely used directly, thus should not slow down +Perl.) + +If an object belongs to a package using overload, it carries a special +flag. Thus the only speed penalty during arithmetic operations without +overloading is the checking of this flag. + +In fact, if C<use overload> is not present, there is almost no overhead +for overloadable operations, so most programs should not suffer +measurable performance penalties. A considerable effort was made to +minimize the overhead when overload is used in some package, but the +arguments in question do not belong to packages using overload. When +in doubt, test your speed with C<use overload> and without it. So far +there have been no reports of substantial speed degradation if Perl is +compiled with optimization turned on. + +There is no size penalty for data if overload is not used. The only +size penalty if overload is used in some package is that I<all> the +packages acquire a magic during the next C<bless>ing into the +package. This magic is three-words-long for packages without +overloading, and carries the cache table if the package is overloaded. + +Copying (C<$a=$b>) is shallow; however, a one-level-deep copying is +carried out before any operation that can imply an assignment to the +object $a (or $b) refers to, like C<$a++>. You can override this +behavior by defining your own copy constructor (see L<"Copy Constructor">). + +It is expected that arguments to methods that are not explicitly supposed +to be changed are constant (but this is not enforced). + +=head1 Metaphor clash + +One may wonder why the semantic of overloaded C<=> is so counter intuitive. +If it I<looks> counter intuitive to you, you are subject to a metaphor +clash. + +Here is a Perl object metaphor: + +I< object is a reference to blessed data> + +and an arithmetic metaphor: + +I< object is a thing by itself>. + +The I<main> problem of overloading C<=> is the fact that these metaphors +imply different actions on the assignment C<$a = $b> if $a and $b are +objects. Perl-think implies that $a becomes a reference to whatever +$b was referencing. Arithmetic-think implies that the value of "object" +$a is changed to become the value of the object $b, preserving the fact +that $a and $b are separate entities. + +The difference is not relevant in the absence of mutators. After +a Perl-way assignment an operation which mutates the data referenced by $a +would change the data referenced by $b too. Effectively, after +C<$a = $b> values of $a and $b become I<indistinguishable>. + +On the other hand, anyone who has used algebraic notation knows the +expressive power of the arithmetic metaphor. Overloading works hard +to enable this metaphor while preserving the Perlian way as far as +possible. Since it is not possible to freely mix two contradicting +metaphors, overloading allows the arithmetic way to write things I<as +far as all the mutators are called via overloaded access only>. The +way it is done is described in L<Copy Constructor>. + +If some mutator methods are directly applied to the overloaded values, +one may need to I<explicitly unlink> other values which references the +same value: + + $a = Data->new(23); + ... + $b = $a; # $b is "linked" to $a + ... + $a = $a->clone; # Unlink $b from $a + $a->increment_by(4); + +Note that overloaded access makes this transparent: + + $a = Data->new(23); + $b = $a; # $b is "linked" to $a + $a += 4; # would unlink $b automagically + +However, it would not make + + $a = Data->new(23); + $a = 4; # Now $a is a plain 4, not 'Data' + +preserve "objectness" of $a. But Perl I<has> a way to make assignments +to an object do whatever you want. It is just not the overload, but +tie()ing interface (see L<perlfunc/tie>). Adding a FETCH() method +which returns the object itself, and STORE() method which changes the +value of the object, one can reproduce the arithmetic metaphor in its +completeness, at least for variables which were tie()d from the start. + +(Note that a workaround for a bug may be needed, see L<"BUGS">.) + +=head1 Cookbook + +Please add examples to what follows! + +=head2 Two-face scalars + +Put this in F<two_face.pm> in your Perl library directory: + + package two_face; # Scalars with separate string and + # numeric values. + sub new { my $p = shift; bless [@_], $p } + use overload '""' => \&str, '0+' => \&num, fallback => 1; + sub num {shift->[1]} + sub str {shift->[0]} + +Use it as follows: + + require two_face; + my $seven = two_face->new("vii", 7); + printf "seven=$seven, seven=%d, eight=%d\n", $seven, $seven+1; + print "seven contains `i'\n" if $seven =~ /i/; + +(The second line creates a scalar which has both a string value, and a +numeric value.) This prints: + + seven=vii, seven=7, eight=8 + seven contains `i' + +=head2 Two-face references + +Suppose you want to create an object which is accessible as both an +array reference and a hash reference. + + package two_refs; + use overload '%{}' => \&gethash, '@{}' => sub { $ {shift()} }; + sub new { + my $p = shift; + bless \ [@_], $p; + } + sub gethash { + my %h; + my $self = shift; + tie %h, ref $self, $self; + \%h; + } + + sub TIEHASH { my $p = shift; bless \ shift, $p } + my %fields; + my $i = 0; + $fields{$_} = $i++ foreach qw{zero one two three}; + sub STORE { + my $self = ${shift()}; + my $key = $fields{shift()}; + defined $key or die "Out of band access"; + $$self->[$key] = shift; + } + sub FETCH { + my $self = ${shift()}; + my $key = $fields{shift()}; + defined $key or die "Out of band access"; + $$self->[$key]; + } + +Now one can access an object using both the array and hash syntax: + + my $bar = two_refs->new(3,4,5,6); + $bar->[2] = 11; + $bar->{two} == 11 or die 'bad hash fetch'; + +Note several important features of this example. First of all, the +I<actual> type of $bar is a scalar reference, and we do not overload +the scalar dereference. Thus we can get the I<actual> non-overloaded +contents of $bar by just using C<$$bar> (what we do in functions which +overload dereference). Similarly, the object returned by the +TIEHASH() method is a scalar reference. + +Second, we create a new tied hash each time the hash syntax is used. +This allows us not to worry about a possibility of a reference loop, +which would lead to a memory leak. + +Both these problems can be cured. Say, if we want to overload hash +dereference on a reference to an object which is I<implemented> as a +hash itself, the only problem one has to circumvent is how to access +this I<actual> hash (as opposed to the I<virtual> hash exhibited by the +overloaded dereference operator). Here is one possible fetching routine: + + sub access_hash { + my ($self, $key) = (shift, shift); + my $class = ref $self; + bless $self, 'overload::dummy'; # Disable overloading of %{} + my $out = $self->{$key}; + bless $self, $class; # Restore overloading + $out; + } + +To remove creation of the tied hash on each access, one may an extra +level of indirection which allows a non-circular structure of references: + + package two_refs1; + use overload '%{}' => sub { ${shift()}->[1] }, + '@{}' => sub { ${shift()}->[0] }; + sub new { + my $p = shift; + my $a = [@_]; + my %h; + tie %h, $p, $a; + bless \ [$a, \%h], $p; + } + sub gethash { + my %h; + my $self = shift; + tie %h, ref $self, $self; + \%h; + } + + sub TIEHASH { my $p = shift; bless \ shift, $p } + my %fields; + my $i = 0; + $fields{$_} = $i++ foreach qw{zero one two three}; + sub STORE { + my $a = ${shift()}; + my $key = $fields{shift()}; + defined $key or die "Out of band access"; + $a->[$key] = shift; + } + sub FETCH { + my $a = ${shift()}; + my $key = $fields{shift()}; + defined $key or die "Out of band access"; + $a->[$key]; + } + +Now if $baz is overloaded like this, then C<$baz> is a reference to a +reference to the intermediate array, which keeps a reference to an +actual array, and the access hash. The tie()ing object for the access +hash is a reference to a reference to the actual array, so + +=over + +=item * + +There are no loops of references. + +=item * + +Both "objects" which are blessed into the class C<two_refs1> are +references to a reference to an array, thus references to a I<scalar>. +Thus the accessor expression C<$$foo-E<gt>[$ind]> involves no +overloaded operations. + +=back + +=head2 Symbolic calculator + +Put this in F<symbolic.pm> in your Perl library directory: + + package symbolic; # Primitive symbolic calculator + use overload nomethod => \&wrap; + + sub new { shift; bless ['n', @_] } + sub wrap { + my ($obj, $other, $inv, $meth) = @_; + ($obj, $other) = ($other, $obj) if $inv; + bless [$meth, $obj, $other]; + } + +This module is very unusual as overloaded modules go: it does not +provide any usual overloaded operators, instead it provides the L<Last +Resort> operator C<nomethod>. In this example the corresponding +subroutine returns an object which encapsulates operations done over +the objects: C<< symbolic->new(3) >> contains C<['n', 3]>, C<< 2 + +symbolic->new(3) >> contains C<['+', 2, ['n', 3]]>. + +Here is an example of the script which "calculates" the side of +circumscribed octagon using the above package: + + require symbolic; + my $iter = 1; # 2**($iter+2) = 8 + my $side = symbolic->new(1); + my $cnt = $iter; + + while ($cnt--) { + $side = (sqrt(1 + $side**2) - 1)/$side; + } + print "OK\n"; + +The value of $side is + + ['/', ['-', ['sqrt', ['+', 1, ['**', ['n', 1], 2]], + undef], 1], ['n', 1]] + +Note that while we obtained this value using a nice little script, +there is no simple way to I<use> this value. In fact this value may +be inspected in debugger (see L<perldebug>), but only if +C<bareStringify> B<O>ption is set, and not via C<p> command. + +If one attempts to print this value, then the overloaded operator +C<""> will be called, which will call C<nomethod> operator. The +result of this operator will be stringified again, but this result is +again of type C<symbolic>, which will lead to an infinite loop. + +Add a pretty-printer method to the module F<symbolic.pm>: + + sub pretty { + my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift}; + $a = 'u' unless defined $a; + $b = 'u' unless defined $b; + $a = $a->pretty if ref $a; + $b = $b->pretty if ref $b; + "[$meth $a $b]"; + } + +Now one can finish the script by + + print "side = ", $side->pretty, "\n"; + +The method C<pretty> is doing object-to-string conversion, so it +is natural to overload the operator C<""> using this method. However, +inside such a method it is not necessary to pretty-print the +I<components> $a and $b of an object. In the above subroutine +C<"[$meth $a $b]"> is a catenation of some strings and components $a +and $b. If these components use overloading, the catenation operator +will look for an overloaded operator C<.>; if not present, it will +look for an overloaded operator C<"">. Thus it is enough to use + + use overload nomethod => \&wrap, '""' => \&str; + sub str { + my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift}; + $a = 'u' unless defined $a; + $b = 'u' unless defined $b; + "[$meth $a $b]"; + } + +Now one can change the last line of the script to + + print "side = $side\n"; + +which outputs + + side = [/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [n 1 u] 2]] u] 1] [n 1 u]] + +and one can inspect the value in debugger using all the possible +methods. + +Something is still amiss: consider the loop variable $cnt of the +script. It was a number, not an object. We cannot make this value of +type C<symbolic>, since then the loop will not terminate. + +Indeed, to terminate the cycle, the $cnt should become false. +However, the operator C<bool> for checking falsity is overloaded (this +time via overloaded C<"">), and returns a long string, thus any object +of type C<symbolic> is true. To overcome this, we need a way to +compare an object to 0. In fact, it is easier to write a numeric +conversion routine. + +Here is the text of F<symbolic.pm> with such a routine added (and +slightly modified str()): + + package symbolic; # Primitive symbolic calculator + use overload + nomethod => \&wrap, '""' => \&str, '0+' => \# + + sub new { shift; bless ['n', @_] } + sub wrap { + my ($obj, $other, $inv, $meth) = @_; + ($obj, $other) = ($other, $obj) if $inv; + bless [$meth, $obj, $other]; + } + sub str { + my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift}; + $a = 'u' unless defined $a; + if (defined $b) { + "[$meth $a $b]"; + } else { + "[$meth $a]"; + } + } + my %subr = ( n => sub {$_[0]}, + sqrt => sub {sqrt $_[0]}, + '-' => sub {shift() - shift()}, + '+' => sub {shift() + shift()}, + '/' => sub {shift() / shift()}, + '*' => sub {shift() * shift()}, + '**' => sub {shift() ** shift()}, + ); + sub num { + my ($meth, $a, $b) = @{+shift}; + my $subr = $subr{$meth} + or die "Do not know how to ($meth) in symbolic"; + $a = $a->num if ref $a eq __PACKAGE__; + $b = $b->num if ref $b eq __PACKAGE__; + $subr->($a,$b); + } + +All the work of numeric conversion is done in %subr and num(). Of +course, %subr is not complete, it contains only operators used in the +example below. Here is the extra-credit question: why do we need an +explicit recursion in num()? (Answer is at the end of this section.) + +Use this module like this: + + require symbolic; + my $iter = symbolic->new(2); # 16-gon + my $side = symbolic->new(1); + my $cnt = $iter; + + while ($cnt) { + $cnt = $cnt - 1; # Mutator `--' not implemented + $side = (sqrt(1 + $side**2) - 1)/$side; + } + printf "%s=%f\n", $side, $side; + printf "pi=%f\n", $side*(2**($iter+2)); + +It prints (without so many line breaks) + + [/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [n 1] 2]]] 1] + [n 1]] 2]]] 1] + [/ [- [sqrt [+ 1 [** [n 1] 2]]] 1] [n 1]]]=0.198912 + pi=3.182598 + +The above module is very primitive. It does not implement +mutator methods (C<++>, C<-=> and so on), does not do deep copying +(not required without mutators!), and implements only those arithmetic +operations which are used in the example. + +To implement most arithmetic operations is easy; one should just use +the tables of operations, and change the code which fills %subr to + + my %subr = ( 'n' => sub {$_[0]} ); + foreach my $op (split " ", $overload::ops{with_assign}) { + $subr{$op} = $subr{"$op="} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}"; + } + my @bins = qw(binary 3way_comparison num_comparison str_comparison); + foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{ @bins }") { + $subr{$op} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}"; + } + foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{qw(unary func)}") { + print "defining `$op'\n"; + $subr{$op} = eval "sub {$op shift()}"; + } + +Due to L<Calling Conventions for Mutators>, we do not need anything +special to make C<+=> and friends work, except filling C<+=> entry of +%subr, and defining a copy constructor (needed since Perl has no +way to know that the implementation of C<'+='> does not mutate +the argument, compare L<Copy Constructor>). + +To implement a copy constructor, add C<< '=' => \&cpy >> to C<use overload> +line, and code (this code assumes that mutators change things one level +deep only, so recursive copying is not needed): + + sub cpy { + my $self = shift; + bless [@$self], ref $self; + } + +To make C<++> and C<--> work, we need to implement actual mutators, +either directly, or in C<nomethod>. We continue to do things inside +C<nomethod>, thus add + + if ($meth eq '++' or $meth eq '--') { + @$obj = ($meth, (bless [@$obj]), 1); # Avoid circular reference + return $obj; + } + +after the first line of wrap(). This is not a most effective +implementation, one may consider + + sub inc { $_[0] = bless ['++', shift, 1]; } + +instead. + +As a final remark, note that one can fill %subr by + + my %subr = ( 'n' => sub {$_[0]} ); + foreach my $op (split " ", $overload::ops{with_assign}) { + $subr{$op} = $subr{"$op="} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}"; + } + my @bins = qw(binary 3way_comparison num_comparison str_comparison); + foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{ @bins }") { + $subr{$op} = eval "sub {shift() $op shift()}"; + } + foreach my $op (split " ", "@overload::ops{qw(unary func)}") { + $subr{$op} = eval "sub {$op shift()}"; + } + $subr{'++'} = $subr{'+'}; + $subr{'--'} = $subr{'-'}; + +This finishes implementation of a primitive symbolic calculator in +50 lines of Perl code. Since the numeric values of subexpressions +are not cached, the calculator is very slow. + +Here is the answer for the exercise: In the case of str(), we need no +explicit recursion since the overloaded C<.>-operator will fall back +to an existing overloaded operator C<"">. Overloaded arithmetic +operators I<do not> fall back to numeric conversion if C<fallback> is +not explicitly requested. Thus without an explicit recursion num() +would convert C<['+', $a, $b]> to C<$a + $b>, which would just rebuild +the argument of num(). + +If you wonder why defaults for conversion are different for str() and +num(), note how easy it was to write the symbolic calculator. This +simplicity is due to an appropriate choice of defaults. One extra +note: due to the explicit recursion num() is more fragile than sym(): +we need to explicitly check for the type of $a and $b. If components +$a and $b happen to be of some related type, this may lead to problems. + +=head2 I<Really> symbolic calculator + +One may wonder why we call the above calculator symbolic. The reason +is that the actual calculation of the value of expression is postponed +until the value is I<used>. + +To see it in action, add a method + + sub STORE { + my $obj = shift; + $#$obj = 1; + @$obj->[0,1] = ('=', shift); + } + +to the package C<symbolic>. After this change one can do + + my $a = symbolic->new(3); + my $b = symbolic->new(4); + my $c = sqrt($a**2 + $b**2); + +and the numeric value of $c becomes 5. However, after calling + + $a->STORE(12); $b->STORE(5); + +the numeric value of $c becomes 13. There is no doubt now that the module +symbolic provides a I<symbolic> calculator indeed. + +To hide the rough edges under the hood, provide a tie()d interface to the +package C<symbolic> (compare with L<Metaphor clash>). Add methods + + sub TIESCALAR { my $pack = shift; $pack->new(@_) } + sub FETCH { shift } + sub nop { } # Around a bug + +(the bug is described in L<"BUGS">). One can use this new interface as + + tie $a, 'symbolic', 3; + tie $b, 'symbolic', 4; + $a->nop; $b->nop; # Around a bug + + my $c = sqrt($a**2 + $b**2); + +Now numeric value of $c is 5. After C<$a = 12; $b = 5> the numeric value +of $c becomes 13. To insulate the user of the module add a method + + sub vars { my $p = shift; tie($_, $p), $_->nop foreach @_; } + +Now + + my ($a, $b); + symbolic->vars($a, $b); + my $c = sqrt($a**2 + $b**2); + + $a = 3; $b = 4; + printf "c5 %s=%f\n", $c, $c; + + $a = 12; $b = 5; + printf "c13 %s=%f\n", $c, $c; + +shows that the numeric value of $c follows changes to the values of $a +and $b. + +=head1 AUTHOR + +Ilya Zakharevich E<lt>F<ilya@math.mps.ohio-state.edu>E<gt>. + +=head1 SEE ALSO + +The L<overloading> pragma can be used to enable or disable overloaded +operations within a lexical scope. + +=head1 DIAGNOSTICS + +When Perl is run with the B<-Do> switch or its equivalent, overloading +induces diagnostic messages. + +Using the C<m> command of Perl debugger (see L<perldebug>) one can +deduce which operations are overloaded (and which ancestor triggers +this overloading). Say, if C<eq> is overloaded, then the method C<(eq> +is shown by debugger. The method C<()> corresponds to the C<fallback> +key (in fact a presence of this method shows that this package has +overloading enabled, and it is what is used by the C<Overloaded> +function of module C<overload>). + +The module might issue the following warnings: + +=over 4 + +=item Odd number of arguments for overload::constant + +(W) The call to overload::constant contained an odd number of arguments. +The arguments should come in pairs. + +=item `%s' is not an overloadable type + +(W) You tried to overload a constant type the overload package is unaware of. + +=item `%s' is not a code reference + +(W) The second (fourth, sixth, ...) argument of overload::constant needs +to be a code reference. Either an anonymous subroutine, or a reference +to a subroutine. + +=back + +=head1 BUGS + +Because it is used for overloading, the per-package hash %OVERLOAD now +has a special meaning in Perl. The symbol table is filled with names +looking like line-noise. + +For the purpose of inheritance every overloaded package behaves as if +C<fallback> is present (possibly undefined). This may create +interesting effects if some package is not overloaded, but inherits +from two overloaded packages. + +Relation between overloading and tie()ing is broken. Overloading is +triggered or not basing on the I<previous> class of tie()d value. + +This happens because the presence of overloading is checked too early, +before any tie()d access is attempted. If the FETCH()ed class of the +tie()d value does not change, a simple workaround is to access the value +immediately after tie()ing, so that after this call the I<previous> class +coincides with the current one. + +B<Needed:> a way to fix this without a speed penalty. + +Barewords are not covered by overloaded string constants. + +This document is confusing. There are grammos and misleading language +used in places. It would seem a total rewrite is needed. + +=cut + |