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diff --git a/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt b/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..c1e85d52913 --- /dev/null +++ b/Master/texmf-dist/doc/latex/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5951 @@ +Short Contents +************** + +LaTeX2e +1 Overview of LaTeX +2 Starting & ending +3 Document classes +4 Typefaces +5 Layout +6 Sectioning +7 Cross references +8 Environments +9 Footnotes +10 Definitions +11 Counters +12 Lengths +13 Line breaking +14 Page breaking +15 Making paragraphs +16 Math formulas +17 Modes +18 Page Styles +19 Spaces +20 Boxes +21 Special insertions +22 Splitting the input +23 Front/back matter +24 Letters +25 Terminal Input/Output +26 Command Line +Appendix A Document templates +Concept Index +Command Index + + +Table of Contents +***************** + +LaTeX2e +1 Overview of LaTeX +2 Starting & ending +3 Document classes + 3.1 Document class options +4 Typefaces + 4.1 Font styles + 4.2 Font sizes + 4.3 Low-level font commands +5 Layout + 5.1 `\onecolumn' + 5.2 `\twocolumn' + 5.3 `\flushbottom' + 5.4 `\raggedbottom' + 5.5 Page layout parameters +6 Sectioning +7 Cross references + 7.1 `\label' + 7.2 `\pageref{KEY}' + 7.3 `\ref{KEY}' +8 Environments + 8.1 `abstract' + 8.2 `array' + 8.3 `center' + 8.3.1 `\centering' + 8.4 `description' + 8.5 `displaymath' + 8.6 `document' + 8.7 `enumerate' + 8.8 `eqnarray' + 8.9 `equation' + 8.10 `figure' + 8.11 `flushleft' + 8.11.1 `\raggedright' + 8.12 `flushright' + 8.12.1 `\raggedleft' + 8.13 `itemize' + 8.14 `letter' environment: writing letters + 8.15 `list' + 8.16 `math' + 8.17 `minipage' + 8.18 `picture' + 8.18.1 `\circle' + 8.18.2 `\makebox' + 8.18.3 `\framebox' + 8.18.4 `\dashbox' + 8.18.5 `\frame' + 8.18.6 `\line' + 8.18.7 `\linethickness' + 8.18.8 `\thicklines' + 8.18.9 `\thinlines' + 8.18.10 `\multiput' + 8.18.11 `\oval' + 8.18.12 `\put' + 8.18.13 `\shortstack' + 8.18.14 `\vector' + 8.19 `quotation' + 8.20 `quote' + 8.21 `tabbing' + 8.22 `table' + 8.23 `tabular' + 8.23.1 `\multicolumn' + 8.23.2 `\cline' + 8.23.3 `\hline' + 8.23.4 `\vline' + 8.24 `thebibliography' + 8.24.1 `\bibitem' + 8.24.2 `\cite' + 8.24.3 `\nocite' + 8.24.4 Using BibTeX + 8.25 `theorem' + 8.26 `titlepage' + 8.27 `verbatim' + 8.27.1 `\verb' + 8.28 `verse' +9 Footnotes + 9.1 `\footnote' + 9.2 `\footnotemark' + 9.3 `\footnotetext' + 9.4 Footnote parameters +10 Definitions + 10.1 `\newcommand' & `\renewcommand' + 10.2 `\newcounter' + 10.3 `\newlength' + 10.4 `\newsavebox' + 10.5 `\newenvironment' & `\renewenvironment' + 10.6 `\newtheorem' + 10.7 `\newfont' + 10.8 `\protect' +11 Counters + 11.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters + 11.2 `\usecounter{COUNTER}' + 11.3 `\value{COUNTER}' + 11.4 `\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' + 11.5 `\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' + 11.6 `\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' + 11.7 `\stepcounter{COUNTER}' + 11.8 `\day \month \year': Predefined counters +12 Lengths + 12.1 `\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' + 12.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} + 12.3 `\settodepth' + 12.4 `\settoheight' + 12.5 `\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' + 12.6 Predefined lengths +13 Line breaking + 13.1 `\\'[*][MORESPACE] + 13.2 `\obeycr' & `\restorecr' + 13.3 `\newline' + 13.4 `\-' (discretionary hyphen) + 13.5 `\fussy' + 13.6 `\sloppy' + 13.7 `\hyphenation' + 13.8 `\linebreak' & `\nolinebreak' +14 Page breaking + 14.1 `\cleardoublepage' + 14.2 `\clearpage' + 14.3 `\newpage' + 14.4 `\enlargethispage' + 14.5 `\pagebreak' & `\nopagebreak' +15 Making paragraphs + 15.1 `\indent' + 15.2 `\noindent' + 15.3 `\parskip' + 15.4 Marginal notes +16 Math formulas + 16.1 Subscripts & Superscripts + 16.2 Math symbols + 16.3 Math functions + 16.4 Math accents + 16.5 Spacing in math mode + 16.6 Math Miscellany +17 Modes +18 Page Styles + 18.1 `\maketitle' + 18.2 `\pagenumbering' + 18.3 `\pagestyle' + 18.4 `\thispagestyle{STYLE}' +19 Spaces + 19.1 `\hspace' + 19.2 `\hfill' + 19.3 `\SPACE' + 19.4 `\@' + 19.5 `\thinspace' + 19.6 `\/' + 19.7 `\hrulefill' + 19.8 `\dotfill' + 19.9 `\addvspace' + 19.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' + 19.11 `\vfill' + 19.12 `\vspace[*]{LENGTH}' +20 Boxes + 20.1 `\mbox{TEXT}' + 20.2 `\fbox' and `\framebox' + 20.3 `lrbox' + 20.4 `\makebox' + 20.5 `\parbox' + 20.6 `\raisebox' + 20.7 `\savebox' + 20.8 `\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' + 20.9 `\usebox{\BOXCMD' +21 Special insertions + 21.1 Reserved characters + 21.2 Text symbols + 21.3 Accents + 21.4 Non-English characters + 21.5 `\rule' + 21.6 `\today' +22 Splitting the input + 22.1 `\include' + 22.2 \`includeonly' + 22.3 \input +23 Front/back matter + 23.1 Tables of contents + 23.1.1 \addcontentsline + 23.1.2 \addtocontents + 23.2 Glossaries + 23.3 Indexes +24 Letters + 24.1 \address{RETURN-ADDRESS} + 24.2 `\cc' + 24.3 `\closing' + 24.4 `\encl' + 24.5 `\location' + 24.6 `\makelabels' + 24.7 `\name' + 24.8 `\opening{TEXT}' + 24.9 `\ps' + 24.10 `\signature{TEXT}' + 24.11 `\startbreaks' + 24.12 `\stopbreaks' + 24.13 `\telephone' +25 Terminal Input/Output + 25.1 `\typein[CMD]{MSG}' + 25.2 `\typeout{MSG}' +26 Command Line +Appendix A Document templates + A.1 `book' template + A.2 `beamer' template + A.3 `tugboat' template +Concept Index +Command Index + + +LaTeX2e +******* + +This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference +manual for LaTeX, a document preparation system. It is intended to +cover LaTeX2e, which has been the standard version of LaTeX for many +years. + + LaTeX is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's TeX +typesetting program. LaTeX was originally created by Leslie Lamport; +it is now maintained by a group of volunteers +(`http://latex-project.org'). The official documentation written by +the LaTeX project is available there. Again, the present document is +unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. + +1 Overview of LaTeX +******************* + +The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the +LaTeX "macro package" for TeX. To be more specific, it processes an +input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands +that describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least +three files as output: + + 1. A main output file, which is one of: + + 1. If invoked as `latex', a "Device Independent" (`.dvi') file. + This contains commands that can be translated into commands + for a variety of output devices. You can view such `.dvi' + output of LaTeX by using a program such as `xdvi' (display + directly) or `dvips' (convert to PostScript). + + 2. If invoked as `pdflatex', a "Portable Document Format" + (`.pdf') file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with + all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but + it does make the output much larger than the `.dvi' produced + from the same document. + + There are other less-common variants of LaTeX (and TeX) as well, + which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. + + 2. A "transcript" or `.log' file that contains summary information and + diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. + + 3. An "auxiliary" or `.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for + things such as sectioning. + + A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a +`\' followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single +non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, `[]', are optional +while arguments contained in braces, `{}', are required. + + LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless +explicitly directed to do otherwise. + +2 Starting & ending +******************* + +A minimal input file looks like the following: + + \documentclass{CLASS} + \begin{document} + YOUR TEXT + \end{document} + +where the CLASS is a valid document class for LaTeX. *Note Document +classes::, for details of the various document classes available +locally. + + You may include other LaTeX commands between the `\documentclass' +and the `\begin{document}' commands (this area is called the +"preamble"). + +3 Document classes +****************** + +The class of a given document is defined with the command: + + \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} + +The `\documentclass' command must be the first command in a LaTeX +source file. + + Built-in LaTeX document CLASS names are (many other document classes +are available as add-ons; *note Overview::): + + article report book letter slides + + Standard OPTIONS are described below. + +3.1 Document class options +========================== + +You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the +`\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual. +To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma: + + \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} + + Here is the list of the standard class options. + + All of the standard classes except `slides' accept the following +options for selecting the typeface size (default is `10pt'): + + 10pt 11pt 12pt + + All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the +paper size (default is `letterpaper'): + + a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper + + Miscellaneous other options: + +`draft, final' + mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is + `final'. + +`fleqn' + Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. + +`landscape' + Selects landscape format; default is portrait. + +`leqno' + Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the + right side. + +`openbib' + Use "open" bibliography format. + +`titlepage, notitlepage' + Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on + the class. + + These options are not available with the slides class: + +`onecolumn' +`twocolumn' + Typeset in one or two columns; default is `onecolumn'. + +`oneside' +`twoside' + Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is `oneside', except for + the `book' class. + + The `\evensidemargin' (`\oddsidemargin' parameter determines the + distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the + page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper + size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For + one-sided printing the text is centered, for two-sided, + `\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between `\paperwidth' + and `\textwidth' with `\evensidemargin' the remainder. + +`openright' +`openany' + Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default + is `openright' for book. + + The `slides' class offers the option `clock' for printing the time +at the bottom of each note. + + Additional packages are loaded like this: + + \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG} + + To specify more than one PKG, you can separate them with a comma, or +use multiple `\usepackage' commands. + + Any options given in the `\documentclass' command that are unknown +by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with +`\usepackage'. + +4 Typefaces +*********** + +Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a +style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here. + +4.1 Font styles +=============== + +The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. + + These commands are used like `\textit{italic text}'. The +corresponding command in parenthesis is the "declaration form", which +takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the +next type style command or the end of the current group. + + The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either +`\sffamily\bfseries' or `\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif. + + You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for +instance, `\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'. + +`\textrm (\rmfamily)' + Roman. + +`\textit (\itshape)' + Italics. + +`\emph' + Emphasis (switches between `\textit' and `\textrm'). + +`\textmd (\mdseries)' + Medium weight (default). + +`\textbf (\bfseries)' + Boldface. + +`\textup (\upshape)' + Upright (default). The opposite of slanted. + +`\textsl (\slshape)' + Slanted. + +`\textsf (\sffamily)' + Sans serif. + +`\textsc (\scshape)' + Small caps. + +`\texttt (\ttfamily)' + Typewriter. + +`\textnormal (\normalfont)' + Main document font. + +`\mathrm' + Roman, for use in math mode. + +`\mathbf' + Boldface, for use in math mode. + +`\mathsf' + Sans serif, for use in math mode. + +`\mathtt' + Typewriter, for use in math mode. + +`\mathit' +`(\mit)' + Italics, for use in math mode. + +`\mathnormal' + For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. + +`\mathcal' + `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. + + In addition, the command `\mathversion{bold}' can be used for +switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. +`\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. + + LaTeX also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to +the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. They are used +differently than the above commands, too: `{\CMD ...}' instead of +`\CMD{...}'. These are two very different things. + +`\bf' + Switch to bold face. + +`\cal' + Switch to calligraphic letters for math. + +`\em' + Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). + +`\it' + Italics. + +`\rm' + Roman. + +`\sc' + Small caps. + +`\sf' + Sans serif. + +`\sl' + Slanted (oblique). + +`\tt' + Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). + + +4.2 Font sizes +============== + +The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The +table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size +used (in points) with the `10pt', `11pt', and `12pt' document size +options, respectively (*note Document class options::). + +Command `10pt' `11pt' `12pt' +-------------------------------------------------- +`\tiny' 5 6 6 +`\scriptsize' 7 8 8 +`\footnotesize' 8 9 10 +`\small' 9 10 10.95 +`\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 +`\large' 12 12 14.4 +`\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 +`\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 +`\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 +`\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 + + The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of +the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end +of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these +commands; for instance, `\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'. + +4.3 Low-level font commands +=========================== + +These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and +packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available +ones. + +`\fontencoding{enc}' + Select font encoding. Valid encodings include `OT1' and `T1'. + +`\fontfamily{family}' + Select font family. Valid families include: + + * `cmr' for Computer Modern Roman + + * `cmss' for Computer Modern Sans Serif + + * `cmtt' for Computer Modern Typewriter + + and numerous others. + +`\fontseries{series}' + Select font series. Valid series include: + + * `m' Medium (normal) + + * `b' Bold + + * `c' Condensed + + * `bc' Bold condensed + + * `bx' Bold extended + + and various other combinations. + +`\fontshape{shape}' + Select font shape. Valid shapes are: + + * `n' Upright (normal) + + * `it' Italic + + * `sl' Slanted (oblique) + + * `sc' Small caps + + * `ui' Upright italics + + * `ol' Outline + + The two last shapes are not available for most font families. + +`\fontsize{size}{skip}' + Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to + and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a + parameter named `\baselineskip'. The unit of both parameters + defaults to pt. The default `\baselineskip' for the Computer + Modern typeface is 1.2 times the `\fontsize'. + + The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the + `\baselinestretch' parameter when the type size changes; the + default is 1. However, the best way to "double space" a document, + if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use + the `setspace' package; see + `http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace'. + +`\selectfont' + The changes made by calling the four font commands described above + do not come into effect until `\selectfont' is called. + +`\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}' + The same as invoking `\fontencoding', `\fontfamily', `\fontseries' + and `\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by + `\selectfont'. + +5 Layout +******** + +Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. + +5.1 `\onecolumn' +================ + +The `\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces +single-column output. This is the default. + +5.2 `\twocolumn' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \twocolumn[TEXT1COL] + + The `\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces +two-column output. If the optional TEXT1COL argument is present, it is +typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. + + These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: + +`\columnsep' + The distance between columns (35pt by default). + +`\columnseprule' + The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so + there is no rule. + +`\columnwidth' + The width of the current column; this is equal to `\textwidth' in + single-column text. + + + These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: + +`\dbltopfraction' + Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be + occupied by floats. Default `.7', can be usefully redefined to + (say) `.9' to avoid going to float pages so soon. + +`\dblfloatpagefraction' + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by + floats, for a two-column float page. Default `.5'. + +`\dblfloatsep' + Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float + page. Default `12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' and `11pt' + documents, `14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for `12pt'. + +`\dbltextfloatsep' + Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a + page and the main text. Default `20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. + + +5.3 `\flushbottom' +================== + +The `\flushbottom' declaration makes all text pages the same height, +adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. + + This is the default if `twocolumn' mode is selected (*note Document +class options::). + +5.4 `\raggedbottom' +=================== + +The `\raggedbottom' declaration makes all pages the natural height of +the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched. + +5.5 Page layout parameters +========================== + +`\headheight' + Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is + `30pt', except in the `book' class, where it varies with the type + size. + +`\headsep' + Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the + top of the main text. Default is `25pt', except in the `book' + class, where it varies with the type size. + +`\footskip' + Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the + baseline of the page footer. Default is `30pt', except in the + `book' class, where it varies with the type size. + +`\linewidth' + Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, + paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an `article' document in + `10pt', it's set to `345pt'; in two-column mode, that becomes + `229.5pt'. + +`\textheight' + The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies + with the font size, document class, etc. For an `article' or + `report' document in `10pt', it's set to `43\baselineskip'; for + `book', it's `41\baselineskip'. For `11pt', it's + `38\baselineskip' and for `12pt', `36\baselineskip'. + +`\textwidth' + The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as + usual. For an `article' or `report' document, it's `345pt' at + `10pt', `360pt' at `11pt', and `390pt' at `12pt'. For a `book' + document, it's `4.5in' at `10pt', and `5in' at `11pt' or `12pt'. + +`\topmargin' + Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the + paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is + computed based on many other parameters: `\paperheight - 2in - + \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then + divided by two. + +`\topskip' + Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline + of the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default + is the same as the font size, e.g., `10pt' at `10pt'. + + +6 Sectioning +************ + +Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: + +`\part' + +`\chapter' + (report and book class only) + +`\section' + +`\subsection' + +`\subsubsection' + +`\paragraph' + +`\subparagraph' + + All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., + + \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} + + In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the +section title can appear in two other places: + + 1. The table of contents. + + 2. The running head at the top of the page. + + You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. +To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument +TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. + + Also, all sectioning commands have `*'-forms that print TITLE as +usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the +table of contents. For instance: + + \section*{Preamble} + + The `\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units +are numbered. The `\appendix' command itself generates no text and +does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command +is something like + + \chapter{A Chapter} + ... + \appendix + \chapter{The First Appendix} + +7 Cross references +****************** + +One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer +the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details." + +7.1 `\label' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \label{KEY} + + A `\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the +number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered +environment assigns that number to KEY. + + A KEY name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or +punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. + + To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is +common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a +colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: + +`ch' + for chapters + +`sec' + for lower-level sectioning commands + +`fig' + for figures + +`tab' + for tables + +`eq' + for equations + + Thus, a label for a figure would look like `fig:snark' or +`fig.snark'. + +7.2 `\pageref{KEY}' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \pageref{KEY} + + The `\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in +the text where the corresponding `\label'{KEY} command appears. + +7.3 `\ref{KEY}' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \ref{KEY} + + The `\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit, +equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding `\label' command +(*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word +`Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. + +8 Environments +************** + +LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each +environment begins and ends in the same manner: + + \begin{ENVNAME} + ... + \end{ENVNAME} + +8.1 `abstract' +============== + +Synopsis: + \begin{abstract} + ... + \end{abstract} + + Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple +paragraphs. + +8.2 `array' +=========== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{array}{TEMPLATE} + COL1 TEXT&COL1 TEXT&COLN}\\ + ... + \end{array} + + Math arrays are produced with the `array' environment, normally +within an `equation' environment (*note equation::). It has a single +mandatory TEMPLATE argument describing the number of columns and the +alignment within them. Each column COL is specified by a single letter +that tells how items in that row should be formatted, as follows: + +`c' + centered + +`l' + flush left + +`r' + flush right + + Column entries are separated by `&'. Column entries may include +other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with `\\'. + + In the template, the construct `@{TEXT}' puts TEXT between columns +in each row. + + Here's an example: + + \begin{equation} + \begin{array}{lrc} + left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ + left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ + \end{array} + \end{equation} + + The `\arraycolsep' parameter defines half the width of the space +separating columns; the default is `5pt'. *Note tabular::, for other +parameters which affect formatting in `array' environments, namely +`\arrayrulewidth' and `\arraystretch'. + + The `array' environment can only be used in math mode. + +8.3 `center' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{center} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + \end{center} + + The `center' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting +of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the +current page. Each line is terminated with the string `\\'. + +8.3.1 `\centering' +------------------ + +The `\centering' declaration corresponds to the `center' environment. +This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote' or +in a `parbox'. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on +the page by putting a `\centering' command at the beginning of the +figure or table environment. + + Unlike the `center' environment, the `\centering' command does not +start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command (of an +environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. + + Here's an example: + + \begin{quote} + \centering + first line \\ + second line \\ + \end{quote} + +8.4 `description' +================= + +Synopsis: + + \begin{description} + \item [LABEL1] ITEM1 + \item [LABEL2] ITEM2 + ... + \end{description} + + The `description' environment is used to make labelled lists. Each +LABEL is typeset in bold, flush right. The ITEM text may contain +multiple paragraphs. + + Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if +you typeset a label in typewriter using `\texttt', you'll get bold +typewriter: `\item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]'. This may be too +bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use `\tt', which +resets all other style variations: `\item[{\tt plain typewriter}]'. + + For details about list spacing, see *note itemize::. + +8.5 `displaymath' +================= + +Synopsis: + \begin{displaymath} + MATH + \end{displaymath} + +or + + \[MATH\] + + The `displaymath' environment (`\[...\]' is a synonym) typesets the +MATH text on its own line, centered by default. The global `fleqn' +option makes equations flush left; see *note Document class options::. + + No equation number is added to `displaymath' text; to get an +equation number, use the `equation' environment (*note equation::). + +8.6 `document' +============== + +The `document' environment encloses the body of a document. It is +required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting & ending::. + +8.7 `enumerate' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{enumerate} + \item ITEM1 + \item ITEM2 + ... + \end{enumerate} + + The `enumerate' environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations +can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also +be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as `itemize' +(*note itemize::) and `description' (*note description::). + + Each item of an enumerated list begins with an `\item' command. +There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment. + + By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: + + 1. 1., 2., ... + + 2. (a), (b), ... + + 3. i., ii., ... + + 4. A., B., ... + + The `enumerate' environment uses the counters `\enumi' through +`\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::). If the optional argument to +`\item' is given, the counter is not incremented for that item. + + The `enumerate' environment uses the commands `\labelenumi' through +`\labelenumiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use +`\renewcommand' to change the labels (*note \newcommand & +\renewcommand::). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase +letters: + + \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}} + +8.8 `eqnarray' +============== + + \begin{eqnarray} (or `eqnarray*') + FORMULA1 \\ + FORMULA2 \\ + ... + \end{eqnarray} + + The `eqnarray' environment is used to display a sequence of +equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column `array' +environment, with consecutive rows separated by `\\' and consecutive +items within a row separated by an `&'. + + `\\*' can also be used to separate equations, with its normal +meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. + + An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a +`\nonumber' command. Alternatively, The `*'-form of the environment +(`\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}') will omit equation numbering +entirely, while otherwise being the same as `eqnarray'. + + The command `\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across +lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of +zero width. + +8.9 `equation' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{equation} + MATH + \end{equation} + + The `equation' environment starts a `displaymath' environment (*note +displaymath::), e.g., centering the MATH text on the page, and also +places an equation number in the right margin. + +8.10 `figure' +============= + + \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT] + FIGBODY + \label{LABEL} + \caption[LOFTITLE]{TEXT} + \end{figure} + + Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +instead "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. +Figures will not be split between two pages. + + The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try +to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly +put a float: + + 1. `h' (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure + environment appears. + + 2. `t' (Top) - at the top of a text page. + + 3. `b' (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. + + 4. `p' (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page + containing no text, only floats. + + The standard report and article classes use the default placement +`tbp'. + + The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, +etc. you wish. + + The `\caption' command specifies caption TEXT for the figure. The +caption is numbered by default. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in +the list of figures instead of TEXT (*note Tables of contents::). + + The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at + the bottom; default `.3'. + +`\floatpagefraction' + The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by + floats; default `.5'. + +`\floatsep' + Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default `12pt + plus2pt minus2pt'. + +`\intextsep' + Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; + default `12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' and `11pt' styles, + `14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for `12pt'. + +`\textfloatsep' + Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; + default `20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. + +`\textfraction' + Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too + much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a + different page. The default is `.2'. + +`\topfraction' + Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before + floats; default is `.7'. + + +8.11 `flushleft' +================ + + \begin{flushleft} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + ... + \end{flushleft} + + The `flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged +right Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. + +8.11.1 `\raggedright' +--------------------- + +The `\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the `flushleft' +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as `quote' or in a `parbox'. + + Unlike the `flushleft' environment, the `\raggedright' command does +not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command that ends the +paragraph unit. + +8.12 `flushright' +================= + + \begin{flushright} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + ... + \end{flushright} + + The `flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph +consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged +left. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. + +8.12.1 `\raggedleft' +-------------------- + +The `\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the `flushright' +environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such +as `quote' or in a `parbox'. + + Unlike the `flushright' environment, the `\raggedleft' command does +not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph +units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the +declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command that ends the +paragraph unit. + +8.13 `itemize' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{itemize} + \item ITEM1 + \item ITEM2 + ... + \end{itemize} + + The `itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list. +Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. +They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, +such as `enumerate' (*note enumerate::). + + Each item of an `itemize' list begins with an `\item' command. +There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment. + + By default, the marks at each level look like this: + + 1. * + + 2. -- (bold en-dash) + + 3. * + + 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) + + The `itemize' environment uses the commands `\labelitemi' through +`\labelitemiv' to produce the default label. So, you can use +`\renewcommand' to change the labels. For instance, to have the first +level use diamonds: + + \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} + + The `\leftmargini' through `\leftmarginvi' parameters define the +distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the +left margin of the list. By convention, `\leftmargin' is set to the +appropriate `\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered. + + The defaults vary from `.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to `2.5em' +(first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example +greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: + + \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em + + Some parameters that affect list formatting: + +`\itemindent' + Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. + +`\labelsep' + Space between the label and text of an item; default `.5em'. + +`\labelwidth' + Width of the label; default `2em', or `1.5em' in two-column mode. + +`\listparindent' + Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within + a list item; default `0pt'. + +`\rightmargin' + Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the + enclosing environment; default `0pt', except in the `quote', + `quotation', and `verse' environments, where it is set equal to + `\leftmargin'. + + + Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather +loose, by default). + +`\itemsep' + Vertical space between items. The default is `2pt plus1pt + minus1pt' for `10pt' documents, `3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for `11pt', + and `4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for `12pt'. + +`\parsep' + Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. + Defaults are the same as `\itemsep'. + +`\topsep' + Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. + The default is `4pt plus2pt minus2pt' for `10pt' documents, `6pt + plus2pt minus2pt' for `11pt', and `9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for + `12pt'. + +`\partopsep' + Extra space added to `\topsep' when the list environment starts a + paragraph. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for `10pt' + documents, `3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for `11pt', and `3pt plus2pt + minus2pt' for `12pt'. + +`\topsep' + Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list + item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; + for instance, within a first-level list at `10pt', it is `4pt + plus2pt minus2pt'. + + + Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide +space between items. Here is an example defining an `itemize*' +environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs +within a single item (`\parskip' is not list-specific, *note +\parskip::): + + \newenvironment{itemize*}% + {\begin{itemize}% + \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% + \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% + \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% + {\end{itemize}} + +8.14 `letter' environment: writing letters +========================================== + +This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::. + +8.15 `list' +=========== + +The `list' environment is a generic environment which is used for +defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in +documents, but often in macros. + + \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} + \item ITEM1 + \item ITEM2 + ... + \end{list} + + The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be +labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to `\item'). This +argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the +label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. + + The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the +spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be +empty, i.e., `{}', which leaves the default spacing. + +8.16 `math' +=========== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{math} + MATH + \end{math} + + The `math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running +text. `\(...\))' and `$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::. + +8.17 `minipage' +=============== + + \begin{minipage}[POSITION]{WIDTH} + TEXT + \end{minipage} + + The `minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that +will not be broken across pages (similar to the `\parbox' command, +*note \parbox::). You may use other paragraph-making environments +inside a minipage (unlike `\parbox'). + + It takes an optional POSITION argument for placing TEXT, and a +mandatory WIDTH argument for specifying the line width. + + By default, paragraphs are not indented in the `minipage' +environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as +`\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command. + + Footnotes in a `minipage' environment are handled in a way that is +particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A +`\footnote' or `\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom +of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the +`\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary `footnote' counter (*note +Counters::). + + However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using +footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. + +8.18 `picture' +============== + + \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) + ... PICTURE COMMANDS ... + \end{picture} + + The `picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind +of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You +tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their +coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point +and a minus sign--a number like `5', `0.3' or `-3.1416'. A coordinate +specifies a length in multiples of the unit length `\unitlength', so if +`\unitlength' has been set to `1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies +a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of +`\unitlength', using the `\setlength' command, outside of a `picture' +environment. + + A position is a pair of coordinates, such as `(2.4,-5)', specifying +the point with x-coordinate `2.4' and y-coordinate `-5'. Coordinates +are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is +normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a +position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the +parentheses serve to delimit the argument. + + The `picture' environment has one mandatory argument, which is a +`position'. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment +produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this +argument's x- and y-coordinates. + + The `picture' environment also has an optional `position' argument, +following the `size' argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike +ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square +brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at +the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). +For example, if `\unitlength' has been set to `1mm', the command + \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) + produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 +millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose +upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first +draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin +at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by +shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. + + The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of +the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture +really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the +picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by +LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it. + + Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the `\put' command. +The command + + \put (11.3,-.3){...} + +puts the object specified by `...' in the picture, with its reference +point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various +objects will be described below. + + The `\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything that +can go in an `\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the `\put' +command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left +corner of the box. + + The `picture' commands are described in the following sections. + +8.18.1 `\circle' +---------------- + + \circle[*]{DIAMETER} + + The `\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to +the specified one as possible. The `*'-form of the command draws a +solid circle. + + Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. + +8.18.2 `\makebox' +----------------- + +`\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}' + + The `\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the +normal `\makebox' command except that you must specify a `width' and +`height' in multiples of `\unitlength'. + + The optional argument, `[position]', specifies the quadrant that +your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: + + * `t' - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle + + * `b' - Moves the item to the bottom + + * `l' - Moves the item to the left + + * `r' - Moves the item to the right + + *Note \makebox::. + +8.18.3 `\framebox' +------------------ + +Synopsis: + + \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...} + + The `\framebox' command is like `\makebox' (see previous section), +except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it +creates. + + The `\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule', +and leaves a space `\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the +box. + +8.18.4 `\dashbox' +----------------- + +Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: + + \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT} + + `\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a `picture' +environment. Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall +width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT. The TEXT is positioned at optional +POS. A dashed box looks best when the `rwidth' and `rheight' are +multiples of the `dlen'. + +8.18.5 `\frame' +--------------- + +Synopsis: + + \frame{TEXT} + + The `\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT. The +reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space +is put between the frame and the object. + +8.18.6 `\line' +-------------- + +Synopsis: + + \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH} + + The `\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope +XSLOPE/YSLOPE. + + Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y +have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, not to +mention other shapes, see the `curve2e' and many many other packages on +CTAN. + +8.18.7 `\linethickness' +----------------------- + +The `\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal +and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a +positive length. + + `\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, +circles, or the quarter circles drawn by `\oval'. + +8.18.8 `\thicklines' +-------------------- + +The `\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal +and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: +and *note \thinlines::. + +8.18.9 `\thinlines' +------------------- + +The `\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal +and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness:: +and *note \thicklines::. + +8.18.10 `\multiput' +------------------- + +Synopsis: + \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ} + + The `\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern +across a picture. OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at +(x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times. + +8.18.11 `\oval' +--------------- + +Synopsis: + + \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] + + The `\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The +optional argument PORTION allows you to select part of the oval via the +following: + +`t' + selects the top portion; + +`b' + selects the bottom portion; + +`r' + selects the right portion; + +`l' + selects the left portion. + + The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a +maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with +rounded corners. + +8.18.12 `\put' +-------------- + +`\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }' + + The `\put' command places the item specified by the mandatory +argument at the given coordinates. + +8.18.13 `\shortstack' +--------------------- + +Synopsis: + + \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...} + + The `\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid +positions are: + +`r' + Move the objects to the right of the stack. + +`l' + Move the objects to the left of the stack + +`c' + Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) + + Objects are separated with `\\'. + +8.18.14 `\vector' +----------------- + +Synopsis: + + \vector(X-SLOPE,Y-SLOPE){LENGTH} + + The `\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified +length and slope. The x and y values must lie between -4 and +4, +inclusive. + +8.19 `quotation' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{quotation} + TEXT + \end{quotation} + + The margins of the `quotation' environment are indented on both the +left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a +blank line between text produces a new paragraph. + + Unlike the `quote' environment, each paragraph is indented normally. + +8.20 `quote' +============ + +Snyopsis: + + \begin{quote} + TEXT + \end{quote} + + The margins of the `quote' environment are indented on both the left +and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank +line between text produces a new paragraph. + + Unlike the `quotation' environment, paragraphs are not indented. + +8.21 `tabbing' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{tabbing} + ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 \= ROW1COL3 \= ROW1COL4 \\ + ROW2COL1 \> \> ROW2COL3 \\ + ... + \end{tabbing} + + The `tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns. +It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on +an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of +each column is constant and known in advance. + + This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the `tabular' +environment. + + The following commands can be used inside a `tabbing' enviroment: + +`\\ tabbing' + End a line. + +`\= (tabbing)' + Sets a tab stop at the current position. + +`\> (tabbing)' + Advances to the next tab stop. + +`\<' + Put following text to the left of the local margin (without + changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. + +`\+' + Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands + one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. + +`\-' + Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands + one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. + +`\' (tabbing)' + Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, + i.e. everything from the most recent `\>', `\<', `\'', `\\', or + `\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush + against the current column's tab stop. + +`\` (tabbing)' + Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including + tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last + column because there's no tab stop there. The `\`' command moves + all the text that follows it, up to the `\\' or `\end{tabbing}' + command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing + environment. There must be no `\>' or `\'' command between the + `\`' and the command that ends the line. + +`\a (tabbing)' + In a `tabbing' environment, the commands `\=', `\'' and `\`' do + not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, the + commands `\a=', `\a'' and `\a`' are used. + +`\kill' + Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like `\\' + except that it throws away the current line instead of producing + output for it. The effect of any `\=', `\+' or `\-' commands in + that line remain in effect. + +`\poptabs' + Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last `\pushtabs'. + +`\pushtabs' + Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily + changing tab stop positions in the middle of a `tabbing' + environment. + +`\tabbingsep' + Distance to left of tab stop moved by `\''. + + + This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: + + \begin{tabbing} + function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ + \> begin \= \+ \\ + \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ + fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ + else \+ \\ + fact := 1; \-\- \\ + end;\\ + \end{tabbing} + +8.22 `table' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{table}[placement] + + body of the table + + \caption{table title} + \end{table} + + Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are +usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. +Tables will not be split between two pages. + + The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try +to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put +a float: + + * `h': Here - at the position in the text where the table + environment appears. + + * `t': Top - at the top of a text page. + + * `b': Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. + + * `p': Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page + containing no text, only floats. + + The standard `report' and `article' classes use the default +placement `[tbp]'. + + The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, +etc., you wish. The `\caption' command allows you to title your table. + +8.23 `tabular' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} + column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ + ... + \end{tabular} + + or + + \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} + column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ + ... + \end{tabular*} + + These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of +items, aligned vertically in columns. + + `\\' must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, +except for the last, where it is optional--unless an `\hline' command +(to put a rule below the table) follows. + + The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: + +`width' + Specifies the width of the `tabular*' environment. There must be + rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the + specified width. + +`pos' + Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the + centre of the environment. + + * `t' - align on top row + + * `b' - align on bottom row + +`cols' + Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the + following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and + intercolumn material. + + * `l' - A column of left-aligned items. + + * `r' - A column of right-aligned items. + + * `c' - A column of centred items. + + * `|' - A vertical line the full height and depth of the + environment. + + * `@{text}' - This inserts `text' in every row. An @-expression + suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between + columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the + adjacent items must be included in text. An + `\extracolsep{wd}' command in an @-expression causes an extra + space of width `wd' to appear to the left of all subsequent + columns, until countermanded by another `\extracolsep' + command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space + is not suppressed by an @-expression. An `\extracolsep' + command can be used only in an @-expression in the `cols' + argument. + + * `p{wd}' - Produces a column with each item typeset in a + parbox of width `wd', as if it were the argument of a + `\parbox[t]{wd}' command. However, a `\\' may not appear in + the item, except in the following situations: + 1. inside an environment like `minipage', `array', or + `tabular'. + + 2. inside an explicit `\parbox'. + + 3. in the scope of a `\centering', `\raggedright', or + `\raggedleft' declaration. The latter declarations must + appear inside braces or an environment when used in a + `p'-column element. + + * `*{num}{cols}' - Equivalent to `num' copies of `cols', where + `num' is any positive integer and `cols' is any list of + column-specifiers, which may contain another `*-expression'. + + + + Parameters that control formatting: + +`\arrayrulewidth' + Thickness of the rule created by `|', `\hline', and `\vline' in + the `tabular' and `array' environments; the default is `.4pt'. + +`\arraystretch' + Scaling of spacing between rows in the `tabular' and `array' + environments; default is `1',for no scaling. + +`\doublerulesep' + Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by `||' in + the `tabular' and `array' environments; default is `2pt'. + +`\tabcolsep' + Half the width of the space between columns; default is `6pt'. + + + These commands can be used inside a `tabular' environment: + +8.23.1 `\multicolumn' +--------------------- + +Synopsis: + \multicolumn{COLS}{POS}{TEXT} + + The `\multicolumn' command makes an entry that spans several +columns. The first mandatory argument, COLS, specifies the number of +columns to span. The second mandatory argument, POS, specifies the +formatting of the entry; `c' for centered, `l' for flushleft, `r' for +flushright. The third mandatory argument, TEXT, specifies what text to +put in the entry. + + Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; +`\multicolumn' is used for the heading: + + \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l} + \multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr + 0x80&0x7FF \cr + 0x800&0xFFFF \cr + 0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr + \end{tabular} + +8.23.2 `\cline' +--------------- + +Synopsis: + + \cline{I-J} + + The `\cline' command draws horizontal lines across the columns +specified, beginning in column I and ending in column J, which are +specified in the mandatory argument. + +8.23.3 `\hline' +--------------- + +The `\hline' command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing +`tabular' or `array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a +line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. + +8.23.4 `\vline' +--------------- + +The `\vline' command will draw a vertical line extending the full +height and depth of its row. An `\hfill' command can be used to move +the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an +@-expression. + +8.24 `thebibliography' +====================== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} + \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} + ... + \end{thebibliography} + + The `thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or +reference list. + + In the `article' class, this reference list is labelled +"References"; in the `report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". +You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the +command `\refname'. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: + + \renewcommand{\refname}{} + + The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is +as wide as the widest item label produced by the `\bibitem' commands. +It is typically given as `9' for bibliographies with less than 10 +references, `99' for ones with less than 100, etc. + +8.24.1 `\bibitem' +----------------- + +Synopsis: + \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} + + The `\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL. If the +LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using +the `enumi' counter. The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, +and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. + + This command writes an entry to the `.aux' file containing the +item's CITE_KEY and label. When the `.aux' file is read by the +`\begin{document}' command, the item's `label' is associated with +`cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a `\cite' command (see +next section) to produce the associated label. + +8.24.2 `\cite' +-------------- + +Synopsis: + + \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS + + The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated +by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the +references associated with KEYS by entries in the `.aux' file. + + The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the +citation. For example, `\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce `[Knuth, +p. 314]'. + +8.24.3 `\nocite' +---------------- + +`\nocite{key_list}' + + The `\nocite' command produces no text, but writes `key_list', which +is a list of one or more citation keys, on the `.aux' file. + +8.24.4 Using BibTeX +------------------- + +If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if +you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain +your bibliography, you don't use the `thebibliography' environment +(*note thebibliography::). Instead, you include the lines + + \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} + \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2} + + The `\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its +own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be +produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE`.bst', which defines how +your citations will look. The standard STYLE names distributed with +BibTeX are: + +`alpha' + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and + year of publication. + +`plain' + Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. + +`unsrt' + Like `plain', but entries are in order of citation. + +`abbrv' + Like `plain', but more compact labels. + + In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the +demands of various publications. See +`http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib'. + + The `\bibliography' command is what actually produces the +bibliography. The argument to `\bibliography' refers to files named +`BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format. +Only the entries referred to via `\cite' and `\nocite' will be listed +in the bibliography. + +8.25 `theorem' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{theorem} + THEOREM-TEXT + \end{theorem} + + The `theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed +by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described +under `\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::). + +8.26 `titlepage' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{titlepage} + TEXT + \end{titlepage} + + The `titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with +no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page +to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. +The `\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::). + + You can use the `\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce +a standard title page without a `titlepage' environment. + +8.27 `verbatim' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \begin{verbatim} + LITERAL-TEXT + \end{verbatim} + + The `verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in +which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the `\' +character produces a printed `\'. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter +with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would +on a typewriter. + + The `verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (`\tt'). + +8.27.1 `\verb' +-------------- + +Synopsis: + + \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR + \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR + + The `\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including +special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (`\tt') font. No +spaces are allowed between `\verb' or `\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR, +which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear +in LITERAL-TEXT. + + The `*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible +space" character. + +8.28 `verse' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \begin{verse} + LINE1 \\ + LINE2 \\ + ... + \end{verse} + + The `verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find +other uses for it. + + The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are +not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each +stanza with `\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the +stanzas. + +9 Footnotes +*********** + +Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced +with one command, the `\footnote' command. They can also be produced +with two commands, the `\footnotemark' and the `\footnotetext' commands. + +9.1 `\footnote' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} + + The `\footnote' command places the numbered footnote TEXT at the +bottom of the current page. The optional argument NUMBER changes the +default footnote number. + + This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you +cannot use it in sectioning commands like `\chapter', in figures, +tables or in a `tabular' environment. (See following sections.) + +9.2 `\footnotemark' +=================== + +With no optional argument, the `\footnotemark' command puts the current +footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner +paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the +`\footnotetext' command. + + This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote +markers referring to the same footnote with + + \footnotemark[\value{footnote}] + + after the first `\footnote' command. + +9.3 `\footnotetext' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} + + The `\footnotetext' command places TEXT at the bottom of the page as +a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the `\footnotemark' +command. The `\footnotetext' command must appear in outer paragraph +mode. + + The optional argument NUMBER changes the default footnote number. + +9.4 Footnote parameters +======================= + +`\footnoterule' + Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the + page's footnotes. Default dimensions: `0.4pt' thick (or wide), and + `0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except + slides, where it does not appear). + +`\footnotesep' + The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. + By default, this is set to the normal strut for `\footnotesize' + fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space + between footnotes. This is `6.65pt' for `10pt', `7.7pt' for + `11pt', and `8.4pt' for `12pt'. + + +10 Definitions +************** + +LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. + +10.1 `\newcommand' & `\renewcommand' +==================================== + +`\newcommand' and `\renewcommand' define and redefine a command, +respectively. Synopses: + + \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} + \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} + \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{DEFN} + \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{DEFN} + +CMD + The command name beginning with `\'. For `\newcommand', it must + not be already defined and must not begin with `\end'; for + `\renewcommand', it must already be defined. + +NARGS + An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments + that the command will take. The default is for the command to + have no arguments. + +DEFAULT + If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's + first argument is optional. When the new command is called, the + default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not + specified in the call) is the string `def'. + +DEFN + The text to be substituted for every occurrence of `cmd'; a + construct of the form `#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the + Nth argument. + + +10.2 `\newcounter' +================== + +Synopsis: + + \newcounter{CNT}[COUNTERNAME] + + The `\newcounter' command defines a new counter named CNT. The new +counter is initialized to zero. + + Given the optional argument `[COUNTERNAME]', CNT will be reset +whenever COUNTERNAME is incremented. + + *Note Counters::, for more information about counters. + +10.3 `\newlength' +================= + +Synopsis: + + \newlength{\ARG} + + The `\newlength' command defines the mandatory argument as a +`length' command with a value of `0in'. The argument must be a control +sequence, as in `\newlength{\foo}'. An error occurs if `\foo' is +already defined. + + *Note Lengths::, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, +and for more information about lengths in general. + +10.4 `\newsavebox' +================== + +Synopsis: + + \newsavebox{CMD} + + Defines `\CMD', which must be a command name not already defined, to +refer to a new bin for storing boxes. + +10.5 `\newenvironment' & `\renewenvironment' +============================================ + +Synopses: + + \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} + \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][DEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} + \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} + + These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is, +`\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'. + +ENV + The name of the environment. For `\newenvironment', ENV must not + be an existing environment, and the command `\ENV' must be + undefined. For `\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an + existing environment. + +NARGS + An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the + newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. + +DEFAULT + If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and DEFAULT + gives the default value for that argument. + +BEGDEF + The text expanded at every occurrence of `\begin{ENV}'; a + construct of the form `#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of + the Nth argument. + +ENDDEF + The text expanded at every occurrence of `\end{ENV}'. It may not + contain any argument parameters. + + +10.6 `\newtheorem' +================== + + \newtheorem{NEWENV}{LABEL}[WITHIN] + \newtheorem{NEWENV}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{LABEL} + + This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments: + +NEWENV + The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of + an existing environment or otherwise defined. + +LABEL + The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the + number. For example, `Theorem'. + +NUMBERED_LIKE + (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like + environment; the new environment will be numbered just like + NUMBERED_LIKE. + +WITHIN + (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional + unit. The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as + the WITHIN counter. + + + At most one of NUMBERED_LIKE and WITHIN can be specified, not both. + +10.7 `\newfont' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \newfont{CMD}{FONTNAME} + + Defines a control sequence `\CMD', which must not already be +defined, to make FONTNAME be the current font. The file looked for on +the system is named `FONTNAME.tfm'. + + This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. +More commonly, fonts are defined in families through `.fd' files. + +10.8 `\protect' +=============== + +Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and +many more are so-called "fragile" commands. When a fragile command is +used in certain contexts, called "moving arguments", it must be +preceded by `\protect'. In addition, any fragile commands within the +arguments must have their own `\protect'. + + Some examples of moving arguments are `\caption' (*note figure::), +`\thanks' (*note \maketitle::), and expressions in `tabular' and +`array' environments (*note tabular::). + + Commands which are not fragile are called "robust". They must not +be preceded by `\protect'. + + See also: + +`http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html' +`http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect' + + +11 Counters +*********** + +Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The +name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or +command that produces the number, except with no `\'. +(`enumi'-`enumiv' are used for the nested enumerate environment.) +Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document +classes to control numbering. + + part paragraph figure enumi + chapter subparagraph table enumii + section page footnote enumiii + subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv + subsubsection + +11.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters +===================================================================== + +All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for +instance, `\alph{enumi}'. + +`\alph' + prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: `a', `b', ... + +`\Alph' + uses uppercase letters: `A', `B', ... + +`\arabic' + uses Arabic numbers: `1', `2', ... + +`\roman' + uses lowercase roman numerals: `i', `ii', ... + +`\roman' + uses uppercase roman numerals: `I', `II', ... + +`\fnsymbol' + prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols + (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of + COUNTER must be between 1 and 9, inclusive. + + The symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the + names: + asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel + double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger + + +11.2 `\usecounter{COUNTER}' +=========================== + +Synopsis: + + \usecounter{COUNTER} + + The `\usecounter' command is used in the second argument of the +`list' environment to specify COUNTER to be used to number the list +items. + +11.3 `\value{COUNTER}' +====================== + +Synopsis: + + \value{COUNTER} + + The `\value' command produces the value of COUNTER. It can be used +anywhere LaTeX expects a number, for example: + + \setcounter{myctr}{3} + \addtocounter{myctr}{1} + \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent} + +11.4 `\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' +================================== + +Synopsis: + + \setcounter{\COUNTER}{VALUE} + + The `\setcounter' command sets the value of \COUNTER to the VALUE +argument. + +11.5 `\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}' +==================================== + +The `\addtocounter' command increments COUNTER by the amount specified +by the VALUE argument, which may be negative. + +11.6 `\refstepcounter{COUNTER}' +=============================== + +The `\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as `\stepcounter' +*Note \stepcounter::, except it also defines the current `\ref' value +to be the result of `\thecounter'. + +11.7 `\stepcounter{COUNTER}' +============================ + +The `\stepcounter' command adds one to COUNTER and resets all +subsidiary counters. + +11.8 `\day \month \year': Predefined counters +============================================= + +LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (`\day', 1-31), month +of the year (`\month', 1-12), and year (`\year', Common Era). When TeX +starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX +is running. They are not updated as the job progresses. + + The related command `\today' produces a string representing the +current day (*note \today::). + +12 Lengths +********** + +A `length' is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length +as an argument. + +12.1 `\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}' +============================== + +The `\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which +can be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches +(`in'), millimeters (`mm'), points (`pt'), big points (`bp', etc. + +12.2 \addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT} +=============================== + +The `\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the +amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative. + +12.3 `\settodepth' +================== + +`\settodepth{\gnat}{text}' + + The `\settodepth' command sets the value of a `length' command equal +to the depth of the `text' argument. + +12.4 `\settoheight' +=================== + +`\settoheight{\gnat}{text}' + + The `\settoheight' command sets the value of a `length' command +equal to the height of the `text' argument. + +12.5 `\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}' +============================== + +The `\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the +width of the TEXT argument. + +12.6 Predefined lengths +======================= + +`\width' + + `\height' + + `\depth' + + `\totalheight' + + These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the +box-making commands (*note Boxes::). They specify the natural width +etc. of the text in the box. `\totalheight' equals `\height' + +`\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural +size, e.g., say + + `\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}' + +13 Line breaking +**************** + +The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to +translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To +produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines +(and these lines must be broken into pages). + + LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some +environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the `\\' command, +and you can always manually force breaks. + +13.1 `\\'[*][MORESPACE] +======================= + +The `\\' command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an optional +argument, MORESPACE, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to +be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount. + + The `\\*' command is the same as the ordinary `\\' command except +that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line. + +13.2 `\obeycr' & `\restorecr' +============================= + +The `\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file (`^^M', +internally) the same as `\\' (followed by `\relax'). So each new line +in the input will also be a new line in the output. + + `\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior. + +13.3 `\newline' +=============== + +The `\newline' command breaks the line at the present point, with no +stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph +mode. + +13.4 `\-' (discretionary hyphen) +================================ + +The `\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that +point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find +most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an +incorrect one. The `\-' command is used for the exceptional cases. + + When you insert `\-' commands in a word, the word will only be +hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points +that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. + +13.5 `\fussy' +============= + +The declaration `\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about +line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at +the cost of an occasional overfull box. + + This command cancels the effect of a previous `\sloppy' command +(*note \sloppy::. + +13.6 `\sloppy' +============== + +The declaration `\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. +This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing. + + Lasts until a `\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::). + +13.7 `\hyphenation' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO} + + The `\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with +a `-' character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. +TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are +tried. Multiple `\hyphenation' commands accumulate. Some examples +(the default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these +words): + + \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases} + +13.8 `\linebreak' & `\nolinebreak' +================================== + +Synopses: + + \linebreak[PRIORITY] + \nolinebreak[PRIORITY] + + By default, the `\linebreak' (`\nolinebreak') command forces +(prevents) a line break at the current position. For `\linebreak', the +spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right +margin as usual. + + With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command +from a demand to a request. The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4. +The higher the number, the more insistent the request. + +14 Page breaking +**************** + +LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has +accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but +sometimes you may want to influence the breaks. + +14.1 `\cleardoublepage' +======================= + +The `\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all +figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. +In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand +(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary. + +14.2 `\clearpage' +================= + +The `\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all figures +and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. + +14.3 `\newpage' +=============== + +The `\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats +(see `\clearpage' above). + +14.4 `\enlargethispage' +======================= + +`\enlargethispage{size}' + + `\enlargethispage*{size}' + + Enlarge the `\textheight' for the current page by the specified +amount; e.g. `\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one +additional line. + + The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page +as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit +`\pagebreak'. + +14.5 `\pagebreak' & `\nopagebreak' +================================== + +Synopses: + + \pagebreak[PRIORITY] + \nopagebreak[PRIORITY] + + By default, the `\pagebreak' (`\nopagebreak') command forces +(prevents) a page break at the current position. For `\linebreak', the +vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it +extends to the normal bottom margin. + + With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the +`\pagebreak' command from a demand to a request. The number must be a +number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the +request is. + +15 Making paragraphs +******************** + +A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not +containing even a `%'. A blank line should not appear where a new +paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of +a sectioning command. + +15.1 `\indent' +============== + +`\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of +the `\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used +to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed. + + The default value for `\parindent' is `1em' in two-column mode, +otherwise `15pt' for `10pt' documents, `17pt' for `11pt', and `1.5em' +for `12pt'. + +15.2 `\noindent' +================ + +When used at the beginning of the paragraph, `\noindent' suppresses any +paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a +paragraph. + +15.3 `\parskip' +=============== + +`\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added +before each paragraph. The default is `0pt plus1pt'. + +15.4 Marginal notes +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} + + The `\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin. The first +line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text +where the `\marginpar' occurs. + + When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be +placed + + * in the right margin for one-sided layout; + + * in the outside margin for two-sided layout; + + * in the nearest margin for two-column layout. + + The command `\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in +the opposite (inside) margin. `\normalmarginpar' places them in the +default position. + + When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin, +and RIGHT is used for the right margin. + + The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable +hyphenation there by beginning the node with `\hspace{0pt}'. + + These parameters affect the formatting of the note: + +`\marginparpush' + Minimum vertical space between notes; default `7pt' for `12pt' + documents, `5pt' else. + +`\marginparsep' + Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default + `11pt' for `10pt' documents, `10pt' else. + +`\marginparwidth' + Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided `10pt' document + is `90pt', `83pt' for `11pt', and `68pt' for `12pt'; `17pt' more + in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the + default is `48pt'. + + +16 Math formulas +**************** + +There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode: + +`math' + For formulas that appear right in the text. + +`displaymath' + For formulas that appear on their own line. + +`equation' + The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an + equation number in the right margin. + + The `math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, +but the `displaymath' and `equation' environments can be used only in +paragraph mode. The `math' and `displaymath' environments are used so +often that they have the following short forms: + + \(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} + \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath} + + In fact, the `math' environment is so common that it has an even +shorter form: + + $ ... $ instead of \(...\) + + The `\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a +bold font. It is used _outside_ of math mode. Conversely, the +`\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it +too is used _outside_ of math mode. + + The `\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the +formula to be that of `displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below +summations. For example + $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $ + +16.1 Subscripts & Superscripts +============================== + +To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type +`_{'exp`}'. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type +`^{'exp`}'. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of that +stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when something +has both a subscript and a superscript. + +16.2 Math symbols +================= + +LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. +The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For +example, if you include `$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi +symbol (\pi) in your output. + +`\|' + \| + +`\aleph' + \aleph + +`\alpha' + \alpha + +`\amalg' + \amalg (binary operation) + +`\angle' + \angle + +`\approx' + \approx (relation) + +`\ast' + \ast (binary operation) + +`\asymp' + \asymp (relation) + +`\backslash' + \ (delimiter) + +`\beta' + \beta + +`\bigcap' + \bigcap + +`\bigcirc' + \bigcirc (binary operation) + +`\bigcup' + \bigcup + +`\bigodot' + \bigodot + +`\bigoplus' + \bigoplus + +`\bigotimes' + \bigotimes + +`\bigtriangledown' + \bigtriangledown (binary operation) + +`\bigtriangleup' + \bigtriangleup (binary operation) + +`\bigsqcup' + \bigsqcup + +`\biguplus' + \biguplus + +`\bigcap' + \bigvee + +`\bigwedge' + \bigwedge + +`\bot' + \bot + +`\bowtie' + \bowtie (relation) + +`\Box' + (square open box symbol) + +`\bullet' + \bullet (binary operation) + +`\cap' + \cap (binary operation) + +`\cdot' + \cdot (binary operation) + +`\chi' + \chi + +`\circ' + \circ (binary operation) + +`\clubsuit' + \clubsuit + +`\cong' + \cong (relation) + +`\coprod' + \coprod + +`\cup' + \cup (binary operation) + +`\dagger' + \dagger (binary operation) + +`\dashv' + \dashv (relation) + +`\ddagger' + \dagger (binary operation) + +`\Delta' + \Delta + +`\delta' + \delta + +`\Diamond' + bigger \diamond + +`\diamond' + \diamond (binary operation) + +`\diamondsuit' + \diamondsuit + +`\div' + \div (binary operation) + +`\doteq' + \doteq (relation) + +`\downarrow' + \downarrow (delimiter) + +`\Downarrow' + \Downarrow (delimiter) + +`\ell' + \ell + +`\emptyset' + \emptyset + +`\epsilon' + \epsilon + +`\equiv' + \equiv (relation) + +`\eta' + \eta + +`\exists' + \exists + +`\flat' + \flat + +`\forall' + \forall + +`\frown' + \frown (relation) + +`\Gamma' + \Gamma + +`\gamma' + \gamma + +`\ge' + \ge + +`\geq' + \geq (relation) + +`\gets' + \gets + +`\gg' + \gg (relation) + +`\hbar' + \hbar + +`\heartsuit' + \heartsuit + +`\hookleftarrow' + \hookleftarrow + +`\hookrightarrow' + \hookrightarrow + +`\iff' + \iff + +`\Im' + \Im + +`\in' + \in (relation) + +`\infty' + \infty + +`\int' + \int + +`\iota' + \iota + +`\Join' + condensed bowtie symbol (relation) + +`\kappa' + \kappa + +`\Lambda' + \Lambda + +`\lambda' + \lambda + +`\land' + \land + +`\langle' + \langle (delimiter) + +`\lbrace' + \lbrace (delimiter) + +`\lbrack' + \lbrack (delimiter) + +`\lceil' + \lceil (delimiter) + +`\le' + \le + +`\leadsto' + +`\Leftarrow' + \Leftarrow + +`\leftarrow' + \leftarrow + +`\leftharpoondown' + \leftharpoondown + +`\leftharpoonup' + \leftharpoonup + +`\Leftrightarrow' + \Leftrightarrow + +`\leftrightarrow' + \leftrightarrow + +`\leq' + \leq (relation) + +`\lfloor' + \lfloor (delimiter) + +`\lhd' + (left-pointing arrow head) + +`\ll' + \ll (relation) + +`\lnot' + \lnot + +`\longleftarrow' + \longleftarrow + +`\longleftrightarrow' + \longleftrightarrow + +`\longmapsto' + \longmapsto + +`\longrightarrow' + \longrightarrow + +`\lor' + \lor + +`\mapsto' + \mapsto + +`\mho' + +`\mid' + \mid (relation) + +`\models' + \models (relation) + +`\mp' + \mp (binary operation) + +`\mu' + \mu + +`\nabla' + \nabla + +`\natural' + \natural + +`\ne' + \ne + +`\nearrow' + \nearrow + +`\neg' + \neg + +`\neq' + \neq (relation) + +`\ni' + \ni (relation) + +`\not' + Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=. + +`\notin' + \ni + +`\nu' + \nu + +`\nwarrow' + \nwarrow + +`\odot' + \odot (binary operation) + +`\oint' + \oint + +`\Omega' + \Omega + +`\omega' + \omega + +`\ominus' + \ominus (binary operation) + +`\oplus' + \oplus (binary operation) + +`\oslash' + \oslash (binary operation) + +`\otimes' + \otimes (binary operation) + +`\owns' + \owns + +`\parallel' + \parallel (relation) + +`\partial' + \partial + +`\perp' + \perp (relation) + +`\phi' + \phi + +`\Pi' + \Pi + +`\pi' + \pi + +`\pm' + \pm (binary operation) + +`\prec' + \prec (relation) + +`\preceq' + \preceq (relation) + +`\prime' + \prime + +`\prod' + \prod + +`\propto' + \propto (relation) + +`\Psi' + \Psi + +`\psi' + \psi + +`\rangle' + \rangle (delimiter) + +`\rbrace' + \rbrace (delimiter) + +`\rbrack' + \rbrack (delimiter) + +`\rceil' + \rceil (delimiter) + +`\Re' + \Re + +`\rfloor' + \rfloor + +`\rhd' + (binary operation) + +`\rho' + \rho + +`\Rightarrow' + \Rightarrow + +`\rightarrow' + \rightarrow + +`\rightharpoondown' + \rightharpoondown + +`\rightharpoonup' + \rightharpoonup + +`\rightleftharpoons' + \rightleftharpoons + +`\searrow' + \searrow + +`\setminus' + \setminus (binary operation) + +`\sharp' + \sharp + +`\Sigma' + \Sigma + +`\sigma' + \sigma + +`\sim' + \sim (relation) + +`\simeq' + \simeq (relation) + +`\smallint' + \smallint + +`\smile' + \smile (relation) + +`\spadesuit' + \spadesuit + +`\sqcap' + \sqcap (binary operation) + +`\sqcup' + \sqcup (binary operation) + +`\sqsubset' + (relation) + +`\sqsubseteq' + \sqsubseteq (relation) + +`\sqsupset' + (relation) + +`\sqsupseteq' + \sqsupseteq (relation) + +`\star' + \star (binary operation) + +`\subset' + \subset (relation) + +`\subseteq' + \subseteq (relation) + +`\succ' + \succ (relation) + +`\succeq' + \succeq (relation) + +`\sum' + \sum + +`\supset' + \supset (relation) + +`\supseteq' + \supseteq (relation) + +`\surd' + \surd + +`\swarrow' + \swarrow + +`\tau' + \tau + +`\theta' + \theta + +`\times' + \times (binary operation) + +`\to' + \to + +`\top' + \top + +`\triangle' + \triangle + +`\triangleleft' + \triangleleft (binary operation) + +`\triangleright' + \triangleright (binary operation) + +`\unlhd' + left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + +`\unrhd' + right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation) + +`\Uparrow' + \Uparrow (delimiter) + +`\uparrow' + \uparrow (delimiter) + +`\Updownarrow' + \Updownarrow (delimiter) + +`\updownarrow' + \updownarrow (delimiter) + +`\uplus' + \uplus (binary operation) + +`\Upsilon' + \Upsilon + +`\upsilon' + \upsilon + +`\varepsilon' + \varepsilon + +`\varphi' + \varphi + +`\varpi' + \varpi + +`\varrho' + \varrho + +`\varsigma' + \varsigma + +`\vartheta' + \vartheta + +`\vdash' + \vdash (relation) + +`\vee' + \vee (binary operation) + +`\Vert' + \Vert (delimiter) + +`\vert' + \vert (delimiter) + +`\wedge' + \wedge (binary operation) + +`\wp' + \wp + +`\wr' + \wr (binary operation) + +`\Xi' + \Xi + +`\xi' + \xi + +`\zeta' + \zeta + + +16.3 Math functions +=================== + +These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper +spacing. + +`\arccos' + \arccos + +`\arcsin' + \arcsin + +`\arctan' + \arctan + +`\arg' + \arg + +`\bmod' + Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y) + +`\cos' + \cos + +`\cosh' + \cosh + +`\cot' + \cos + +`\coth' + \cosh + +`\csc' + \csc + +`\deg' + \deg + +`\det' + \deg + +`\dim' + \dim + +`\exp' + \exp + +`\gcd' + \gcd + +`\hom' + \hom + +`\inf' + \inf + +`\ker' + \ker + +`\lg' + \lg + +`\lim' + \lim + +`\liminf' + \liminf + +`\limsup' + \limsup + +`\ln' + \ln + +`\log' + \log + +`\max' + \max + +`\min' + \min + +`\pmod' + parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1) + +`\Pr' + \Pr + +`\sec' + \sec + +`\sin' + \sin + +`\sinh' + \sinh + +`\sup' + \sup + +`\tan' + \tan + +`\tanh' + \tanh + + +16.4 Math accents +================= + +LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in +math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note +Accents::). + +`\acute' + Math acute accent: \acutex. + +`\breve' + Math breve accent: \brevex. + +`\check' + Math ha'c<ek (check) accent: \checkx. + +`\ddot' + Math dieresis accent: \ddotx. + +`\dot' + Math dot accent: \dotx. + +`\grave' + Math grave accent: \gravex. + +`\hat' + Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hatx. + +`\imath' + Math dotless i. + +`\jmath' + Math dotless j. + +`\tilde' + Math tilde accent: \tildex. + +`\vec' + Math vector symbol: \vecx. + +`\widehat' + Math wide hat accent: \widehatx+y. + +`\widehat' + Math wide tilde accent: \widetildex+y. + + +16.5 Spacing in math mode +========================= + +In a `math' environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts in +the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If +you want different spacing, LaTeX provides the following commands for +use in math mode: + +`\;' + A thick space (5\over18\,quad). + +`\:' +`\>' + Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad). + +`\,' + A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode. + +`\!' + A negative thin space (-1\over6\,quad). + +16.6 Math Miscellany +==================== + +`\*' + A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is + allowed. + +`\cdots' + A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the + line. + +`\ddots' + A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots. + +`\frac{num}{den}' + Produces the fraction `num' divided by `den'. + +`\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2' + The two delimiters need not match; `.' acts as a null delimiter, + producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the + math in between. Example: `\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'. + +`\overbrace{TEXT}' + Generates a brace over TEXT. For example, \overbracex+\cdots+x^k + \rm\;times. + +`\overline{TEXT}' + Generates a horizontal line over TEX. For exampe, \overlinex+y. + +`\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}' + Produces the representation of the square root of ARG. The + optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce. For + example, the cube root of `x+y' would be typed as + `$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'. + +`\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}' + Puts TEXT above RELATION. For example, + `\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'. + +`\underbrace{math}' + Generates MATH with a brace underneath. + +`\underline{text}' + Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be + underlined. + +`\vdots' + Produces a vertical ellipsis. + + +17 Modes +******** + +When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three +modes: + + * Paragraph mode + + * Math mode + + * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short + + LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a +different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. +Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when +LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands. + + "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when +processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into +lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in "math mode" when +it's generating a mathematical formula. In "LR mode", as in paragraph +mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of +words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX +keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. +Even if you put a hundred words into an `\mbox', LaTeX would keep +typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then +complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line. + + LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an `\mbox' +command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for +example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. +There are also several text-producing commands and environments for +making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of +these commands or environments will be called a `parbox'. When LaTeX +is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner +paragraph mode". Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is +called "outer paragraph mode". + +18 Page Styles +************** + +The `\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the +page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them. + +18.1 `\maketitle' +================= + +The `\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title +page--except in the `article' class, where the title is placed at the +top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is +obtained from the following declarations: + +`\author{NAME \and NAME2}' + The `\author' command declares the document author(s), where the + argument is a list of authors separated by `\and' commands. Use + `\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for + example, to give the author's institution or address. + +`\date{TEXT}' + The `\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date. With + no `\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used. + +`\thanks{TEXT}' + The `\thanks' command produces a `\footnote' to the title, usually + used for credit acknowledgements. + +`\title{TEXT}' + The `\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the + document. Use `\\' to force a line break, as usual. + + +18.2 `\pagenumbering' +===================== + +Synopsis: + + \pagenumbering{STYLE} + + Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE: + +`arabic' + arabic numerals + +`roman' + lowercase Roman numerals + +`Roman' + uppercase Roman numerals + +`alph' + lowercase letters + +`Alph' + uppercase letters + +18.3 `\pagestyle' +================= + +Synopsis: + + \pagestyle{STYLE} + + The `\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are +typeset from the current page onwards. Values for STYLE: + +`plain' + Just a plain page number. + +`empty' + Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers. + +`headings' + Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies + what goes in the headers. + +`myheadings' + Custom headers, specified via the `\markboth' or the `\markright' + commands. + + + Here are the descriptions of `\markboth' and `\markright': + +`\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}' + Sets both the left and the right heading. A "left-hand heading" + (LEFT) is generated by the last `\markboth' command before the end + of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT is generated by + the first `\markboth' or `\markright' that comes on the page if + there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page. + +`\markright{RIGHT}' + Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged. + + +18.4 `\thispagestyle{STYLE}' +============================ + +The `\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the +`\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to +STYLE for the current page only. + +19 Spaces +********* + +LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. + + Another space-producing command is `\,' to produce a "thin" space +(usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is more often +useful in math mode (*note Spacing in math mode::). + +19.1 `\hspace' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \hspace[*]{LENGTH} + + The `\hspace' command adds horizontal space. The LENGTH argument +can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands: points, inches, +etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive +space with an `\hspace' command; adding negative space is like +backspacing. + + LaTeX normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning +or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional `*' form. + +19.2 `\hfill' +============= + +The `\hfill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which has no +natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed. + + The `\fill' parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the +glue value `0pt plus1fill'); thus, `\hspace\fill' is equivalent to +`\hfill'. + +19.3 `\SPACE' +============= + +The `\ ' (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's +useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example +`Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental'. It is +also often used after control sequences, as in `\TeX\ is a nice system.' + + In normal circumstances, `\'<tab> and `\'<newline> are equivalent to +`\ '. + +19.4 `\@' +========= + +The `\@' command makes the following punctuation character end a +sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a +capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without `\@': + + ... in C\@. Pascal, though ... + ... in C. Pascal, though ... + +produces + + ... in C. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ... + +19.5 `\thinspace' +================= + +`\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is +1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as in +'". + +19.6 `\/' +========= + +The `\/' command produces an "italic correction". This is a small +space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the +character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character +typically has a large italic correction value. + + If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary +to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a +very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as +normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the `f's +are nicely separated) with f: f;. + + Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic +correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space +after the `f') with pdfTeX. + +19.7 `\hrulefill' +================= + +The `\hrulefill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can +stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal +rule. + +19.8 `\dotfill' +=============== + +The `\dotfill' command produces a "rubber length" that fills with dots +instead of just white space. + +19.9 `\addvspace' +================= + +`\addvspace{length}' + + The `\addvspace' command normally adds a vertical space of height +length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same +point in the output by a previous `\addvspace' command, then this +command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length +of the total vertical space equal to `length'. + +19.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip' +==================================== + +These commands produce a given amount of space. + +`\bigskip' + The same as `\vspace{bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line + space (with stretch and shrink). + +`\medskip' + The same as `\vspace{medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a + line space (with stretch and shrink). + +`\smallskip' + The same as `\vspace{smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter + of a line space (with stretch and shrink). + + + The `\...amount' parameters are determined by the document class. + +19.11 `\vfill' +============== + +The `\vfill' fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can +stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to +`\vspace{\fill}' (*note \hfill::). + +19.12 `\vspace[*]{LENGTH}' +========================== + +Synopsis: + + \vspace[*]{LENGTH} + + The `\vspace' command adds the vertical space LENGTH, i.e., a rubber +length. LENGTH can be negative or positive. + + Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by `\vspace' at the +top or bottom of a page. With the optional `*' argument, the space is +not removed. + +20 Boxes +******** + +All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be +used in the arguments of the box-making commands. + +20.1 `\mbox{TEXT}' +================== + +The `\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text +created by its argument. The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can +be used to prevent hyphenation. + +20.2 `\fbox' and `\framebox' +============================ + +Synopses: + + \fbox{TEXT} + \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} + + The `\fbox' and `\framebox' commands are like `\mbox', except that +they put a frame around the outside of the box being created. + + In addition, the `\framebox' command allows for explicit +specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a +dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument. Both +commands produce a rule of thickness `\fboxrule' (default `.4pt'), and +leave a space of `\fboxsep' (default `3pt') between the rule and the +contents of the box. + + *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the `\framebox' command in the +`picture' environment. + +20.3 `lrbox' +============ + +`\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}' + + This is the environment form of `\sbox'. + + The text inside the environment is saved in the box `cmd', which +must have been declared with `\newsavebox'. + +20.4 `\makebox' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} + + The `\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the +TEXT specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional +WIDTH argument. The position of the text within the box is determined +by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values: + +`c' + Centered (default). + +`l' + Flush left. + +`r' + Flush right. + +`s' + Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain + stretchable space for this to work. + + `\makebox' is also used within the picture environment *note +\makebox (picture)::. + +20.5 `\parbox' +============== + +Synopsis: + + \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT} + + The `\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in +`paragraph' mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of +text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn't use any +paragraph-making environments inside a `\parbox' argument. For larger +pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making +environment, you should use a `minipage' environment (*note minipage::). + + `\parbox' has two mandatory arguments: + +WIDTH + the width of the parbox; + +TEXT + the text that goes inside the parbox. + + The optional POSITION argument allows you to align either the top or +bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text +(default is top). + + The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box. + + The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the +box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used. + +`t' + text is placed at the top of the box. + +`c' + text is centered in the box. + +`b' + text is placed at the bottom of the box. + +`s' + stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable + space for this to work. + +20.6 `\raisebox' +================ + +Synopsis: + + \raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text} + + The `\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT. The first mandatory +argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a +negative amount). TEXT itself is processed in LR mode. + + The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are +specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the +baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and +depth. + +20.7 `\savebox' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} + + This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with `\makebox' (*note +\makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it +saves it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with +`\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). + +20.8 `\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}' +=========================== + +Synopsis: + + \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT} + + `\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with `\mbox' (*note \mbox::) +except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal +output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD. \BOXCMD must have been +previously declared with `\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). + +20.9 `\usebox{\BOXCMD' +====================== + +Synopsis: + + \usebox{\BOXCMD} + + `\usebox' producesthe box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by +a `\savebox' command (*note \savebox::). + +21 Special insertions +********************* + +LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special +meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. + +21.1 Reserved characters +======================== + +The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called +"reserved characters" or "special characters". + + # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } + + Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX +will do something special. If you simply want the character to be +printed as itself, include a `\' in front of the character. For +example, `\$' will produce `$' in your output. + + One exception to this rule is `\' itself, because `\\' has its own +special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing +`$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter `\' is produced by using +`\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::). + + Also, `\~' and `\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the +following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a +standalone `~' or `^', you can again use a verbatim command. + + Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you +know its number by using the `\symbol' command. For example, the +visible space character used in the `\verb*' command has the code +decimal 32, so it can be typed as `\symbol{32}'. + + You can also specify octal numbers with `'' or hexadecimal numbers +with `"', so the previous example could also be written as +`\symbol{'40}' or `\symbol{"20}'. + +21.2 Text symbols +================= + +LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in +running text. + +`\copyright' + The copyright symbol, (C). + +`\dag' + The dagger symbol (in text). + +`\ddag' + The double dagger symbol (in text). + +`\LaTeX' + The LaTeX logo. + +`\ldots' + An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): `...'. This command + also works in math mode. + +`\lq' + Left (opening) quote: `. + +`\P' + Paragraph sign (pilcrow). + +`\pounds' + English pounds sterling. + +`\rq' + Right (closing) quote: '. + +`\S' + Section symbol. + +`\TeX' + The TeX logo. + + +21.3 Accents +============ + +LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, +through the `babel' package and related support. This section does not +attempt to cover all that support. It merely the core LaTeX commands +for creating accented characters. + +`\"' + Produces an umlaut, as in o". + +`\'' + Produces an acute accent, as in o'. In the `tabbing' environment, + pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note + tabbing::). + +`\.' + Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o.. + +`\=' + Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=. + +`\^' + Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^. + +`\`' + Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`. In the + `tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin + (*note tabbing::). + +`\~' + Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~. + +`\b' + Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. + +`\bar' + Produces a macron accent over the following, as in o=. + +`\c' + Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in + +`\d' + Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o. + +`\H' + Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in + o''. + +`\i' + Produces a dotless i, as in `i'. + +`\j' + Produces a dotless j, as in `j'. + +`\t' + Produces a tie-after accent, as in `oo['. + +`\u' + Produces a breve accent, as in `o('. + +`\v' + Produces a ha'c<ek (check) accent, as in `o<'. + + +21.4 Non-English characters +=========================== + +Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly +used in languages other than English. + +`\aa' +`\AA' + aa and AA. + +`\ae' +`\AE' + ae and AE. + +`\l' +`\L' + /l and /L. + +`\o' +`\O' + /o and /O. + +`\oe' +`\OE' + oe and OE. + +`\ss' + ss. + + +21.5 `\rule' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \rule[RAISE]{WIDTH}{THICKNESS} + + The `\rule' command produces "rules", that is, lines or rectangles. +The arguments are: + +RAISE + How high to raise the rule (optional). + +WIDTH + The length of the rule (mandatory). + +THICKNESS + The thickness of the rule (mandatory). + +21.6 `\today' +============= + +The `\today' command produces today's date, in the format `MONTH DD, +YYYY'; for example, `July 4, 1976'. It uses the predefined counters +`\day', `\month', and `\year' (*note \day \month \year::) to do this. +It is not updated as the program runs. + + The `datetime' package, among others, can produce a wide variety of +other date formats. + +22 Splitting the input +********************** + +A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole +input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into +several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, +there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type +when you run LaTeX. + +22.1 `\include' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \include{FILE} + + If no `\includeonly' command is present, the `\include' command +executes `\clearpage' to start a new page (*note \clearpage::), then +reads FILE, then does another `\clearpage'. + + Given an `\includeonly' command, the `\include' actions are only run +if FILE is listed as an argument to `\includeonly'. See the next +section. + + The `\include' command may not appear in the preamble or in a file +read by another `\include' command. + +22.2 \`includeonly' +=================== + +Synopsis: + + \includeonly{FILE1,FILE2,...} + + The `\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by +subsequent `\include' commands. The list of filenames is +comma-separated. Each FILE must exactly match a filename specified in a +`\include' command for the selection to be effective. + + This command can only appear in the preamble. + +22.3 \input +=========== + +Synopsis: + + \input{FILE} + + The `\input' command causes the specified FILE to be read and +processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at +that point. + + If FILE does not end in `.tex' (e.g., `foo' or `foo.bar'), it is +first tried with that extension (`foo.tex' or `foo.bar.tex'). If that +is not found, the original FILE is tried (`foo' or `foo.bar'). + +23 Front/back matter +******************** + +23.1 Tables of contents +======================= + +A table of contents is produced with the `\tableofcontents' command. +You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go; +LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must have generated a +`.toc' file. + + The `\tableofcontents' command produces a heading, but it does not +automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the table +of contents, write a `\newpage' command after the `\tableofcontents' +command. + + The analagous commands `\listoffigures' and `\listoftables' produce +a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. Everything works +exactly the same as for the table of contents. + + The command `\nofiles' overrides these commands, and _prevents_ any +of these lists from being generated. + +23.1.1 \addcontentsline +----------------------- + +The `\addcontentsline' command adds an entry to the specified list or +table where: + +EXT + The extension of the file on which information is to be written, + typically one of: `toc' (table of contents), `lof' (list of + figures), or `lot' (list of tables). + +UNIT + The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the + following, matching the value of the EXT argument: + + `toc' + The name of the sectional unit: `part', `chapter', `section', + `subsection', `subsubsection'. + + `lof' + For the list of figures. + + `lot' + For the list of tables. + +ENTRY + The actual text of the entry. + + What is written to the `.EXT' file is the command +`\contentsline{UNIT}{NAME}'. + +23.1.2 \addtocontents +--------------------- + +The `\addtocontents' command adds text (or formatting commands) +directly to the `.'EXT file that generates the table of contents or +lists of figures or tables. + +EXT + The extension of the file on which information is to be written: + `toc' (table of contents), `lof' (list of figures), or `lot' (list + of tables). + +TEXT + The text to be written. + +23.2 Glossaries +=============== + +The command `\makeglossary' enables creating glossaries. + + The command `\glossary{TEXT}' writes a glossary entry for TEXT to an +auxiliary file with the `.glo' extension. + + Specifically, what gets written is the command +`\glossaryentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current `\thepage' +value. + + The `glossary' package on CTAN provides support for fancier +glossaries. + +23.3 Indexes +============ + +The command `\makeindex' enables creating indexes. + + The command `\index{TEXT}' writes a glossary entry for TEXT to an +auxiliary file with the `.idx' extension. + + Specifically, what gets written is the command +`\indexentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current `\thepage' +value. + + The rubber length `\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter +in the index; its default value is `10pt plus5pt minus3pt'. + + The `.idx' file can then be sorted with an external command, +typically `makeindex' or `xindy', resulting in a `.ind' file, which can +then be used to typeset the index. + +24 Letters +********** + +You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The +`letter' document class is designed to make a number of letters at +once, although you can make just one if you so desire. + + Your `.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other +document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a +minimum: + + \documentclass{letter} + \begin{document} + ... letters ... + \end{document} + + Each letter is a `letter' environment, whose argument is the name +and address of the recipient. For example, you might have: + + \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St. + \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA} + ... + \end{letter} + + The letter itself begins with the `\opening' command. The text of +the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that +make no sense in a letter, like `\chapter', do not work. The letter +closes with a `\closing' command. + + After the `closing', you can have additional material. The `\cc' +command produces the usual "cc: ...". There's also a similar `\encl' +command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use `\\' to +separate the items. + + These commands are used with the `letter' class. + +24.1 \address{RETURN-ADDRESS} +============================= + +The `\address' specifies the return address of a letter, as it should +appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the address +should be separated by `\\' commands. + + If you do not make an `\address' declaration, then the letter will +be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead. +(*Note Overview::, for details on your local implementation). If you +give an `\address' declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a +personal letter. + +24.2 `\cc' +========== + +Synopsis: + + \cc{NAME1\\NAME2} + + Produce a list of NAMEs the letter was copied to. Each name is +printed on a separate line. + +24.3 `\closing' +=============== + +Synopsis: + + \closing{text} + + A letter closes with a `\closing' command, for example, + \closing{Best Regards,} + +24.4 `\encl' +============ + +Synopsis: + + \encl{LINE1\\LINE2} + + Declare a list of one more enclosures. + +24.5 `\location' +================ + +`\location{address}' + + This modifies your organisation's standard address. This only +appears if the `firstpage' pagestyle is selected. + +24.6 `\makelabels' +================== + +`\makelabels{number}' + + If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet +of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters. + +24.7 `\name' +============ + +`\name{June Davenport}' + + Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return +address. + +24.8 `\opening{TEXT}' +===================== + +Synopsis: + + \opening{TEXT} + + A letter begins with the `\opening' command. The mandatory +argument, TEXT, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. For +instance: + + \opening{Dear Joe,} + +24.9 `\ps' +========== + +Use the `\ps' command to start a postscript in a letter, after +`\closing'. + +24.10 `\signature{TEXT}' +======================== + +Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the +space for your signature. `\\' starts a new line within TEXT as usual. + +24.11 `\startbreaks' +==================== + +`\startbreaks' + + Used after a `\stopbreaks' command to allow page breaks again. + +24.12 `\stopbreaks' +=================== + +`\stopbreaks' + + Inhibit page breaks until a `\startbreaks' command occurs. + +24.13 `\telephone' +================== + +`\telephone{number}' + + This is your telephone number. This only appears if the `firstpage' +pagestyle is selected. + +25 Terminal Input/Output +************************ + +25.1 `\typein[CMD]{MSG}' +======================== + +Synopsis: + + \typein[\CMD]{MSG} + + `\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and +wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the +optional \CMD argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if +it had been included in the input file in place of the `\typein' +command. If the \CMD argument is present, it must be a command name. +This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input. + +25.2 `\typeout{MSG}' +==================== + +Synopsis: + + \typeout{MSG} + + Prints `msg' on the terminal and in the `log' file. Commands in +`msg' that are defined with `\newcommand' or `\renewcommand' (among +others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. + + LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space +and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to `msg'. A `\space' +command in `msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of +surrounding spaces. A `^^J' in `msg' prints a newline. + +26 Command Line +*************** + +The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX +uses `.tex' as a default file extension. If you omit the input file +entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You specify command +options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g. + + latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex' + +will process `foo.tex' without pausing after every error. + + If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a `*' +prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type `\stop' (and return) and +it will prematurely end the document. + +Appendix A Document templates +***************************** + +Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will +be useful. + +A.1 `book' template +=================== + +\documentclass{book} +\title{Book Class Template} +\author{Alex Author} + +\begin{document} +\maketitle + +\chapter{First} +Some text. + +\chapter{Second} +Some other text. + +\section{A subtopic} +The end. +\end{document} + +A.2 `beamer' template +===================== + +The `beamer' class creates slides presentations. + +\documentclass{beamer} + +\title{Beamer Class template} +\author{Alex Author} +\date{July 31, 2007} + +\begin{document} + +\maketitle + +% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. +\begin{frame}[fragile] + \frametitle{First Slide} + +\begin{verbatim} + This is \verbatim! +\end{verbatim} + +\end{frame} + +\end{document} + +A.3 `tugboat' template +====================== + +`TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group, +`http://tug.org/TUGboat'. + +\documentclass{ltugboat} % ltugproc for proceedings + +\usepackage{graphicx} +\usepackage{ifpdf} +\ifpdf + \usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black, + urlcolor=black]{hyperref} +\else + \usepackage{url} +\fi + +\begin{document} + +\title{Example \TUB\ Regular Article} + +% repeat info for each author. +\author{First Last} +\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country} +\netaddress{user (at) example dot org} +\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/} + +\maketitle + +% The abstract comes after \maketitle in ltugboat. +\begin{abstract} +This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue. +\end{abstract} + +\section{Introduction} + +This is an example article for \TUB, from +\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}. + +We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the hyperref +package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output). \TUB\ is produced +using \acro{PDF} files exclusively, nowadays. + +The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others: + +{\small +\begin{verbatim} +\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW +\BibTeX \CandT \CTAN \DTD \DVItoVDU \HTML +\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \JoT \LAMSTeX \LaTeXe +\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \pcMF \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas +\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS +\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG +\tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \VorTeX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE + +\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag +\careof \thinskip + +\acro{FRED} -> {\sc fred} % please use! +\cs{fred} -> \fred +\env{fred} -> \begin{fred} +\meta{fred} -> <fred> +\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ... +\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4 +\booktitle{Book of Fred} +\end{verbatim} +} + +For more information, see the ltubguid document at: +\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat} + +Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions. + + +\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style +\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty +\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX + + +\makesignature % not in ltugproc +\end{document} + +Concept Index +************* + +* prompt: See 26. (line 4738) +*-form of sectioning commands: See 6. (line 788) +.glo file: See 23.2. (line 4515) +.idx file: See 23.3. (line 4530) +.ind file: See 23.3. (line 4540) +abstracts: See 8.1. (line 881) +accents: See 21.3. (line 4263) +accents, mathematical: See 16.4. (line 3611) +accessing any character of a font: See 21.1. (line 4210) +acute accent: See 21.3. (line 4272) +acute accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3616) +ae ligature: See 21.4. (line 4337) +aligning Equations: See 8.8. (line 1065) +alignment via tabbing: See 8.21. (line 1688) +appendix, creating: See 6. (line 794) +aring: See 21.4. (line 4333) +arrays, math: See 8.2. (line 892) +author, for titlepage: See 18.1. (line 3779) +bar-over accent: See 21.3. (line 4280) +bar-under accent: See 21.3. (line 4294) +bibliography, creating (automatically): See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +bibliography, creating (manually): See 8.24. (line 1970) +bibTeX, using: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +black boxes, omitting: See 3.1. (line 357) +bold font: See 4.1. (line 502) +bold typewriter, avoiding: See 8.4. (line 988) +boxes: See 20. (line 4019) +breaking lines: See 13. (line 2578) +breaking pages: See 14. (line 2679) +breve accent: See 21.3. (line 4319) +breve accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3619) +bullet symbol: See 16.2. (line 2946) +bulleted lists: See 8.13. (line 1223) +calligraphic letters for math: See 4.1. (line 505) +cc list, in letters: See 24.2. (line 4596) +cedilla accent: See 21.3. (line 4300) +centering text, declaration for: See 8.3.1. (line 953) +centering text, environment for: See 8.3. (line 939) +characters, accented: See 21.3. (line 4263) +characters, non-English: See 21.4. (line 4328) +characters, reserved: See 21.1. (line 4191) +check accent: See 21.3. (line 4322) +check accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3622) +circumflex accent: See 21.3. (line 4283) +circumflex accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3634) +class options: See 3.1. (line 336) +classes of documents: See 3. (line 319) +closing letters: See 24.3. (line 4606) +closing quote: See 21.2. (line 4251) +code, typesetting: See 8.27. (line 2105) +command Line: See 26. (line 4729) +commands, defining new ones: See 10.1. (line 2231) +computer programs, typesetting: See 8.27. (line 2105) +copyright symbol: See 21.2. (line 4226) +counters, a list of: See 11. (line 2405) +counters, defining new: See 10.2. (line 2264) +counters, getting value of: See 11.3. (line 2464) +counters, setting: See 11.4. (line 2478) +creating letters: See 24. (line 4547) +creating pictures: See 8.18. (line 1404) +creating tables: See 8.22. (line 1780) +credit footnote: See 18.1. (line 3789) +cross references: See 7. (line 807) +cross referencing with page number: See 7.2. (line 849) +cross referencing, symbolic: See 7.3. (line 859) +dagger, in text: See 21.2. (line 4229) +date, for titlepage: See 18.1. (line 3785) +datetime package: See 21.6. (line 4382) +defining a new command: See 10.1. (line 2231) +defining new environments: See 10.5. (line 2304) +defining new fonts: See 10.7. (line 2369) +defining new theorems: See 10.6. (line 2340) +definitions: See 10. (line 2226) +description lists, creating: See 8.4. (line 976) +discretionary multiplication: See 16.6. (line 3680) +displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation:See 8.19. (line 1658) +displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation:See 8.20. + (line 1673) +document class options: See 3.1. (line 336) +document classes: See 3. (line 319) +document templates: See Appendix A. + (line 4745) +dot accent: See 21.3. (line 4277) +dot over accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3628) +dot-over accent: See 21.3. (line 4277) +dot-under accent: See 21.3. (line 4303) +dotless i: See 21.3. (line 4310) +dotless i, math: See 16.4. (line 3637) +dotless j: See 21.3. (line 4313) +dotless j, math: See 16.4. (line 3640) +double dagger, in text: See 21.2. (line 4232) +double dot accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3625) +ellipsis: See 21.2. (line 4238) +emphasis: See 4.1. (line 444) +enclosure list: See 24.4. (line 4616) +ending & starting: See 2. (line 301) +enlarge current page: See 14.4. (line 2706) +environments: See 8. (line 871) +environments, defining: See 10.5. (line 2304) +equation number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +equation numbers, omitting: See 8.8. (line 1079) +equations, aligning: See 8.8. (line 1065) +equations, environment for: See 8.9. (line 1091) +es-zet German letter: See 21.4. (line 4352) +exponent: See 16.1. (line 2856) +figure number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +figures, footnotes in: See 8.17. (line 1391) +figures, inserting: See 8.10. (line 1104) +fixed-width font: See 4.1. (line 526) +flushing floats and starting a page: See 14.2. (line 2694) +font commands, low-level: See 4.3. (line 558) +font sizes: See 4.2. (line 532) +font styles: See 4.1. (line 424) +fonts: See 4. (line 418) +fonts, new commands for: See 10.7. (line 2369) +footer style: See 18.3. (line 3824) +footer, parameters for: See 5.5. (line 706) +footnote number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +footnote parameters: See 9.4. (line 2209) +footnotes in figures: See 8.17. (line 1391) +footnotes, creating: See 9. (line 2158) +formulas, environment for: See 8.9. (line 1091) +formulas, math: See 16. (line 2818) +fragile commands: See 10.8. (line 2383) +functions, math: See 16.3. (line 3502) +global options: See 3.1. (line 336) +glossaries: See 23.2. (line 4513) +grave accent: See 21.3. (line 4286) +grave accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3631) +greek letters: See 16.2. (line 2865) +ha'c<ek accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3622) +hacek accent: See 21.3. (line 4322) +hat accent: See 21.3. (line 4283) +hat accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3634) +header style: See 18.3. (line 3824) +header, parameters for: See 5.5. (line 706) +hungarian umlaut accent: See 21.3. (line 4306) +hyphenation, defining: See 13.7. (line 2646) +hyphenation, forcing: See 13.4. (line 2616) +hyphenation, preventing: See 20.1. (line 4025) +in-line formulas: See 8.16. (line 1363) +indent, forcing: See 15.1. (line 2747) +indent, suppressing: See 15.2. (line 2758) +indentation of paragraphs, in minipage: See 8.17. (line 1387) +indexes: See 23.3. (line 4528) +input file: See 22. (line 4388) +input/Output: See 25. (line 4696) +inserting figures: See 8.10. (line 1104) +italic font: See 4.1. (line 511) +justification, ragged left: See 8.12.1. (line 1210) +justification, ragged right: See 8.11.1. (line 1184) +Knuth, Donald E.: + See ``LaTeX2e''. (line 251) +labelled lists, creating: See 8.4. (line 976) +Lamport, Leslie: + See ``LaTeX2e''. (line 251) +LaTeX logo: See 21.2. (line 4235) +LaTeX overview: See 1. (line 261) +LaTeX Project team: + See ``LaTeX2e''. (line 251) +layout commands: See 5. (line 634) +layout, page parameters for: See 5.5. (line 706) +left quote: See 21.2. (line 4242) +left-justifying text: See 8.11.1. (line 1184) +left-justifying text, environment for: See 8.11. (line 1171) +left-to-right mode: See 17. (line 3729) +lengths, adding to: See 12.2. (line 2531) +lengths, defining and using: See 12. (line 2518) +lengths, defining new: See 10.3. (line 2279) +lengths, predefined: See 12.6. (line 2559) +lengths, setting: See 12.1. (line 2524) +letters: See 24. (line 4547) +letters, accented: See 21.3. (line 4263) +letters, ending: See 24.3. (line 4606) +letters, non-English: See 21.4. (line 4328) +letters, starting: See 24.8. (line 4649) +line break, forcing: See 13.1. (line 2590) +line breaking: See 13. (line 2578) +line breaks, forcing: See 13.8. (line 2662) +line breaks, preventing: See 13.8. (line 2662) +lines in tables: See 8.23. (line 1816) +lining text up in columns using tab stops: See 8.21. (line 1688) +lining text up in tables: See 8.23. (line 1816) +list items, specifying counter: See 11.2. (line 2453) +lists of items: See 8.13. (line 1223) +lists of items, generic: See 8.15. (line 1341) +lists of items, numbered: See 8.7. (line 1024) +loading additional packages: See 3.1. (line 404) +logo, LaTeX: See 21.2. (line 4235) +logo, TeX: See 21.2. (line 4257) +low-level font commands: See 4.3. (line 558) +lR mode: See 17. (line 3729) +macron accent: See 21.3. (line 4280) +makeindex program: See 23.3. (line 4540) +making a title page: See 8.26. (line 2088) +making paragraphs: See 15. (line 2739) +marginal notes: See 15.4. (line 2771) +math accents: See 16.4. (line 3611) +math formulas: See 16. (line 2818) +math functions: See 16.3. (line 3502) +math Miscellany: See 16.6. (line 3679) +math mode: See 17. (line 3729) +math mode, entering: See 16. (line 2818) +math mode, spacing: See 16.5. (line 3658) +math symbols: See 16.2. (line 2865) +minipage, creating a: See 8.17. (line 1375) +modes: See 17. (line 3729) +monospace font: See 4.1. (line 526) +moving arguments: See 10.8. (line 2383) +multicolumn text: See 5.2. (line 645) +multiplication symbol, discretionary line break:See 16.6. (line 3680) +nested \include, not allowed: See 22.1. (line 4409) +new commands, defining: See 10.1. (line 2231) +new line, output as input: See 13.2. (line 2600) +new line, starting: See 13.1. (line 2590) +new line, starting (paragraph mode): See 13.3. (line 2609) +new page, starting: See 14.3. (line 2700) +non-English characters: See 21.4. (line 4328) +notes in the margin: See 15.4. (line 2771) +null delimiter: See 16.6. (line 3694) +numbered items, specifying counter: See 11.2. (line 2453) +oblique font: See 4.1. (line 523) +oe ligature: See 21.4. (line 4349) +one-column output: See 5.1. (line 639) +opening quote: See 21.2. (line 4242) +options, document class: See 3.1. (line 336) +options, global: See 3.1. (line 411) +oslash: See 21.4. (line 4345) +overbar accent: See 21.3. (line 4280) +overdot accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3628) +overview of LaTeX: See 1. (line 261) +packages, loading: See 3.1. (line 404) +page break, forcing: See 14.5. (line 2721) +page break, preventing: See 14.5. (line 2721) +page breaking: See 14. (line 2679) +page layout parameters: See 5.5. (line 706) +page number, cross referencing: See 7.2. (line 849) +page numbering style: See 18.2. (line 3800) +page styles: See 18. (line 3767) +paragraph indentation, in minipage: See 8.17. (line 1387) +paragraph indentations in quoted text: See 8.19. (line 1658) +paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting:See 8.20. (line 1673) +paragraph mode: See 17. (line 3729) +paragraph sign: See 21.2. (line 4245) +paragraphs: See 15. (line 2739) +parameters, page layout: See 5.5. (line 706) +pictures, creating: See 8.18. (line 1404) +pilcrow: See 21.2. (line 4245) +poetry, an environment for: See 8.28. (line 2139) +polish l: See 21.4. (line 4341) +postscript, in letters: See 24.9. (line 4662) +pounds symbol: See 21.2. (line 4248) +preamble, defined: See 2. (line 312) +predefined lengths: See 12.6. (line 2559) +prompt, *: See 26. (line 4738) +quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying:See 8.19. (line 1658) +quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying:See 8.20. + (line 1673) +ragged left text: See 8.12.1. (line 1210) +ragged left text, environment for: See 8.12. (line 1197) +ragged right text: See 8.11.1. (line 1184) +ragged right text, environment for: See 8.11. (line 1171) +redefining environments: See 10.5. (line 2304) +remarks in the margin: See 15.4. (line 2771) +reserved characters: See 21.1. (line 4191) +right quote: See 21.2. (line 4251) +right-justifying text: See 8.12.1. (line 1210) +right-justifying text, environment for: See 8.12. (line 1197) +robust commands: See 10.8. (line 2393) +roman font: See 4.1. (line 514) +running header and footer: See 5.5. (line 706) +running header and footer style: See 18.3. (line 3824) +sans serif font: See 4.1. (line 520) +script letters for math: See 4.1. (line 505) +section number, cross referencing: See 7.3. (line 859) +section symbol: See 21.2. (line 4254) +sectioning: See 6. (line 756) +setspace package: See 4.3. (line 615) +setting counters: See 11.4. (line 2478) +sharp S letters: See 21.4. (line 4352) +simulating typed text: See 8.27. (line 2105) +sizes of text: See 4.2. (line 532) +slanted font: See 4.1. (line 523) +small caps font: See 4.1. (line 517) +space, inserting vertical: See 19.9. (line 3967) +spaces: See 19. (line 3869) +spacing within math mode: See 16.5. (line 3658) +special characters: See 21.4. (line 4328) +splitting the input file: See 22. (line 4388) +starting & ending: See 2. (line 301) +starting a new page: See 14.3. (line 2700) +starting a new page and clearing floats: See 14.2. (line 2694) +starting on a right-hand page: See 14.1. (line 2686) +sterling symbol: See 21.2. (line 4248) +stretch, omitting vertical: See 5.4. (line 700) +styles of text: See 4.1. (line 424) +styles, page: See 18. (line 3767) +subscript: See 16.1. (line 2856) +superscript: See 16.1. (line 2856) +symbols, math: See 16.2. (line 2865) +tab stops, using: See 8.21. (line 1688) +table of contents entry, manually adding: See 23.1.1. (line 4467) +table of contents, creating: See 23.1. (line 4447) +tables, creating: See 8.22. (line 1780) +terminal Input/Output: See 25. (line 4696) +TeX logo: See 21.2. (line 4257) +text symbols: See 21.2. (line 4222) +thanks, for titlepage: See 18.1. (line 3789) +theorems, defining: See 10.6. (line 2340) +theorems, typesetting: See 8.25. (line 2075) +tie-after accent: See 21.3. (line 4316) +tilde accent: See 21.3. (line 4291) +tilde accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3643) +title pages, creating: See 8.26. (line 2088) +title, for titlepage: See 18.1. (line 3793) +titles, making: See 18.1. (line 3773) +two-column output: See 5.2. (line 645) +typed text, simulating: See 8.27. (line 2105) +typeface sizes: See 4.2. (line 532) +typeface styles: See 4.1. (line 424) +typefaces: See 4. (line 418) +typewriter font: See 4.1. (line 526) +typewriter labels in lists: See 8.4. (line 988) +umlaut accent: See 21.3. (line 4269) +unordered lists: See 8.13. (line 1223) +using BibTeX: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +variables, a list of: See 11. (line 2405) +vector symbol, math: See 16.4. (line 3646) +verbatim text: See 8.27. (line 2105) +verbatim text, inline: See 8.27.1. (line 2122) +vertical space: See 19.9. (line 3967) +vertical space before paragraphs: See 15.3. (line 2765) +visible space: See 8.27.1. (line 2133) +wide hat accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3649) +wide tile accent, math: See 16.4. (line 3652) +xindy program: See 23.3. (line 4540) +Command Index +************* + +$: See 16. (line 2838) +10pt option: See 3.1. (line 344) +11pt option: See 3.1. (line 344) +12pt option: See 3.1. (line 344) +@{...}: See 8.2. (line 917) +\" (umlaut accent): See 21.3. (line 4269) +\#: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\$: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\%: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\&: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\' (acute accent): See 21.3. (line 4272) +\' (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1727) +\(: See 16. (line 2830) +\): See 16. (line 2830) +\*: See 16.6. (line 3679) +\+: See 8.21. (line 1719) +\,: See 16.5. (line 3671) +\-: See 8.21. (line 1723) +\- (hyphenation): See 13.4. (line 2616) +\. (dot-over accent): See 21.3. (line 4277) +\/: See 19.6. (line 3936) +\:: See 16.5. (line 3668) +\;: See 16.5. (line 3664) +\<: See 8.21. (line 1715) +\= (macron accent): See 21.3. (line 4280) +\= (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1709) +\> <1>: See 16.5. (line 3668) +\>: See 8.21. (line 1713) +\> (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1712) +\@: See 19.4. (line 3915) +\[: See 16. (line 2830) +\\ (for \shortstack objects): See 8.18.13. (line 1642) +\\ (for array): See 8.2. (line 914) +\\ (for center): See 8.3. (line 946) +\\ (for eqnarray): See 8.8. (line 1071) +\\ (for flushright): See 8.12. (line 1203) +\\ for \author: See 18.1. (line 3779) +\\ for \title: See 18.1. (line 3793) +\\ for flushleft: See 8.11. (line 1177) +\\ for letters: See 24. (line 4573) +\\ for tabular: See 8.23. (line 1833) +\\ for verse: See 8.28. (line 2150) +\\ force line break: See 13.1. (line 2590) +\\ tabbing: See 8.21. (line 1706) +\\* (for eqnarray): See 8.8. (line 1076) +\]: See 16. (line 2830) +\^: See 21.1. (line 4206) +\^ (circumflex accent): See 21.3. (line 4283) +\_: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\` (grave accent): See 21.3. (line 4286) +\` (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1733) +\a (tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1742) +\a' (acute accent in tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1743) +\a= (macron accent in tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1743) +\a` (grave accent in tabbing): See 8.21. (line 1743) +\AA (AA): See 21.4. (line 4333) +\aa (aa): See 21.4. (line 4333) +\acute: See 16.4. (line 3615) +\addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT}: See 23.1.1. (line 4467) +\address: See 24.1. (line 4583) +\addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: See 23.1.2. (line 4498) +\addtocounter: See 11.5. (line 2488) +\addtolength: See 12.2. (line 2531) +\addvspace: See 19.9. (line 3967) +\AE (AE): See 21.4. (line 4337) +\ae (ae): See 21.4. (line 4337) +\aleph: See 16.2. (line 2873) +\Alph: See 11.1. (line 2427) +\alph: See 11.1. (line 2424) +\Alph example: See 8.7. (line 1060) +\alpha: See 16.2. (line 2876) +\amalg: See 16.2. (line 2879) +\and for \author: See 18.1. (line 3779) +\angle: See 16.2. (line 2882) +\appendix: See 6. (line 794) +\approx: See 16.2. (line 2885) +\arabic: See 11.1. (line 2430) +\arccos: See 16.3. (line 3505) +\arcsin: See 16.3. (line 3508) +\arctan: See 16.3. (line 3511) +\arg: See 16.3. (line 3514) +\arraycolsep: See 8.2. (line 929) +\arrayrulewidth: See 8.23. (line 1900) +\arraystretch: See 8.23. (line 1904) +\ast: See 16.2. (line 2888) +\asymp: See 16.2. (line 2891) +\author{NAME \and NAME2}: See 18.1. (line 3778) +\b (bar-under accent): See 21.3. (line 4294) +\backslash <1>: See 21.1. (line 4201) +\backslash: See 16.2. (line 2894) +\bar (macron, bar-over accent): See 21.3. (line 4297) +\baselineskip: See 4.3. (line 609) +\baselinestretch: See 4.3. (line 615) +\begin: See 8. (line 871) +\beta: See 16.2. (line 2897) +\bf: See 4.1. (line 501) +\bfseries: See 4.1. (line 450) +\bibitem: See 8.24.1. (line 1995) +\bibliography: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +\bibliographystyle: See 8.24.4. (line 2035) +\bigcap: See 16.2. (line 2900) +\bigcirc: See 16.2. (line 2903) +\bigcup: See 16.2. (line 2906) +\bigodot: See 16.2. (line 2909) +\bigoplus: See 16.2. (line 2912) +\bigotimes: See 16.2. (line 2915) +\bigskip: See 19.10. (line 3981) +\bigskipamount: See 19.10. (line 3981) +\bigsqcup: See 16.2. (line 2924) +\bigtriangledown: See 16.2. (line 2918) +\bigtriangleup: See 16.2. (line 2921) +\biguplus: See 16.2. (line 2927) +\bigwedge: See 16.2. (line 2933) +\bmod: See 16.3. (line 3517) +\boldmath: See 16. (line 2843) +\bot: See 16.2. (line 2936) +\bottomfraction: See 8.10. (line 1138) +\bowtie: See 16.2. (line 2939) +\Box: See 16.2. (line 2942) +\breve: See 16.4. (line 3618) +\bullet: See 16.2. (line 2945) +\c (cedilla accent): See 21.3. (line 4300) +\cal: See 4.1. (line 504) +\cap: See 16.2. (line 2948) +\caption: See 8.10. (line 1134) +\cc: See 24.2. (line 4596) +\cdot: See 16.2. (line 2951) +\cdots: See 16.6. (line 3683) +\centering: See 8.3.1. (line 953) +\chapter: See 6. (line 760) +\check: See 16.4. (line 3621) +\chi: See 16.2. (line 2954) +\circ: See 16.2. (line 2957) +\circle: See 8.18.1. (line 1470) +\cite: See 8.24.2. (line 2012) +\cleardoublepage: See 14.1. (line 2686) +\clearpage: See 14.2. (line 2694) +\cline: See 8.23.2. (line 1944) +\closing: See 24.3. (line 4606) +\clubsuit: See 16.2. (line 2960) +\columnsep: See 5.2. (line 655) +\columnseprule: See 5.2. (line 658) +\columnwidth: See 5.2. (line 662) +\cong: See 16.2. (line 2963) +\contentsline: See 23.1.1. (line 4492) +\coprod: See 16.2. (line 2966) +\copyright: See 21.2. (line 4225) +\cos: See 16.3. (line 3520) +\cosh: See 16.3. (line 3523) +\cot: See 16.3. (line 3526) +\coth: See 16.3. (line 3529) +\csc: See 16.3. (line 3532) +\cup: See 16.2. (line 2969) +\d (dot-under accent): See 21.3. (line 4303) +\dag: See 21.2. (line 4228) +\dagger: See 16.2. (line 2972) +\dashbox: See 8.18.4. (line 1518) +\dashv: See 16.2. (line 2975) +\date{TEXT}: See 18.1. (line 3784) +\day: See 11.8. (line 2507) +\dblfloatpagefraction: See 5.2. (line 674) +\dblfloatsep: See 5.2. (line 678) +\dbltextfloatsep: See 5.2. (line 683) +\dbltopfraction: See 5.2. (line 669) +\ddag: See 21.2. (line 4231) +\ddagger: See 16.2. (line 2978) +\ddot: See 16.4. (line 3624) +\ddots: See 16.6. (line 3687) +\deg: See 16.3. (line 3535) +\delta: See 16.2. (line 2984) +\Delta: See 16.2. (line 2981) +\depth: See 12.6. (line 2563) +\det: See 16.3. (line 3538) +\diamond: See 16.2. (line 2990) +\Diamond: See 16.2. (line 2987) +\diamondsuit: See 16.2. (line 2993) +\dim: See 16.3. (line 3541) +\displaystyle: See 16. (line 2848) +\div: See 16.2. (line 2996) +\documentclass: See 3. (line 319) +\dot: See 16.4. (line 3627) +\doteq: See 16.2. (line 2999) +\dotfill: See 19.8. (line 3961) +\doublerulesep: See 8.23. (line 1908) +\Downarrow: See 16.2. (line 3005) +\downarrow: See 16.2. (line 3002) +\ell: See 16.2. (line 3008) +\em: See 4.1. (line 507) +\emph: See 4.1. (line 444) +\emptyset: See 16.2. (line 3011) +\encl: See 24.4. (line 4616) +\end: See 8. (line 871) +\enlargethispage: See 14.4. (line 2706) +\enumi: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\enumii: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\enumiii: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\enumiv: See 8.7. (line 1050) +\epsilon: See 16.2. (line 3014) +\equiv: See 16.2. (line 3017) +\eta: See 16.2. (line 3020) +\evensidemargin: See 3.1. (line 385) +\exists: See 16.2. (line 3023) +\exp: See 16.3. (line 3544) +\fbox: See 20.2. (line 4032) +\fboxrule <1>: See 20.2. (line 4042) +\fboxrule: See 8.18.3. (line 1511) +\fboxsep <1>: See 20.2. (line 4042) +\fboxsep: See 8.18.3. (line 1511) +\fill: See 19.2. (line 3897) +\flat: See 16.2. (line 3026) +\floatpagefraction: See 8.10. (line 1141) +\floatsep: See 8.10. (line 1145) +\flushbottom: See 5.3. (line 691) +\fnsymbol: See 11.1. (line 2439) +\fontencoding: See 4.3. (line 563) +\fontfamily: See 4.3. (line 566) +\fontseries: See 4.3. (line 577) +\fontshape: See 4.3. (line 592) +\fontsize: See 4.3. (line 609) +\footnote: See 9.1. (line 2165) +\footnotemark: See 9.2. (line 2180) +\footnoterule: See 9.4. (line 2209) +\footnotesep: See 9.4. (line 2215) +\footnotesize: See 4.2. (line 537) +\footnotetext: See 9.3. (line 2195) +\footskip: See 5.5. (line 716) +\forall: See 16.2. (line 3029) +\frac: See 16.6. (line 3691) +\frac{num}{den}: See 16.6. (line 3690) +\frame: See 8.18.5. (line 1531) +\framebox <1>: See 20.2. (line 4032) +\framebox: See 8.18.3. (line 1503) +\frown: See 16.2. (line 3032) +\fussy: See 13.5. (line 2628) +\gamma: See 16.2. (line 3038) +\Gamma: See 16.2. (line 3035) +\gcd: See 16.3. (line 3547) +\ge: See 16.2. (line 3041) +\geq: See 16.2. (line 3044) +\gets: See 16.2. (line 3047) +\gg: See 16.2. (line 3050) +\glossary: See 23.2. (line 4515) +\glossaryentry: See 23.2. (line 4518) +\grave: See 16.4. (line 3630) +\H (Hungarian umlaut accent): See 21.3. (line 4306) +\hat: See 16.4. (line 3633) +\hbar: See 16.2. (line 3053) +\headheight: See 5.5. (line 706) +\headsep: See 5.5. (line 711) +\heartsuit: See 16.2. (line 3056) +\height: See 12.6. (line 2561) +\hfill: See 19.2. (line 3894) +\hline: See 8.23.3. (line 1955) +\hom: See 16.3. (line 3550) +\hookleftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3059) +\hookrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3062) +\hrulefill: See 19.7. (line 3954) +\hspace: See 19.1. (line 3878) +\Huge: See 4.2. (line 537) +\huge: See 4.2. (line 537) +\hyphenation: See 13.7. (line 2646) +\i (dotless i): See 21.3. (line 4310) +\iff: See 16.2. (line 3065) +\Im: See 16.2. (line 3068) +\imath: See 16.4. (line 3636) +\in: See 16.2. (line 3071) +\include: See 22.1. (line 4397) +\includeonly: See 22.2. (line 4415) +\indent: See 15.1. (line 2747) +\index: See 23.3. (line 4530) +\indexentry: See 23.3. (line 4533) +\inf: See 16.3. (line 3553) +\infty: See 16.2. (line 3074) +\input: See 22.3. (line 4429) +\int: See 16.2. (line 3077) +\intextsep: See 8.10. (line 1149) +\iota: See 16.2. (line 3080) +\it: See 4.1. (line 510) +\item <1>: See 8.13. (line 1223) +\item <2>: See 8.7. (line 1037) +\item: See 8.4. (line 984) +\itemindent: See 8.13. (line 1269) +\itemsep: See 8.13. (line 1292) +\itshape: See 4.1. (line 441) +\j (dotless j): See 21.3. (line 4313) +\jmath: See 16.4. (line 3639) +\Join: See 16.2. (line 3083) +\kappa: See 16.2. (line 3086) +\ker: See 16.3. (line 3556) +\kill: See 8.21. (line 1747) +\L (/L): See 21.4. (line 4341) +\l (/l): See 21.4. (line 4341) +\label: See 7.1. (line 813) +\labelenumi: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelenumii: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelenumiii: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelenumiv: See 8.7. (line 1054) +\labelitemi: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelitemii: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelitemiii: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelitemiv: See 8.13. (line 1249) +\labelsep: See 8.13. (line 1272) +\labelwidth: See 8.13. (line 1275) +\lambda: See 16.2. (line 3092) +\Lambda: See 16.2. (line 3089) +\land: See 16.2. (line 3095) +\langle: See 16.2. (line 3098) +\LARGE: See 4.2. (line 537) +\Large: See 4.2. (line 537) +\large: See 4.2. (line 537) +\LaTeX: See 21.2. (line 4234) +\lbrace: See 16.2. (line 3101) +\lbrack: See 16.2. (line 3104) +\lceil: See 16.2. (line 3107) +\ldots: See 21.2. (line 4237) +\le: See 16.2. (line 3110) +\leadsto: See 16.2. (line 3113) +\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2: See 16.6. (line 3693) +\leftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3118) +\Leftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3115) +\lefteqn: See 8.8. (line 1084) +\leftharpoondown: See 16.2. (line 3121) +\leftharpoonup: See 16.2. (line 3124) +\leftmargin: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmargini: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginii: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginiii: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginiv: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginv: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftmarginvi: See 8.13. (line 1256) +\leftrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3130) +\Leftrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3127) +\leq: See 16.2. (line 3133) +\lfloor: See 16.2. (line 3136) +\lg: See 16.3. (line 3559) +\lhd: See 16.2. (line 3139) +\lim: See 16.3. (line 3562) +\liminf: See 16.3. (line 3565) +\limsup: See 16.3. (line 3568) +\line: See 8.18.6. (line 1542) +\linebreak: See 13.8. (line 2662) +\linethickness: See 8.18.7. (line 1557) +\linewidth: See 5.5. (line 721) +\listoffigures: See 23.1. (line 4457) +\listoftables: See 23.1. (line 4457) +\listparindent: See 8.13. (line 1278) +\ll: See 16.2. (line 3142) +\ln: See 16.3. (line 3571) +\lnot: See 16.2. (line 3145) +\location: See 24.5. (line 4625) +\log: See 16.3. (line 3574) +\longleftarrow: See 16.2. (line 3148) +\longleftrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3151) +\longmapsto: See 16.2. (line 3154) +\longrightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3157) +\lor: See 16.2. (line 3160) +\lq: See 21.2. (line 4241) +\makebox: See 20.4. (line 4063) +\makebox (picture): See 8.18.2. (line 1481) +\makeglossary: See 23.2. (line 4513) +\makeindex: See 23.3. (line 4528) +\makelabels: See 24.6. (line 4633) +\maketitle: See 18.1. (line 3773) +\mapsto: See 16.2. (line 3163) +\marginpar: See 15.4. (line 2771) +\marginparpush: See 15.4. (line 2800) +\marginparsep: See 15.4. (line 2804) +\marginparwidth: See 15.4. (line 2808) +\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}: See 18.3. (line 3848) +\markright{RIGHT}: See 18.3. (line 3855) +\mathbf: See 4.1. (line 474) +\mathcal: See 4.1. (line 490) +\mathnormal: See 4.1. (line 487) +\mathrm: See 4.1. (line 471) +\mathsf: See 4.1. (line 477) +\mathtt: See 4.1. (line 480) +\mathversion: See 4.1. (line 492) +\max: See 16.3. (line 3577) +\mbox: See 20.1. (line 4025) +\mdseries: See 4.1. (line 447) +\medskip: See 19.10. (line 3985) +\medskipamount: See 19.10. (line 3985) +\mho: See 16.2. (line 3166) +\mid: See 16.2. (line 3168) +\min: See 16.3. (line 3580) +\models: See 16.2. (line 3171) +\month: See 11.8. (line 2507) +\mp: See 16.2. (line 3174) +\mu: See 16.2. (line 3177) +\multicolumn: See 8.23.1. (line 1921) +\multiput: See 8.18.10. (line 1581) +\nabla: See 16.2. (line 3180) +\name: See 24.7. (line 4641) +\natural: See 16.2. (line 3183) +\ne: See 16.2. (line 3186) +\nearrow: See 16.2. (line 3189) +\neg: See 16.2. (line 3192) +\neq: See 16.2. (line 3195) +\newcommand: See 10.1. (line 2231) +\newcounter: See 10.2. (line 2264) +\newenvironment: See 10.5. (line 2304) +\newfont: See 10.7. (line 2369) +\newlength: See 10.3. (line 2279) +\NEWLINE: See 19.3. (line 3904) +\newline: See 13.3. (line 2609) +\newpage: See 14.3. (line 2700) +\newsavebox: See 10.4. (line 2294) +\newtheorem: See 10.6. (line 2340) +\ni: See 16.2. (line 3198) +\nocite: See 8.24.3. (line 2027) +\nofiles: See 23.1. (line 4461) +\noindent: See 15.2. (line 2758) +\nolinebreak: See 13.8. (line 2662) +\nonumber: See 8.8. (line 1079) +\nopagebreak: See 14.5. (line 2721) +\normalfont: See 4.1. (line 468) +\normalmarginpar: See 15.4. (line 2788) +\normalsize: See 4.2. (line 537) +\not: See 16.2. (line 3201) +\notin: See 16.2. (line 3204) +\nu: See 16.2. (line 3207) +\nwarrow: See 16.2. (line 3210) +\O (/O): See 21.4. (line 4345) +\o (/o): See 21.4. (line 4345) +\obeycr: See 13.2. (line 2600) +\oddsidemargin: See 3.1. (line 385) +\odot: See 16.2. (line 3213) +\OE (OE): See 21.4. (line 4349) +\oe (oe): See 21.4. (line 4349) +\oint: See 16.2. (line 3216) +\omega: See 16.2. (line 3222) +\Omega: See 16.2. (line 3219) +\ominus: See 16.2. (line 3225) +\onecolumn: See 5.1. (line 639) +\opening: See 24.8. (line 4649) +\oplus: See 16.2. (line 3228) +\oslash: See 16.2. (line 3231) +\otimes: See 16.2. (line 3234) +\oval: See 8.18.11. (line 1591) +\overbrace{TEXT}: See 16.6. (line 3698) +\overline{TEXT}: See 16.6. (line 3702) +\owns: See 16.2. (line 3237) +\P: See 21.2. (line 4244) +\pagebreak: See 14.5. (line 2721) +\pagenumbering: See 18.2. (line 3800) +\pageref: See 7.2. (line 849) +\pagestyle: See 18.3. (line 3824) +\paragraph: See 6. (line 769) +\parallel: See 16.2. (line 3240) +\parbox: See 20.5. (line 4091) +\parindent <1>: See 15.1. (line 2747) +\parindent: See 8.17. (line 1387) +\parsep: See 8.13. (line 1297) +\parskip: See 15.3. (line 2765) +\parskip example: See 8.13. (line 1320) +\part: See 6. (line 758) +\partial: See 16.2. (line 3243) +\partopsep: See 8.13. (line 1307) +\perp: See 16.2. (line 3246) +\phi: See 16.2. (line 3249) +\pi: See 16.2. (line 3255) +\Pi: See 16.2. (line 3252) +\pm: See 16.2. (line 3258) +\pmod: See 16.3. (line 3583) +\poptabs: See 8.21. (line 1753) +\pounds: See 21.2. (line 4247) +\Pr: See 16.3. (line 3586) +\prec: See 16.2. (line 3261) +\preceq: See 16.2. (line 3264) +\prime: See 16.2. (line 3267) +\prod: See 16.2. (line 3270) +\propto: See 16.2. (line 3273) +\protect: See 10.8. (line 2383) +\ps: See 24.9. (line 4662) +\psi: See 16.2. (line 3279) +\Psi: See 16.2. (line 3276) +\pushtabs: See 8.21. (line 1756) +\put: See 8.18.12. (line 1618) +\raggedbottom: See 5.4. (line 700) +\raggedleft: See 8.12.1. (line 1210) +\raggedright: See 8.11.1. (line 1184) +\raisebox: See 20.6. (line 4135) +\rangle: See 16.2. (line 3282) +\rbrace: See 16.2. (line 3285) +\rbrack: See 16.2. (line 3288) +\rceil: See 16.2. (line 3291) +\Re: See 16.2. (line 3294) +\ref: See 7.3. (line 859) +\refstepcounter: See 11.6. (line 2494) +\renewenvironment: See 10.5. (line 2304) +\restorecr: See 13.2. (line 2600) +\reversemarginpar: See 15.4. (line 2788) +\rfloor: See 16.2. (line 3297) +\rhd: See 16.2. (line 3300) +\rho: See 16.2. (line 3303) +\right: See 16.6. (line 3694) +\rightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3309) +\Rightarrow: See 16.2. (line 3306) +\rightharpoondown: See 16.2. (line 3312) +\rightharpoonup: See 16.2. (line 3315) +\rightleftharpoons: See 16.2. (line 3318) +\rightmargin: See 8.13. (line 1282) +\rm: See 4.1. (line 513) +\rmfamily: See 4.1. (line 438) +\roman: See 11.1. (line 2433) +\rq: See 21.2. (line 4250) +\rule: See 21.5. (line 4358) +\S: See 21.2. (line 4253) +\savebox: See 20.7. (line 4151) +\sbox: See 20.8. (line 4163) +\sc: See 4.1. (line 516) +\scriptsize: See 4.2. (line 537) +\scshape: See 4.1. (line 462) +\searrow: See 16.2. (line 3321) +\sec: See 16.3. (line 3589) +\section: See 6. (line 763) +\selectfont: See 4.3. (line 623) +\setcounter: See 11.4. (line 2478) +\setlength: See 12.1. (line 2524) +\setminus: See 16.2. (line 3324) +\settodepth: See 12.3. (line 2537) +\settoheight: See 12.4. (line 2545) +\settowidth: See 12.5. (line 2553) +\sf: See 4.1. (line 519) +\sffamily: See 4.1. (line 459) +\sharp: See 16.2. (line 3327) +\shortstack: See 8.18.13. (line 1626) +\sigma: See 16.2. (line 3333) +\Sigma: See 16.2. (line 3330) +\signature: See 24.10. (line 4668) +\sim: See 16.2. (line 3336) +\simeq: See 16.2. (line 3339) +\sin: See 16.3. (line 3592) +\sinh: See 16.3. (line 3595) +\sl: See 4.1. (line 522) +\slshape: See 4.1. (line 456) +\small: See 4.2. (line 537) +\smallint: See 16.2. (line 3342) +\smallskip: See 19.10. (line 3989) +\smallskipamount: See 19.10. (line 3989) +\smile: See 16.2. (line 3345) +\SPACE: See 19.3. (line 3904) +\spadesuit: See 16.2. (line 3348) +\sqcap: See 16.2. (line 3351) +\sqcup: See 16.2. (line 3354) +\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}: See 16.6. (line 3705) +\sqsubset: See 16.2. (line 3357) +\sqsubseteq: See 16.2. (line 3360) +\sqsupset: See 16.2. (line 3363) +\sqsupseteq: See 16.2. (line 3366) +\ss (ss): See 21.4. (line 4352) +\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}: See 16.6. (line 3711) +\star: See 16.2. (line 3369) +\startbreaks: See 24.11. (line 4674) +\stepcounter: See 11.7. (line 2501) +\stop: See 26. (line 4738) +\stopbreaks: See 24.12. (line 4681) +\subparagraph: See 6. (line 771) +\subsection: See 6. (line 765) +\subset: See 16.2. (line 3372) +\subseteq: See 16.2. (line 3375) +\subsubsection: See 6. (line 767) +\succ: See 16.2. (line 3378) +\succeq: See 16.2. (line 3381) +\sum: See 16.2. (line 3384) +\sup: See 16.3. (line 3598) +\supset: See 16.2. (line 3387) +\supseteq: See 16.2. (line 3390) +\surd: See 16.2. (line 3393) +\swarrow: See 16.2. (line 3396) +\symbol: See 21.1. (line 4210) +\t (tie-after accent): See 21.3. (line 4316) +\TAB: See 19.3. (line 3904) +\tabbingsep: See 8.21. (line 1761) +\tabcolsep: See 8.23. (line 1912) +\tableofcontents: See 23.1. (line 4447) +\tan: See 16.3. (line 3601) +\tanh: See 16.3. (line 3604) +\tau: See 16.2. (line 3399) +\telephone: See 24.13. (line 4688) +\TeX: See 21.2. (line 4256) +\textbf: See 4.1. (line 450) +\textfloatsep: See 8.10. (line 1154) +\textfraction: See 8.10. (line 1158) +\textheight: See 5.5. (line 727) +\textit: See 4.1. (line 441) +\textmd: See 4.1. (line 447) +\textnormal: See 4.1. (line 468) +\textrm: See 4.1. (line 438) +\textsc: See 4.1. (line 462) +\textsf: See 4.1. (line 459) +\textsl: See 4.1. (line 456) +\texttt: See 4.1. (line 465) +\textup: See 4.1. (line 453) +\textwidth: See 5.5. (line 734) +\thanks{TEXT}: See 18.1. (line 3788) +\theta: See 16.2. (line 3402) +\thicklines: See 8.18.8. (line 1567) +\thinlines: See 8.18.9. (line 1574) +\thinspace: See 19.5. (line 3929) +\thispagestyle: See 18.4. (line 3862) +\tilde: See 16.4. (line 3642) +\times: See 16.2. (line 3405) +\tiny: See 4.2. (line 537) +\title{TEXT}: See 18.1. (line 3792) +\to: See 16.2. (line 3408) +\today: See 21.6. (line 4377) +\top: See 16.2. (line 3411) +\topfraction: See 8.10. (line 1163) +\topmargin: See 5.5. (line 740) +\topsep: See 8.13. (line 1301) +\topskip: See 5.5. (line 747) +\totalheight: See 12.6. (line 2565) +\triangle: See 16.2. (line 3414) +\triangleleft: See 16.2. (line 3417) +\triangleright: See 16.2. (line 3420) +\tt: See 4.1. (line 525) +\ttfamily: See 4.1. (line 465) +\twocolumn: See 5.2. (line 645) +\typein: See 25.1. (line 4699) +\typeout: See 25.2. (line 4713) +\u (breve accent): See 21.3. (line 4319) +\unboldmath: See 16. (line 2843) +\underbrace{math}: See 16.6. (line 3715) +\underline{text}: See 16.6. (line 3718) +\unitlength: See 8.18. (line 1408) +\unlhd: See 16.2. (line 3423) +\unrhd: See 16.2. (line 3426) +\uparrow: See 16.2. (line 3432) +\Uparrow: See 16.2. (line 3429) +\updownarrow: See 16.2. (line 3438) +\Updownarrow: See 16.2. (line 3435) +\uplus: See 16.2. (line 3441) +\upshape: See 4.1. (line 453) +\upsilon: See 16.2. (line 3447) +\Upsilon: See 16.2. (line 3444) +\usebox: See 20.9. (line 4175) +\usecounter: See 11.2. (line 2453) +\usefont: See 4.3. (line 627) +\usepackage: See 3.1. (line 404) +\v (breve accent): See 21.3. (line 4322) +\value: See 11.3. (line 2464) +\varepsilon: See 16.2. (line 3450) +\varphi: See 16.2. (line 3453) +\varpi: See 16.2. (line 3456) +\varrho: See 16.2. (line 3459) +\varsigma: See 16.2. (line 3462) +\vartheta: See 16.2. (line 3465) +\vdash: See 16.2. (line 3468) +\vdots: See 16.6. (line 3722) +\vec: See 16.4. (line 3645) +\vector: See 8.18.14. (line 1647) +\vee: See 16.2. (line 3471) +\verb: See 8.27.1. (line 2122) +\vert: See 16.2. (line 3477) +\Vert: See 16.2. (line 3474) +\vfill: See 19.11. (line 3998) +\vline: See 8.23.4. (line 1962) +\vspace: See 19.12. (line 4005) +\wedge: See 16.2. (line 3480) +\widehat: See 16.4. (line 3648) +\width: See 12.6. (line 2559) +\wp: See 16.2. (line 3483) +\wr: See 16.2. (line 3486) +\xi: See 16.2. (line 3492) +\Xi: See 16.2. (line 3489) +\year: See 11.8. (line 2507) +\zeta: See 16.2. (line 3495) +\{: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\|: See 16.2. (line 2870) +\}: See 21.1. (line 4196) +\~: See 21.1. (line 4206) +\~ (tilde accent): See 21.3. (line 4291) +^: See 16.1. (line 2856) +_: See 16.1. (line 2856) +a4paper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +a5paper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +abstract environment: See 8.1. (line 881) +array environment: See 8.2. (line 892) +article class: See 3. (line 326) +b5paper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +book class: See 3. (line 326) +center environment: See 8.3. (line 939) +description environment: See 8.4. (line 976) +displaymath environment <1>: See 16. (line 2818) +displaymath environment: See 8.5. (line 999) +document environment: See 8.6. (line 1018) +draft option: See 3.1. (line 354) +enumerate environment: See 8.7. (line 1024) +eqnarray environment: See 8.8. (line 1065) +equation environment <1>: See 16. (line 2818) +equation environment: See 8.9. (line 1091) +executivepaper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +figure: See 8.10. (line 1104) +final option: See 3.1. (line 354) +fleqn option: See 3.1. (line 354) +flushleft environment: See 8.11. (line 1171) +flushright environment: See 8.12. (line 1197) +itemize environment: See 8.13. (line 1223) +landscape option: See 3.1. (line 354) +legalpaper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +leqno option: See 3.1. (line 354) +letter: See 8.14. (line 1336) +letter class: See 3. (line 326) +letterpaper option: See 3.1. (line 349) +list: See 8.15. (line 1341) +lR box: See 8.18. (line 1460) +lrbox: See 20.3. (line 4053) +math environment <1>: See 16. (line 2818) +math environment: See 8.16. (line 1363) +minipage environment: See 8.17. (line 1375) +notitlepage option: See 3.1. (line 354) +onecolumn option: See 3.1. (line 379) +oneside option: See 3.1. (line 379) +openany option: See 3.1. (line 379) +openbib option: See 3.1. (line 354) +openright option: See 3.1. (line 379) +picture: See 8.18. (line 1404) +quotation: See 8.19. (line 1658) +quote: See 8.20. (line 1673) +report class: See 3. (line 326) +slides class: See 3. (line 326) +tabbing environment: See 8.21. (line 1688) +table: See 8.22. (line 1780) +tabular environment: See 8.23. (line 1816) +thebibliography: See 8.24. (line 1970) +theorem environment: See 8.25. (line 2075) +titlepage environment: See 8.26. (line 2088) +titlepage option: See 3.1. (line 354) +twocolumn option: See 3.1. (line 379) +twoside option: See 3.1. (line 379) +verbatim environment: See 8.27. (line 2105) +verse environment: See 8.28. (line 2139) |