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-\section{Introduction}
-
-
-As a new technology, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has a wide
-range of applications \cite{Culler-01, Bahl-02, Akyildiz-01}, including
-environment monitoring, smart buildings, medical care, industrial and
-military applications. Among them, a recent trend is to develop
-commercial sensor networks that require pervasive sensing of both
-environment and human beings, for example, assisted living
-\cite{Akyildiz-02, Harvard-01,CROSSBOW} and smart homes
-\cite{Harvard-01, Adya-01,CROSSBOW}.
-% quote
-\begin{quote}
- ``For these applications, sensor devices are incorporated into human
- cloths \cite{Natarajan-01, Zhou-06, Bahl-02, Adya-01} for monitoring
- health related information like EKG readings, fall detection, and
- voice recognition''.
-\end{quote}
-While collecting all these multimedia information
-\cite{Akyildiz-02} requires a high network throughput, off-the-shelf
-sensor devices only provide very limited bandwidth in a single
-channel: 19.2\,Kbps in MICA2 \cite{Bahl-02} and 250\,Kbps in MICAz.
-
-In this article, we propose MMSN, abbreviation for Multifrequency
-Media access control for wireless Sensor Networks. The main
-contributions of this work can be summarized as follows.
-% itemize
-\begin{itemize}
-\item To the best of our knowledge, the MMSN protocol is the first
-multifrequency MAC protocol especially designed for WSNs, in which
-each device is equipped with a single radio transceiver and
-the MAC layer packet size is very small.
-\item Instead of using pairwise RTS/CTS frequency negotiation
-\cite{Adya-01, Culler-01, Tzamaloukas-01, Zhou-06},
-we propose lightweight frequency assignments, which are good choices
-for many deployed comparatively static WSNs.
-\item We develop new toggle transmission and snooping techniques to
-enable a single radio transceiver in a sensor device to achieve
-scalable performance, avoiding the nonscalable ``one
-control channel + multiple data channels'' design \cite{Natarajan-01}.
-\end{itemize}
-
-% Head 1
-\section{MMSN Protocol}
-
-% Head 2
-\subsection{Frequency Assignment}
-
-We propose a suboptimal distribution to be used by each node, which is
-easy to compute and does not depend on the number of competing
-nodes. A natural candidate is an increasing geometric sequence, in
-which
-% Numbered Equation
-\begin{equation}
-\label{eqn:01}
-P(t)=\frac{b^{\frac{t+1}{T+1}}-b^{\frac{t}{T+1}}}{b-1},
-\end{equation}
-where $t=0,{\ldots}\,,T$, and $b$ is a number greater than $1$.
-
-In our algorithm, we use the suboptimal approach for simplicity and
-generality. We need to make the distribution of the selected back-off
-time slice at each node conform to what is shown in
-Equation~\eqref{eqn:01}. It is implemented as follows: First, a random
-variable $\alpha$ with a uniform distribution within the interval $(0,
-1)$ is generated on each node, then time slice $i$ is selected
-according to the following equation:
-% Unnumbered Equation
-\[
-i=\lfloor(T+1)\log_b[\alpha(b-1)+1]\rfloor.
-\]
-It can be easily proven that the distribution of $i$ conforms to Equation
-(\ref{eqn:01}).
-
-So protocols \cite{Bahl-02, Culler-01,Zhou-06,Adya-01,
-Tzamaloukas-01, Akyildiz-01} that use RTS/CTS
-controls\footnote{RTS/CTS controls are required to be implemented by
-802.11-compliant devices. They can be used as an optional mechanism
-to avoid Hidden Terminal Problems in the 802.11 standard and
-protocols based on those similar to \cite{Akyildiz-01} and
-\cite{Adya-01}.} for frequency negotiation and reservation are not
-suitable for WSN applications, even though they exhibit good
-performance in general wireless ad-hoc
-networks.
-
-% Head 3
-\subsubsection{Exclusive Frequency Assignment}
-
-
-In exclusive frequency assignment, nodes first exchange their IDs
-among two communication hops so that each node knows its two-hop
-neighbors' IDs. In the second broadcast, each node beacons all
-neighbors' IDs it has collected during the first broadcast period.
-
-% Head 4
-\paragraph{Eavesdropping}
-
-Even though the even selection scheme leads to even sharing of
-available frequencies among any two-hop neighborhood, it involves a
-number of two-hop broadcasts. To reduce the communication cost, we
-propose a lightweight eavesdropping scheme.
-
-\subsection{Basic Notations}
-
-As Algorithm~\ref{alg:one} states, for each frequency
-number, each node calculates a random number (${\textit{Rnd}}_{\alpha}$) for
-itself and a random number (${\textit{Rnd}}_{\beta}$) for each of its two-hop
-neighbors with the same pseudorandom number generator.
-
-% Algorithm
-\begin{algorithm}[t]
-\SetAlgoNoLine
-\KwIn{Node $\alpha$'s ID ($ID_{\alpha}$), and node $\alpha$'s
-neighbors' IDs within two communication hops.}
-\KwOut{The frequency number ($FreNum_{\alpha}$) node $\alpha$ gets assigned.}
-$index$ = 0; $FreNum_{\alpha}$ = -1\;
-\Repeat{$FreNum_{\alpha} > -1$}{
- $Rnd_{\alpha}$ = Random($ID_{\alpha}$, $index$)\;
- $Found$ = $TRUE$\;
- \For{each node $\beta$ in $\alpha$'s two communication hops
- }{
- $Rnd_{\beta}$ = Random($ID_{\beta}$, $index$)\;
- \If{($Rnd_{\alpha} < Rnd_{\beta}$) \text{or} ($Rnd_{\alpha}$ ==
- $Rnd_{\beta}$ \text{and} $ID_{\alpha} < ID_{\beta}$)\;
- }{
- $Found$ = $FALSE$; break\;
- }
- }
- \eIf{$Found$}{
- $FreNum_{\alpha}$ = $index$\;
- }{
- $index$ ++\;
- }
- }
-\caption{Frequency Number Computation}
-\label{alg:one}
-\end{algorithm}
-
-
-Bus masters are divided into two disjoint sets, $\mathcal{M}_{RT}$
-and $\mathcal{M}_{NRT}$.
-% description
-\begin{description}
-\item[RT Masters]
-$\mathcal{M}_{RT}=\{ \vec{m}_{1},\dots,\vec{m}_{n}\}$ denotes the
-$n$ RT masters issuing real-time constrained requests. To model the
-current request issued by an $\vec{m}_{i}$ in $\mathcal{M}_{RT}$,
-three parameters---the recurrence time $(r_i)$, the service cycle
-$(c_i)$, and the relative deadline $(d_i)$---are used, with their
-relationships.
-\item[NRT Masters]
-$\mathcal{M}_{NRT}=\{ \vec{m}_{n+1},\dots,\vec{m}_{n+m}\}$ is a set
-of $m$ masters issuing nonreal-time constrained requests. In our
-model, each $\vec{m}_{j}$ in $\mathcal{M}_{NRT}$ needs only one
-parameter, the service cycle, to model the current request it
-issues.
-\end{description}
-
-Here, a question may arise, since each node has a global ID. Why
-don't we just map nodes' IDs within two hops into a group of
-frequency numbers and assign those numbers to all nodes within two
-hops?
-
-\section{Simulator}
-\label{sec:sim}
-
-If the model checker requests successors of a state which are not
-created yet, the state space uses the simulator to create the
-successors on-the-fly. To create successor states the simulator
-conducts the following steps.
-% enumerate
-\begin{enumerate}
-\item Load state into microcontroller model.
-\item Determine assignments needed for resolving nondeterminism.
-\item For each assignment.
- \begin{enumerate}
- \item either call interrupt handler or simulate effect of next instruction, or
- \item evaluate truth values of atomic propositions.
- \end{enumerate}
-\item Return resulting states.
-\end{enumerate}
-Figure~\ref{fig:one} shows a typical microcontroller C program that
-controls an automotive power window lift. The program is one of the
-programs used in the case study described in Section~\ref{sec:sim}.
-At first sight, the programs looks like an ANSI~C program. It
-contains function calls, assignments, if clauses, and while loops.
-% Figure
-\begin{figure}
- \includegraphics{mouse}
- \Description{A mouse}
- \caption{Code before preprocessing.}
- \label{fig:one}
-\end{figure}
-
-\subsection{Problem Formulation}
-
-The objective of variable coalescence-based offset assignment is to find
-both the coalescence scheme and the MWPC on the coalesced graph. We start
-with a few definitions and lemmas for variable coalescence.
-
-% Enunciations
-\begin{definition}[Coalesced Node (C-Node)]A C-node is a set of
-live ranges (webs) in the AG or IG that are coalesced. Nodes within the same
-C-node cannot interfere with each other on the IG. Before any coalescing is
-done, each live range is a C-node by itself.
-\end{definition}
-
-\begin{definition}[C-AG (Coalesced Access Graph)]The C-AG is the access
-graph after node coalescence, which is composed of all C-nodes and C-edges.
-\end{definition}
-
-\begin{lemma}
-The C-MWPC problem is NP-complete.
-\end{lemma}
-\begin{proof} C-MWPC can be easily reduced to the MWPC problem assuming a
-coalescence graph without any edge or a fully connected interference graph.
-Therefore, each C-node is an uncoalesced live range after value separation
-and C-PC is equivalent to PC. A fully connected interference graph is made
-possible when all live ranges interfere with each other. Thus, the C-MWPC
-problem is NP-complete.
-\end{proof}
-
-\begin{lemma}[Lemma Subhead]The solution to the C-MWPC problem is no
-worse than the solution to the MWPC.
-\end{lemma}
-\begin{proof}
-Simply, any solution to the MWPC is also a solution to the
-C-MWPC. But some solutions to C-MWPC may not apply to the MWPC (if any
-coalescing were made).
-\end{proof}
-
-\section{Performance Evaluation}
-
-During all the experiments, the Geographic Forwarding (GF) by Akyildiz
-et al.~\shortcite{Akyildiz-01} routing protocol is used. GF exploits
-geographic information of nodes and conducts local data-forwarding to
-achieve end-to-end routing. Our simulation is configured according to
-the settings in Table~\ref{tab:one}. Each run lasts for 2 minutes and
-repeated 100 times. For each data value we present in the results, we
-also give its 90\% confidence interval.
-
-% Table
-\begin{table}%
-\caption{Simulation Configuration}
-\label{tab:one}
-\begin{minipage}{\columnwidth}
-\begin{center}
-\begin{tabular}{ll}
- \toprule
- TERRAIN\footnote{This is a table footnote. This is a
- table footnote. This is a table footnote.} & (200m$\times$200m) Square\\
- Node Number & 289\\
- Node Placement & Uniform\\
- Application & Many-to-Many/Gossip CBR Streams\\
- Payload Size & 32 bytes\\
- Routing Layer & GF\\
- MAC Layer & CSMA/MMSN\\
- Radio Layer & RADIO-ACCNOISE\\
- Radio Bandwidth & 250Kbps\\
- Radio Range & 20m--45m\\
- \bottomrule
-\end{tabular}
-\end{center}
-\bigskip\centering
-\footnotesize\emph{Source:} This is a table
- sourcenote. This is a table sourcenote. This is a table
- sourcenote.
-
- \emph{Note:} This is a table footnote.
-\end{minipage}
-\end{table}%
-
-
-\section{Conclusions}
-
-In this article, we develop the first multifrequency MAC protocol for
-WSN applications in which each device adopts a
-single radio transceiver. The different MAC design requirements for
-WSNs and general wireless ad-hoc networks are
-compared, and a complete WSN multifrequency MAC design (MMSN) is
-put forth. During the MMSN design, we analyze and evaluate different
-choices for frequency assignments and also discuss the nonuniform
-back-off algorithms for the slotted media access design.
-
-% Start of "Sample References" section
-
-\section{Typical References in New ACM Reference Format}
-A paginated journal article \cite{Abril07}, an enumerated
-journal article \cite{Cohen07}, a reference to an entire issue \cite{JCohen96},
-a monograph (whole book) \cite{Kosiur01}, a monograph/whole book in a series (see 2a in spec. document)
-\cite{Harel79}, a divisible-book such as an anthology or compilation \cite{Editor00}
-followed by the same example, however we only output the series if the volume number is given
-\cite{Editor00a} (so Editor00a's series should NOT be present since it has no vol. no.),
-a chapter in a divisible book \cite{Spector90}, a chapter in a divisible book
-in a series \cite{Douglass98}, a multi-volume work as book \cite{Knuth97},
-an article in a proceedings (of a conference, symposium, workshop for example)
-(paginated proceedings article) \cite{Andler79}, a proceedings article
-with all possible elements \cite{Smith10}, an example of an enumerated
-proceedings article \cite{VanGundy07},
-an informally published work \cite{Harel78}, a doctoral dissertation \cite{Clarkson85},
-a master's thesis: \cite{anisi03}, an online document / world wide web
-resource \cite{Thornburg01, Ablamowicz07, Poker06}, a video game (Case 1) \cite{Obama08} and (Case 2) \cite{Novak03}
-and \cite{Lee05} and (Case 3) a patent \cite{JoeScientist001},
-work accepted for publication \cite{rous08}, 'YYYYb'-test for prolific author
-\cite{SaeediMEJ10} and \cite{SaeediJETC10}. Other cites might contain
-'duplicate' DOI and URLs (some SIAM articles) \cite{Kirschmer:2010:AEI:1958016.1958018}.
-Boris / Barbara Beeton: multi-volume works as books
-\cite{MR781536} and \cite{MR781537}.
-
-A couple of citations with DOIs: \cite{2004:ITE:1009386.1010128,
- Kirschmer:2010:AEI:1958016.1958018}.
-
-Online citations: \cite{TUGInstmem, Thornburg01, CTANacmart}.
-
-% Appendix
-\appendix
-\section{Switching Times}
-
-In this appendix, we measure the channel switching time of Micaz
-\cite{CROSSBOW} sensor devices. In our experiments, one mote
-alternatingly switches between Channels~11 and~12. Every time after
-the node switches to a channel, it sends out a packet immediately and
-then changes to a new channel as soon as the transmission is finished.
-We measure the number of packets the test mote can send in 10 seconds,
-denoted as $N_{1}$. In contrast, we also measure the same value of the
-test mote without switching channels, denoted as $N_{2}$. We calculate
-the channel-switching time $s$ as
-\begin{displaymath}%
-s=\frac{10}{N_{1}}-\frac{10}{N_{2}}.
-\end{displaymath}%
-By repeating the experiments 100 times, we get the average
-channel-switching time of Micaz motes: 24.3\,$\mu$s.
-
-\section{Supplementary Materials}
-
-
-\begin{printonly}
- See the supplementary materials in the online version
-\end{printonly}
-
-\begin{screenonly}
-\subsection{This is an Example of Appendix Subsection Head}
-
-Channel-switching time is measured as the time length it takes for
-motes to successfully switch from one channel to another. This
-parameter impacts the maximum network throughput, because motes
-cannot receive or send any packet during this period of time, and it
-also affects the efficiency of toggle snooping in MMSN, where motes
-need to sense through channels rapidly.
-
-By repeating experiments 100 times, we get the average
-channel-switching time of Micaz motes: 24.3 $\mu$s. We then conduct
-the same experiments with different Micaz motes, as well as
-experiments with the transmitter switching from Channel 11 to other
-channels. In both scenarios, the channel-switching time does not have
-obvious changes. (In our experiments, all values are in the range of
-23.6 $\mu$s to 24.9 $\mu$s.)
-
-\subsection{Appendix Subsection Head}
-
-The primary consumer of energy in WSNs is idle listening. The key to
-reduce idle listening is executing low duty-cycle on nodes. Two
-primary approaches are considered in controlling duty-cycles in the
-MAC layer.
-
-\end{screenonly}
-
-\begin{acks}
-
-The authors would like to thank Dr. Maura Turolla of Telecom
-Italia for providing specifications about the application scenario.
-
-The work is supported by the \grantsponsor{GS501100001809}{National
- Natural Science Foundation of
- China}{http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001809} under Grant
-No.:~\grantnum{GS501100001809}{61273304\_a}
-and~\grantnum[http://www.nnsf.cn/youngscientists]{GS501100001809}{Young
- Scientists' Support Program}.
-
-
-\end{acks}
-
-% Bibliography
-\bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format}
-\bibliography{sample-bibliography}