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-
-\input mmmacs
-\input mmtrmacs
-
-\def\q{\hfill\quad}
-\def\os{\oldstyle}
-\font\logo=logo10
-\def\MF{{\logo METAFONT}}
-\parindent=0pt
-
-\def\today{\number\day\space\ifcase\month\or January\or February\or March\or April\or May\or
- June\or July\or August\or September\or October\or November\or December\fi
- \space\number\year}
-
-\headline={{\it preliminary version of \today \hfil Typesetting Malayalam with \TeX}}
-
-
-\centerline{\twelvebf Typesetting Malayalam with \TeX}\bigskip
-\centerline{Jeroen Hellingman}\bigskip
-
-{\narrower
-\noindent{\bf Abstract}\medskip
-
-\noindent Malayalam, a language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala,
-employs a beautiful but complicated script. This script uses numerous
-ligatures and places glyphs on top of each other and out of phonetic
-order. To be able to typeset Malayalam, a \MF\ containing all
-necessary letter forms, a pre-processor and a collection of
-\TeX-macro's were designed. Together they form a package called
-Malayalam-\TeX. This package enables the user to type Malayalam in an
-adaptable roman transliteration, which after being processed by the
-pre-processor, can be typeset with \TeX.
-
-During the design and development of the package, several shortcomings
-of the \TeX\ system appeared, which made a straightforward
-implementation of the Malayalam script difficult. Several additions to
-\TeX\ would have made the pre-processor unnecessary. Still, \MF\ and
-\TeX\ together proved to be a powerful tool that made the development
-of the package an enjoyable task.\par}
-
-\beginsection Introduction
-
-The Malayalam language, ({\mm \X{\<46>}\X{\<50>}\X{\<47>\<62>}\X{\<51>}\X{\<2>}}), which is the first language of
-an estimated {\os30}~million people in the South Indian state Kerala,
-uses its own script, which is characterised by curly shaped
-characters. It is believed that those rounded shapes developed because
-it was written on palm leaves with a metal nib, which would have
-pricked through the medium, if the script had contained sharp curves.
-The same rounded shapes can be found in the other South Indian and
-Sri~Lankan scripts, which are all closely related to Malayalam script.
-
-Through the centuries, Malayalam has been written in various scripts
-and variations of scripts. Until a few centuries ago, the Malayalam
-language was normally written in the Old Tamil or {\mm \X{\<46>}\X{\<242>\<63>}\X{\<51>\K{-.2}\<51>}}
-({\mmtr Mappi\d l\d la}) alphabet, also known as {\mm \X{\<53>}\X{\<70>\<164>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>\<72>}}
-({\mmtr va\d t\d te\b zuttu}), the `rounded characters'. This script however, did
-not contain many letters necessary for writing Sanskrit. They became
-necessary in writing Malayalam since the language absorbed many
-Sanskrit loans, which could only be written in an ambiguous way.
-
-To overcome those problems, the {\os17}th~century poet {\mm \X{\<36>\<72>}\X{\<70>\<186>}\X{\<165>\<72>}
-\X{\<14>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>}\X{\mmV{\<26>}\<27>}\X{\<79>}} ({\mmtr Tu\~njettu E\b zuttaccha\b n})\footnote*{literally
-``Father of Letters.''} adopted the modern Malayalam script, the
-so-called {\mm \X{\<6>}\X{\<80>\<47>}\X{\<70>\<53>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>\<72>}} ({\mmtr \=Aryave\b zuttu}) or `Aryan characters'
-from the Tamil Grantha alphabet to render Sanskrit poetry in
-Malayalam. Tamil Grantha, in its turn, was derived from the ancient
-Brahmi script. His alphabet quickly became the standard for writing
-Malayalam. (however, a variant of the old script, called {\mm \X{\<71>\<21>\<62>}\X{\<70>\<50>}\X{\<52>\<72>}\X{\<165>\<72>}}
-({\mmtr k\=ole\b zuttu}) was in use far into this century for keeping records
-in the Raja's palaces.)
-
-The Malayalam script still looks very similar to the Tamil script, but
-unlike Tamil, it uses complex conjunct characters, with letters
-subscribed to others, and out of phonetic order, as can be seen in
-most Indian scripts.
-
-With the introduction of the printing press in Kerala, somewhere in
-the {\os18}th~century, printing letters for Malayalam where designed,
-modelled after the, at that time, popular Latin Bodoni types, with
-large differences between thin and thick strokes. Printing Malayalam,
-however, proved to be quite complicated; in traditional typography,
-several hundreds of distinct lead glyphs where needed to typeset the
-language.
-
-To ease learning and typesetting, the government of the state of
-Kerala adopted a reformed script in {\os1974}. It abandons most of the
-subscribed conjuncts and all the irregular vowel signs. Although this
-script is now teached in all schools in Kerala, and newspapers are
-printed in it, the original script is still in widespread use, and
-mixtures of the two styles in one document can be seen regularly. In
-the following section I will explain the reformed script.
-
-\beginsection The Malayalam Script
-
-Like all scripts derived from Brahmi, Malayalam script is neither
-purely syllabic, nor purely alphabetic. The modern alphabet consists
-of {\os61}~syllabic characters, {\os15}~for the pure vowel sounds, and
-{\os36}~for the consonants followed by an `inherent'~{\mmtr a}. To write a
-syllable with another vowel, a special sign is applied to the normal
-consonant character. When two consonants appear next to each other
-without an intermediate vowel, They are joined to each other in some
-way.
-
-Traditionally, the Malayalam syllabary has been ordered, following the
-Sanskrit order, on phonetic principles, putting related sounds
-together. For the sounds not used in Sanskrit, new letters where added
-to the end of the syllabary.
-
-\noindent The vowels are:\footnote*{The traditional alphabet also
-includes the Sanskrit vowels {\mm \X{\<96>}}, {\mm \X{\<12>}}, and {\mm \X{\<97>}} for respectively
-{\mmtr {\rii}}, {\mmtr \d l}, and {\mmtr {\lii}}.}
-
-\bigskip
-\centerline{\vbox{\twelvemmc\halign{#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\cr
-{\mm \X{\<5>}} & {\mm \X{\<6>}} & {\mm \X{\<7>}} & {\mm \X{\<7>\<87>}} & {\mm \X{\<9>}} & {\mm \X{\<9>\<87>}} & {\mm \X{\<11>}} \cr
-{\mmtr a} & {\mmtr \=a} & {\mmtr i} & {\mmtr {\=\i}} & {\mmtr u} & {\mmtr \=u} & {\mmtr \d r} \cr
-{\mm \X{\<14>}} & {\mm \X{\<15>}} & {\mm \X{\<70>\<14>}} & {\mm \X{\<18>}} & {\mm \X{\<18>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<18>\<87>}} \cr
-{\mmtr e} & {\mmtr \=e} & {\mmtr ai}& {\mmtr o} & {\mmtr \=o}& {\mmtr au} \cr
-}}}
-\bigskip
-
-\noindent After the vowels, are normally listed the modifiers {\mm \<2>},
-{\mmtr \d m}, and {\mm \<3>}, {\mmtr \d h}. They are called {\it anusvaram} and {\it
-visargam} and represent a nasal sound and a aspiration respectively.
-
-The consonants are:
-
-\bigskip
-\centerline{\vbox{\twelvemmc\halign{#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q\q\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\cr
-{\mm \X{\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<22>}} & {\mm \X{\<23>}} & {\mm \X{\<24>}} & {\mm \X{\<25>}} & {\mm \X{\<47>}} & {\mm \X{\<48>}} & {\mm \X{\<50>}} & {\mm \X{\<53>}} \cr
-{\mmtr ka} & {\mmtr kha} & {\mmtr ga} & {\mmtr gha} & {\mmtr \.na} & {\mmtr ya} & {\mmtr ra} & {\mmtr la} & {\mmtr va} \cr
-{\mm \X{\<26>}} & {\mm \X{\<27>}} & {\mm \X{\<28>}} & {\mm \X{\<29>}} & {\mm \X{\<30>}} & {\mm \X{\<54>}} & {\mm \X{\<55>}} & {\mm \X{\<56>}} \cr
-{\mmtr ca} & {\mmtr cha} & {\mmtr ja} & {\mmtr jha} & {\mmtr \~na} & {\mmtr \'sa} & {\mmtr \d sa} & {\mmtr sa} \cr
-{\mm \X{\<31>}} & {\mm \X{\<32>}} & {\mm \X{\<33>}} & {\mm \X{\<34>}} & {\mm \X{\<35>}} & {\mm \X{\<57>}} & {\mm \X{\<51>}} & {\mm \X{\<52>}} & {\mm \X{\<49>}} \cr
-{\mmtr \d ta} & {\mmtr \d tha} & {\mmtr \d da} & {\mmtr \d dha} & {\mmtr \d na} & {\mmtr ha} & {\mmtr \d la} & {\mmtr \b za} & {\mmtr \b ra} \cr
-{\mm \X{\<36>}} & {\mm \X{\<37>}} & {\mm \X{\<38>}} & {\mm \X{\<39>}} & {\mm \X{\<40>}} \cr
-{\mmtr ta} & {\mmtr tha} & {\mmtr da} & {\mmtr dha} & {\mmtr na} \cr
-{\mm \X{\<42>}} & {\mm \X{\<43>}} & {\mm \X{\<44>}} & {\mm \X{\<45>}} & {\mm \X{\<46>}} \cr
-{\mmtr pa} & {\mmtr pha} & {\mmtr ba} & {\mmtr bha} & {\mmtr ma} \cr
-}}}
-\bigskip
-
-\noindent When a vowel follows a consonant, it is written with a vowel
-sign, some of them standing to the left, or on both sides of the
-consonant to which they belong. This can be quite confusing in the
-when one starts learning the script. Here the vowel signs are given
-with the letter {\mm \X{\<21>}}, {\it{\mmtr ka}}:
-
-\bigskip
-\centerline{\vbox{\twelvemmc\halign{#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\q&#\cr
-{\mm \X{\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<63>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<64>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<72>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<73>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<75>}} \cr
-{\mmtr ka} & {\mmtr k\=a} & {\mmtr ki} & {\mmtr k{\=\i}} & {\mmtr ku} & {\mmtr k\=u} & {\mmtr k\d r} \cr
-{\mm \X{\<70>\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<71>\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<70>\<70>\<21>}} & {\mm \X{\<70>\<21>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<71>\<21>\<62>}} & {\mm \X{\<21>\<87>}} \cr
-{\mmtr ke} & {\mmtr k\=e} & {\mmtr kai}& {\mmtr ko} & {\mmtr k\=o}& {\mmtr kau} \cr
-}}}
-\bigskip
-
-\noindent The biggest complexities arise when two consonants follow
-each other. In that case there are several alternatives. First, the
-consonants are joined with each other to form a new conjunct, like in
-{\mm \X{\<162>}}, {\mm \X{\<194>}}, and {\mm \X{\<187>}}; second one can write the second consonant as
-a subscript to the first, like in {\mm \X{\<242>}}, and {\mm \X{\<241>}}; the third option
-is to use a special symbol, {\mm \<77>}, called {\mm \X{\<26>}\X{\<74>\<195>}\X{\<21>}\X{\<50>}},
-{\it{\mmtr candrakala}}, to indicate the absence of the inherent vowel in
-a consonant. This symbol is also used when a word ends in a consonant.
-Several letters form a ligature with this sign: {\mm \X{\<94>}} for {\mm \X{\<21>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<78>}} for
-{\mm \X{\<35>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<81>}} for {\mm \X{\<36>}\<77>} or {\mm \X{\<50>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<79>}} for {\mm \X{\<40>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<2>}} for {\mm \X{\<46>}\<77>}, {\mm \X{\<80>}} for
-{\mm \X{\<48>}\<77>}, and {\mm \X{\<82>}} for {\mm \X{\<51>}\<77>}.
-
-Some consonants have a special sign when they occur as the last
-element of a consonant cluster:
-{\mm \X{\<47>}} becomes {\mm {}\hbox{}\<83>} as in {\mm \X{\<21>\<83>}}, {\it{\mmtr kya}};
-{\mm \X{\<48>}} becomes {\mm {}\<74>\hbox{}} , standing to the left of the cluster, as in
-{\mm \X{\<74>\<21>}}, {\it{\mmtr kra}};
-{\mm \X{\<50>}} becomes {\mm {}\M{\hbox{}}{\<85>}}, as in {\mm \X{\M{\<21>}{\<85>}}}, {\it{\mmtr kla}}; and
-{\mm \X{\<53>}} becomes {\mm {}\hbox{}\K{-.5}\<86>} as in {\mm \X{\<21>\K{-.5}\<86>}}, {\it{\mmtr kva}}.
-
-\beginsection The font
-
-I faced several problems while designing the font for Malayalam: I
-have no knowledge of the language; I had no clear arrangement of all
-needed conjuncts, nor a good example typeface, which I could use as a
-guideline; and finally, I also had very little experience with \MF.
-
-After some trials, in which I produced Malayalam letters in the
-traditional typographic style, I decided to switch to a `script' style
-of letters, for two reasons. First designing and coding a font in the
-traditional style, with unnatural thick-thin transistions --~i.e.,
-transistions that do not appear when writing with a calligraphic
-pen~--, would have costed a lot of time, which I could not spend on
-it. Second, the traditional design is hard on the eyes, because it has
-a big difference between thick and thin. It often produces a page
-which looks `stained' from distance, instead of the more evenly
-distributed gray you see when you look at a page typeset in English.
-
-After this decision was made, I proceeded as follows. First, I drew
-each character about {\os2}~centimetres high out of free hand on graph
-paper with a yellow marker-pen, the same type you use to highlight
-text. When I was satisfied with this character, I decided where to put
-control points, and marked them with a black dot, measured the
-positions of the dots on the graph paper and coded them, together with
-the path my pen had made through those points, in \MF. After running
-\MF\ the character appeared on the screen for the first time. When I
-was not satisfied with its look, I would move some control points a
-bit, and re-run \MF. I repeated this process until I was satisfied
-with the character.
-
-Because many conjuncts consist of a part of each of the characters it
-is build up of, I defined a macro for most consonants. This way all
-that was needed to define the shape of a conjunct was a macro-call for
-each of the constituent consonants, sometimes adjusting some points
-where one consonant goes over into the other.
-
-This way of producing characters has proven very productive. I spend
-on average about half an hour per character --~although I needed
-several hours to get some, notably {\mm \X{\<28>}} and {\mm \X{\<47>}}, right~-- Still the
-results are acceptable, thanks to \MF, which does a great job of
-producing nice curves.
-
-Malayalam script includes many conjuncts of consonants which are build
-by placing a smaller variant of the glyph of the second consonant
-below the normal sized glyph of the first consonant. To avoid coding
-these smaller consonants again, I decided to create a second font,
-called the {\it subfont\/}, which contains only the characters that
-can be subscribed. This font uses the same code to produce the glyphs,
-but \MF-parameters have been adjusted, so that this font combines well
-with the `main'-font. The job of combining glyphs from the `sub' and
-`main' font to create stacked conjuncts is left to \TeX.
-
-My way of coding glyphs results in little `{\logo META}-ness'. Unlike
-Donald Knuth's Computer Modern fonts, only a few variations in letter
-style can be derived from the \MF-source. I produced several styles: a
-regular, slanted, and bold style drawn with a circular pen, and a
-style drawn with a `calligraphic' (elliptical) pen, in {\os6}, {\os8},
-{\os10}, {\os12}, and {\os17} point sizes. Beside those those, I
-created some `big' bold fonts for headlines and a few more
-experimental fonts. A sample of each style is given in appendix~C.
-
-\beginsection Typesetting Malayalam
-
-When you have a font for the English alphabet, typesetting is
-straightforward. Roughly speaking, all you have to do is to place the
-letters in a row, in the same order as you type them, taking care to
-move to the next line when the current line is filled up. There is
-roughly a one-to-one relationship between characters, letters, and
-glyphs. Typesetting Malayalam text is much more complicated. You have
-to use conjuncts, stack glyphs on top of each other, or place glyphs
-that represent sounds that come after a consonant before the glyph of
-representing that consonant.
-
-But when we look at Malayalam script from a different position, it can
-be said to consist of syllables, which are just as easily placed on a
-line from left to right as English. The remaining problem is how to
-construct the syllables.
-
-Here it is where \TeX's box-building capabilities come to the rescue.
-To build a syllable, you can put a glyph in a box, place it relative
-to another character, and put the resulting construction into another
-box for use it in further constructing, until the syllable is
-complete, and it can be added to the current line.
-
-As has been shown by the implementation of Telugu-\TeX\ [???], it is
-possible to let \TeX\ do all the necessary processing, however, at a
-high cost in both processor load and memory usage at run time, which
-makes it impossible to use Telugu-\TeX\ on a small personal computer.
-Also, programming these tasks in the \TeX-programming language is
-awkward, requiring many `dirty tricks'. For these reasons I decided to
-implement a pre-processor, written in~C, which does most of the
-syllable-composing work.
-
-Another problem in typesetting Malayalam is that this language has
-many very long `words'. Both in speaking as in writing, the boundaries
-between words tend to disappear, and often the last letter of a word
-changes and/or forms a conjunct with the first of the next word. This
-effect, know as `Sandhi', appears in most languages, but in Malayalam
-it is quite prominent, and also reflected in the orthography. As a
-result, a text contains very long sequences of characters and few
-spaces, which can serve as line-break points. As a result, it is
-difficult to obtain even spacing between words, especially in narrow
-columns. Several of \TeX's line-breaking parameters had to be adjusted
-to get acceptable results.
-
-\beginsection Typing Malayalam
-
-Now that we have all the elements to {\it output\/} Malayalam, we need
-some way to {\it input\/} it. Unfortunately, I have no keyboard or
-editor on which I can type Malayalam script directly. So I was forced
-to use some transcription scheme in ASCII. The transcription I decided
-to use was based on the following principles. First it should be
-easily readable, avoiding as much as possible non-letters and capital
-letters in the middle of words, non-ambiguous, so that it can be
-converted automatically, easily recognisable, and finally, besides
-being able to produce Malayalam text from it, I wanted to be able to
-create a scientific transcription from the same source.
-
-However desirable some standard transcription may be, people can be
-very `religious' about what they consider a good transcription-scheme.
-Beside that they can also have huge texts already available in some
-transcription, and be unwilling to convert that, so I decided to have
-the pre-processor read the transcription from a file, which can easily
-be changed to reflect the users favourite transcription.
-
-The transcription method is only of limited use to native speakers,
-who may not even know the roman alphabet, and also awkward for
-entering large pieces of text, since many typing errors only show up
-when the text is seen after processing by \TeX, so it should be
-replaced by some way of entering text directly.
-
-\beginsection Some thoughts on a future \TeX\par
-
-Creating a typesetting system for Malayalam was an enjoyable task, in
-which \TeX\ and \MF\ proved to be very powerful tools. Still, many
-things remain to be desired. The pre-processing stage, and the need to
-represent non-Latin scripts with a sequence of inpenetratable commands
-to typeset glyphs is far from ideal. A much more workable scheme would
-be to have \TeX\ understand that some characters are Malayalam
-characters, while others are Latin or from yet another script, and
-have \TeX\ typeset them as such correctly, including contextual
-analysis.
-
-This first of all raises the issue of character-sets. Some few years
-ago, Donald Knuth decided to move from 7-bit to 8-bit characters, as a
-final concession to user-demand for multi-lingual support, but by now
-it would be very desirous to make the leap to 16-bit characters, and
-have \TeX\ understand the emerging 16-bit Unicode or ISO-10464~UCS
-character set standard, and make \TeX\ really
-multi-lingual.\footnote*{multi-lingual does not mean `omni'-lingual,
-since many more obscure or obsolete writing systems have been left
-out of ISO-10464}
-
-Having all the characters defined isn't enough. \TeX\ needs to deal
-with them in a way that makes sense. Nowadays, \TeX\ only truly
-understands two writing systems --~that of English, and that of
-mathematics~-- and does a wonderful, although not perfect, job in
-handling those. But other scripts require some kind of pre-processor,
-or extremely clever hacking with \TeX-macros, as is is done in Klaus
-Lagally's Arab\TeX\ or in Telugu-\TeX. A more elegant solution would
-be to add more modes to \TeX, for example an Arabic-mode for the
-Arabic script, and a Malayalam mode for Malayalam script --~one can,
-however, also imagine one generalized mode for all Indic scripts~--,
-and to take the idea further, a mode for music and dance notation, and
-chemical structure formulas.
-
-I suggest to take a modular approach in creating these modes, to make
-the development of these a managable task; no single person can know
-all the relevant details of all writing systems. A script or writing
-system `module' or `driver' would come into action whenever a
-character of its script, or token requiring the explicit change of
-mode, is encountered, and handle all consequent characters and tokens,
-until one arrives that it cannot handle --~these may include some
-normal tokens like a `space' character, which is common in most
-writing systems.
-
-While processing its part of the input, a module will add boxes to the
-current horizontal list, which will then be handled by \TeX's
-paragraph handling mechanism as usual --~although some extensions may
-be needed, as to handle right-to-left and top-down scripts correctly.
-
-Each script module would have its own active fonts, and knowledge of
-how to represent characters with the glyphs of that font. An extended
-font metric format should provide information about how to build
-conjunct forms or use contextual variants of glyphs available in a
-font.
-
-A nice starting point may be the Japanese P-\TeX-system, which already
-supports a 16-bit character set, and also incorporates code to do
-vertical typesetting as is required by some writing systems. The
-adaptation of P-\TeX\ to Unicode for at least the ideographic
-characters will be reasonable straightforward. Adding the various
-script modules and extra character-categories may be more difficult.
-
-In the long term, I favour, however, a completely redesigned batch
-oriented text formatter like \TeX, but one that understands Unicode
-and uses functional instead of typographical tagging of the input
-text. Preferably it would understand SGML, and format this using some
-lay-out style definition, which then should be defined in a language
-less arcane than \TeX's.
-
-\MF, I would like to see develop into an interactive program, in which
-points, constrains between points and pen strokes through them can be
-added or moved and their effects can be seen immediately. I very much
-prefer the its pen-stroke metaphor above the outline editing most
-other font design tools offer, but maybe the idea of changing
-`pressure' on or rotation of the a pen during its movement can be
-incorporated in this metaphor as well. Its output should ofcourse be
-typographically scalable, and also modifiable to add effects like
-slanting, bolding, or stretching, --~to align lines of
-Arabic or Hebrew script, or, as I have once seen in a beautiful
-handwritten letter in Tamil, in scripts where it has not been done
-before because of techical limitations~-- in a typographycally
-acceptable way.
-
-\beginsection Conclusion
-
-Because of the powers of \TeX, and its companion \MF, automated
-typesetting of the traditional script is no longer a big problem.
-Malayalam \TeX\ can both produce the traditional style script and the
-reformed script, as well as a scientific transliteration from the same
-input file.
-
-The world knows many scripts, many of them have only a very limited
-use, --~compared with some of them, Malayalam, is a very widely used
-script. As shown with my experience with Malayalam, it is only several
-months of work to obtain acceptable typesetting quality for most
-scripts (The exception being ideographic or logographic scripts as
-Chinese), thus bringing computerized typography within the reach of
-many people.
-
-\beginsection Appendix A
-
-The following table shows all glyphs in the Malayalam font {\tt mm10}.
-\bigskip
-\input mmchart.tex
-\table mm10
-
-\beginsection Appendix B
-
-A sample of text in Malayalam, typeset in {\tt mm10}, using the
-traditional script, followed by an automatically derived transcription,
-an English translation, and finally the transcription actually input.
-\bigskip
-\input lion.tex
-
-\beginsection Appendix C
-
-\input mmsample
-
-\beginsection Appendix D
-
-The following table shows the character(s) you have to type in order
-to produce a Malayalam character. The third column shows the
-scientific transliteration of each character.
-\bigskip
-\input mmtrans
-
-\bye