LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual 1 About this document 2 Overview of LaTeX 3 Document classes 4 Fonts 5 Layout 6 Sectioning 7 Cross references 8 Environments 9 Line breaking 10 Page breaking 11 Footnotes 12 Definitions 13 Counters 14 Lengths 15 Making paragraphs 16 Math formulas 17 Modes 18 Page styles 19 Spaces 20 Boxes 21 Color 22 Graphics 23 Special insertions 24 Splitting the input 25 Front/back matter 26 Letters 27 Input/output 28 Command line interface Appendix A Document templates Index LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual 1 About this document 2 Overview of LaTeX 2.1 Starting and ending 2.2 Output files 2.3 TeX engines 2.4 LaTeX command syntax 2.5 Environment 2.6 CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network 3 Document classes 3.1 Document class options 3.2 Additional packages 3.3 Class and package construction 3.3.1 Class and package structure 3.3.2 Class and package commands 4 Fonts 4.1 'fontenc' package 4.1.1 '\DeclareFontEncoding' 4.1.2 '\DeclareTextAccent' 4.1.3 '\DeclareTextAccentDefault' 4.1.4 '\DeclareTextCommand' & '\ProvideTextCommand' 4.1.5 '\DeclareTextCommandDefault' & '\ProvideTextCommandDefault ' 4.1.6 '\DeclareTextComposite' 4.1.7 '\DeclareTextCompositeCommand' 4.1.8 '\DeclareTextSymbol' 4.1.9 '\DeclareTextSymbolDefault' 4.1.10 '\LastDeclaredEncoding' 4.1.11 '\UseTextSymbol' & '\UseTextAccent' 4.2 Font styles 4.3 Font sizes 4.4 Low-level font commands 5 Layout 5.1 '\onecolumn' 5.2 '\twocolumn' 5.3 '\flushbottom' 5.4 '\raggedbottom' 5.5 Page layout parameters 5.6 '\baselineskip' & '\baselinestretch' 5.7 Floats 6 Sectioning 6.1 '\part' 6.2 '\chapter' 6.3 '\section' 6.4 '\subsection' 6.5 '\subsubsection', '\paragraph', '\subparagraph' 6.6 '\appendix' 6.7 '\frontmatter', '\mainmatter', '\backmatter' 6.8 '\@startsection', typesetting sectional unit headings 7 Cross references 7.1 '\label' 7.2 '\pageref' 7.3 '\ref' 7.4 'xr' package 8 Environments 8.1 'abstract' 8.2 'array' 8.3 'center' 8.3.1 '\centering' 8.4 'description' 8.5 'displaymath' 8.6 'document' 8.6.1 '\AtBeginDocument' 8.6.2 '\AtEndDocument' 8.7 'enumerate' 8.8 'eqnarray' 8.9 'equation' 8.10 'figure' 8.11 'filecontents' 8.12 'flushleft' 8.12.1 '\raggedright' 8.13 'flushright' 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' 8.14 'itemize' 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters 8.16 'list' 8.16.1 '\item': An entry in a list 8.16.2 'trivlist': A restricted form of 'list' 8.17 'math' 8.18 'minipage' 8.19 'picture' 8.19.1 '\put' 8.19.2 '\multiput' 8.19.3 '\qbezier' 8.19.4 '\graphpaper' 8.19.5 '\line' 8.19.6 '\linethickness' 8.19.7 '\thinlines' 8.19.8 '\thicklines' 8.19.9 '\circle' 8.19.10 '\oval' 8.19.11 '\shortstack' 8.19.12 '\vector' 8.19.13 '\makebox' (picture) 8.19.14 '\framebox' (picture) 8.19.15 '\frame' 8.19.16 '\dashbox' 8.20 'quotation' & 'quote' 8.21 'tabbing' 8.22 'table' 8.23 'tabular' 8.23.1 '\multicolumn' 8.23.2 '\vline' 8.23.3 '\cline' 8.23.4 '\hline' 8.24 'thebibliography' 8.24.1 '\bibitem' 8.24.2 '\cite' 8.24.3 '\nocite' 8.24.4 Using BibTeX 8.25 'theorem' 8.26 'titlepage' 8.27 'verbatim' 8.27.1 '\verb' 8.28 'verse' 9 Line breaking 9.1 '\\' 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' 9.3 '\newline' 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) 9.5 '\discretionary' (generalized hyphenation point) 9.6 '\fussy' & '\sloppy' 9.6.1 'sloppypar' 9.7 '\hyphenation' 9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' 10 Page breaking 10.1 '\clearpage' & '\cleardoublepage' 10.2 '\newpage' 10.3 '\enlargethispage' 10.4 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' 11 Footnotes 11.1 '\footnote' 11.2 '\footnotemark' 11.3 '\footnotetext' 11.4 Footnotes in section headings 11.5 Footnotes in a table 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes 12 Definitions 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' 12.2 '\providecommand' 12.3 '\makeatletter' & '\makeatother' 12.4 '\@ifstar' 12.5 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter 12.6 '\newlength' 12.7 '\newsavebox' 12.8 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' 12.9 '\newtheorem' 12.10 '\newfont' 12.11 '\protect' 12.12 '\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend' 12.13 xspace package 13 Counters 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters 13.2 '\usecounter' 13.3 '\value' 13.4 '\setcounter' 13.5 '\addtocounter' 13.6 '\refstepcounter' 13.7 '\stepcounter' 13.8 '\day' & '\month' & '\year' 14 Lengths 14.1 Units of length 14.2 '\setlength' 14.3 '\addtolength' 14.4 '\settodepth' 14.5 '\settoheight' 14.6 '\settowidth' 14.7 '\stretch' 14.8 Expressions 15 Making paragraphs 15.1 '\par' 15.2 '\indent' & '\noindent' 15.3 '\parindent' & '\parskip' 15.4 Marginal notes 16 Math formulas 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts 16.2 Math symbols 16.2.1 Arrows 16.2.2 '\boldmath' & '\unboldmath' 16.2.3 Blackboard bold 16.2.4 Calligraphic 16.2.5 Delimiters 16.2.5.1 '\left' & '\right' 16.2.5.2 '\bigl', '\bigr', etc. 16.2.6 Dots, horizontal or vertical 16.2.7 Greek letters 16.3 Math functions 16.4 Math accents 16.5 Over- and Underlining 16.6 Spacing in math mode 16.6.1 '\smash' 16.6.2 '\phantom' & '\vphantom' & '\hphantom' 16.6.3 '\mathstrut' 16.7 Math miscellany 16.7.1 Colon character ':' & '\colon' 16.7.2 '\*' 16.7.3 '\frac' 16.7.4 '\sqrt' 16.7.5 '\stackrel' 17 Modes 17.1 '\ensuremath' 18 Page styles 18.1 '\maketitle' 18.2 '\pagenumbering' 18.3 '\pagestyle' 18.4 '\thispagestyle' 19 Spaces 19.1 '\enspace' & '\quad' & '\qquad' 19.2 '\hspace' 19.3 '\hfill' 19.4 '\hss' 19.5 '\spacefactor' 19.5.1 '\@' 19.5.2 '\frenchspacing' 19.5.3 '\normalsfcodes' 19.6 Backslash-space, '\ ' 19.7 '~' 19.8 '\thinspace' & '\negthinspace' 19.9 '\/' 19.10 '\hrulefill' & '\dotfill' 19.11 '\bigskip' & '\medskip' & '\smallskip' 19.12 '\bigbreak' & '\medbreak' & '\smallbreak' 19.13 '\strut' 19.14 '\vspace' 19.15 '\vfill' 19.16 '\addvspace' 20 Boxes 20.1 '\mbox' & '\makebox' 20.2 '\fbox' & '\framebox' 20.3 '\parbox' 20.4 '\raisebox' 20.5 '\sbox' & '\savebox' 20.6 'lrbox' 20.7 '\usebox' 21 Color 21.1 'color' package options 21.2 Color models 21.3 Commands for color 21.3.1 Define colors 21.3.2 Colored text 21.3.3 Colored boxes 21.3.4 Colored pages 22 Graphics 22.1 'graphics' package options 22.2 'graphics' package configuration 22.2.1 '\graphicspath' 22.2.2 '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' 22.2.3 '\DeclareGraphicsRule' 22.3 Commands for graphics 22.3.1 '\includegraphics' 22.3.2 '\rotatebox' 22.3.3 '\scalebox' 22.3.4 '\resizebox' 23 Special insertions 23.1 Reserved characters 23.2 Upper and lower case 23.3 Symbols by font position 23.4 Text symbols 23.5 Accents 23.5.1 '\accent' 23.6 Additional Latin letters 23.7 'inputenc' package 23.8 '\rule' 23.9 '\today' 24 Splitting the input 24.1 '\endinput' 24.2 '\include' & '\includeonly' 24.3 '\input' 25 Front/back matter 25.1 Table of contents etc. 25.1.1 '\@dottedtocline' 25.1.2 '\addcontentsline' 25.1.3 '\addtocontents' 25.1.4 '\contentsline' 25.1.5 '\nofiles' 25.1.6 '\numberline' 25.2 Indexes 25.2.1 '\index' 25.2.2 'makeindex' 25.2.3 '\printindex' 25.3 Glossaries 25.3.1 '\newglossaryentry' 25.3.2 '\gls' 26 Letters 26.1 '\address' 26.2 '\cc' 26.3 '\closing' 26.4 '\encl' 26.5 '\location' 26.6 '\makelabels' 26.7 '\name' 26.8 '\opening' 26.9 '\ps' 26.10 '\signature' 26.11 '\telephone' 27 Input/output 27.1 '\openin' & '\openout' 27.2 '\read' 27.3 '\typein' 27.4 '\typeout' 27.5 '\write' 27.5.1 '\write' and security 27.5.2 '\message' 27.5.3 '\wlog' 27.5.4 '\write18' 28 Command line interface 28.1 Command line options 28.2 Command line input 28.3 Jobname 28.4 Recovering from errors Appendix A Document templates A.1 'beamer' template A.2 'article' template A.3 'book' template A.4 Larger 'book' template Index LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual *************************************** This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of July 2021) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. 1 About this document ********************* This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (*note Overview::). This document's home page is ; it has separate web pages for each topic. Alternatively. has the entire document on a single page. For other output formats, the sources, and plenty more information, see . In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than 'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was frozen decades ago. LaTeX is maintained by a group of volunteers (). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. The present document is completely unofficial and has not been written or reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to . This document is a reference, not a tutorial. There is a vast array of other information available about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions. Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation. Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math. A longer introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages. Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references. 2 Overview of LaTeX ******************* LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport in 1984, but has been maintained by a group of volunteers for many years now (). It is widely used, particularly but not exclusively for mathematical and technical documents. A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text to be typeset along with interspersed commands. The default encoding for the text is UTF-8 (as of 2018). The commands specify, for example, how the text should be formatted. LaTeX is implemented as a set of related so-called "macros" which use Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program or one of its derivatives, collectively known as "engines". Thus, the user produces output, typically PDF, by giving the input file to a TeX engine. (The following sections describe all this in more detail.) The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the input document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user. The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX". It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with '\LaTeX'. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'. 2.1 Starting and ending ======================= LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. This is a small example. \documentclass{article} \begin{document} Hello, \LaTeX\ world. \end{document} Every LaTeX document has a '\begin{document}' line and an '\end{document}' line. Here, the 'article' is the "document class". It is implemented in a file 'article.cls'. You can use any document class on your system. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. *Note Document classes::. You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and the '\begin{document}' commands. This area is called the "preamble". The '\begin{document}', '\end{document}' pair defines an "environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in all LaTeX documents (*note document::). LaTeX make available to you many environments that are documented here (*note Environments::). Many more are available to you from external packages, most importantly those available at CTAN (*note CTAN::). The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file. 2.2 Output files ================ LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two auxiliary files. The main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'. '.dvi' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'. You can view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (). '.pdf' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included. LaTeX always produces at least two additional files. '.log' This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors. '.aux' Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark '??'. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux' file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location. LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file used to make a table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended. 2.3 TeX engines =============== LaTeX is a large set of commands that is executed by a TeX program (*note Overview::). Such a set of commands is called a "format", and is embodied in a binary '.fmt' file, which can be read much more quickly than the corresponding TeX source. This section gives a terse overview of the TeX programs that are commonly available (see also *note Command line interface::). 'latex' 'pdflatex' In TeX Live (), if LaTeX is invoked via either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX engine is run (). When invoked as 'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main output is a '.pdf' file. pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original program (), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi'). In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be available in LaTeX. 'lualatex' If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX engine is run (). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua () to interact with TeX's typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a '.pdf' file by default. There is also 'dvilualatex' to produce a '.dvi' file. 'xelatex' If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX engine is run (). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output. Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this process is automatic. The '.xdv' file is only useful for debugging. 'platex' 'uplatex' These commands provide significant additional support for Japanese and other languages; the 'u' variant supports Unicode. See and . As of 2019, there is a companion '-dev' command and format for all of the above: 'dvilualatex-dev' 'latex-dev' 'lualatex-dev' 'pdflatex-dev' 'platex-dev' 'uplatex-dev' 'xelatex-dev' These are candidates for an upcoming LaTeX release. The main purpose is to find and address compatibility problems before an official release. These '-dev' formats make it easy for anyone to help test documents and code: you can run, say, 'pdflatex-dev' instead of 'pdflatex', without changing anything else in your environment. Indeed, it is easiest and most helpful to always run the '-dev' versions instead of bothering to switch back and forth. During quiet times after a release, the commands will be equivalent. These are not daily snapshots or untested development code. They undergo the same extensive regression testing by the LaTeX team before being released. For more information, see "The LaTeX release workflow and the LaTeX 'dev' formats" by Frank Mittelbach, 'TUGboat' 40:2, . 2.4 LaTeX command syntax ======================== In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash character, '\'. The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command). Most command names are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined. A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, '{...}'. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, '[...]'. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments. Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket {]}]'. Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make the first character of the following text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces. LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'. The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command. This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs). As of the 2020-10-01 release of LaTeX, the 'expl3' and 'xparse' packages are part of the LaTeX2e format. They provide a completely different underlying programming language syntax. We won't try to cover them in this document; see the related package documentation and other LaTeX manuals. 2.5 Environment =============== Synopsis: \begin{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} ... \end{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} An "environment" is an area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between '\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'. \begin{verse} There once was a man from Nantucket \\ ... \end{verse} *Note Environments::, for a list of environments. Particularly notable is that every LaTeX document must have a 'document' environment, a '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' pair. The ENVIRONMENT-NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT-NAME ends in a star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star. Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns). \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l} ... rows of table ... \end{tabular} 2.6 CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network =============================================== The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network, CTAN, is the TeX and LaTeX community's repository of free material. It is a set of Internet sites around the world that offer material related to LaTeX for download. Visit CTAN on the web at . This material is organized into packages, discrete bundles that typically offer some coherent functionality and are maintained by one person or a small number of people. For instance, many publishers have a package that allows authors to format papers to that publisher's specifications. In addition to the massive holdings, the 'ctan.org' web site offers features such as search by name or by functionality. CTAN is not a single host, but instead is a set of hosts, one of which is the so-called "master". The master host actively manages the material, for instance, by accepting uploads of new or updated packages. For many years, it has been hosted by the German TeX group, DANTE e.V. Other sites around the world help out by mirroring, that is, automatically syncing their collections with the master site and then in turn making their copies publicly available. This gives users close to their location better access and relieves the load on the master site. The list of mirrors is at . 3 Document classes ****************** The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file. \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS} The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.) 'article' For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use. 'book' Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (*note Front/back matter::). 'letter' Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::). 'report' For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters. 'slides' For slide presentations--rarely used nowadays. The 'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (). *Note beamer template::, for a small template for a beamer document. Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section. 3.1 Document class options ========================== You can specify "global options" or "class options" to the '\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma. \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS} Here is the list of the standard class options. All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'): 10pt 11pt 12pt All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these show height by width): 'a4paper' 210 by 297mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches) 'a5paper' 148 by 210mm (about 5.8 by 8.3 inches) 'b5paper' 176 by 250mm (about 6.9 by 9.8 inches) 'executivepaper' 7.25 by 10.5 inches 'legalpaper' 8.5 by 14 inches 'letterpaper' 8.5 by 11 inches (the default) When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but you must also set the physical paper size. One way to do that is to put '\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your document's preamble. The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of setting the print area and physical page size. Miscellaneous other options: 'draft' 'final' Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is 'final'. 'fleqn' Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. 'landscape' Selects landscape format; default is portrait. 'leqno' Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. 'openbib' Use "open" bibliography format. 'titlepage' 'notitlepage' Specifies whether there is a separate page for the title information and for the abstract also, if there is one. The default for the 'report' class is 'titlepage', for the other classes it is 'notitlepage'. The following options are not available with the 'slides' class. 'onecolumn' 'twocolumn' Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'. 'oneside' 'twoside' Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'. For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin') parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. 'openright' 'openany' Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'. The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at the bottom of each note. 3.2 Additional packages ======================= Load a package PKG, with the package options given in the comma-separated list OPTIONS, as here. \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}. To specify more than one package you can separate them with a comma, as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage' commands. Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown to the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with '\usepackage'. 3.3 Class and package construction ================================== You can create new document classes and new packages. For instance, if your memos must satisfy some local requirements, such as a standard header for each page, then you could create a new class 'smcmemo.cls' and begin your documents with '\documentclass{smcmemo}'. What separates a package from a document class is that the commands in a package are useful across classes while those in a document class are specific to that class. Thus, a command to set page headers is for a package while a command to make the page headers say 'Memo from the SMC Math Department' is for a class. Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign '@' as a character in command names without having to surround the code containing that command with '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother'. *Note \makeatletter & \makeatother::. This allow you to create commands that users will not accidentally redefine. Another technique is to preface class- or package-specific commands with some string to prevent your class or package from interfering with others. For instance, the class 'smcmemo' might have commands '\smc@tolist', '\smc@fromlist', etc. 3.3.1 Class and package structure --------------------------------- A class file or package file typically has four parts. 1. In the "identification part", the file says that it is a LaTeX package or class and describes itself, using the '\NeedsTeXFormat' and '\ProvidesClass' or '\ProvidesPackage' commands. 2. The "preliminary declarations part" declares some commands and can also load other files. Usually these commands will be those needed for the code used in the next part. For example, an 'smcmemo' class might be called with an option to read in a file with a list of people for the to-head, as '\documentclass[mathto]{smcmemo}', and therefore needs to define a command '\newcommand{\setto}[1]{\def\@tolist{#1}}' used in that file. 3. In the "handle options part" the class or package declares and processes its options. Class options allow a user to start their document as '\documentclass[OPTION LIST]{CLASS NAME}', to modify the behavior of the class. An example is when you declare '\documentclass[11pt]{article}' to set the default document font size. 4. Finally, in the "more declarations part" the class or package usually does most of its work: declaring new variables, commands and fonts, and loading other files. Here is a starting class file, which should be saved as 'stub.cls' where LaTeX can find it, for example in the same directory as the '.tex' file. \NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e} \ProvidesClass{stub}[2017/07/06 stub to start building classes from] \DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}} \ProcessOptions\relax \LoadClass{article} It identifies itself, handles the class options via the default of passing them all to the 'article' class, and then loads the 'article' class to provide the basis for this class's code. For more, see the official guide for class and package writers, the Class Guide, at (much of the descriptions here derive from this document), or the tutorial . 3.3.2 Class and package commands -------------------------------- These are the commands designed to help writers of classes or packages. '\AtBeginDvi{specials}' Save in a box register things that are written to the '.dvi' file at the beginning of the shipout of the first page of the document. '\AtEndOfClass{CODE}' '\AtEndOfPackage{CODE}' Hook to insert CODE to be executed when LaTeX finishes processing the current class or package. You can use these hooks multiple times; the 'code' will be executed in the order that you called it. See also *note \AtBeginDocument::. '\CheckCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' '\CheckCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' Like '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but does not define CMD; instead it checks that the current definition of CMD is exactly as given by DEFINITION and is or is not "long" as expected. A long command is a command that accepts '\par' within an argument. The CMD command is expected to be long with the unstarred version of '\CheckCommand'. Raises an error when the check fails. This allows you to check before you start redefining 'cmd' yourself that no other package has already redefined this command. '\ClassError{CLASS NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}' '\PackageError{PACKAGE NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}' '\ClassWarning{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\PackageWarning{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\ClassWarningNoLine{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\PackageWarningNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}' '\ClassInfo{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\PackageInfo{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\ClassInfoNoLine{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}' '\PackageInfoNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}' Produce an error message, or warning or informational messages. For '\ClassError' and '\PackageError' the message is ERROR TEXT, followed by TeX's '?' error prompt. If the user then asks for help by typing 'h', they see the HELP TEXT. The four warning commands are similar except that they write WARNING TEXT on the screen with no error prompt. The four info commands write INFO TEXT only in the transcript file. The 'NoLine' versions do not show the number of the line generating the message, while the other versions do show that number. To format the messages, including the HELP TEXT: use '\protect' to stop a command from expanding, get a line break with '\MessageBreak', and get a space with '\space' when a space character does not allow it, like after a command. Note that LaTeX appends a period to the messages. '\CurrentOption' Expands to the name of the currently-being-processed option. Can only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or '\DeclareOption*'. '\DeclareOption{OPTION}{CODE}' '\DeclareOption*{CODE}' Make an option available to a user to invoke in their '\documentclass' command. For example, the 'smcmemo' class could have an option '\documentclass[logo]{smcmemo}' allowing users to put the institutional logo on the first page. The class file must contain '\DeclareOption{logo}{CODE}' (and later, '\ProcessOptions'). If you request an option that has not been declared, by default this will produce a warning like 'Unused global option(s): [badoption].' Change this behavior with the starred version '\DeclareOption*{CODE}'. For example, many classes extend an existing class, using a command such as '\LoadClass{article}', and for passing extra options to the underlying class use code such as this. \DeclareOption*{% \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}% } Another example is that the class 'smcmemo' may allow users to keep lists of memo recipients in external files. Then the user could invoke '\documentclass[math]{smcmemo}' and it will read the file 'math.memo'. This code handles the file if it exists and otherwise passes the option to the 'article' class. \DeclareOption*{\InputIfFileExists{\CurrentOption.memo}{}{% \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}} '\DeclareRobustCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' '\DeclareRobustCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}' Like '\newcommand' and '\newcommand*' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but these declare a robust command, even if some code within the DEFINITION is fragile. (For a discussion of robust and fragile commands *note \protect::.) Use this command to define new robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make them robust. Unlike '\newcommand' these do not give an error if macro CMD already exists; instead, a log message is put into the transcript file if a command is redefined. Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those defined using '\newcommand' so unless the command's data is fragile and the command is used within a moving argument, use '\newcommand'. The 'etoolbox' package offers the commands '\newrobustcmd', '\newrobustcmd*', as well as the commands '\renewrobustcmd', '\renewrobustcmd*', and the commands '\providerobustcmd', and '\providerobustcmd*'. These are similar to '\newcommand', '\newcommand*', '\renewcommand', '\renewcommand*', '\providecommand', and '\providecommand*', but define a robust CMD with two advantages as compared to '\DeclareRobustCommand': 1. They use the low-level e-TeX protection mechanism rather than the higher level LaTeX '\protect' mechanism, so they do not incur the slight loss of performance mentioned above, and 2. They make the same distinction between '\new...', '\renew...', and '\provide...', as the standard commands, so they do not just make a log message when you redefine CMD that already exists, in that case you need to use either '\renew...' or '\provide...' or you get an error. '\IfFileExists{FILENAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}' '\InputIfFileExists{FILENAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}' Execute TRUE CODE if LaTeX finds the file 'FILE NAME' or FALSE CODE otherwise. In the first case it executing TRUE CODE and then inputs the file. Thus the command \IfFileExists{img.pdf}{% \includegraphics{img.pdf}}{\typeout{!! img.pdf not found} will include the graphic 'img.pdf' if it is found and otherwise give a warning. This command looks for the file in all search paths that LaTeX uses, not only in the current directory. To look only in the current directory do something like '\IfFileExists{./filename}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}'. If you ask for a filename without a '.tex' extension then LaTeX will first look for the file by appending the '.tex'; for more on how LaTeX handles file extensions see *note \input::. '\LoadClass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\LoadClassWithOptions{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Load a class, as with '\documentclass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE INFO]'. An example is '\LoadClass[twoside]{article}'. The OPTIONS LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The RELEASE DATE is optional. If present it must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If you request a RELEASE DATE and the date of the package installed on your system is earlier, then you get a warning on the screen and in the log like this. You have requested, on input line 4, version `2038/01/19' of document class article, but only version `2014/09/29 v1.4h Standard LaTeX document class' is available. The command version '\LoadClassWithOptions' uses the list of options for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command that lets you build classes on existing ones, such as the standard 'article' class, without having to track which options were passed. '\ExecuteOptions{OPTIONS-LIST}' For each option OPTION in the OPTIONS-LIST, in order, this command executes the command '\ds@OPTION'. If this command is not defined then that option is silently ignored. It can be used to provide a default option list before '\ProcessOptions'. For example, if in a class file you want the default to be 11pt fonts then you could specify '\ExecuteOptions{11pt}\ProcessOptions\relax'. '\NeedsTeXFormat{FORMAT}[FORMAT DATE]' Specifies the format that this class must be run under. Often issued as the first line of a class file, and most often used as: '\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}'. When a document using that class is processed, the format name given here must match the format that is actually being run (including that the FORMAT string is case sensitive). If it does not match then execution stops with an error like 'This file needs format `LaTeX2e' but this is `xxx'.' To specify a version of the format that you know to have certain features, include the optional FORMAT DATE on which those features were implemented. If present it must be in the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. If the format version installed on your system is earlier than FORMAT DATE then you get a warning like this. You have requested release `2038/01/20' of LaTeX, but only release `2016/02/01' is available. '\OptionNotUsed' Adds the current option to the list of unused options. Can only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or '\DeclareOption*'. '\PassOptionsToClass{OPTION LIST}{CLASS NAME}' '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTION LIST}{PACKAGE NAME}' Adds the options in the comma-separated list OPTION LIST to the options used by any future '\RequirePackage' or '\usepackage' command for package PACKAGE NAME or the class CLASS NAME. The reason for these commands is: you may load a package any number of times with no options but if you want options then you may only supply them when you first load the package. Loading a package with options more than once will get you an error like 'Option clash for package foo.' (LaTeX throws an error even if there is no conflict between the options.) If your own code is bringing in a package twice then you can collapse that to once, for example replacing the two '\RequirePackage[landscape]{geometry}' and '\RequirePackage[margins=1in]{geometry}' with the single command '\RequirePackage[landscape,margins=1in]{geometry}'. However, imagine that you are loading 'firstpkg' and inside that package it loads 'secondpkg', and you need the second package to be loaded with option 'draft'. Then before doing the first package you must queue up the options for the second package, like this. \PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{secondpkg} \RequirePackage{firstpkg} (If 'firstpkg.sty' loads an option in conflict with what you want then you may have to alter its source.) These commands are useful for general users as well as class and package writers. For instance, suppose a user wants to load the 'graphicx' package with the option 'draft' and also wants to use a class 'foo' that loads the 'graphicx' package, but without that option. The user could start their LaTeX file with '\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\documentclass{foo}'. '\ProcessOptions' '\ProcessOptions*\@OPTIONS' Execute the code for each option that the user has invoked. Include it in the class file as '\ProcessOptions\relax' (because of the existence of the starred command). Options come in two types. "Local options" have been specified for this particular package in the OPTIONS argument of '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTIONS}', '\usepackage[OPTIONS]', or '\RequirePackage[OPTIONS]'. "Global options" are those given by the class user in '\documentclass[OPTIONS]' (If an option is specified both locally and globally then it is local.) When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a package 'pkg.sty', the following happens: 1. For each option OPTION so far declared with '\DeclareOption', it looks to see if that option is either a global or a local option for 'pkg'. If so then it executes the declared code. This is done in the order in which these options were given in 'pkg.sty'. 2. For each remaining local option, it executes the command '\ds@'OPTION if it has been defined somewhere (other than by a '\DeclareOption'); otherwise, it executes the default option code given in '\DeclareOption*'. If no default option code has been declared then it gives an error message. This is done in the order in which these options were specified. When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a class it works in the same way except that all options are local, and the default CODE for '\DeclareOption*' is '\OptionNotUsed' rather than an error. The starred version '\ProcessOptions*' executes the options in the order specified in the calling commands, rather than in the order of declaration in the class or package. For a package this means that the global options are processed first. '\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' '\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' '\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Identifies the class or package, printing a message to the screen and the log file. When you load a class or package, for example with '\documentclass{smcmemo}' or '\usepackage{test}', LaTeX inputs a file. If the name of the file does not match the class or package name declared in it then you get a warning. Thus, if you invoke '\documentclass{smcmemo}', and the file 'smcmemo.cls' has the statement '\ProvidesClass{xxx}' then you get a warning like 'You have requested document class `smcmemo', but the document class provides 'xxx'.' This warning does not prevent LaTeX from processing the rest of the class file normally. If you include the optional argument then you must include a date, before any spaces, of the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. The rest of the optional argument is free-form, although it traditionally identifies the class, and is written to the screen during compilation and to the log file. Thus, if your file 'smcmemo.cls' contains the line '\ProvidesClass{smcmemo}[2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class]' and your document's first line is '\documentclass{smcmemo}' then you will see 'Document Class: smcmemo 2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class'. The date in the optional argument allows class and package users to ask to be warned if the version of the class or package is earlier than RELEASE DATE. For instance, a user could enter '\documentclass{smcmemo}[2018/10/12]' or '\usepackage{foo}[[2017/07/07]]' to require a class or package with certain features by specifying that it must be released no earlier than the given date. (Although, in practice package users only rarely include a date, and class users almost never do.) '\ProvidesFile{FILENAME}[ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]' Declare a file other than the main class and package files, such as configuration files or font definition files. Put this command in that file and you get in the log a string like 'File: test.config 2017/10/12 config file for test.cls' for FILENAME equal to 'test.config' and ADDITIONAL INFORMATION equal to '2017/10/12 config file for test.cls'. '\RequirePackage[OPTION LIST]{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' '\RequirePackageWithOptions{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]' Load a package, like the command '\usepackage' (*note Additional packages::). The LaTeX development team strongly recommends use of these commands over Plain TeX's '\input'; see the Class Guide. An example is '\RequirePackage[landscape,margin=1in]{geometry}'. The OPTION LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The RELEASE DATE, if present, must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If the release date of the package as installed on your system is earlier than RELEASE DATE then you get a warning like 'You have requested, on input line 9, version `2017/07/03' of package jhtest, but only version `2000/01/01' is available'. The '\RequirePackageWithOptions' version uses the list of options for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command to allow easily building classes on existing ones without having to track which options were passed. The difference between '\usepackage' and '\RequirePackage' is small. The '\usepackage' command is intended for the document file while '\RequirePackage' is intended for package and class files. Thus, using '\usepackage' before the '\documentclass' command causes LaTeX to give error like '\usepackage before \documentclass', but you can use '\RequirePackage' there. 4 Fonts ******* LaTeX comes with powerful font capacities. For one thing, its New Font Selection Scheme allows you to work easily with the font families in your document (for instance, see *note Font styles::). And, LaTeX documents can use most fonts that are available today, including versions of Times Roman, Helvetica, Courier, etc. (Note, though, that many fonts do not have support for mathematics.) The first typeface in the TeX world was the Computer Modern family, developed by Donald Knuth. It is the default for LaTeX documents and is still the most widely used. But changing to another font often only involves a few commands. For instance, putting the following in your preamble gives you a Palatino-like font, which is handsome and more readable online than many other fonts, while still allowing you to typeset mathematics. (This example is from Michael Sharpe, .) \usepackage[osf]{newpxtext} % osf for text, not math \usepackage{cabin} % sans serif \usepackage[varqu,varl]{inconsolata} % sans serif typewriter \usepackage[bigdelims,vvarbb]{newpxmath} % bb from STIX \usepackage[cal=boondoxo]{mathalfa} % mathcal In addition, the 'xelatex' or 'lualatex' engines allow you to use any fonts on your system that are in OpenType or TrueType format (*note TeX engines::). The LaTeX Font Catalogue () shows font sample graphics and copy-and-pasteable source to use many fonts, including many with support for mathematics. It aims to cover all Latin alphabet free fonts available for easy use with LaTeX. More information is also available from the TeX Users Group, at . 4.1 'fontenc' package ===================== Synopsis: \usepackage[FONT_ENCODING]{fontenc} or \usepackage[FONT_ENCODING1, FONT_ENCODING2, ...]{fontenc} Specify the font encodings. A font encoding is a mapping of the character codes to the font glyphs that are used to typeset your output. This package only applies if you use the 'pdflatex' engine (*note TeX engines::). If you use the 'xelatex' or 'lualatex' engine then instead use the 'fontspec' package. TeX's original font family, Computer Modern, has a limited character set. For instance, to make common accented characters you must use '\accent' (*note \accent::) but this disables hyphenation. TeX users have agreed on a number of standards to access the larger sets of characters provided by modern fonts. If you are using 'pdflatex' then this in the preamble \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} gives you support for the most widespread European languages, including French, German, Italian, Polish, and others. In particular, if you have words with accented letters then LaTeX will hyphenate them and your output can be copied and pasted. (The optional second line allows you to directly enter accented characters into your source file.) If you are using an encoding such as 'T1' and the characters appear blurry or do not magnify well then your fonts may be bitmapped, sometimes called raster or Type 3. You want vector fonts. Use a package such as 'lmodern' or 'cm-super' to get a font that extends LaTeX's default using vector fonts. For each FONT_ENCODING given as an option but not already declared, this package loads the encoding definition files, named 'FONT_ENCODINGenc.def'. It also sets '\encodingdefault' to be the last encoding in the option list. These are the common values for FONT_ENCODING. 'OT1' The original encoding for TeX. Limited to mostly English characters. 'OMS, OML' Math symbols and math letters encoding. 'T1' TeX text extended. Sometimes called the Cork encoding for the Users Group meeting where it was developed. Gives access to most European accented characters. The most common option for this package. 'TS1' Text Companion encoding. LaTeX's default is to load 'OML', 'T1', 'OT1', and then 'OMS', and set the default to 'OT1'. Even if you do not use accented letters, you may need to specify a font encoding if your font requires it. If you use 'T1' encoded fonts other than the default Computer Modern family then you may need to load the package that selects your fonts before loading 'fontenc', to prevent the system from loading any 'T1' encoded fonts from the default. The LaTeX team reserve encoding names starting with: 'T' for the standard text encodings with 256 characters, 'TS' for symbols that extend the corresponding T encodings, 'X' for test encodings, 'M' for standard math encodings with 256 characters, 'A' for special applications, 'OT' for standard text encodings with 128 characters, and 'OM' for standard math encodings with 128 characters ('O' stands for 'obsolete'). This package provides a number of commands, detailed below. Many of them are encoding-specific, so if you have defined a command that works for one encoding but the current encoding is different then the command is not in effect. 4.1.1 '\DeclareFontEncoding' ---------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareFontEncoding{ENCODING}{TEXT-SETTINGS}{MATH-SETTINGS} Declare the font encoding ENCODING. It also saves the value of ENCODING in '\LastDeclaredEncoding' (*note \LastDeclaredEncoding::). The file 't1enc.def' contains this line (followed by many others). \DeclareFontEncoding{T1}{}{} The TEXT-SETTINGS are the commands that LaTeX will run every time it switches from one encoding to another with the '\selectfont' or '\fontencoding' command. The MATH-SETTINGS are the commands that LaTeX will use whenever the font is accessed as a math alphabet. LaTeX ignores any space characters inside TEXT-SETTINGS and MATH-SETTINGS, to prevent unintended spaces in the output. If you invent an encoding you should pick a two or three letter name starting with 'L' for 'local', or 'E' for 'experimental'. Note that output encoding files may be read several times by LaTeX so using, e.g., '\newcommand' may cause an error. In addition, such files should contain '\ProvidesFile' line (*note Class and package commands::). Note also that you should use the '\...Default' commands only in a package, not in the encoding definition files, since those files should only contain declarations specific to that encoding. 4.1.2 '\DeclareTextAccent' -------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareTextAccent{CMD}{ENCODING}{SLOT} Define an accent, to be put on top of other glyphs, in the encoding ENCODING at the location SLOT. This line from 't1enc.def' declares that to make a circumflex accent as in '\^A', the system will put the accent in slot 2 over the 'A' character, which is represented in ASCII as 65. (This holds unless there is a relevant 'DeclareTextComposite' or '\DeclareTextCompositeCommand' declaration; *note \DeclareTextComposite::.) \DeclareTextAccent{\^}{T1}{2} If CMD has already been defined then '\DeclareTextAccent' does not give an error but it does log the redefinition in the transcript file. 4.1.3 '\DeclareTextAccentDefault' --------------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareTextAccentDefault{CMD}{ENCODING} If there is an encoding-specific accent command CMD but there is no associated '\DeclareTextAccent' for that encoding then this command will pick up the slack, by saying to use it as described for ENCODING. For example, to make the encoding 'OT1' be the default encoding for the accent '\"', declare this. \DeclareTextAccentDefault{\"}{OT1} If you issue a '\"' when the current encoding does not have a definition for that accent then LaTeX will use the definition from 'OT1' That is, this command is equivalent to this call (*note \UseTextSymbol & \UseTextAccent::). \DeclareTextCommandDefault[1]{CMD} {\UseTextAccent{ENCODING}{CMD}{#1}} Note that '\DeclareTextAccentDefault' works for any one-argument 'fontenc' command, not just the accent command. 4.1.4 '\DeclareTextCommand' & '\ProvideTextCommand' --------------------------------------------------- Synopsis, one of: \DeclareTextCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}{DEFN} \DeclareTextCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}[NARGS]{DEFN} \DeclareTextCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} or one of: \ProvideTextCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}{DEFN} \ProvideTextCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}[NARGS]{DEFN} \ProvideTextCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} Define the command CMD, which will be specific to one encoding. The command name CMD must begin with a backslash, \. These commands can only appear in the preamble. Redefining 'cmd' does not cause an error. The defined command will be robust even if the code in DEFN is fragile (*note \protect::). For example, the file 't1enc.def' contains this line. \DeclareTextCommand{\textperthousand}{T1}{\%\char 24 } With that, you can express parts per thousand. \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} % in preamble ... Legal limit is \( 0.8 \)\textperthousand. If you change the font encoding to 'OT1' then you get an error like 'LaTeX Error: Command \textperthousand unavailable in encoding OT1'. The '\ProvideTextCommand' variant does the same, except that it does nothing if CMD is already defined. The '\DeclareTextSymbol' command is faster than this one for simple slot-to-glyph association (*note \DeclareTextSymbol::) The optional NARGS and OPTARGSDEFAULT arguments play the same role here as in '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). Briefly, NARGS is an integer from 0 to 9 specifying the number of arguments that the defined command 'cmd' takes. This number includes any optional argument. Omitting this argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that CMD will have no arguments. And, if OPTARGSDEFAULT is present then the first argument of '\CMD' is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If OPTARGSDEFAULT is not present then '\CMD' does not take an optional argument. 4.1.5 '\DeclareTextCommandDefault' & '\ProvideTextCommandDefault ' ------------------------------------------------------------------ Synopsis: \DeclareTextCommandDefault{CMD}{DEFN} or: \ProvideTextCommandDefault{CMD}{DEFN} Give a default definition for CMD, for when that command is not defined in the encoding currently in force. This default should only use encodings known to be available. This makes '\copyright' available. \DeclareTextCommandDefault{\copyright}{\textcircled{c}} It uses only an encoding (OMS) that is always available. The '\DeclareTextCommandDefault' should not occur in the encoding definition files since those files should declare only commands for use when you select that encoding. It should instead be in a package. As with the related non-default commands, the '\ProvideTextCommandDefault' has exactly the same behavior as '\DeclareTextCommandDefault' except that it does nothing if CMD is already defined (*note \DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand::). So, packages can use it to provide fallbacks that other packages can improve upon. 4.1.6 '\DeclareTextComposite' ----------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareTextComposite{CMD}{ENCODING}{SIMPLE_OBJECT}{SLOT} Access an accented glyph directly, that is, without having to put an accent over a separate character. This line from 't1enc.def' means that '\^o' will cause LaTeX to typeset lowercase 'o' by taking the character directly from location 224 in the font. \DeclareTextComposite{\^}{T1}{o}{244} *Note fontenc package::, for a list of common encodings. The SIMPLE_OBJECT should be a single character or a single command. The SLOT argument is usually a positive integer represented in decimal (although octal or hexadecimal are possible). Normally CMD has already been declared for this encoding, either with '\DeclareTextAccent' or with a one-argument '\DeclareTextCommand'. In 't1enc.def', the above line follows the '\DeclareTextAccent{\^}{T1}{2}' command. 4.1.7 '\DeclareTextCompositeCommand' ------------------------------------ Synopsis: \DeclareTextCompositeCommand{CMD}{ENCODING}{ARG}{CODE} A more general version of '\DeclareTextComposite' that runs arbitrary code with CMD. This allows accents on 'i' to act like accents on dotless i, '\i'. \DeclareTextCompositeCommand{\'}{OT1}{i}{\'\i} *Note fontenc package::, for a list of common encodings. Normally CMD will have already been declared with '\DeclareTextAccent' or as a one argument '\DeclareTextCommand'. 4.1.8 '\DeclareTextSymbol' -------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareTextSymbol{CMD}{ENCODING}{SLOT} Define a symbol in the encoding ENCODING at the location SLOT. Symbols defined in this way are for use in text, not mathematics. For example, this line from 't1enc.def' declares the number of the glyph to use for «, the left guillemet. \DeclareTextSymbol{\guillemotleft}{T1}{19} The command '\DeclareTextCommand{\guillemotleft}{T1}{\char 19}' has the same effect but is slower (*note \DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand::). *Note fontenc package::, for a list of common encodings. The SLOT can be specified in decimal, or octal (as in ''023'), or hexadecimal (as in '"13'), although decimal has the advantage that single quote or double quote could be redefined by another package. If CMD has already been defined then '\DeclareTextSymbol' does not give an error but it does log the redefinition in the transcript file. 4.1.9 '\DeclareTextSymbolDefault' --------------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareTextSymbolDefault{CMD}{ENCODING} If there is an encoding-specific symbol command CMD but there is no associated '\DeclareTextSymbol' for that encoding, then this command will pick up the slack, by saying to get the symbol as described for ENCODING. For example, to declare that if the current encoding has no meaning for '\textdollar' then use the one from 'OT1', declare this. \DeclareTextSymbolDefault{\textdollar}{OT1} That is, this command is equivalent to this call (*note \UseTextSymbol & \UseTextAccent::). \DeclareTextCommandDefault{CMD} {\UseTextSymbol{ENCODING}{CMD}} Note that '\DeclareTextSymbolDefault' can be used to define a default for any zero-argument 'fontenc' command. 4.1.10 '\LastDeclaredEncoding' ------------------------------ Synopsis: \LastDeclaredEncoding Get the name of the most recently declared encoding. The '\DeclareFontEncoding' command stores the name so that it can be retrieved with this command (*note \DeclareFontEncoding::). This relies on '\LastDeclaredEncoding' rather than give the name of the encoding explicitly. \DeclareFontEncoding{JH1}{}{} \DeclareTextAccent{\'}{\LastDeclaredEncoding}{0} 4.1.11 '\UseTextSymbol' & '\UseTextAccent' ------------------------------------------ Synopsis: \UseTextSymbol{ENCODING}{CMD} or: \UseTextAccent{ENCODING}{CMD}{TEXT} Use a symbol or accent not from the current encoding. In general, to use a 'fontenc' command in an encoding where it is not defined, and if the command has no arguments, then you can use it like this: \UseTextSymbol{OT1}{\ss} which is equivalent to this (note the outer braces form a group, so LaTeX reverts back to the prior encoding after the '\ss'): {\fontencoding{OT1}\selectfont\ss} Similarly, to use a 'fontenc' command in an encoding where it is not defined, and if the command has one argument, you can use it like this: \UseTextAccent{OT1}{\'}{a} which is equivalent to this (again note the outer braces forming a group): {fontencoding{OT1}\selectfont\'{\fontencoding{ENC_IN_USE}\selectfont a}} Here, ENC_IN_USE is the encoding in force before this sequence of commands, so that 'a' is typeset using the current encoding and only the accent is taken from 'OT1'. 4.2 Font styles =============== The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX. In the table below the listed commands, the '\text...' commands, are used with an argument as in '\textit{TEXT}'. This is the preferred form. But shown after it in parenthesis is the corresponding "declaration form", which is often useful. This form takes no arguments, as in '{\itshape TEXT}'. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. In addition, each has an environment form such as '\begin{itshape}...\end{itshape}', which we'll describe further at the end of the section. These commands, in any of the three forms, are cumulative; for instance you can get bold sans serif by saying either of '\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily'. One advantage of these commands is that they automatically insert italic corrections if needed (*note \/::). Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of period and comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument, such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'. '\textrm (\rmfamily)' Roman. '\textit (\itshape)' Italics. '\textmd (\mdseries)' Medium weight (default). '\textbf (\bfseries)' Boldface. '\textup (\upshape)' Upright (default). '\textsl (\slshape)' Slanted. '\textsf (\sffamily)' Sans serif. '\textsc (\scshape)' Small caps. '\texttt (\ttfamily)' Typewriter. '\textnormal (\normalfont)' Main document font. Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a substitute for '\textit'. For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics, but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman. LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. They are used as declarations: '{\CMD...}' instead of '\CMD{...}'. (The unconditional commands below are an older version of font switching. The earlier commands are an improvement in most circumstances. But sometimes an unconditional font switch is what is needed.) '\bf' Switch to bold face. '\cal' Switch to calligraphic letters for math. '\it' Italics. '\rm' Roman. '\sc' Small caps. '\sf' Sans serif. '\sl' Slanted (oblique). '\tt' Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width). The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'. The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment. '\mathrm' Roman, for use in math mode. '\mathbf' Boldface, for use in math mode. '\mathsf' Sans serif, for use in math mode. '\mathtt' Typewriter, for use in math mode. '\mathit' '(\mit)' Italics, for use in math mode. '\mathnormal' For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration. '\mathcal' Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode. In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. '\mathversion{normal}' restores the default. Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called "old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have the same height as uppercase letters. LaTeX's default fonts support this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: . 4.3 Font sizes ============== The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options, respectively (*note Document class options::). Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt' -------------------------------------------------------- '\tiny' 5 6 6 '\scriptsize' 7 8 8 '\footnotesize' 8 9 10 '\small' 9 10 10.95 '\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12 '\large' 12 12 14.4 '\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28 '\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74 '\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88 '\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88 The commands are listed here in declaration (not environment) form, since that is how they are typically used. For example. \begin{quotation} \small The Tao that can be named is not the eternal Tao. \end{quotation} Here, the scope of the '\small' lasts until the end of the 'quotation' environment. It would also end at the next type style command or the end of the current group, so you could enclose it in curly braces '{\small This text is typeset in the small font.}'. An "environment form" of each of these commands is also defined; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'. However, in practice this form can easily lead to unwanted spaces at the beginning and/or end of the environment without careful consideration, so it's generally less error-prone to stick to the declaration form. (Aside: Technically, due to the way LaTeX defines '\begin' and '\end', nearly every command that does not take an argument technically has an environment form. But in almost all cases, it would only cause confusion to use it. The reason for mentioning the environment form of the font size declarations specifically is that this particular use is not rare.) 4.4 Low-level font commands =========================== These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. '\fontencoding{ENCODING}' Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a large number of valid encodings. The most common are 'OT1', Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and 'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the accented characters used by the most widespread European languages (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to hyphenate words containing accented letters. For more, see . '\fontfamily{FAMILY}' Select the font family. The web page provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are examples of some common families. 'pag' Avant Garde 'fvs' Bitstream Vera Sans 'pbk' Bookman 'bch' Charter 'ccr' Computer Concrete 'cmr' Computer Modern 'cmss' Computer Modern Sans Serif 'cmtt' Computer Modern Typewriter 'pcr' Courier 'phv' Helvetica 'fi4' Inconsolata 'lmr' Latin Modern 'lmss' Latin Modern Sans 'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter 'pnc' New Century Schoolbook 'ppl' Palatino 'ptm' Times 'uncl' Uncial 'put' Utopia 'pzc' Zapf Chancery '\fontseries{SERIES}' Select the font series. A "series" combines a "weight" and a "width". Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combined series values include: 'm' Medium (normal) 'b' Bold 'c' Condensed 'bc' Bold condensed 'bx' Bold extended The possible values for weight, individually, are: 'ul' Ultra light 'el' Extra light 'l' Light 'sl' Semi light 'm' Medium (normal) 'sb' Semi bold 'b' Bold 'eb' Extra bold 'ub' Ultra bold The possible values for width, individually, are (the meaning and relationship of these terms varies with individual typefaces): 'uc' Ultra condensed 'ec' Extra condensed 'c' Condensed 'sc' Semi condensed 'm' Medium 'sx' Semi expanded 'x' Expanded 'ex' Extra expanded 'ux' Ultra expanded When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the 'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m''). '\fontshape{SHAPE}' Select font shape. Valid shapes are: 'n' Upright (normal) 'it' Italic 'sl' Slanted (oblique) 'sc' Small caps 'ui' Upright italics 'ol' Outline The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps are often missing as well. '\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}' Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters defaults to points ('pt'). The line spacing is the nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'. The default '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the '\fontsize'. Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable since its value is reset every time a size change happens; instead use '\baselinestretch'. (*note \baselineskip & \baselinestretch::). '\linespread{FACTOR}' Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as just described. '\selectfont' The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until '\selectfont' is called, as in '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'. It is often useful to put this in a macro: '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). '\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}' The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries' and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by '\selectfont'. For example: \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n} 5 Layout ******** Commands for controlling the general page layout. 5.1 '\onecolumn' ================ Synopsis: \onecolumn Start a new page and produce single-column output. If the document is given the class option 'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior (*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). 5.2 '\twocolumn' ================ Synopses: \twocolumn \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT] Start a new page and produce two-column output. If the document is given the class option 'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: '\columnsep' The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}'. You must change it before the two column mode starts; in the preamble is a good place. '\columnseprule' The width of the rule between columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule. Otherwise, the rule appears halfway between the two columns. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column mode starts. '\columnwidth' The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to '\textwidth'. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width of each of the two columns, '\columnwidth', to be half of '\textwidth' minus '\columnsep'. In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and 'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments 'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note table::). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page. The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output. '\dbltopfraction' The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not exceed '0.7\textheight'. If the height of your starred float environment exceeds this then you can take one of the following actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document: * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page. * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float. * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large number, to avoid going to float pages so soon. You can redefine it, as with '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'. '\dblfloatpagefraction' For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space. LaTeX's default is '0.5'. Change it with '\renewcommand'. '\dblfloatsep' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt' or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at '12pt'. '\dbltextfloatsep' This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. The default is '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. '\dbltopnumber' On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX default is '2'. This example uses '\twocolumn''s optional argument of to create a title that spans the two-column article: \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}} \begin{document} \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text \centering \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em] \large Author One\authormark{1}, Author Two\authormark{2}, Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em] \normalsize \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}} \authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\ School one &School two \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part }] Two column text here. 5.3 '\flushbottom' ================== Make all pages in the documents after this declaration have the same height, by stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is most often used when making two-sided documents since the differences in facing pages can be glaring. If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'. If you get that, one option is to change to '\raggedbottom' (*note \raggedbottom::). Alternatively, you can adjust the 'textheight' to make compatible pages, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in '\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'. Your last option is to, in a final editing stage, adjust the height of individual pages (*note \enlargethispage::). The '\flushbottom' state is the default only if you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::). 5.4 '\raggedbottom' =================== Make all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no rubber vertical lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided document the facing pages may be different heights. This command can go at any point in the document body. See *note \flushbottom::. This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::). 5.5 Page layout parameters ========================== '\columnsep' '\columnseprule' '\columnwidth' The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::). *Note \twocolumn::. '\headheight' Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type sizes. '\headsep' Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '25pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: if the document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt or 12pt it is '0.275in'. '\footskip' Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. The default in the 'article' and 'report' classes is '30pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: when the type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'. '\linewidth' Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note list::). That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note itemize::). '\marginparpush' '\marginsep' '\marginparwidth' The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of the notes. Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and '\normalmarginpar' changes it back). The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article' classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt. For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the default is '11pt'. For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode. For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth', while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance. '\oddsidemargin' '\evensidemargin' The '\oddsidemargin' length is the extra distance between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when 'oneside' is in effect. When 'twoside' is in effect, on even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is '\evensidemargin'. LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder. '\paperheight' The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area. Normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\paperwidth' The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area. Normally set with a document class option, as in '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class options::). '\textheight' The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or 'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is '41\baselineskip'. At a type size of 11pt the default is '38\baselineskip' for all document classes. At 12pt it is '36\baselineskip' for all classes. '\textwidth' The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an 'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is '390pt' at 12pt. For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt. In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column (*note \twocolumn::). In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists. Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the 'minipage' or '\parbox'. '\hsize' This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX documents. '\topmargin' Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in - \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided by two. '\topskip' Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt. 5.6 '\baselineskip' & '\baselinestretch' ======================================== The '\baselineskip' is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). It gives the leading, the normal distance between lines in a paragraph, from baseline to baseline. Ordinarily document authors do not directly change '\baselineskip' while writing. Instead, it is set by the low level font selection command '\fontsize' (*note low level font commands fontsize::). The '\baselineskip''s value is reset every time a font change happens and so any direct change to '\baselineskip' would vanish the next time there was a font switch. For how to influence line spacing, see the discussion of '\baselinestretch' below. Usually, a font's size and baseline skip is assigned by the font designer. These numbers are nominal in the sense that if, for instance, a font's style file has the command '\fontsize{10pt}{12pt}' then that does not mean that the characters in the font are 10pt tall; for instance, parentheses and accented capitals may be taller. Nor does it mean that if the lines are spaced less than 12pt apart then they risk touching. Rather these numbers are typographic judgements. (Often, the '\baselineskip' is about twenty percent larger than the font size.) The '\baselineskip' is not a property of each line but of the entire paragraph. As a result, large text in the middle of a paragraph, such as a single '{\Huge Q}', will be squashed into its line. TeX will make sure it doesn't scrape up against the line above but won't change the '\baselineskip' for that one line to make extra room above. For the fix, use a '\strut' (*note \strut::). The value of '\baselineskip' that TeX uses for the paragraph is the value in effect at the blank line or command that ends the paragraph unit. So if a document contains this paragraph then its lines will be scrunched together, compared to lines in surrounding paragraphs. Many people see a page break between text and a displayed equation as bad style, so in effect the display is part of the paragraph. Because this display is in footnotesize, the entire paragraph has the baseline spacing matching that size. {\footnotesize $$a+b = c$$} The process for making paragraphs is that when a new line is added, if the depth of the previous line plus the height of the new line is less than '\baselineskip' then TeX inserts vertical glue to make up the difference. There are two fine points. The first is that if the lines would be too close together, closer than '\lineskiplimit', then TeX instead uses '\lineskip' as the interline glue. The second is that TeX doesn't actually use the depth of the previous line. Instead it uses '\prevdepth', which usually contains that depth. But at the beginning of the paragraph (or any vertical list) or just after a rule, '\prevdepth' has the value -1000pt and this special value tells TeX not to insert any interline glue at the paragraph start. In the standard classes '\lineskiplimit' is 0pt and '\lineskip' is 1pt. By the prior paragraph then, the distance between lines can approach zero but if it becomes zero (or less than zero) then the lines jump to 1pt apart. Sometimes authors must, for editing purposes, put the document in double space or one-and-a-half space. The right way to influence the interline distance is via '\baselinestretch'. It scales '\baselineskip', and has a default value of 1.0. It is a command, not a length, so change the scale factor as in '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{1.5}\selectfont'. The most straightforward way to change the line spacing for an entire document is to put '\linespread{FACTOR}' in the preamble. For double spacing, take FACTOR to be 1.6 and for one-and-a-half spacing use 1.3. These number are rough: for instance, since the '\baselineskip' is about 1.2 times the font size, multiplying by 1.6 gives a font size to baseline ratio of about 2. (The '\linespread' command is defined as '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}' so it won't take effect until a font setting happens. But that always takes place at the start of a document, so there you don't need to follow it with '\selectfont'.) A simpler approach is the 'setspace' package. The basic example: \usepackage{setspace} \doublespacing % or \onehalfspacing for 1.5 In the preamble these will start the document off with that sizing. But you can also use these declarations in the document body to change the spacing from that point forward, and consequently there is '\singlespacing' to return the spacing to normal. In the document body, a better practice than using the declarations is to use environments, such as '\begin{doublespace} ... \end{doublespace}'. The package also has commands to do arbitrary spacing: '\setstretch{FACTOR}' and '\begin{spacing}{FACTOR} ... \end{spacing}'. 5.7 Floats ========== Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a later page. LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material. The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table' (*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package 'float'. Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it appears in the output after it. The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may end up being typeset far from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big may migrate to the end of the document. In which event, because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order, every following float in that class also appears at the end. In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its PLACEMENT argument. The possible values are a sequence of the letters below. The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and 'book' classes, is 'tbp'. 't' (Top)--at the top of a text page. 'b' (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. (However, 'b' is not allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix' package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: . 'h' (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment appears. However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is automatically added. To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at . 'p' (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page containing no text, only floats. '!' Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see above. Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'. All that PLACEMENT does is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that location. Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location except placing the float where it occurs in the source. To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'. This will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all outstanding floats. LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source (although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the PLACEMENT parameter. If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the top position on this page to moved to the next page. Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'): '\bottomfraction' The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default '.3'. '\floatpagefraction' The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default '.5'. '\textfraction' Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is '.2'. '\topfraction' Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default '.7'. Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with a command of the form '\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'): '\floatsep' Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt'. '\intextsep' Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents. '\textfloatsep' Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'. Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with a command of the form '\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'): 'bottomnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1. 'dbltopnumber' Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2. 'topnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2. 'totalnumber' Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3. The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats contains suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explanation of the float placement algorithm is in Frank Mittelbach's article "How to influence the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?" (). 6 Sectioning ************ Structure your text into divisions: parts, chapters, sections, etc. All sectioning commands have the same form, one of: SECTIONING-COMMAND{TITLE} SECTIONING-COMMAND*{TITLE} SECTIONING-COMMAND[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} For instance, declare the start of a subsection as with '\subsection{Motivation}'. The table has each SECTIONING-COMMAND in LaTeX. All are available in all of LaTeX's standard document classes 'book', 'report', and 'article', except that '\chapter' is not available in 'article'. Sectioning unit Command Level -------------------------------------------------------------------- Part '\part' -1 ('book', 'report'), 0 ('article') Chapter '\chapter' 0 Section '\section' 1 Subsection '\subsection' 2 Subsubsection '\subsubsection' 3 Paragraph '\paragraph' 4 Subparagraph '\subparagraph' 5 All these commands have a '*'-form that prints TITLE as usual but does not number it and does not make an entry in the table of contents. An example of using this is for an appendix in an 'article'. The input '\appendix\section{Appendix}' gives the output 'A Appendix' (*note \appendix::). You can lose the numbering 'A' by instead entering '\section*{Appendix}' (articles often omit a table of contents and have simple page headers so the other differences from the '\section' command may not matter). The section title TITLE provides the heading in the main text, but it may also appear in the table of contents and in the running head or foot (*note Page styles::). You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. All of these commands have an optional argument TOC-TITLE for these other places. The level number in the table above determines which sectional units are numbered, and which appear in the table of contents. If the sectioning command's LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter 'secnumdepth' then the titles for this sectioning command will be numbered (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::). And, if LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter 'tocdepth' then the table of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit (*note Sectioning/tocdepth::). LaTeX expects that before you have a '\subsection' you will have a '\section' and, in a 'book' class document, that before a '\section' you will have a '\chapter'. Otherwise you can get something like a subsection numbered '3.0.1'. LaTeX lets you change the appearance of the sectional units. As a simple example, you can change the section numbering to upper-case letters with '\renewcommand\thesection{\Alph{section}}' in the preamble (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). CTAN has many packages that make this adjustment easier, notably 'titlesec'. Two counters relate to the appearance of headings made by sectioning commands. 'secnumdepth' Controls which sectioning unit are numbered. Setting the counter with '\setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL}' will suppress numbering of sectioning at any depth greater than LEVEL (*note \setcounter::). See the above table for the level numbers. For instance, if the 'secnumdepth' is 1 in an 'article' then a '\section{Introduction}' command will produce output like '1 Introduction' while '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like 'Discussion', without the number. LaTeX's default 'secnumdepth' is 3 in 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes. 'tocdepth' Controls which sectioning units are listed in the table of contents. The setting '\setcounter{tocdepth}{LEVEL}' makes the sectioning units at LEVEL be the smallest ones listed (*note \setcounter::). See the above table for the level numbers. For instance, if 'tocdepth' is 1 then the table of contents will list sections but not subsections. LaTeX's default 'tocdepth' is 3 in 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes. 6.1 '\part' =========== Synopsis, one of: \part{TITLE} \part*{TITLE} \part[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a document part. The standard LaTeX classes 'book', 'report', and 'article', all have this command. This produces a document part, in a book. \part{VOLUME I \\ PERSONAL MEMOIRS OF U.\ S.\ GRANT} \chapter{ANCESTRY--BIRTH--BOYHOOD.} My family is American, and has been for generations, in all its branches, direct and collateral. In each standard class the '\part' command outputs a part number such as 'Part I', alone on its line, in boldface, and in large type. Then LaTeX outputs TITLE, also alone on its line, in bold and in even larger type. In class 'book', the LaTeX default puts each part alone on its own page. If the book is two-sided then LaTeX will skip a page if needed to have the new part on an odd-numbered page. In 'report' it is again alone on a page, but LaTeX won't force it onto an odd-numbered page. In an 'article' LaTeX does not put it on a fresh page, but instead outputs the part number and part title onto the main document page. The '*' form shows TITLE but it does not show the part number, does not increment the 'part' counter, and produces no table of contents entry. The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the part title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This example puts a line break in TITLE but leaves out the break in the table of contents. \part[Up from the bottom; my life]{Up from the bottom\\ my life} For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a part is -1 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::, and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). In the class 'article', if a paragraph immediately follows the part title then it is not indented. To get an indent you can use the package 'indentfirst'. One package to change the behavior of '\part' is 'titlesec'. See its documentation on CTAN. 6.2 '\chapter' ============== Synopsis, one of: \chapter{TITLE} \chapter*{TITLE} \chapter[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a chapter. The standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' have this command but 'article' does not. This produces a chapter. \chapter{Loomings} Call me Ishmael. Some years ago---never mind how long precisely---having little or no money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of the world. The LaTeX default starts each chapter on a fresh page, an odd-numbered page if the document is two-sided. It produces a chapter number such as 'Chapter 1' in large boldface type (the size is '\huge'). It then puts TITLE on a fresh line, in boldface type that is still larger (size '\Huge'). It also increments the 'chapter' counter, adds an entry to the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::), and sets the running header information (*note Page styles::). The '*' form shows TITLE on a fresh line, in boldface. But it does not show the chapter number, does not increment the 'chapter' counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does not affect the running header. (If you use the page style 'headings' in a two-sided document then the header will be from the prior chapter.) This example illustrates. \chapter*{Preamble} The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the chapter title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full name in the chapter title, \chapter[Weyl]{Hermann Klaus Hugo (Peter) Weyl (1885--1955)} but only 'Weyl' on the contents page. This puts a line break in the title but that doesn't work well with running headers so it omits the break in the contents \chapter[Given it all; my story]{Given it all\\ my story} For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a chapter is 0 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the chapter title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. To get an indent use the package 'indentfirst'. You can change what is shown for the chapter number. To change it to something like 'Lecture 1', put in the preamble either '\renewcommand{\chaptername}{Lecture}' or this (*note \makeatletter & \makeatother::). \makeatletter \renewcommand{\@chapapp}{Lecture} \makeatother To make this change because of the primary language for the document, see the package 'babel'. In a two-sided document LaTeX puts a chapter on odd-numbered page, if necessary leaving an even-numbered page that is blank except for any running headers. To make that page completely blank, see *note \clearpage & \cleardoublepage::. To change the behavior of the '\chapter' command, you can copy its definition from the LaTeX format file and make adjustments. But there are also many packages on CTAN that address this. One is 'titlesec'. See its documentation, but the example below gives a sense of what it can do. \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble \titleformat{\chapter} {\Huge\bfseries} % format of title {} % label, such as 1.2 for a subsection {0pt} % length of separation between label and title {} % before-code hook This omits the chapter number 'Chapter 1' from the page but unlike '\chapter*' it keeps the chapter in the table of contents and the running headers. 6.3 '\section' ============== Synopsis, one of: \section{TITLE} \section*{TITLE} \section[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a section. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have this command. This produces a section. In this Part we tend to be more interested in the function, in the input-output behavior, than in the details of implementing that behavior. \section{Turing machines} Despite this desire to downplay implementation, we follow the approach of A~Turing that the first step toward defining the set of computable functions is to reflect on the details of what mechanisms can do. For the standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' the default output is like '1.2 TITLE' (for chapter 1, section 2), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the type size is '\Large'). The same holds in 'article' except that there are no chapters in that class so it looks like '2 TITLE'. The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not show the section number, does not increment the 'section' counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does not affect the running header. (If you use the page style 'headings' in a two-sided document then the header will be from the prior section.) The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the section title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full name in the title of the section, \section[Elizabeth~II]{Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.} but only 'Elizabeth II' on the contents page and in the headers. This has a line break in TITLE but that does not work with headers so it is omitted from the contents and headers. \section[Truth is, I cheated; my life story]{Truth is, I cheated\\my life story} For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a section is 1 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the section title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package 'indentfirst'. In general, to change the behavior of the '\section' command, there are a number of options. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation but the example below gives a sense of what they can do. \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble \titleformat{\section} {\normalfont\Large\bfseries} % format of title {\makebox[1pc][r]{\thesection\hspace{1pc}}} % label {0pt} % length of separation between label and title {} % before-code hook \titlespacing*{\section} {-1pc}{18pt}{10pt}[10pc] That puts the section number in the margin. 6.4 '\subsection' ================= Synopsis, one of: \subsection{TITLE} \subsection*{TITLE} \subsection[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a subsection. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have this command. This produces a subsection. We will show that there are more functions than Turing machines and that therefore some functions have no associated machine. \subsection{Cardinality} We will begin with two paradoxes that dramatize the challenge to our intuition posed by comparing the sizes of infinite sets. For the standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' the default output is like '1.2.3 TITLE' (for chapter 1, section 2, subsection 3), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the type size is '\large'). The same holds in 'article' except that there are no chapters in that class so it looks like '2.3 TITLE'. The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not show the subsection number, does not increment the 'subsection' counter, and produces no table of contents entry. The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the subsection title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full text in the title of the subsection, \subsection[$\alpha,\beta,\gamma$ paper]{\textit{The Origin of Chemical Elements} by R.A.~Alpher, H.~Bethe, and G.~Gamow} but only 'α,β,γ paper' on the contents page. For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a subsection is 2 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the subsection title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package 'indentfirst'. There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the '\subsection' command. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation but the example below gives a sense of what they can do. \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble \titleformat{\subsection}[runin] {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries} % format of the title {\thesubsection} % label {0.6em} % space between label and title {} % before-code hook That puts the subsection number and TITLE in the first line of text. 6.5 '\subsubsection', '\paragraph', '\subparagraph' =================================================== Synopsis, one of: \subsubsection{TITLE} \subsubsection*{TITLE} \subsubsection[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} or one of: \paragraph{TITLE} \paragraph*{TITLE} \paragraph[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} or one of: \subparagraph{TITLE} \subparagraph*{TITLE} \subparagraph[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE} Start a subsubsection, paragraph, or subparagraph. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have these commands, although they are not commonly used. This produces a subsubsection. \subsubsection{Piston ring compressors: structural performance} Provide exterior/interior wall cladding assemblies capable of withstanding the effects of load and stresses from consumer-grade gasoline engine piston rings. The default output of each of the three does not change over the standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report'. For '\subsubsection' the TITLE is alone on its line, in boldface and normal size type. For '\paragraph' the TITLE is inline with the text, not indented, in boldface and normal size type. For '\subparagraph' the TITLE is inline with the text, with a paragraph indent, in boldface and normal size type (Because an 'article' has no chapters its subsubsections are numbered and so it looks like '1.2.3 TITLE', for section 1, subsection 2, and subsubsection 3. The other two divisions are not numbered.) The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not increment the associated counter and produces no table of contents entry (and does not show the number for '\subsubsection'). The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the division title in the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). If it is not present then TITLE will be there. For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table of contents, the level number of a subsubsection is 3, of a paragraph is 4, and of a subparagraph is 5 (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::). The paragraph that follows the subsubsection title is not indented, as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package 'indentfirst'. There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the these commands. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation on CTAN. 6.6 '\appendix' =============== Synopsis: \appendix This does not directly produce any output. But in a book or report it declares that subsequent '\chapter' commands start an appendix. In an article it does the same, for '\section' commands. It also resets the 'chapter' and 'section' counters to 0 in a book or report, and in an article resets the 'section' and 'subsection' counters. In this book \chapter{One} ... \chapter{Two} ... ... \appendix \chapter{Three} ... \chapter{Four} ... the first two will generate output numbered 'Chapter 1' and 'Chapter 2'. After the '\appendix' the numbering will be 'Appendix A' and 'Appendix B'. *Note Larger book template::, for another example. The 'appendix' package adds the command '\appendixpage' to put a separate 'Appendices' in the document body before the first appendix, and the command '\addappheadtotoc' to do the same in the table of contents. You can reset the name 'Appendices' with a command like '\renewcommand{\appendixname}{Specification}', as well as a number of other features. See the documentation on CTAN. 6.7 '\frontmatter', '\mainmatter', '\backmatter' ================================================ Synopsis, one or more of: \frontmatter ... \mainmatter ... \backmatter ... Format a 'book' class document differently according to which part of the document is being produced. All three commands are optional. Traditionally, a book's front matter contains such things as the title page, an abstract, a table of contents, a preface, a list of notations, a list of figures, and a list of tables. (Some of these front matter pages, such as the title page, are traditionally not numbered.) The back matter may contain such things as a glossary, notes, a bibliography, and an index. The '\frontmatter' command makes the pages numbered in lowercase roman, and makes chapters not numbered, although each chapter's title appears in the table of contents; if you use other sectioning commands here, use the '*'-version (*note Sectioning::). The '\mainmatter' command changes the behavior back to the expected version, and resets the page number. The '\backmatter' command leaves the page numbering alone but switches the chapters back to being not numbered. *Note Larger book template::, for an example using these three commands. 6.8 '\@startsection', typesetting sectional unit headings ========================================================= Synopsis: \@startsection{NAME}{LEVEL}{INDENT}{BEFORESKIP}{AFTERSKIP}{STYLE} Used to help redefine the behavior of commands that start sectioning divisions such as '\section' or '\subsection'. Note that the 'titlesec' package makes manipulation of sectioning easier. Further, while most requirements for sectioning commands can be satisfied with '\@startsection', some cannot. For instance, in the standard LaTeX 'book' and 'report' classes the commands '\chapter' and '\report' are not constructed in this way. To make such a command you may want to use the '\secdef' command. Technically, '\@startsection' has the form \@startsection{NAME} {LEVEL} {INDENT} {BEFORESKIP} {AFTERSKIP} {STYLE}*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE} so that issuing \renewcommand{\section}{\@startsection{NAME} {LEVEL} {INDENT} {BEFORESKIP} {AFTERSKIP} {STYLE}} redefines '\section' while keeping its standard calling form '\section*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}' (in which, for reminder, the star '*' is optional). *Note Sectioning::. This implies that when you write a command like '\renewcommand{\section}{...}', the '\@startsection{...}' must come last in the definition. See the examples below. NAME Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header. This counter must be defined separately. Most commonly this is either 'section', 'subsection', or 'paragraph'. Although in those cases the counter name is the same as the sectioning command itself, you don't have to use the same name. Then '\the'NAME displays the title number and '\'NAME'mark' is for the page headers. See the third example below. LEVEL An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command. *Note Sectioning::, for the list of standard level numbers. If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter 'secnumdepth' then titles for this sectioning command will be numbered (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::). For instance, if 'secnumdepth' is 1 in an 'article' then the command '\section{Introduction}' will produce output like "1 Introduction" while '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like "Discussion", without the number prefix. If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter TOCDEPTH then the table of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit (*note Sectioning/tocdepth::). For instance, in an 'article', if TOCDEPTH is 1 then the table of contents will list sections but not subsections. INDENT A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with respect to the left margin. To have the title flush with the margin use '0pt'. A negative indentation such as '-\parindent' will move the title into the left margin. BEFORESKIP The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space that is inserted before this sectioning unit's title. This space will be discarded if the sectioning unit happens to start at the beginning of a page. If this number is negative then the first paragraph following the header is not indented, if it is non-negative then the first paragraph is indented. (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt'.) For example, if BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex' then to start the new sectioning unit, LaTeX will add about 3.5 times the height of a letter x in vertical space, and the first paragraph in the section will not be indented. Using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus', is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more flexibility in making up the page (*note Lengths::). The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the line prior to this sectioning unit's header and the baseline of the header is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the text font, the '\baselineskip' of the title font, and the absolute value of the BEFORESKIP. This space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page so that the vertical space is discarded then the baseline of the header text will be where LaTeX would put the baseline of the first text line on that page.) AFTERSKIP This is a length. If AFTERSKIP is non-negative then this is the vertical space inserted after the sectioning unit's title header. If it is negative then the title header becomes a run-in header, so that it becomes part of the next paragraph. In this case the absolute value of the length gives the horizontal space between the end of the title and the beginning of the following paragraph. (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt'.) As with BEFORESKIP, using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more flexibility in putting together the page. If 'afterskip' is non-negative then the full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the sectioning unit's header and the baseline of the first line of the following paragraph is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the title font, the '\baselineskip' of the text font, and the value of AFTER. That space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (Note that because the sign of 'afterskip' changes the sectioning unit header's from standalone to run-in, you cannot use a negative 'afterskip' to cancel part of the '\parskip'.) STYLE Controls the styling of the title. See the examples below. Typical commands to use here are '\centering', '\raggedright', '\normalfont', '\hrule', or '\newpage'. The last command in STYLE may be one that takes one argument, such as '\MakeUppercase' or '\fbox' that takes one argument. The section title will be supplied as the argument to this command. For instance, setting STYLE to '\bfseries\MakeUppercase' would produce titles that are bold and uppercase. These are LaTeX's defaults for the first three sectioning units that are defined with '\@startsection', for the 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes. * For 'section': LEVEL is 1, INDENT is 0pt, BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', AFTERSKIP is '2.3ex plus 0.2ex', and STYLE is '\normalfont\Large\bfseries'. * For 'subsection': LEVEL is 2, INDENT is 0pt, BEFORESKIP is '-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', AFTERSKIP is '1.5ex plus 0.2ex', and STYLE is '\normalfont\large\bfseries'. * For 'subsubsection': LEVEL is 3, INDENT is 0pt, BEFORESKIP is '-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', AFTERSKIP is '1.5ex plus 0.2ex', and STYLE is '\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries'. Some examples follow. These go either in a package or class file or in the preamble of a LaTeX document. If you put them in the preamble they must go between a '\makeatletter' command and a '\makeatother'. (Probably the error message 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode.' means that you forgot this.) *Note \makeatletter & \makeatother::. This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered. It says '\renewcommand' because LaTeX's standard classes have already defined a '\section'. For the same reason it does not define a 'section' counter, or the commands '\thesection' and '\l@section'. \renewcommand\section{% \@startsection{section}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name. {1}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level. {0pt}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent. {-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -.2ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip. {2.3ex plus.2ex}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip. {\centering\normalfont\Large\bfseries}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style. } This will put 'subsection' titles in small caps type, inline with the paragraph. \renewcommand\subsection{% \@startsection{subsection}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name. {2}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level. {0em}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent. {-1ex plus 0.1ex minus -0.05ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip. {-1em plus 0.2em}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip. {\scshape}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style. } The prior examples redefined existing sectional unit title commands. This defines a new one, illustrating the needed counter and macros to display that counter. \setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}% show counters this far down \newcounter{subsubparagraph}[subparagraph]% counter for numbering \renewcommand{\thesubsubparagraph}% how to display {\thesubparagraph.\@arabic\c@subsubparagraph}% numbering \newcommand{\subsubparagraph}{\@startsection {subsubparagraph}% {6}% {0em}% {\baselineskip}% {0.5\baselineskip}% {\normalfont\normalsize}} \newcommand*\l@subsubparagraph{\@dottedtocline{6}{10em}{5em}}% for toc \newcommand{\subsubparagraphmark}[1]{}% for page headers 7 Cross references ****************** We often want something like 'See Theorem~31'. But by-hand typing the 31 is poor practice. Instead you should write a "label" such as '\label{eq:GreensThm}' and then "reference" it, as with 'See equation~\ref{eq:GreensThm}'. LaTeX will automatically work out the number, put it into the output, and will change that number later if needed. We will see this with Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm}. % forward reference ... \begin{theorem} \label{th:GreensThm} ... \end{theorem} ... See Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm} on page~\pageref{th:GreensThm}. LaTeX tracks cross reference information in a file having the extension '.aux' and with the same base name as the file containing the '\label'. So if '\label' is in 'calculus.tex' then the information is in 'calculus.aux'. LaTeX puts the information in that file every time it runs across a '\label'. The behavior described in the prior paragraph results in a quirk that happens when your document has a "forward reference", a '\ref' that appears before the associated '\label'. If this is the first time that you are compiling the document then you will get 'LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross references right' and in the output the forward reference will appear as two question marks '??', in boldface. A similar thing happens if you change some things so the references changes; you get the same warning and the output contains the old reference information. In both cases, resolve this by compiling the document a second time. The 'cleveref' package enhances LaTeX's cross referencing features. You can arrange that if you enter '\begin{thm}\label{th:Nerode}...\end{thm}' then '\cref{th:Nerode}' will output 'Theorem 3.21', without you having to enter the "Theorem." 7.1 '\label' ============ Synopsis: \label{KEY} Assign a reference number to KEY. In ordinary text '\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of the current sectional unit. Inside an environment with numbering, such as a 'table' or 'theorem' environment, '\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of that environment. Retrieve the assigned number with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::). A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual. A common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Thus, '\label{fig:Post}' is a label for a figure with a portrait of Emil Post. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, and makes your source more readable. Some commonly-used prefixes: 'ch' for chapters 'sec' 'subsec' for lower-level sectioning commands 'fig' for figures 'tab' for tables 'eq' for equations In the auxiliary file the reference information is kept as the text of a command of the form '\newlabel{LABEL}{{CURRENTLABEL}{PAGENUMBER}}'. Here CURRENTLABEL is the current value of the macro '\@currentlabel' that is usually updated whenever you call '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'. Below, the key 'sec:test' will get the number of the current section and the key 'fig:test' will get the number of the figure. (Incidentally, put labels after captions in figures and tables.) \section{section name} \label{sec:test} This is Section~\ref{sec:test}. \begin{figure} ... \caption{caption text} \label{fig:test} \end{figure} See Figure~\ref{fig:test}. 7.2 '\pageref' ============== Synopsis: \pageref{KEY} Produce the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears. If there is no '\label{KEY}' then you get something like 'LaTeX Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on input line 11.' Below, the '\label{eq:main}' is used both for the formula number and for the page number. (Note that the two references are forward references so this document would need to be compiled twice to resolve those.) The main result is formula~\ref{eq:main} on page~\pageref{eq:main}. ... \begin{equation} \label{eq:main} \mathbf{P}=\mathbf{NP} \end{equation} 7.3 '\ref' ========== Synopsis: \ref{KEY} Produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command (*note \label::). It does not produce any text, such as the word 'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself. If there is no '\label{KEY}' then you get something like 'LaTeX Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on input line 11.' In this example the '\ref{popular}' produces '2'. Note that it is a forward reference since it comes before '\label{popular}' so this document would have to be compiled twice. The most widely-used format is item number~\ref{popular}. \begin{enumerate} \item Plain \TeX \item \label{popular} \LaTeX \item Con\TeX t \end{enumerate} The 'cleveref' package includes text such as 'Theorem' in the reference. See the documentation on CTAN. 7.4 'xr' package ================ Synopsis: \usepackage{xr} \externaldocument{DOCUMENT-BASENAME} or \usepackage{xr} \externaldocument[REFERENCE-PREFIX]{DOCUMENT-BASENAME} Make cross references to the external document 'DOCUMENT-BASENAME.tex'. Here is an example. If 'lectures.tex' has this in the preamble \usepackage{xr} \externaldocument{exercises} \externaldocument[H-]{hints} \externaldocument{answers} then it can use cross reference labels from the other three documents. Suppose that 'exercises.tex' has an enumerated list containing this, \item \label{exer:EulersThm} What if every vertex has odd degree? and 'hints.tex' has an enumerated list with this, \item \label{exer:EulersThm} Distinguish the case of two vertices. and 'answers.tex' has an enumerated list with this. \item \label{ans:EulersThm} There is no Euler path, except if there are exactly two vertices. After compiling the exercises, hints, and answers documents, entering this in the body of 'lectures.tex' will result in the lectures getting the reference numbers used in the other documents. See Exercise~\ref{exer:EulersThm}, with Hint~\ref{H-exer:EulersThm}. The solution is Answer~\ref{ans:EulersThm}. The prefix 'H-' for the reference from the hints file is needed because the label in the hints file is the same as the label in the exercises file. Without that prefix, both references would get the number from the later file. Note: if the document uses the 'hyperref' package then in place of 'xr', put '\usepackage{xr-hyper}' before the '\usepackage{hyperref}'. Also, if any of the multiple documents uses 'hyperref' then they all must use it. 8 Environments ************** LaTeX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior. An environment begins with '\begin' and ends with '\end', like this: \begin{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} ... \end{ENVIRONMENT-NAME} The ENVIRONMENT-NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. For instance, the input '\begin{table*}...\end{table}' will cause an error like: '! LaTeX Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by \end{table}.' Environments are executed within a group. 8.1 'abstract' ============== Synopsis: \begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract} Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. This environment is only defined in the 'article' and 'report' document classes (*note Document classes::). Using the example below in the 'article' class produces a displayed paragraph. Document class option 'titlepage' causes the abstract to be on a separate page (*note Document class options::); this is the default only in the 'report' class. \begin{abstract} We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused. \end{abstract} The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column document (for a more flexible solution, use the package 'abstract'). \documentclass[twocolumn]{article} ... \begin{document} \title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach} \author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}} \twocolumn[ \begin{@twocolumnfalse} \maketitle \begin{abstract} Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat team. \end{abstract} \end{@twocolumnfalse} ] { % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}} \footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.} } 8.2 'array' =========== Synopsis: \begin{array}{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} or: \begin{array}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{array} Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::). Inside of each row the column entries are separated by an ampersand, ('&'). Rows are terminated with double-backslashes (*note \\::). This example shows a three by three array. \begin{equation*} \chi(x) = \left| % vertical bar fence \begin{array}{ccc} x-a &-b &-c \\ -d &x-e &-f \\ -g &-h &x-i \end{array} \right| \end{equation*} The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. For instance, '\begin{array}{rcl}...\end{array}' gives three columns: the first flush right, the second centered, and the third flush left. See *note tabular:: for the complete description of COLS and of the other common features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument. There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'. The first is that 'array' entries are typeset in math mode, in textstyle (*note Modes::) except if the COLS definition specifies the column with 'p{...}', which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode. The second is that, instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's intercolumn space in an 'array' is governed by '\arraycolsep', which gives half the width between columns. The default for this is '5pt' so that between two columns comes 10pt of space. To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath' package. It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded by parentheses '(...)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square brackets '[...]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly braces '{...}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical bars '|...|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical bars '||...||', along with a number of other array constructs. The next example uses the 'amsmath' package. \usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble \begin{equation} \begin{vmatrix}{cc} % array with vert lines a &b \\ c &d \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc \end{equation} There are many packages concerning arrays. The 'array' package has many useful extensions, including more column types. The 'dcolumn' package adds a column type to center on a decimal point. For both see the documentation on CTAN. 8.3 'center' ============ Synopsis: \begin{center} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{center} Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are centered within the left and right margins. Use double-backslash, '\\', to get a line break (*note \\::). If some text is too long to fit on a line then LaTeX will insert line breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any interword space. This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See *note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure' environment. This example produces three centered lines. There is extra vertical space between the last two lines. \begin{center} A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\ of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex] the School of Environmental Engineering \end{center} In this example, depending on the page's line width, LaTeX may choose a line break for the part before the double backslash. If so, it will center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line. Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the ending. \begin{center} My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ I grew up in that belief. ---Richard Burton \end{center} A double backslash after the final line is optional. If present it doesn't add any vertical space. In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the entire page. 8.3.1 '\centering' ------------------ Synopsis: {\centering ... } or \begin{group} \centering ... \end{group} Center the material in its scope. It is most often used inside an environment such as 'figure', or in a 'parbox'. This example's '\centering' declaration causes the graphic to be horizontally centered. \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png} \caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion} \end{figure} The scope of this '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'. Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not add vertical space above and below the text. That's its advantage in the above example; there is not an excess of space. It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or 'table' that ends the paragraph unit. Thus, if '{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with 'zz' that is formatted as usual. 8.4 'description' ================= Synopsis: \begin{description} \item[LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{description} Environment to make a list of labeled items. Each item's LABEL is typeset in bold and is flush left, so that long labels continue into the first line of the item text. There must be at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions. \begin{description} \item[lama] A priest. \item[llama] A beast. \end{description} The labels 'lama' and 'llama' are output in boldface, with the left edge on the left margin. Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). Use the optional labels, as in '\item[Main point]', because there is no sensible default. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it will come out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way around this, in this example to get non-bold typewriter, is to use declarative style: '\item[{\tt label text}]'. Similarly, get the standard roman font with '\item[{\rm label text}]'. For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize:: and *note enumerate::. Unlike those environments, nesting 'description' environments does not change the default label; it is boldface and flush left at all levels. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example changes the description labels to small caps. \renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{% {\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}} 8.5 'displaymath' ================= Synopsis: \begin{displaymath} MATHEMATICAL TEXT \end{displaymath} Environment to typeset the MATHEMATICAL TEXT on its own line, in display style and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::. In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation' environment (*note equation::). LaTeX will not break the MATH TEXT across lines. Note that the 'amsmath' package has significantly more extensive displayed equation facilities. For example, there are a number of ways in that package for having math text broken across lines. The construct '\[MATH\]' is a synonym for the environment '\begin{displaymath} MATH \end{displaymath}' but the latter is easier to work with in the source; for instance, searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will likely be unique. (Aside: The construct '$$MATH$$' from Plain TeX is sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'. It is not a synonym, and is not officially supported in LaTeX at all; '$$' doesn't support the 'fleqn' option (*note Document class options::), has different vertical spacing, and doesn't perform consistency checks.) The output from this example is centered and alone on its line. \begin{displaymath} \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \end{displaymath} Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces. 8.6 'document' ============== The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document. It is required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting and ending::. 8.6.1 '\AtBeginDocument' ------------------------ Synopsis: \AtBeginDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the very end of the preamble. The code is executed after the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them. 8.6.2 '\AtEndDocument' ---------------------- Synopsis: \AtEndDocument{CODE} Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically, it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE. You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them. 8.7 'enumerate' =============== Synopsis: \begin{enumerate} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{enumerate} Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see below. The default top-level numbering is '1.', '2.', etc. Each 'enumerate' list environment must have at least one item; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon. As a top-level list the labels would come out as '1.' and '2.'. \begin{enumerate} \item Johnny Hayes (USA) \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) \end{enumerate} Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in '\item[Interstitial label]', then the next item will continue the interrupted sequence (*note \item::). That is, you will get labels like '1.', then 'Interstitial label', then '2.'. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs. Enumerations may be nested within other 'enumerate' environments, or within any paragraph-making environment such as 'itemize' (*note itemize::), up to four levels deep. This gives LaTeX's default for the format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level, the outermost level. 1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ... 2. lowercase letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ... 3. lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ... 4. uppercase letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ... The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through '\enumiv' (*note Counters::). For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note description:: and *note itemize::. For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through '\labelenumiv'. For instance, this first level list will be labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period. \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}} \begin{enumerate} \item Shows as boldface A \item Shows as boldface B \end{enumerate} For a list of counter-labeling commands see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::. 8.8 'eqnarray' ============== The 'eqnarray' environment is obsolete. It has infelicities, including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements. (See "Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen ). New documents should include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment. We include a description only for completeness and for working with old documents. Synopsis: \begin{eqnarray} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray} or \begin{eqnarray*} FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\ ... \end{eqnarray*} Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode. It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by double backslash '\\'). The starred form of line break ('\\*') can also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there (*note \\::). The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line (using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber' command. The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while otherwise being the same. The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side. \begin{eqnarray*} \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\ &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\ &= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n \end{eqnarray*} 8.9 'equation' ============== Synopsis: \begin{equation} MATHEMATICAL TEXT \end{equation} The same as a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) except that LaTeX puts an equation number flush to the right margin. The equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter. You should have no blank lines between '\begin{equation}' and '\begin{equation}', or LaTeX will tell you that there is a missing dollar sign. The package 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation facilities. New documents should include this package. 8.10 'figure' ============= Synopsis: \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT] FIGURE BODY \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional \label{LABEL} % optional \end{figure} or: \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT] FIGURE BODY \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional \label{LABEL} % optional \end{figure*} Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text. An example is material that you cannot have split between two pages, such as a graphic. Because of this, LaTeX does not typeset figures in sequence with normal text but instead "floats" them to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page (*note Floats::). The FIGURE BODY can consist of imported graphics (*note Graphics::), or text, LaTeX commands, etc. It is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth'. The possible values of PLACEMENT are 'h' for 'here', 't' for 'top', 'b' for 'bottom', and 'p' for 'on a separate page of floats'. For the effect of these options on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::). It produces a figure that spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note Floats::. The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text for the figure. By default it is numbered. If LOFTITLE is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Table of contents etc.::). This example makes a figure out of a graphic. LaTeX will place that graphic and its caption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page of floats. \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{figure}[t] \centering \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png} \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby} \end{figure} 8.11 'filecontents' =================== Synopsis: \begin{filecontents}[OPTION]{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents} or \begin{filecontents*}[OPTION]{FILENAME} TEXT \end{filecontents*} Create a file named FILENAME in the current directory (or the output directory, if specified; *note output directory::) and write TEXT to it. By default, an existing file is not overwritten. The unstarred version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the created file with a header of TeX comments; see the example below. The starred version 'filecontents*' does not include the header. The possible options are: 'force' 'overwrite' Overwrite an existing file. 'noheader' Omit the header. Equivalent to using 'filecontents*'. 'nosearch' Only check the current directory (and the output directory, if specified) for an existing file, not the entire search path. These options were added in a 2019 release of LaTeX. This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often appears before the '\documentclass' command. It is commonly used to create a '.bib' or other such data file from the main document source, to make the source file self-contained. Similarly, it can be used to create a custom style or class file, again making the source self-contained. For example, this document: \documentclass{article} \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty} \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} \end{filecontents} \usepackage{JH} \begin{document} Article by \myname. \end{document} produces this file 'JH.sty': %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty' %% generated by the `filecontents' environment %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12. %% \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron} 8.12 'flushleft' ================ Synopsis: \begin{flushleft} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushleft} An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the left-hand margin, and ragged right. If you have lines that are too long then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking interword spaces. To force a new line use a double backslash, '\\'. For the declaration form see *note \raggedright::. This creates a box of text that is at most 3 inches wide, with the text flush left and ragged right. \noindent\begin{minipage}{3in} \begin{flushleft} A long sentence that will be broken by \LaTeX{} at a convenient spot. \\ And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash. \end{flushleft} \end{minipage} 8.12.1 '\raggedright' --------------------- Synopses: {\raggedright ... } or \begin{ENVIRONMENT} \raggedright ... \end{ENVIRONMENT} A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the left margin and ragged right. It can be used inside an ENVIRONMENT such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. For the environment form see *note flushleft::. Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit. Here '\raggedright' in each second column keeps LaTeX from doing very awkward typesetting to fit the text into the narrow column. Note that '\raggedright' is inside the curly braces '{...}' to delimit its effect. \begin{tabular}{rp{2in}} Team alpha &{\raggedright This team does all the real work.} \\ Team beta &{\raggedright This team ensures that the water cooler is never empty.} \\ \end{tabular} 8.13 'flushright' ================= \begin{flushright} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{flushright} An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. If you have lines that are too long to fit the margins then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking inter-word spaces. To force a new line use a double backslash, '\\'. For the declaration form see *note \raggedleft::. For an example related to this environment, see *note flushleft::, where one just have mutatis mutandis to replace 'flushleft' by 'flushright'. 8.13.1 '\raggedleft' -------------------- Synopses: {\raggedleft ... } or \begin{ENVIRONMENT} \raggedleft ... \end{ENVIRONMENT} A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the right margin and ragged left. It can be used inside an ENVIRONMENT such as 'quote' or in a 'parbox'. For the environment form see *note flushright::. Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the paragraph unit. For an example related to this environment, see *note \raggedright::, where one just have mutatis mutandis to replace '\raggedright' by '\raggedleft'. 8.14 'itemize' ============== Synopsis: \begin{itemize} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{itemize} Produce an "unordered list", sometimes called a bullet list. There must be at least one '\item' within the environment; having none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'. This gives a two-item list. \begin{itemize} \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra \item Rice portrait \end{itemize} With the default locale--without loading e.g. 'babel' package with another language than USenglish--as a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, *. The format of the labeling depends on the nesting level; see below. Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in '\item[OPTIONAL LABEL]', then by default OPTIONAL LABEL will appear in bold and be flush right, so it could extend into the left margin. For labels that are flush left see the *note description:: environment. Following the '\item' is the text of the item, which may be empty or contain multiple paragraphs. Unordered lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::). The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through '\labelitemiv' to produce the default label (note the convention of lowercase roman numerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting level). These are the default marks at each level. 1. * (bullet, from '\textbullet') 2. -- (bold en-dash, from '\normalfont\bfseries\textendash') 3. * (asterisk, from '\textasteriskcentered') 4. . (vertically centered dot, rendered here as a period, from '\textperiodcentered') Change the labels with '\renewcommand'. For instance, this makes the first level use diamonds. \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the 'itemize' list is determined by the parameters '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi'. (This also uses the convention of using lowercase roman numerals a the end of the command name to denote the nesting level.) The defaults are: '2.5em' in level 1 ('2em' in two-column mode), '2.2em' in level 2, '1.87em' in level 3, and '1.7em' in level 4, with smaller values for more deeply nested levels. For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note description:: and *note enumerate::. The 'itemize', 'enumerate' and 'description' environment use the same list layout parameters. For a description, including the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized lists. \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*' environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note \parindent & \parskip::): \newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}} 8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters ========================================== This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::. 8.16 'list' =========== Synopsis: \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING} \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM ... \end{list} An environment for constructing lists. Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document body. Most lists created by LaTeX authors are the ones that come standard: the 'description', 'enumerate', and 'itemize' environments (*note description::, *note enumerate::, and *note itemize::). Instead, the 'list' environment is most often used in macros. For example, many standard LaTeX environments that do not immediately appear to be lists are in fact constructed using 'list', including 'quotation', 'quote', and 'center' (*note quotation & quote::, *note center::). This uses the 'list' environment to define a new custom environment. \newcounter{namedlistcounter} % number the items \newenvironment{named} {\begin{list} {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling {\usecounter{namedlistcounter} % set counter \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing } {\end{list}} \begin{named} \item Shows as ``Item~I.'' \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.'' \item Shows as ``Item~II.'' \end{named} The mandatory first argument LABELING specifies the default labeling of list items. It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as above where it contains both 'Item' and '\Roman{...}'. LaTeX forms the label by putting the LABELING argument in a box of width '\labelwidth'. If the label is wider than that, the additional material extends to the right. When making an instance of a 'list' you can override the default labeling by giving '\item' an optional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the above '\item[Special label.]'; *note \item::. The mandatory second argument SPACING has a list of commands. This list can be empty. A command that can go in here is '\usecounter{COUNTERNAME}' (*note \usecounter::). Use this to tell LaTeX to number the items using the given counter. The counter will be reset to zero each time LaTeX enters the environment, and the counter is incremented by one each time LaTeX encounters an '\item' that does not have an optional argument. Another command that can go in SPACING is '\makelabel', which constructs the label box. By default it puts the contents flush right. Its only argument is the label, which it typesets in LR mode (*note Modes::). One example of changing its definition is that to the above 'named' example, before the definition of the environment add '\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}', and between the '\setlength' command and the parenthesis that closes the SPACING argument also add '\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel'. Then the labels will be typeset in small caps. Similarly, changing the second code line to '\let\makelabel\fbox' puts the labels inside a framed box. Another example of the '\makelabel' command is below, in the definition of the 'redlabel' environment. Also often in SPACING are commands to redefine the spacing for the list. Below are the spacing parameters with their default values. (Default values for derived environments such as 'itemize' can be different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows the list. Each is a length (*note Lengths::). The vertical spaces are normally rubber lengths, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, to give TeX flexibility in setting the page. Change each with a command such as '\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}'. For some effects these lengths should be zero or negative. '\itemindent' Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond 'leftmargin', of the first line each item. Its default value is '0pt'. '\itemsep' Vertical space between items, beyond the '\parsep'. The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 11 point are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'). '\labelsep' Horizontal space between the label and text of an item. The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes is '0.5em'. '\labelwidth' Horizontal width. The box containing the label is nominally this wide. If '\makelabel' returns text that is wider than this then the first line of the item will be indented to make room for this extra material. If '\makelabel' returns text of width less than or equal to '\labelwidth' then LaTeX's default is that the label is typeset flush right in a box of this width. The left edge of the label box is '\leftmargin'+'\itemindent'-'\labelsep'-'\labelwidth' from the left margin of the enclosing environment. The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at the top level is '\leftmargini'-'\labelsep', (which is '2em' in one column mode and '1.5em' in two column mode). At the second level it is '\leftmarginii'-'\labelsep', and at the third level it is '\leftmarginiii'-'\labelsep'. These definitions make the label's left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing environment. '\leftmargin' Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing environment (or the left margin of the page if this is a top-level list), and the left margin of this list. It must be non-negative. In the standard LaTeX document classes, a top-level list has this set to the value of '\leftmargini', while a list that is nested inside a top-level list has this margin set to '\leftmarginii'. More deeply nested lists get the values of '\leftmarginiii' through '\leftmarginvi'. (Nesting greater than level five generates the error message 'Too deeply nested'.) The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes are: '\leftmargini' is '2.5em' (in two column mode, '2em'), '\leftmarginii' is '2.2em', and '\leftmarginiii' is '1.87em'. '\listparindent' Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond '\leftmargin', for second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item. A negative value makes this an "outdent". Its default value is '0pt'. '\parsep' Vertical space between paragraphs within an item. The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 11 point size are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 12 point size are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. '\partopsep' Vertical space added, beyond '\topsep'+'\parskip', to the top and bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded by a blank line. (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the line following the list is blank does not matter.) The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '2pt plus1 minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 11 point are: '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point are: '3pt plus2pt minus3pt', '3pt plus2pt minus2pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. '\rightmargin' Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right margin of the enclosing environment. Its default value is '0pt'. It must be non-negative. '\topsep' Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition to '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '8pt plus2pt minus4pt', '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 11 point are: '9pt plus3pt minus5pt', '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 12 point are: '10pt plus4pt minus6pt', '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', and '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt'. This shows the horizontal and vertical distances. ....................................................................... ..............Surrounding environment, preceding material.............. - | v0 |---h0--|-h1-| | ..Label.. .....First item..................................... - ............................................................ ............................................................ - | v1 ........First item, second paragraph .................. - |-h2-| | v2 | ..Label.. .....Second item.................................... - ............................................................ ............................................................ - |-h3--|-h4-| |-h5-| |v3 | ..............Surrounding environment, following material.............. - ....................................................................... The lengths shown are listed below. The key relationship is that the right edge of the bracket for H1 equals the right edge of the bracket for H4, so that the left edge of the label box is at H3+H4-(H0+H1). V0 '\topsep' + '\parskip' if the list environment does not start a new paragraph, and '\topsep'+'\parskip'+'\partopsep' if it does V1 '\parsep' V2 '\itemsep'+'\parsep' V3 Same as V0. (This space is affected by whether a blank line appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line appears in the source below the environment does not matter.) H0 '\labelwidth' H1 '\labelsep' H2 '\listparindent' H3 '\leftmargin' H4 '\itemindent' H5 '\rightmargin' The list's left and right margins, shown above as H3 and H5, are with respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or with respect to the page margins for a top-level list. The line width used for typesetting the list items is '\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). For instance, set the list's left margin to be one quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the enclosing environment with '\setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}'. Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three parameters below. For each, the LaTeX default is '-\@lowpenalty', that is, '-51'. Because it is negative, it somewhat encourages a page break at each spot. Change it with, e.g., '\@beginparpenalty=9999'; a value of 10000 prohibits a page break. '\@beginparpenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default '-51'). '\@itempenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default '-51'). '\@endparpenalty' The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default '-51'). The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists. This example has the labels in red. They are numbered, and the left edge of the label lines up with the left edge of the item text. *Note \usecounter::. \usepackage{color} \newcounter{cnt} \newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}} \newenvironment{redlabel} {\begin{list} {\arabic{cnt}} {\usecounter{cnt} \setlength{\labelwidth}{0em} \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em} \setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em} \setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep \let\makelabel=\makeredlabel } } {\end{list}} 8.16.1 '\item': An entry in a list ---------------------------------- Synopsis: \item text of item or \item[OPTIONAL-LABEL] text of item An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the list type. Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets '[...]', if you have an item whose text starts with [, you have to hide the bracket inside curly braces, as in: '\item {[} is an open square bracket'; otherwise, LaTeX will think it marks the start of an optional label. Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a close square bracket inside that label, you must hide it in the same way: '\item[Close square bracket, {]}]'. *Note LaTeX command syntax::. In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default label and one that uses the optional label. \begin{enumerate} \item Moe \item[sometimes] Shemp \item Larry \end{enumerate} The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled 'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.'. Because of the optional label in the second item, the third item is not labelled '3.'. 8.16.2 'trivlist': A restricted form of 'list' ---------------------------------------------- Synopsis: \begin{trivlist} ... \end{trivlist} A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are not indented and an '\item' without an optional argument produces no text. It is most often used in macros, to define an environment where the '\item' command is part of the environment's definition. For instance, the 'center' environment is defined essentially like this: \newenvironment{center} {\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax} {\end{trivlist}} Using 'trivlist' in this way allows the macro to inherit some common code: combining vertical space of two adjacent environments; detecting whether the text following the environment should be considered a new paragraph or a continuation of the previous one; adjusting the left and right margins for possible nested list environments. Specifically, 'trivlist' uses the current values of the list parameters (*note list::), except that '\parsep' is set to the value of '\parskip', and '\leftmargin', '\labelwidth', and '\itemindent' are set to zero. This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by default) they have no paragraph indent and are vertically separated. \begin{trivlist} \item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old. \item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines. \end{trivlist} 8.17 'math' =========== Synopsis: \begin{math} MATH \end{math} The 'math' environment inserts given MATH material within the running text. '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::. 8.18 'minipage' =============== Synopses: \begin{minipage}{WIDTH} CONTENTS \end{minipage} or \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH} CONTENTS \end{minipage} Put CONTENTS into a box that is WIDTH wide. This is like a small version of a page; it can contain its own footnotes, itemized lists, etc. (There are some restrictions, including that it cannot have floats.) This box will not be broken across pages. So 'minipage' is similar to '\parbox' (*note \parbox::) but here you can have paragraphs. This example will be 3 inches wide, and has two paragraphs. \begin{minipage}{3in} Stephen Kleene was a founder of the Theory of Computation. He was a student of Church, wrote three influential texts, was President of the Association for Symbolic Logic, and won the National Medal of Science. \end{minipage} See below for a discussion of the paragraph indent inside a 'minipage'. The required argument WIDTH is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It gives the width of the box into which CONTENTS are typeset. There are three optional arguments, POSITION, HEIGHT, and INNER-POS. You need not include all three. For example, get the default POSITION and set the HEIGHT with '\begin{minipage}[c][2.54cm]{\columnwidth} CONTENTS \end{minipage}'. (Get the natural height with an empty argument, '[]'.) The optional argument POSITION governs how the 'minipage' vertically aligns with the surrounding material. 'c' (synonym 'm') Default. Positions the 'minipage' so its vertical center lines up with the center of the adjacent text line. 't' Match the top line in the 'minipage' with the baseline of the surrounding text (plain TeX's '\vtop'). 'b' Match the bottom line in the 'minipage' with the baseline of the surrounding text (plain TeX's '\vbox'). To see the effects of these, contrast running this ---\begin{minipage}[c]{0.25in} first\\ second\\ third \end{minipage} with the results of changing 'c' to 'b' or 't'. The optional argument HEIGHT is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It sets the height of the 'minipage'. You can enter any value larger than, or equal to, or smaller than the 'minipage''s natural height and LaTeX will not give an error or warning. You can also set it to a height of zero or a negative value. The final optional argument INNER-POS controls the placement of CONTENTS inside the box. These are the possible values are (the default is the value of POSITION). 't' Place CONTENTS at the top of the box. 'c' Place it in the vertical center. 'b' Place it at the box bottom. 's' Stretch CONTENTS out vertically; it must contain vertically stretchable space. The INNER-POS argument makes sense when the HEIGHT option is set to a value larger than the 'minipage''s natural height. To see the effect of the options, run this example with the various choices in place of 'b'. Text before \begin{center} ---\begin{minipage}[c][3in][b]{0.25\textwidth} first\\ second\\ third \end{minipage} \end{center} Text after By default paragraphs are not indented in a 'minipage'. Change that with a command such as '\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' at the start of CONTENTS. Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A '\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the '\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note Counters::). This puts the footnote at the bottom of the table, not the bottom of the page. \begin{center} % center the minipage on the line \begin{minipage}{2.5in} \begin{center} % center the table inside the minipage \begin{tabular}{ll} \textsc{Monarch} &\textsc{Reign} \\ \hline Elizabeth II &63 years\footnote{to date} \\ Victoria &63 years \\ George III &59 years \end{tabular} \end{center} \end{minipage} \end{center} If you nest minipages then there is an oddness when using footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the text ended by the next '\end{minipage}' which may not be their logical place. This puts a table containing data side by side with a map graphic. They are vertically centered. % siunitx to have the S column specifier, % which aligns numbers on their decimal point. \usepackage{siunitx} \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}} ... \begin{center} \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{nyc.png}} \hspace{0.1\textwidth} \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth} \begin{tabular}{r|S} % \multicolumn to remove vertical bar between column headers \multicolumn{1}{r}{Borough} & % braces to prevent siunitx from misinterpreting the % period as a decimal separator {Pop. (million)} \\ \hline The Bronx &1.5 \\ Brooklyn &2.6 \\ Manhattan &1.6 \\ Queens &2.3 \\ Staten Island &0.5 \end{tabular} \end{minipage} \end{center} 8.19 'picture' ============== Synopses: \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT) PICTURE COMMAND \end{picture} or \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET) PICTURE COMMAND \end{picture} Where there may be any number of PICTURE COMMAND's. An environment to create simple pictures containing lines, arrows, boxes, circles, and text. This environment is not obsolete, but new documents typically use much more powerful graphics creation systems, such as TikZ, PSTricks, MetaPost, or Asymptote. None of these are covered in this document; see CTAN. To start, here's an example showing the parallelogram law for adding vectors. \setlength{\unitlength}{1cm} \begin{picture}(6,6) % picture box will be 6cm wide by 6cm tall \put(0,0){\vector(2,1){4}} % for every 2 over this vector goes 1 up \put(2,1){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ first leg}} \put(4,2){\vector(1,2){2}} \put(5,4){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ second leg}} \put(0,0){\vector(1,1){6}} \put(3,3){\makebox(0,0)[r]{sum\ }} \end{picture} The 'picture' environment has one required argument, a pair of positive real numbers (WIDTH,HEIGHT). Multiply these by the value '\unitlength' to get the nominal size of the output, i.e. the space that LaTeX reserves on the output page. This nominal size need not be how large the picture really is; LaTeX will draw things from the picture outside the picture's box. This environment also has an optional argument (XOFFSET,YOFFSET). It is used to shift the origin. Unlike most optional arguments, this one is not contained in square brackets. As with the required argument, it consists of a pair of two real numbers, but these may also be negative or null. Multiply these by '\unitlength' to get the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture. For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters. The picture's origin is the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner is there, and the upper-right corner is at (110mm,220mm). When you first draw a picture you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument. Each PICTURE COMMAND tells LaTeX where to put something by providing its position. A "position" is a pair such as '(2.4,-5)' giving the x- and y-coordinates. A "coordinate" is a not a length, it is a real number (it may have a decimal point or a minus sign). It specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if '\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate '2.54' specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. LaTeX's default for '\unitlength' is '1pt'. It is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). Change it with the '\setlength' command (*note \setlength::). Make this change only outside of a 'picture' environment. The 'picture' environment supports using standard arithmetic expressions as well as numbers. Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is by default at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, as with '\put(1,2){...}', it is not enclosed in braces since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. Also, unlike in some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are further up the page, for example, y = 1 is _above_ y = 0. There are four ways to put things in a picture: '\put', '\multiput', '\qbezier', and '\graphpaper'. The most often used is '\put'. This \put(11.3,-0.3){...} places the object with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-0.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. The '\put' command creates an "LR box" (*note Modes::). Anything that can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) can go in the text argument of the '\put' command. The reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. In this picture \setlength{\unitlength}{1cm} ...\begin{picture}(1,1) \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}} \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}} \end{picture} the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed by the two lines. (Also, '\line(1,1){1}' does not call for a line of length one; rather the line has a change in the x coordinate of 1.) The '\multiput', 'qbezier', and 'graphpaper' commands are described below. You can also use this environment to place arbitrary material at an exact location. For example: \usepackage{color,graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \setlength{\unitlength}{\textwidth} \begin{picture}(1,1) % leave space, \textwidth wide and tall \put(0,0){\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{desertedisland.jpg}} \put(0.25,0.35){\textcolor{red}{X Treasure here}} \end{picture} \end{center} The red X will be precisely a quarter of the '\textwidth' from the left margin, and '0.35\textwidth' up from the bottom of the picture. Another example of this usage is to put similar code in the page header to get repeat material on each of a document's pages. 8.19.1 '\put' ------------- Synopsis: \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){CONTENT} Place CONTENT at the coordinate (XCOORD,YCOORD). See the discussion of coordinates and '\unitlength' in *note picture::. The CONTENT is processed in LR mode (*note Modes::) so it cannot contain line breaks. This includes the text into the 'picture'. \put(4.5,2.5){Apply the \textit{unpoke} move} The reference point, the location (4.5,2.5), is the lower left of the text, at the bottom left of the 'A'. 8.19.2 '\multiput' ------------------ Synopsis: \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){NUM-COPIES}{OBJ} Copy OBJ a total of NUM-COPIES times, with an increment of DELTA_X,DELTA_Y. The OBJ first appears at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta_x,y+\delta_y), and so on. This draws a simple grid with every fifth line in bold (see also *note \graphpaper::). \begin{picture}(10,10) \linethickness{0.05mm} \multiput(0,0)(1,0){10}{\line(0,1){10}} \multiput(0,0)(0,1){10}{\line(1,0){10}} \linethickness{0.5mm} \multiput(0,0)(5,0){3}{\line(0,1){10}} \multiput(0,0)(0,5){3}{\line(1,0){10}} \end{picture} 8.19.3 '\qbezier' ----------------- Synopsis: \qbezier(X1,Y1)(X2,Y2)(X3,Y3) \qbezier[NUM](X1,Y1)(X2,Y2)(X3,Y3) Draw a quadratic Bezier curve whose control points are given by the three required arguments '(X1,Y1)', '(X2,Y2)', and '(X3,Y3)'. That is, the curve runs from (X1,Y1) to (X3,Y3), is quadratic, and is such that the tangent line at (X1,Y1) passes through (X2,Y2), as does the tangent line at (X3,Y3). This draws a curve from the coordinate (1,1) to (1,0). \qbezier(1,1)(1.25,0.75)(1,0) The curve's tangent line at (1,1) contains (1.25,0.75), as does the curve's tangent line at (1,0). The optional argument NUM gives the number of calculated intermediate points. The default is to draw a smooth curve whose maximum number of points is '\qbeziermax' (change this value with '\renewcommand'). This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using '\qbezier' for that curve. \begin{picture}(8,4) \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}} % x axis \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}} % y axis \put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}} % left side \put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}} % right side \qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25) \qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5) \thicklines % below here, lines are twice as thick \put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}} \put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}} \end{picture} 8.19.4 '\graphpaper' -------------------- Synopsis: \graphpaper(X_INIT,Y_INIT)(X_DIMEN,Y_DIMEN) \graphpaper[SPACING](X_INIT,Y_INIT)(X_DIMEN,Y_DIMEN) Draw a coordinate grid. Requires the 'graphpap' package. The grid's origin is '(X_INIT,Y_INIT)'. Grid lines come every SPACING units (the default is 10). The grid extends X_DIMEN units to the right and Y_DIMEN units up. All arguments must be positive integers. This make a grid with seven vertical lines and eleven horizontal lines. \usepackage{graphpap} % in preamble ... \begin{picture}(6,20) % in document body \graphpaper[2](0,0)(12,20) \end{picture} The lines are numbered every ten units. 8.19.5 '\line' -------------- Synopsis: \line(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL} Draw a line. It slopes such that it vertically rises Y_RISE for every horizontal X_RUN. The TRAVEL is the total horizontal change--it is not the length of the vector, it is the change in x. In the special case of vertical lines, where (X_RUN,Y_RISE)=(0,1), the TRAVEL gives the change in y. This draws a line starting at coordinates (1,3). \put(1,3){\line(2,5){4}} For every over 2, this line will go up 5. Because TRAVEL specifies that this goes over 4, it must go up 10. Thus its endpoint is (1,3)+(4,10)=(5,13). In particular, note that TRAVEL=4 is not the length of the line, it is the change in x. The arguments X_RUN and Y_RISE are integers that can be positive, negative, or zero. (If both are 0 then LaTeX treats the second as 1.) With '\put(X_INIT,Y_INIT){\line(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL}}', if X_RUN is negative then the line's ending point has a first coordinate that is less than X_INIT. If Y_RISE is negative then the line's ending point has a second coordinate that is less than Y_INIT. If TRAVEL is negative then you get 'LaTeX Error: Bad \line or \vector argument.' Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with a limited range of slopes because these lines are made by putting together line segments from pre-made fonts. The two numbers X_RUN and Y_RISE must have integer values from -6 through 6. Also, they must be relatively prime, so that (X_RUN,Y_RISE) can be (2,1) but not (4,2) (if you choose the latter then instead of lines you get sequences of arrowheads; the solution is to switch to the former). To get lines of arbitrary slope and plenty of other shapes in a system like 'picture', see the package 'pict2e' (). Another solution is to use a full-featured graphics system such as TikZ, PSTricks, MetaPost, or Asymptote. 8.19.6 '\linethickness' ----------------------- Synopsis: \linethickness{DIM} Declares the thickness of subsequent horizontal and vertical lines in a picture to be DIM, which must be a positive length (*note Lengths::). It differs from '\thinlines' and '\thicklines' in that it does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or ovals. 8.19.7 '\thinlines' ------------------- Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals in a picture environment to be 0.4pt. This is the default thickness, so this command is unnecessary unless the thickness has been changed with either *note \linethickness:: or *note \thicklines::. 8.19.8 '\thicklines' -------------------- Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals in a picture environment to be 0.8pt. See also *note \linethickness:: and *note \thinlines::. This command is illustrated in the Trapezoidal Rule example of *note picture::. 8.19.9 '\circle' ---------------- Synopsis: \circle{DIAMETER} \circle*{DIAMETER} Produces a circle with a diameter as close as possible to the specified one. The '*' form produces a filled-in circle. This draws a circle of radius 6, centered at '(5,7)'. \put(5,7){\circle{6}} The available radii for '\circle' are, in points, the even numbers from 2 to 20, inclusive. For '\circle*' they are all the integers from 1 to 15. 8.19.10 '\oval' --------------- Synopsis: \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT) \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION] Produce a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument PORTION allows you to produce only half or a quarter of the oval. For half an oval take PORTION to be one of these. 't' top half 'b' bottom half 'r' right half 'l' left half Produce only one quarter of the oval by setting PORTION to 'tr', 'br', 'bl', or 'tl'. This draws the top half of an oval that is 3 wide and 7 tall. \put(5,7){\oval(3,7)[t]} The (5,7) is the center of the entire oval, not just the center of the top half. These shapes are not ellipses. They are rectangles whose corners are made with quarter circles. These circles have a maximum radius of 20pt (*note \circle:: for the sizes). Thus large ovals are just boxes with a small amount of corner rounding. 8.19.11 '\shortstack' --------------------- Synopsis: \shortstack[POSITION]{LINE 1 \\ ... } Produce a vertical stack of objects. This labels the y axis. \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){4}} % x axis \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){2}} % y \put(-0.25,2){\makebox[0][r]{\shortstack[r]{$y$\\ axis}}} For a short stack, the reference point is the lower left of the stack. In the above example the *note \mbox & \makebox:: puts the stack flush right in a zero width box so in total the short stack sits slightly to the left of the y axis. The valid positions are: 'r' Make objects flush right 'l' Make objects flush left 'c' Center objects (default) Separate objects into lines with '\\'. These stacks are short in that, unlike in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, here the rows are not spaced out to be of even heights. Thus, in '\shortstack{X\\o\\o\\X}' the first and last rows are taller than the middle two. You can adjust row heights either by putting in the usual interline spacing with '\shortstack{X\\ \strut o\\o\\X}', or by hand, via an explicit zero-width box '\shortstack{X \\ \rule{0pt}{12pt} o\\o\\X}' or by using '\\''s optional argument '\shortstack{X\\[2pt] o\\o\\X}'. The '\shortstack' command is also available outside the 'picture' environment. 8.19.12 '\vector' ----------------- Synopsis: \vector(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL} Draw a line ending in an arrow. The slope of that line is: it vertically rises Y_RISE for every horizontal X_RUN. The TRAVEL is the total horizontal change--it is not the length of the vector, it is the change in x. In the special case of vertical vectors, if (X_RUN,Y_RISE)=(0,1), then TRAVEL gives the change in y. For an example see *note picture::. For elaboration on X_RUN and Y_RISE see *note \line::. As there, the values of X_RUN and Y_RISE are limited. For '\vector' you must chooses integers between -4 and 4, inclusive. Also, the two you choose must be relatively prime. Thus, '\vector(2,1){4}' is acceptable but '\vector(4,2){4}' is not (if you use the latter then you get a sequence of arrowheads). 8.19.13 '\makebox' (picture) ---------------------------- Synopsis: \makebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT){TEXT} \makebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} Make a box to hold TEXT. This command fits with the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because REC-WIDTH and REC-HEIGHT are numbers specifying distances in terms of the '\unitlength' (*note picture::). This command is similar to the normal '\makebox' command (*note \mbox & \makebox::) except here that you must specify the width and height. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This makes a box of length 3.5 times '\unitlength' and height 4 times '\unitlength'. \put(1,2){\makebox(3.5,4){...}} The optional argument 'POSITION' specifies where in the box the TEXT appears. The default is to center it, both horizontally and vertically. To place it somewhere else, use a string with one or two of these letters. 't' Puts TEXT the top of the box. 'b' Put TEXT at the bottom. 'l' Put TEXT on the left. 'r' Put TEXT on the right. 8.19.14 '\framebox' (picture) ----------------------------- Synopsis: \framebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT){TEXT} \framebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} This is the same as *note \makebox (picture):: except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. This command fits with the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the '\unitlength' (*note picture::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This example creates a frame 2.5 inches by 3 inches and puts the text in the center. \setlength{\unitlength}{1in} \framebox(2.5,3){test text} The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width RECT-WIDTH units and height RECT-HEIGHT units. The optional argument POSITION specifies the position of TEXT; see *note \makebox (picture):: for the values that it can take. The rule has thickness '\fboxrule' and there is a blank space '\fboxsep' between the frame and the contents of the box. For this command, you must specify the WIDTH and HEIGHT. If you want to just put a frame around some contents whose dimension is determined in some other way then either use '\fbox' (*note \fbox & \framebox::) or '\frame' (*note \frame::). 8.19.15 '\frame' ---------------- Synopsis: \frame{CONTENTS} Puts a rectangular frame around CONTENTS. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. In contrast to '\framebox' (*note \framebox (picture)::), this command puts no extra space is put between the frame and the object. It is fragile (*note \protect::). 8.19.16 '\dashbox' ------------------ Synopsis: \dashbox{DASH-LEN}(RECT-WIDTH,RECT-HEIGHT){TEXT} \dashbox{DASH-LEN}(RECT-WIDTH,RECT-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT} Create a dashed rectangle around TEXT. This command fits with the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the '\unitlength' (*note picture::). The required arguments are: dashes are DASH-LEN units long, with the same length gap, and the rectangle has overall width RECT-WIDTH units and height RECT-HEIGHT units. The optional argument POSITION specifies the position of TEXT; see *note \makebox (picture):: for the values that it can take. This shows that you can use non-integer value for DASH-LEN. \put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}} Each dash will be '0.1\unitlength' long, the box's width is '5\unitlength' and its height is '0.5\unitlength'. As in that example, a dashed box looks best when RECT-WIDTH and RECT-HEIGHT are multiples of the DASH-LEN. 8.20 'quotation' & 'quote' ========================== Synopsis: \begin{quotation} TEXT \end{quotation} or \begin{quote} TEXT \end{quote} Include a quotation. Both environments indent margins on both sides by '\leftmargin' and the text is right-justified. They differ in how they treat paragraphs. In the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, '0pt plus 1pt'. In the 'quote' environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length '\parsep'). \begin{quotation} \small\it Four score and seven years ago ... shall not perish from the earth. \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln \end{quotation} 8.21 'tabbing' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabbing} ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 ... \\ ROW2COL1 \> ROW2COL2 ... \\ ... \end{tabbing} Align text in columns, by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on a typewriter. This is less often used than the environments 'tabular' (*note tabular::) or 'array' (*note array::) because in those the width of each column need not be constant and need not be known in advance. This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit widths, ended by a '\kill' command (which is described below): \begin{tabbing} \hspace{1.2in}\=\hspace{1in}\=\kill Ship \>Guns \>Year \\ \textit{Sophie} \>14 \>1800 \\ \textit{Polychrest} \>24 \>1803 \\ \textit{Lively} \>38 \>1804 \\ \textit{Surprise} \>28 \>1805 \\ \end{tabbing} Both the 'tabbing' environment and the more widely-used 'tabular' environment put text in columns. The most important distinction is that in 'tabular' the width of columns is determined automatically by LaTeX, while in 'tabbing' the user sets the tab stops. Another distinction is that 'tabular' generates a box, but 'tabbing' can be broken across pages. Finally, while 'tabular' can be used in any mode, 'tabbing' can be used only in paragraph mode and it always starts a new paragraph, without indentation. Moreover, as shown in the example above, there is no need to use the starred form of the '\hspace' command at the beginning of a tabbed row. The right margin of the 'tabbing' environment is the end of line, so that the width of the environment is '\linewidth'. The 'tabbing' environment contains a sequence of "tabbed rows". The first tabbed row begins immediately after '\begin{tabbing}' and each row ends with '\\' or '\kill'. The last row may omit the '\\' and end with just '\end{tabbing}'. At any point the 'tabbing' environment has a "current tab stop pattern", a sequence of N > 0 tab stops, numbered 0, 1, etc. These create N corresponding columns. Tab stop 0 is always the left margin, defined by the enclosing environment. Tab stop number I is set if it is assigned a horizontal position on the page. Tab stop number I can only be set if all the stops 0, ..., i-1 have already been set; normally later stops are to the right of earlier ones. By default any text typeset in a 'tabbing' environment is typeset ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is done in LR mode (*note Modes::). The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment. They are all fragile (*note \protect::). '\\ (tabbing)' End a tabbed line and typeset it. '\= (tabbing)' Sets a tab stop at the current position. '\> (tabbing)' Advances to the next tab stop. '\<' Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. '\+' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\-' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. '\' (tabbing)' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or '\kill' command, to the previous column and aligned to the right, flush against the current column's tab stop. '\` (tabbing)' Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line, to the right margin of the 'tabbing' environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the '\`' and the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line. '\a (tabbing)' In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, use the commands '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`'. '\kill' Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. Any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line remain in effect. '\poptabs' Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'. '\pushtabs' Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing' environment. '\tabbingsep' Distance of the text moved by '\'' to left of current tab stop. This example typesets a Pascal function: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n > 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing} The output looks like this. function fact(n : integer) : integer; begin if n > 1 then fact := n * fact(n-1); else fact := 1; end; This example is just for illustration of the environment. To actually typeset computer code in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment (*note verbatim::) would normally be best. For pretty-printed code, there are quite a few packages, including 'algorithm2e', 'fancyvrb', 'listings', and 'minted'. 8.22 'table' ============ Synopsis: \begin{table}[PLACEMENT] TABLE BODY \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional \label{LABEL} % also optional \end{table} A class of floats (*note Floats::). They cannot be split across pages and so they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are floated to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page. This example 'table' environment contains a 'tabular' \begin{table} \centering\small \begin{tabular}{ll} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Author}} &\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Piece}} \\ \hline Bach &Cello Suite Number 1 \\ Beethoven &Cello Sonata Number 3 \\ Brahms &Cello Sonata Number 1 \end{tabular} \caption{Top cello pieces} \label{tab:cello} \end{table} but you can put many different kinds of content in a 'table': the TABLE BODY may contain text, LaTeX commands, graphics, etc. It is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth'. For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see *note Floats::. The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross references::). The '\caption' command is also optional. It specifies caption text TITLE for the table. By default it is numbered. If its optional LOTTITLE is present then that text is used in the list of tables instead of TITLE (*note Table of contents etc.::). In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end. \begin{table}[b] \centering \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline One &The loneliest number \\ Two &Can be as sad as one. It's the loneliest number since the number one. \end{tabular} \caption{Cardinal virtues} \label{tab:CardinalVirtues} \end{table} 8.23 'tabular' ============== Synopsis: \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS} COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\ ... \end{tabular*} Produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features. \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\ \hline Hank Aaron &755 \\ Babe Ruth &714 \end{tabular} The output will have two left-aligned columns with a vertical bar between them. This is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'. Put the entries into different columns by separating them with an ampersand, '&'. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash, '\\'. Put a horizontal rule below a row, after a double backslash, with '\hline'. After the last row the '\\' is optional, unless an '\hline' command follows to put a rule below the table. The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of: POS Optional. Specifies the table's vertical position. The default is to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: 't' aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row. This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no difference. COLS Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumn material. 'l' A column of left-aligned items. 'r' A column of right-aligned items. 'c' A column of centered items. '|' A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. '@{TEXT OR SPACE}' Insert TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row. The TEXT OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (*note \protect::). If between two columns there is no @-expression then LaTeX's 'book', 'article', and 'report' classes will put on either side of each column a space of length '\tabcolsep', which by default is 6pt. That is, by default adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is misleadingly named since it is only half of the separation between tabular columns). In addition, a space of 6pt also comes before the first column and after the final column, unless you put a '@{...}' or '|' there. If you override the default and use an @-expression then LaTeX does not insert '\tabcolsep' so you must insert any desired space yourself, as in '@{\hspace{1em}}'. An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space. In particular, sometimes you want to eliminate the space before the first column or after the last one, as in the example below where the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin. \begin{flushleft} \begin{tabular}{@{}l} ... \end{tabular} \end{flushleft} The next example shows text, a decimal point between the columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on it. \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l} $3$ &$14$ \\ $9$ &$80665$ \end{tabular} An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another '\extracolsep'. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in the 'cols' argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide. \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l} Seven times down, eight times up \ldots &such is life! \end{tabular*} To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}' specifier. 'p{WD}' Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD, as if it were the argument of a '\parbox[t]{wd}{...}' command. A line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in the item, except inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft' declaration (when used in a 'p'-column element these declarations must appear inside braces, as with '{\centering .. \\ ..}'). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as ending the tabular row. Instead, to get a line break in there use '\newline' (*note \newline::). '*{NUM}{COLS}' Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive integer and COLS is a list of specifiers. Thus the specifier '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to the specifier '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'. Note that COLS may contain another '*'-expression. WIDTH Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'. Specifies the width of the 'tabular*' environment. The space between columns should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment ...' warning. Parameters that control formatting: '\arrayrulewidth' A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|', '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments. The default is '.4pt'. Change it as in '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'. '\arraystretch' A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments is multiplied. The default is '1', for no scaling. Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'. '\doublerulesep' A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the '||' specifier. The default is '2pt'. '\tabcolsep' A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is '6pt'. Change it with '\setlength'. The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular' environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between lines: 8.23.1 '\multicolumn' --------------------- Synopsis: \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT} Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns. The first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span. The second argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right. The third argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry. In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the single heading 'Name'. \begin{tabular}{lccl} \textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline 978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick &55 \\ ... \end{tabular} What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the 'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part (except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'. So from '\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c', and 'p{1.5in}|'. The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the placement of vertical rules, and '@{...}' expressions. Thus if COLS is '|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior. \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|} \multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three &z % entry four \end{tabular} Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical rule; although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the second COLS does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn' leaves it out, and that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a vertical rule because of the default. The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1. Besides giving the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area specification, including the placement of vertical rules. In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'. Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with '\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page range en-dash. \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}} &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline Baroque &1600 &1760 \\ Classical &1730 &1820 \\ Romantic &1780 &1910 \\ Impressionistic &1875 &1925 \end{tabular} Although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a vertical rule between the first and second columns, no such vertical rule appears in the first row here. That's because there is no vertical bar in the COLS part of the first row's first '\multicolumn' command. 8.23.2 '\vline' --------------- Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the full height and depth of an entry's row. Can also be used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common. This command is rarely used in the body of a table; typically a table's vertical lines are specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overridden as needed with '\multicolumn' (*note tabular::). The example below illustrates some pitfalls. In the first row's second entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so between the first and second columns there are two vertical rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one produced by the '\vline\hfill'. In contrast, the first row's third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns. In the second row, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the '\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace. \begin{tabular}{c|cc} x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ % row 1 abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi % row 2 \end{tabular} 8.23.3 '\cline' --------------- Synopsis: \cline{I-J} In an 'array' or 'tabular' environment, draw a horizontal rule beginning in column I and ending in column J. The dash, '-', must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single column use the number twice, as with '\cline{2-2}'. This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same height. \begin{tabular}{llrr} a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} e &f &g &h \end{tabular} 8.23.4 '\hline' --------------- Draw a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array' environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single rule spanning both columns. Because of the '\hline', the 'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required. \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline Baseball &Red Sox \\ Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline \end{tabular} 8.24 'thebibliography' ====================== Synopsis: \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL} \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} ... \end{thebibliography} Produce a bibliography or reference list. There are two ways to produce bibliographic lists. This environment is suitable when you have only a few references and can maintain the list by hand. *Note Using BibTeX::, for a more sophisticated approach. This shows the environment with two entries. This work is based on \cite{latexdps}. Together they are \cite{latexdps, texbook}. ... \begin{thebibliography}{9} \bibitem{latexdps} Leslie Lamport. \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993. \bibitem{texbook} Donald Ervin Knuth. \textit{The \TeX book}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983. \end{thebibliography} This styles the first reference as '[1] Leslie ...', and so that '... based on \cite{latexdps}' produces the matching '... based on [1]'. The second '\cite' produces '[1, 2]'. You must compile the document twice to resolve these references. The mandatory argument WIDEST-LABEL is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. The tradition is to use '9' for bibliographies with less than 10 references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc. The bibliographic list is headed by a title such as 'Bibliography'. To change it there are two cases. In the 'book' and 'report' classes, where the top level sectioning is '\chapter' and the default title is 'Bibliography', that title is in the macro '\bibname'. For 'article', where the class's top level sectioning is '\section' and the default is 'References', the title is in macro '\refname'. Change it by redefining the command, as with '\renewcommand{\refname}{Cited references}', after '\begin{document}'. Language support packages such as 'babel' will automatically redefine '\refname' or '\bibname' to fit the selected language. *Note list::, for the list layout control parameters. 8.24.1 '\bibitem' ----------------- Synopsis: \bibitem{CITE_KEY} or \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY} Generate an entry labeled by default by a number generated using the 'enumi' counter. The "citation key" CITE_KEY can be any string of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols (but not comma). *Note thebibliography::, for an example. When provided, the optional LABEL becomes the entry label and the 'enumi' counter is not incremented. With this \begin{thebibliography} \bibitem[Lamport 1993]{latexdps} Leslie Lamport. \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993. \bibitem{texbook} Donald Ervin Knuth. \textit{The \TeX book}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983. \end{thebibliography} the first entry will be styled as '[Lamport 1993] Leslie ...' (The amount of horizontal space that LaTeX leaves for the label depends on the WIDEST-LABEL argument of the 'thebibliography' environment; see *note thebibliography::.) Similarly, '... based on \cite{latexdps}' will produce '... based on [Lamport 1994]'. If you mix '\bibitem' entries having a LABEL with those that do not then LaTeX will number the unlabelled ones sequentially. In the example above the 'texbook' entry will appear as '[1] Donald ...', despite that it is the second entry. If you use the same CITE_KEY twice then you get 'LaTeX Warning: There were multiply-defined labels'. Under the hood, LaTeX remembers the CITE_KEY and LABEL information because '\bibitem' writes it to the auxiliary file 'JOBNAME.aux' (*note Jobname::). For instance, the above example causes the two '\bibcite{latexdps}{Lamport, 1993}' and '\bibcite{texbook}{1}' to appear in that file. The '.aux' file is read by the '\begin{document}' command and then the information is available for '\cite' commands. This explains why you need to run LaTeX twice to resolve references: once to write it out and once to read it in. Because of this two-pass algorithm, when you add a '\bibitem' or change its CITE_KEY you may get 'LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross-references right'. Fix it by recompiling. 8.24.2 '\cite' -------------- Synopsis: \cite{KEYS} or \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS} Generate as output a citation to the references associated with KEYS. The mandatory KEYS is a citation key, or a comma-separated list of citation keys (*note \bibitem::). This The ultimate source is \cite{texbook}. ... \begin{thebibliography} \bibitem{texbook} Donald Ervin Knuth. \textit{The \TeX book}. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983. \end{thebibliography} produces output like '... source is [1]'. You can change the appearance of the citation and of the reference by using bibliography styles if you generate automatically the 'thebibliography' environment. More information in *note Using BibTeX::. The optional argument SUBCITE is appended to the citation. For example, 'See 14.3 in \cite[p.~314]{texbook}' might produce 'See 14.3 in [1, p. 314]'. In addition to what appears in the output, '\cite' writes information to the auxiliary file 'JOBNAME.aux' (*note Jobname::). For instance, '\cite{latexdps}' writes '\citation{latexdps}' to that file. This information is used by BibTeX to include in your reference list only those works that you have actually cited; see *note \nocite:: also. If KEYS is not in your bibliography information then you get 'LaTeX Warning: There were undefined references', and in the output the citation shows as a boldface question mark between square brackets. There are two possible causes. If you have mistyped something, as in '\cite{texbok}' then you need to correct the spelling. On the other hand, if you have just added or modified the bibliographic information and so changed the '.aux' file (*note \bibitem::) then the fix may be to run LaTeX again. 8.24.3 '\nocite' ---------------- Synopsis: \nocite{KEYS} Produces no output but writes KEYS to the auxiliary file 'JOBNAME.aux' (*note Jobname::). The mandatory argument KEYS is a comma-separated list of one or more citation keys (*note \bibitem::). This information is used by BibTeX to include these works in your reference list even though you have not explicitly cited them (*note \cite::). 8.24.4 Using BibTeX ------------------- As described in 'thebibliography' (*note thebibliography::), a sophisticated approach to managing bibliographies is provided by the BibTeX program. This is only an introduction; see the full documentation on CTAN (*note CTAN::). With BibTeX, you don't use 'thebibliography' (*note thebibliography::). Instead, include these lines. \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE} \bibliography{BIBFILE1, BIBFILE2, ...} The BIBSTYLE refers to a file 'BIBSTYLE.bst', which defines how your citations will look. The standard BIBSTYLE's distributed with BibTeX are: 'alpha' Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. The bibliographic items are sorted alphabetically. 'plain' Labels are integers. Sort the bibliographic items alphabetically. 'unsrt' Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation. 'abbrv' Like 'plain', but more compact labels. Many, many other BibTeX style files exist, tailored to the demands of various publications. See CTAN's listing . The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the bibliography. Its argument is a comma-separated list, referring to files named 'BIBFILE1.bib', 'BIBFILE2.bib', ... These contain your database in BibTeX format. This shows a typical couple of entries in that format. @book{texbook, title = {The {{\TeX}}book}, author = {D.E. Knuth}, isbn = {0201134489}, series = {Computers \& typesetting}, year = {1983}, publisher = {Addison-Wesley} } @book{sexbook, author = {W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson}, title = {Human Sexual Response}, year = {1966}, publisher = {Bantam Books} } Only the bibliographic entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in the document's bibliography. Thus you can keep all your sources together in one file, or a small number of files, and rely on BibTeX to include in this document only those that you used. 8.25 'theorem' ============== Synopsis: \begin{theorem} THEOREM BODY \end{theorem} Produces 'Theorem N' in boldface followed by THEOREM BODY in italics. The numbering possibilities for N are described under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::). \newtheorem{lem}{Lemma} % in preamble \newtheorem{thm}{Theorem} ... \begin{lem} % in document body text of lemma \end{lem} The next result follows immediately. \begin{thm}[Gauss] % put `Gauss' in parens after theorem head text of theorem \end{thm} Most new documents use the packages 'amsthm' and 'amsmath' from the American Mathematical Society. Among other things these packages include a large number of options for theorem environments, such as styling options. 8.26 'titlepage' ================ Synopsis: \begin{titlepage} ... text and spacing ... \end{titlepage} Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading and with succeeding pages numbered starting with page one. In this example all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left to the author. \begin{titlepage} \vspace*{\stretch{1}} \begin{center} {\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex] title} \\[6.5ex] {\large\bfseries Author name} \\ \vspace{4ex} Thesis submitted to \\[5pt] \textit{University name} \\[2cm] in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm] \textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy} \\[2ex] \textsc{\large Mathematics} \\[12ex] \vfill Department of Mathematics \\ Address \\ \vfill \today \end{center} \vspace{\stretch{2}} \end{titlepage} To instead produce a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment, use '\maketitle' (*note \maketitle::). 8.27 'verbatim' =============== Synopsis: \begin{verbatim} LITERAL-TEXT \end{verbatim} A paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces as output exactly what you type as input. For instance inside LITERAL-TEXT the backslash '\' character does not start commands, it produces a printed '\', and carriage returns and blanks are taken literally. The output appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt'). \begin{verbatim} Symbol swearing: %&$#?!. \end{verbatim} The only restriction on 'literal-text' is that it cannot include the string '\end{verbatim}'. You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros, for instance in the argument to a '\section'. This is not the same as commands being fragile (*note \protect::), instead it just cannot work, as the 'verbatim' environment changes the catcode regime before processing its contents, and restore it immediately afterward, nevertheless with a macro argument the content of the argument has already be converted to a token list along the catcode regime in effect when the macro was called. However, the 'cprotect' package can help with this. One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code. There are packages that are an improvement the 'verbatim' environment. For instance, one improvement is to allow the verbatim inclusion of external files, or parts of those files. Such packages include 'listings', and 'minted'. A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments is 'fancyvrb'. Another is 'verbatimbox'. For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN (*note CTAN::). 8.27.1 '\verb' -------------- Synopsis: \verb CHAR LITERAL-TEXT CHAR \verb* CHAR LITERAL-TEXT CHAR Typeset LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font. This example shows two different invocations of '\verb'. This is \verb!literally! the biggest pumpkin ever. And this is the best squash, \verb+literally!+ The first '\verb' has its LITERAL-TEXT surrounded with exclamation point, '!'. The second instead uses plus, '+', because the exclamation point is part of 'literal-text'. The single-character delimiter CHAR surrounds LITERAL-TEXT--it must be the same character before and after. No spaces come between '\verb' or '\verb*' and CHAR, or between CHAR and LITERAL-TEXT, or between LITERAL-TEXT and the second occurrence of CHAR (the synopsis shows a space only to distinguish one component from the other). The delimiter must not appear in LITERAL-TEXT. The LITERAL-TEXT cannot include a line break. The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a visible space character. The output from this will include a visible space on both side of word 'with': The command's first argument is \verb*!filename with extension! and ... For typesetting Internet addresses, urls, the package 'url' is a better option than the '\verb' command, since it allows line breaks. For computer code there are many packages with advantages over '\verb'. One is 'listings', another is 'minted'. You cannot use '\verb' in the argument to a macro, for instance in the argument to a '\section'. It is not a question of '\verb' being fragile (*note \protect::), instead it just cannot work, as the '\verb' command changes the catcode regime before reading its argument, and restore it immediately afterward, nevertheless with a macro argument the content of the argument has already be converted to a token list along the catcode regime in effect when the macro was called. However, the 'cprotect' package can help with this. 8.28 'verse' ============ Synopsis: \begin{verse} LINE1 \\ LINE2 \\ ... \end{verse} An environment for poetry. Here are two lines from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Then plainly know my heart's dear love is set \\ On the fair daughter of rich Capulet. Separate the lines of each stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas. \begin{verse} \makebox[\linewidth][c]{\textit{Shut Not Your Doors} ---Walt Whitman} \\[1\baselineskip] Shut not your doors to me proud libraries, \\ For that which was lacking on all your well-fill'd shelves, \\ \qquad yet needed most, I bring, \\ Forth from the war emerging, a book I have made, \\ The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing, \\ A book separate, not link'd with the rest nor felt by the intellect, \\ But you ye untold latencies will thrill to every page. \end{verse} The output has margins indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not right-justified. 9 Line breaking *************** The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages). LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in some environments you manually force line breaks. A common workflow is to get a final version of the document content before taking a final pass through and considering line breaks (and page breaks). This differs from word processing, where you are formatting text as you input it. Putting these off until the end prevents a lot of fiddling with breaks that will change anyway. 9.1 '\\' ======== Synopsis, one of: \\ \\[MORESPACE] or one of: \\* \\*[MORESPACE] End the current line. The optional argument MORESPACE specifies extra vertical space to be inserted before the next line. This is a rubber length (*note Lengths::) and can be negative. The text before the line break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). The starred form, '\\*', tells LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a '\nobreak'. \title{My story: \\[0.25in] a tale of woe} Explicit line breaks in the main text body are unusual in LaTeX. In particular, don't start new paragraphs with '\\'. Instead leave a blank line between the two paragraphs. And don't put in a sequence of '\\''s to make vertical space. Instead use '\vspace{LENGTH}', or '\leavevmode\vspace{LENGTH}', or '\vspace*{LENGTH}' if you want the space to not be thrown out at the top of a new page (*note \vspace::). The '\\' command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment or in an equation environment. The '\\' command is a synonym for '\newline' (*note \newline::) under ordinary circumstances (an example of an exception is the 'p{...}' column in a 'tabular' environment; *note tabular::). The '\\' command is a macro, and its definition changes by context so that its definition in normal text, a 'center' environment, a 'flushleft' environment, and a 'tabular' are all different. In normal text when it forces a linebreak it is essentially a shorthand for '\newline'. It does not end horizontal mode or end the paragraph, it just inserts some glue and penalties so that when the paragraph does end a linebreak will occur at that point, with the short line padded with white space. You get 'LaTeX Error: There's no line here to end' if you use '\\' to ask for a new line, rather than to end the current line. An example is if you have '\begin{document}\\' or, more likely, something like this. \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth} \\ In that vertical space put your mark. \end{minipage} \end{center} Fix it by replacing the double backslash with something like '\vspace{\baselineskip}'. 9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr' ============================ The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M', internally) the same as '\\', followed by '\relax'. So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output. The '\restorecr' command restores normal line-breaking behavior. This is not the way to show verbatim text or computer code. Use 'verbatim' (*note verbatim::) instead. With LaTeX's usual defaults, this aaa bbb \obeycr ccc ddd eee \restorecr fff ggg hhh iii produces output like this. aaa bbb ccc ddd eee fff ggg hhh iii The indents are paragraph indents. 9.3 '\newline' ============== In ordinary text, this ends a line in a way that does not right-justify the line, so the prior text is not stretched. That is, in paragraph mode (*note Modes::), the '\newline' command is equivalent to double-backslash (*note \\::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). However, the two commands are different inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment. In a column with a specifier producing a paragraph box such as typically 'p{...}', '\newline' will insert a line end inside of the column; that is, it does not break the entire tabular row. To break the entire row use '\\' or its equivalent '\tabularnewline'. This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell of the table. \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}} Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline \end{tabular} The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'. 9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen) =============================== Tell LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen. This command is robust (*note \protect::). LaTeX is good at hyphenating and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The '\-' command is for exceptional cases. For example, LaTeX does not ordinarily hyphenate words containing a hyphen. Below, the long and hyphenated word means LaTeX has to put in unacceptably large spaces to set the narrow column. \begin{tabular}{rp{1.75in}} Isaac Asimov &The strain of anti-intellectualism % an\-ti-in\-tel\-lec\-tu\-al\-ism has been a constant thread winding its way through our political and cultural life, nurtured by the false notion that democracy means that `my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge'. \end{tabular} Commenting out the third line and uncommenting the fourth makes a much better fit. The '\-' command only allows LaTeX to break there, it does not require that it break there. You can insist on a split with something like 'Hef-\linebreak feron'. Of course, if you later change the text then this forced break may look very odd, so this approach requires care. 9.5 '\discretionary' (generalized hyphenation point) ==================================================== Synopsis: \discretionary{PRE-BREAK}{POST-BREAK}{NO-BREAK} Handle word changes around hyphens. This command is not often used in LaTeX documents. If a line break occurs at the point where '\discretionary' appears then TeX puts PRE-BREAK at the end of the current line and puts POST-BREAK at the start of the next line. If there is no line break here then TeX puts NO-BREAK In 'difficult' the three letters 'ffi' form a ligature. But TeX can nonetheless break between the two f's with this. di\discretionary{f-}{fi}{ffi}cult Note that users do not have to do this. It is typically handled automatically by TeX's hyphenation algorithm. 9.6 '\fussy' & '\sloppy' ======================== Declarations to make TeX more picky or less picky about line breaking. Declaring '\fussy' usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box. Conversely, '\sloppy' avoids overfull boxes while suffering loose interword spacing. The default is '\fussy'. Line breaking in a paragraph is controlled by whichever declaration is current at the blank line, or '\par', or displayed equation ending that paragraph. So to affect the line breaks, include that paragraph-ending material in the scope of the command. 9.6.1 'sloppypar' ----------------- Synopsis: \begin{sloppypar} ... paragraphs ... \end{sloppypar} Typeset the paragraphs with '\sloppy' in effect (*note \fussy & \sloppy::). Use this to locally adjust line breaking, to avoid 'Overfull box' or 'Underfull box' errors. The example is simple. \begin{sloppypar} Her plan for the morning thus settled, she sat quietly down to her book after breakfast, resolving to remain in the same place and the same employment till the clock struck one; and from habitude very little incommoded by the remarks and ejaculations of Mrs.\ Allen, whose vacancy of mind and incapacity for thinking were such, that as she never talked a great deal, so she could never be entirely silent; and, therefore, while she sat at her work, if she lost her needle or broke her thread, if she heard a carriage in the street, or saw a speck upon her gown, she must observe it aloud, whether there were anyone at leisure to answer her or not. \end{sloppypar} 9.7 '\hyphenation' ================== Synopsis: \hyphenation{WORD1 ...} Declares allowed hyphenation points within the words in the list. The words in that list are separated by spaces. Show permitted points for hyphenation with a dash character, '-'. Here is an example: \hyphenation{hat-er il-lit-e-ra-ti tru-th-i-ness} Use lowercase letters. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate. 9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak' ================================= Synopses, one of: \linebreak \linebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] or one of these. \nolinebreak \nolinebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] Encourage or discourage a line break. The optional ZERO-TO-FOUR is an integer that allows you to soften the instruction. The default is 4, so that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or prevent the break. But for instance, '\nolinebreak[1]' is a suggestion that another place may be better. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::). Here we tell LaTeX that a good place to put a linebreak is after the standard legal text. \boilerplatelegal{} \linebreak[2] We especially encourage applications from members of traditionally underrepresented groups. When you issue '\linebreak', the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin. *Note \\:: and *note \newline::, to have the spaces not stretched out. 10 Page breaking **************** Ordinarily LaTeX automatically takes care of breaking output into pages with its usual aplomb. But if you are writing commands, or tweaking the final version of a document, then you may need to understand how to influence its actions. LaTeX's algorithm for splitting a document into pages is more complex than just waiting until there is enough material to fill a page and outputting the result. Instead, LaTeX typesets more material than would fit on the page and then chooses a break that is optimal in some way (it has the smallest badness). An example of the advantage of this approach is that if the page has some vertical space that can be stretched or shrunk, such as with rubber lengths between paragraphs, then LaTeX can use that to avoid widow lines (where a new page starts with the last line of a paragraph; LaTeX can squeeze the extra line onto the first page) and orphans (where the first line of paragraph is at the end of a page; LaTeX can stretch the material of the first page so the extra line falls on the second page). Another example is where LaTeX uses available vertical shrinkage to fit on a page not just the header for a new section but also the first two lines of that section. But LaTeX does not optimize over the entire document's set of page breaks. So it can happen that the first page break is great but the second one is lousy; to break the current page LaTeX doesn't look as far ahead as the next page break. So occasionally you may want to influence page breaks while preparing a final version of a document. *Note Layout::, for more material that is relevant to page breaking. 10.1 '\clearpage' & '\cleardoublepage' ====================================== Synopsis: \clearpage or \cleardoublepage End the current page and output all of the pending floating figures and tables (*note Floats::). If there are too many floats to fit on the page then LaTeX will put in extra pages containing only floats. In two-sided printing, '\cleardoublepage' also makes the next page of content a right-hand page, an odd-numbered page, if necessary inserting a blank page. The '\clearpage' command is robust while '\cleardoublepage' is fragile (*note \protect::). LaTeX's page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside commands. The '\cleardoublepage' command will put in a blank page, but it will have the running headers and footers. To get a really blank page, use this command. \let\origdoublepage\cleardoublepage \newcommand{\clearemptydoublepage}{% \clearpage {\pagestyle{empty}\origdoublepage}% } If you want LaTeX's standard '\chapter' command to do this then add the line '\let\cleardoublepage\clearemptydoublepage'. The command '\newpage' (*note \newpage::) also ends the current page, but without clearing pending floats. And, if LaTeX is in two-column mode then '\newpage' ends the current column while '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' end the current page. 10.2 '\newpage' =============== Synopsis: \newpage End the current page. This command is robust (*note \protect::). LaTeX's page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside commands. While the commands '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' also end the current page, in addition they clear pending floats (*note \clearpage & \cleardoublepage::). And, if LaTeX is in two-column mode then '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' end the current page, possibly leaving an empty column, while '\newpage' only ends the current column. In contrast with '\pagebreak' (*note \pagebreak & \nopagebreak::), the '\newpage' command will cause the new page to start right where requested. This Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, \newpage \noindent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. makes a new page start after 'continent', and the cut-off line is not right justified. In addition, '\newpage' does not vertically stretch out the page, as '\pagebreak' does. 10.3 '\enlargethispage' ======================= Synopsis, one of: \enlargethispage{size} \enlargethispage*{size} Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page. The required argument SIZE must be a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It may be positive or negative. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). A common strategy is to wait until you have the final text of a document, and then pass through it tweaking line and page breaks. This command allows you some page size leeway. This will allow one extra line on the current page. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} The starred form '\enlargesthispage*' tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible, for the common use case of getting one more line on the page. This is often used together with an explicit '\pagebreak'. 10.4 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak' ================================== Synopses: \pagebreak \pagebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] or \nopagebreak \nopagebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR] Encourage or discourage a page break. The optional ZERO-TO-FOUR is an integer that allows you to soften the request. The default is 4, so that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or prevent the break. But for instance '\nopagebreak[1]' suggests to LaTeX that another spot might be preferable. The higher the number, the more insistent the request. Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::). LaTeX's page endings are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside commands. If you use these inside a paragraph, they apply to the point following the line in which they appear. So this Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, \pagebreak a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. does not give a page break at 'continent', but instead at 'nation', since that is where LaTeX breaks that line. In addition, with '\pagebreak' the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. This can look strange, and if '\flushbottom' is in effect this can cause you to get 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'. *Note \newpage::, for a command that does not have these effects. 11 Footnotes ************ Place a footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here. Noël Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making love.\footnote{% I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.} You can put multiple footnotes on a page. If the footnote text becomes too long then it will flow to the next page. You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances. To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a bibliographic style with that behavior (*note Using BibTeX::). 11.1 '\footnote' ================ Synopsis, one of: \footnote{TEXT} \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place a footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page. There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{% After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained, ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''} The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the number of the footnote. If you use this then LaTeX does not increment the 'footnote' counter. By default, LaTeX uses arabic numbers as footnote markers. Change this with something like '\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with '\setcounter{footnote}{0}'. LaTeX determines the spacing of footnotes with two parameters. '\footnoterule' Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page's footnotes. Default dimensions in the standard document classes (except 'slides', where it does not appear) is: vertical thickness of '0.4pt', and horizontal size of '0.4\columnwidth' long. Change the rule with something like this. \renewcommand{\footnoterule}{% Kerns avoid vertical space \kern -3pt % This -3 is negative \hrule width \textwidth height 1pt % of the sum of this 1 \kern 2pt} % and this 2 '\footnotesep' The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote (*note \strut::). By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize' fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'. Change it as with '\setlength{\footnotesep}{11pt}'. The '\footnote' command is fragile (*note \protect::). LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a '\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer paragraph mode; *note Modes::). There are some workarounds; see following sections. In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the 'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are shown alphabetically. *Note minipage:: and *note Footnotes in a table::. 11.2 '\footnotemark' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotemark \footnotemark[NUMBER] Put the current footnote mark in the text. To specify associated text for the footnote see *note \footnotetext::. The optional argument NUMBER causes the command to use that number to determine the footnote mark. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode (*note Modes::). If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then it does not. The next example produces several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote. The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.} and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] If there are intervening footnotes then you must remember the value of the common mark. This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version of 'footnote'), by-hand giving the number of the footnote. \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem} \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds} \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University} \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]} \begin{document} \maketitle This uses a counter to remember the footnote number. The third sentence is followed by the same footnote marker as the first. \newcounter{footnoteValueSaver} All babies are illogical.\footnote{% Lewis Carroll.}\setcounter{footnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.\footnote{% Captain Hook.} Illogical persons are despised.\footnotemark[\value{footnoteValueSaver}] Therefore, anyone who can manage a crocodile is not a baby. This example accomplishes the same by using the package 'cleveref'. \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % in preamble \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3} ... The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker, Evers, 1994.} The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers, Chance, 1990.} But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE} It will work with the package 'hyperref'. 11.3 '\footnotetext' ==================== Synopsis, one of: \footnotetext{TEXT} \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT} Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote. It pairs with '\footnotemark' (*note \footnotemark::) and can come anywhere after that command, but must appear in outer paragraph mode (*note Modes::). The optional argument NUMBER changes the number of the footnote mark. *Note \footnotemark:: and *note Footnotes in a table::, for usage examples. 11.4 Footnotes in section headings ================================== Putting a footnote in a section heading, as in: \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material due to ...}} causes the footnote to appear at the bottom of the page where the section starts, as usual, but also at the bottom of the table of contents, where it is not likely to be desired. The simplest way to have it not appear on the table of contents is to use the optional argument to '\section' \section[Please]{Please\footnote{% Don't footnote in chapter and section headers!}} No '\protect' is needed in front of '\footnote' here because what gets moved to the table of contents is the optional argument. 11.5 Footnotes in a table ========================= Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment the '\footnote' command does not work; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but the footnote text does not appear. The solution is to use a 'minipage' environment as here (*note minipage::). \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline \textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\ \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\ \textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{% Starting with HMS Surprise.} \end{tabular} \end{minipage} \end{center} Inside a 'minipage', footnote marks are lowercase letters. Change that with something like '\renewcommand{\thempfootnote}{\arabic{mpfootnote}}' (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). The footnotes in the prior example appear at the bottom of the 'minipage'. To have them appear at the bottom of the main page, as part of the regular footnote sequence, use the '\footnotemark' and '\footnotetext' pair and make a new counter. \newcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver} \begin{center} \begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \setcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Woman} &\textsc{Relationship} \\ \hline Mona &Attached\footnotemark \\ Diana Villiers &Eventual wife \\ Christine Hatherleigh Wood &Fiance\footnotemark \end{tabular} \end{minipage}% percent sign keeps footnote text close to minipage \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}% \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{% Little is known other than her death.}% \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}% \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{% Relationship is unresolved in XXI.} \end{center} For a floating 'table' environment (*note table::), use the 'tablefootnote' package. \usepackage{tablefootnote} % in preamble ... \begin{table} \centering \begin{tabular}{l|l} \textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline 1862 &Fort Donelson \\ 1863 &Vicksburg \\ 1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\tablefootnote{% Ending the war.} \end{tabular} \caption{Forces captured by US Grant} \end{table} The footnote appears at the page bottom and is numbered in sequence with other footnotes. 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes =========================== Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package 'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example. \usepackage{bigfoot} % in preamble \DeclareNewFootnote{Default} \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{} ... The third theorem is a partial converse of the second.\footnotefrom{% First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}} 12 Definitions ************** LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds. 12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand' ==================================== Synopses, one of: \newcommand{\CMD}{DEFN} \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} or one of these. \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} Define or redefine a command (see also the discussion of '\DeclareRobustCommand' in *note Class and package commands::). The starred form of these two forbids the arguments from containing multiple paragraphs of text (in plain TeX terms, the commands are not '\long'). With the default form, arguments can be multiple paragraphs. These are the parameters: CMD Required; the command name. It must begin with a backslash, '\', and must not begin with the four letter string '\end'. For '\newcommand', it must not be already defined. For '\renewcommand', this name must already be defined. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that the command takes, including any optional argument. Omitting this argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that the command has no arguments. If you redefine a command, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of '\CMD' is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If OPTARGSDEFAULT is not present then '\CMD' does not take an optional argument. That is, if '\CMD' is used with square brackets, as in '\CMD[OPTVAL]{...}...', then within DEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of OPTVAL. On the other hand, if '\CMD' is called without the square brackets then within DEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, the required arguments start with '#2'. Omitting '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former sets '#1' to the value of OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter sets '#1' to the empty string. DEFN Required; the text to be substituted for every occurrence of '\CMD'. The parameters '#1', '#2', ... '#NARGS' are replaced by the values that you supply when you call the command (or by the default value if there is an optional argument and you don't exercise the option). TeX ignores spaces in the source following an alphabetic control sequence, as in '\cmd '. If you actually want a space there, one solution is to type '{}' after the command ('\cmd{} ', and another solution is to use an explicit control space ('\cmd\ '). A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\RS}{Robin Smith}' results in '\RS' being replaced by the longer text. Redefining an existing command is similar: '\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}'. If you try to define a command and the name has already been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. If you try to redefine a command and the name has not yet been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: \hank undefined'. Here the first command definition has no arguments, and the second has one required argument. \newcommand{\student}{Ms~O'Leary} \newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}} Use the first as in 'I highly recommend \student{} to you'. The second has a variable, so that '\defref{def:basis}' expands to 'Definition~\ref{def:basis}', which ultimately expands to something like 'Definition~3.14'. Similarly, but with two required arguments: '\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'. This example has an optional argument. \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:} Then '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]' gives 'Dear John:'. And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'. This example has an optional argument and two required arguments. \newcommand{\lawyers}[3][company]{#2, #3, and~#1} I employ \lawyers[Howe]{Dewey}{Cheatem}. The output is 'I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and Howe'. The optional argument, the 'Howe', is associated with '#1', while 'Dewey' and 'Cheatem' are associated with '#2' and '#3'. Because of the optional argument, '\lawyers{Dewey}{Cheatem}' will give the output 'I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and company'. The braces around DEFN do not define a group, that is, they do not delimit the scope of the result of expanding DEFN. For example, with '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}', in this sentence, The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}. the words 'met the' would incorrectly be in italics. The solution is to put another pair of braces inside the definition: '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}'. 12.2 '\providecommand' ====================== Synopses, one of: \providecommand{CMD}{DEFN} \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN} \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN} Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect as '\newcommand'. If a command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a file that may be loaded more than once, such as a style file. *Note \newcommand & \renewcommand::, for the description of the arguments. This example \providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College} \providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College} >From \myaffiliation. outputs 'From Saint Michael's College'. Unlike '\newcommand', the repeated use of '\providecommand' does not give an error. 12.3 '\makeatletter' & '\makeatother' ===================================== Synopsis: \makeatletter ... definition of commands with @ in their name .. \makeatother Use this pair when you redefine LaTeX commands that are named with an at-sign character ''@''. The '\makeatletter' declaration makes the at-sign character have the category code of a letter, code 11. The '\makeatother' declaration sets the category code of the at-sign to code 12, its default value. As TeX reads characters, it assigns each one a category code, or "catcode". For instance, it assigns the backslash character ''\'' the catcode 0. Command names consist of a category 0 character, ordinarily backslash, followed by letters, category 11 characters (except that a command name can also consist of a category 0 character followed by a single non-letter symbol). LaTeX's source code has the convention that some commands use '@' in their name. These commands are mainly intended for package or class writers. The convention prevents authors who are just using a package or class from accidentally replacing such a command with one of their own, because by default the at-sign has catcode 12. Use the pair '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother' inside a '.tex' file, typically in the preamble, when you are defining or redefining commands named with '@', by having them surround your definition. Don't use these inside '.sty' or '.cls' files since the '\usepackage' and '\documentclass' commands already arrange that the at-sign has the character code of a letter, catcode 11. For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see . In this example the class file has a command '\thesis@universityname' that the user wants to change. These three lines should go in the preamble, before the '\begin{document}'. \makeatletter \renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael's College} \makeatother 12.4 '\@ifstar' =============== Synopsis: \newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}} \newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[NOSTAR-NUM-ARGS]{NOSTAR-BODY} \newcommand{\mycmd@star}[STAR-NUM-ARGS]{STAR-BODY} Many standard LaTeX environments or commands have a variant with the same name but ending with a star character '*', an asterisk. Examples are the 'table' and 'table*' environments and the '\section' and '\section*' commands. When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward because '\newenvironment' and '\renewenvironment' allow the environment name to contain a star. So you just have to write '\newenvironment{MYENV}' or '\newenvironment{MYENV*}' and continue the definition as usual. For commands the situation is more complex as the star not being a letter cannot be part of the command name. As in the synopsis above, there will be a user-called command, given above as '\mycmd', which peeks ahead to see if it is followed by a star. For instance, LaTeX does not really have a '\section*' command; instead, the '\section' command peeks ahead. This command does not accept arguments but instead expands to one of two commands that do accept arguments. In the synopsis these two are '\mycmd@nostar' and '\mycmd@star'. They could take the same number of arguments or a different number, or no arguments at all. As always, in a LaTeX document a command using an at-sign '@' in its name must be enclosed inside a '\makeatletter ... \makeatother' block (*note \makeatletter & \makeatother::). This example of '\@ifstar' defines the command '\ciel' and a variant '\ciel*'. Both have one required argument. A call to '\ciel{blue}' will return "not starry blue sky" while '\ciel*{night}' will return "starry night sky". \makeatletter \newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{not starry #1 sky} \newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry #1 sky} \newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}} \makeatother In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of arguments than the unstarred one. With this definition, Agent 007's '``My name is \agentsecret*{Bond}, \agentsecret{James}{Bond}.''' is equivalent to entering the commands '``My name is \textsc{Bond}, \textit{James} textsc{Bond}.''' \newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}} \newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}} \newcommand*{\agentsecret}{% \@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}} After a command name, a star is handled similarly to an optional argument. (This differs from environment names in which the star is part of the name itself and as such could be in any position.) Thus, it is technically possible to put any number of spaces between the command and the star. Thus '\agentsecret*{Bond}' and '\agentsecret *{Bond}' are equivalent. However, the standard practice is not to insert any such spaces. There are two alternative ways to accomplish the work of '\@ifstar'. (1) The 'suffix' package allows the construct '\newcommand\mycommand{UNSTARRED-VARIANT}' followed by '\WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{STARRED-VARIANT}'. (2) LaTeX provides the 'xparse' package, which allows this code: \NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1 {STARRED-VARIANT}% {UNSTARRED-VARIANT}% } 12.5 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter ======================================== Synopsis, one of: \newcounter{COUNTERNAME} \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER] Globally defines a new counter named COUNTERNAME and initialize it to zero (*note Counters::). The name COUNTERNAME must consist of letters only. It does not begin with a backslash. This name must not already be in use by another counter. When you use the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' then the counter COUNTERNAME will be reset to zero whenever SUPERCOUNTER is incremented. For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within 'section' so that any time you increment SECTION, either with '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::), then LaTeX will reset SUBSECTION to zero. This example \newcounter{asuper} \setcounter{asuper}{1} \newcounter{asub}[asuper] \setcounter{asub}{3} % Note `asuper' The value of asuper is \arabic{asuper} and of asub is \arabic{asub}. \stepcounter{asuper} Now asuper is \arabic{asuper} while asub is \arabic{asub}. produces 'The value of asuper is 1 and that of asub is 3' and 'Now asuper is 2 while asub is 0'. If the counter already exists, for instance by entering 'asuper' twice, then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \c@asuper already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual.'. If you use the optional argument then the super counter must already exist. Entering '\newcounter{jh}[lh]' when 'lh' is not a defined counter will get you 'LaTeX Error: No counter 'lh' defined.' 12.6 '\newlength' ================= Synopsis: \newlength{ARG} Allocate a new length register (*note Lengths::). The required argument ARG must begin with a backslash, '\'. The new register holds rubber lengths such as '72.27pt' or '1in plus.2in minus.1in' (a LaTeX length register is what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register). The initial value is zero. The control sequence '\ARG' must not be already defined. An example: \newlength{\graphichgt} If you forget the backslash then you get 'Missing control sequence inserted'. If the command sequence already exists then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \graphichgt already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. 12.7 '\newsavebox' ================== Synopsis: \newsavebox{\CMD} Define \CMD, the string consisting of a backslash followed by CMD, to refer to a new bin for storing material. These bins hold material that has been typeset, to use multiple times or to measure or manipulate (*note Boxes::). The bin name \CMD is required, must start with a backslash, \, and must not already be a defined command. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This allocates a bin and then puts typeset material into it. \newsavebox{\logobox} \savebox{\logobox}{LoGo} Our logo is \usebox{\logobox}. The output is 'Our logo is LoGo'. If there is an already defined bin then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \logobox already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. The allocation of a box is global. 12.8 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment' ============================================ Synopses, one of: \newenvironment{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment*{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} or one of these. \renewenvironment{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment*{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF} Define or redefine the environment ENV, that is, create the construct '\begin{ENV} ... BODY ... \end{ENV}'. The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text. However, the body of these environments can contain multiple paragraphs. ENV Required; the environment name. It consists only of letters or the '*' character, and thus does not begin with backslash, '\'. It must not begin with the string 'end'. For '\newenvironment', the name ENV must not be the name of an already existing environment, and also the command '\ENV' must be undefined. For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an existing environment. NARGS Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of that the environment takes. When you use the environment these arguments appear after the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1} ... {ARGN}'. Omitting this is equivalent to setting it to 0; the environment will have no arguments. When redefining an environment, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version. OPTARGDEFAULT Optional; if this is present then the first argument of the defined environment is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string). If this is not in the definition then the environment does not take an optional argument. That is, when OPTARGDEFAULT is present in the definition of the environment then you can start the environment with square brackets, as in '\begin{ENV}[OPTVAL]{...} ... \end{ENV}'. In this case, within BEGDEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of OPTVAL. If you call '\begin{ENV}' without square brackets, then within BEGDEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of the default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments start with '#2'. Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different than having the square brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1' expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to the empty string. BEGDEF Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'. Within BEGDEF, the parameters '#1', '#2', ... '#NARGS', are replaced by the values that you supply when you call the environment; see the examples below. ENDDEF Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'. This may not contain any parameters, that is, you cannot use '#1', '#2', etc., here (but see the final example below). All environments, that is to say the BEGDEF code, the environment body, and the ENDDEF code, are processed within a group. Thus, in the first example below, the effect of the '\small' is limited to the quote and does not extend to material following the environment. If you try to define an environment and the name has already been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. If you try to redefine an environment and the name has not yet been used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Environment hank undefined.'. This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except that it will be set in smaller type. \newenvironment{smallquote}{% \small\begin{quotation} }{% \end{quotation} } This has an argument, which is set in boldface at the start of a paragraph. \newenvironment{point}[1]{% \noindent\textbf{#1} }{% } This one shows the use of a optional argument; it gives a quotation environment that cites the author. \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \begin{quotation} \noindent\textit{#1}: }{% \end{quotation} } The author's name is optional, and defaults to 'Shakespeare'. In the document, use the environment like this. \begin{citequote}[Lincoln] ... \end{citequote} The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in ENDDEF, in this case in a box (*note \sbox & \savebox::). \newsavebox{\quoteauthor} \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{% \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}% \begin{quotation} }{% \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor} \end{quotation} } 12.9 '\newtheorem' ================== Synopses: \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE} \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN] \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE} Define a new theorem-like environment. You can specify one of NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither, but not both. The first form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}', creates an environment that will be labelled with TITLE; see the first example below. The second form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]', creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter NUMBERED_WITHIN, so this counter will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is reset. See the second example below. The third form '\newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}', with optional argument between the two required arguments, creates an environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter NUMBERED_LIKE. See the third example. This command creates a counter named NAME. In addition, unless the optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, inside of the theorem-like environment the current '\ref' value will be that of '\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::). This declaration is global. It is fragile (*note \protect::). Arguments: NAME The name of the environment. It is a string of letters. It must not begin with a backslash, '\'. It must not be the name of an existing environment, and the command name '\NAME' must not already be defined. TITLE The text to be printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, 'Theorem'. NUMBERED_WITHIN Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'. When the NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's counter will also be reset. If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME' is set to '\arabic{NAME}'. NUMBERED_LIKE Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The new environment will be numbered in sequence with NUMBERED_LIKE. Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. The example below has a declaration in the preamble that results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} This example has the same document body as the prior one. But here '\newtheorem''s optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN is given as 'section', so the output is like 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same counter as 'defn'. It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1' and 'Definition 2.2'. \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section] \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem} \begin{document} \section{...} \begin{defn} First def \end{defn} \section{...} \begin{thm} First thm \end{thm} \begin{defn} Second def \end{defn} 12.10 '\newfont' ================ This command is obsolete. This description is here only to help with old documents. New documents should define fonts in families through the New Font Selection Scheme which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman (*note Fonts::). Synopsis: \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION} Define a command '\CMD' that will change the current font. The control sequence must not already be defined. It must begin with a backslash, '\'. The FONT DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at clause". LaTeX will look on your system for a file named 'FONTNAME.tfm'. The at clause can have the form either 'at DIMEN' or 'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of '1000' means no scaling. For LaTeX's purposes, all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font's design size, which is a value defined in the '.tfm' file. This defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each. \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt} \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100} \testfontat abc \testfontscaled abc 12.11 '\protect' ================ All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust". A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain other commands. Commands that contain data that LaTeX writes to an auxiliary file and re-reads later are fragile. This includes material that goes into a table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, etc. Fragile commands also include line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more. To prevent such commands from breaking, one solution is to preceded them with the command '\protect'. For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument". A command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX code. Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the '\caption{...}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{...}' command (*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments (*note tabular::). If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try preceding it with '\protect'. Every fragile commands must be protected with their own '\protect'. Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command. Nor can a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or '\setcounter' command. In this example the '\caption' command gives a mysterious error about an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox' command with '\protect'. \begin{figure} ... \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}} \end{figure} In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the '.toc' file. You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to '\protect\(..\protect\)'. \begin{document} \tableofcontents ... \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)} ... 12.12 '\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend' ============================================= Synopsis: \ignorespaces or \ignorespacesafterend Both commands cause LaTeX to ignore spaces after the end of the command up until the first non-space character. The first is a command from plain TeX, and the second is LaTeX-specific. The 'ignorespaces' is often used when defining commands via '\newcommand', or '\newenvironment', or '\def'. The example below illustrates. It allows a user to show the points values for quiz questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as shown in the 'enumerate' list, users must not put any space between the command and the question text. \newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}} \begin{enumerate} \item\points{10}no extra space output here \item\points{15} extra space between the number and the `extra' \end{enumerate} The solution is to change to this. \newcommand{\points}[1]{% \makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces} A second example shows spaces being removed from the front of text. The commands below allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names. But, as given, if a title accidentally starts with a space then '\fullname' will reproduce that. \newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\honorific{#1}} % remember title \newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\honorific~#1} % put title before name \begin{tabular}{|l|} \honorific{Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} \\ % no extra space here \honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} % extra space before title \end{tabular} To fix this, change to '\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\honorific~#1}'. The '\ignorespaces' is also often used in a '\newenvironment' at the end of the BEGIN clause, as in '\begin{newenvironment}{ENV NAME}{... \ignorespaces}{...}'. To strip spaces off the end of an environment use '\ignorespacesafterend'. An example is that this will show a much larger vertical space between the first and second environments than between the second and third. \newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}} \begin{eq} e=mc^2 \end{eq} \begin{equation} F=ma \end{equation} \begin{equation} E=IR \end{equation} Putting a comment character '%' immediately after the '\end{eq}' will make the vertical space disappear, but that is inconvenient. The solution is to change to '\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}'. 12.13 xspace package ==================== Synopsis: \usepackage{xspace} ... \newcommand{...}{...\xspace} The '\xspace' macro, when used at the end of a command, adds a space unless the command is followed by certain punctuation characters. After a command name that uses letters (as opposed to single character command names using non-letters such as '\$'), TeX gobbles white space. Thus, in the first sentence below, the output has 'Vermont' placed snugly against the period, without any intervening space. \newcommand{\VT}{Vermont} Our college is in \VT . The \VT{} summers are nice. But because of the gobbling, the second sentence needs the dummy curly braces or else there would be no space separating 'Vermont' from 'summers'. (Many authors instead instead use a backslash-space '\ ' for this. *Note \(SPACE)::.) The 'xspace' package provides '\xspace'. It is for writing commands which are designed to be used mainly in text. It inserts a space after that command unless what immediately follows is in a list of exceptions. In this example, the dummy braces are not needed. \newcommand{\VT}{Vermont\xspace} Our college is in \VT . \VT summers are nice. The default exception list contains the characters ',.'/?;:!~-)', the open curly brace and the backslash-space command discussed above, and the commands '\footnote' or '\footnotemark'. Add to that list as with '\xspaceaddexceptions{\myfni \myfnii}' and remove from that list as with '\xspaceremoveexception{!}'. A comment: many experts prefer not to use '\xspace'. Putting it in a definition means that the command will usually get the spacing right. But it isn't easy to predict when to enter dummy braces because '\xspace' will get it wrong, such as when it is followed by another command, and so '\xspace' can make editing material harder and more error-prone than instead always remembering the dummy braces. 13 Counters *********** Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or command associated with the number, except that the counter's name has no backslash '\'. Thus, associated with the '\chapter' command is the 'chapter' counter that keeps track of the chapter number. Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering. part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of a minipage (*note minipage::). The counters 'enumi' through 'enumiv' are used in the 'enumerate' environment, for up to four levels of nesting (*note enumerate::). Counters can have any integer value but they are typically positive. New counters are created with '\newcounter'. *Note \newcounter::. 13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters ===================================================================== Print the value of a counter, in a specified style. For instance, if the counter COUNTER has the value 1 then a '\alph{COUNTER}' in your source will result in a lowercase letter a appearing in the output. All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, '\alph{enumi}'. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. '\alph{COUNTER}' Print the value of COUNTER in lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large.' '\Alph{COUNTER}' Print in uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large.' '\arabic{COUNTER}' Print in Arabic numbers such as '5' or '-2'. '\roman{COUNTER}' Print in lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but LaTeX does not print anything in the output. '\Roman{COUNTER}' Print in uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ... If the counter's value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but LaTeX does not print anything in the output. '\fnsymbol{COUNTER}' Prints the value of COUNTER using a sequence of nine symbols that are traditionally used for labeling footnotes. The value of COUNTER should be between 1 and 9, inclusive. If the counter's value is less than 0 or more than 9 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large', while if it is 0 then you get no error or warning but LaTeX does not output anything. Here are the symbols: Number Name Command Symbol ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 asterisk '\ast' * 2 dagger '\dagger' † 3 ddagger '\ddagger' ‡ 4 section-sign '\S' § 5 paragraph-sign '\P' ¶ 6 double-vert '\parallel' ‖ 7 double-asterisk '\ast\ast' ** 8 double-dagger '\dagger\dagger' †† 9 double-ddagger '\ddagger\ddagger' ‡‡ 13.2 '\usecounter' ================== Synopsis: \usecounter{COUNTER} Used in the second argument of the 'list' environment (*note list::), this declares that list items will be numbered by COUNTER. It initializes COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called without its optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by '\refstepcounter', making its value be the current 'ref' value (*note \ref::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::). Put in the document preamble, this example makes a new list environment enumerated with TESTCOUNTER: \newcounter{testcounter} \newenvironment{test}{% \begin{list}{}{% \usecounter{testcounter} } }{% \end{list} } 13.3 '\value' ============= Synopsis: \value{COUNTER} Expands to the value of the counter COUNTER. (Note that the name of a counter does not begin with a backslash.) This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'. \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5} \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}} \addtocounter{test}{1} Test counter is \arabic{test}. Other counter is \arabic{other}. The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the counter. For that, see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::. It is often used in '\setcounter' or '\addtocounter' but '\value' can be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number, such as in '\hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}'. It must not be preceded by '\protect' (*note \protect::). This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'. \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1} \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent} 13.4 '\setcounter' ================== Synopsis: \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE} Globally set the counter COUNTER to have the value of the VALUE argument, which must be an integer. Thus, you can set a counter's value as '\setcounter{section}{5}'. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash. In this example if the counter 'theorem' has value 12 then the second line will print 'XII'. \setcounter{exercise}{\value{theorem}} Here it is in Roman: \Roman{exercise}. 13.5 '\addtocounter' ==================== Synopsis: \addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE} Globally increment COUNTER by the amount specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative. In this example the section value appears as 'VII'. \setcounter{section}{5} \addtocounter{section}{2} Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}. 13.6 '\refstepcounter' ====================== Synopsis: \refstepcounter{COUNTER} Globally increments the value of COUNTER by one, as does '\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::). The difference is that this command resets the value of any counter numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter'. While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set locally, i.e., inside the current group. 13.7 '\stepcounter' =================== Synopsis: \stepcounter{COUNTER} Globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all counters numbered within it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.) This command differs from '\refstepcounter' in that this one does not influence references; that is, it does not define the current '\ref' value to be the result of '\thecounter' (*note \refstepcounter::). 13.8 '\day' & '\month' & '\year' ================================ LaTeX defines the counter '\day' for the day of the month (nominally with value between 1 and 31), '\month' for the month of the year (nominally with value between 1 and 12), and year '\year'. When TeX starts up, they are set from the current values on the system. The related command '\today' produces a string representing the current day (*note \today::). They counters are not updated as the job progresses so in principle they could be incorrect by the end. In addition, TeX does no sanity check: \day=-2 \month=13 \year=-4 \today gives no error or warning and results in the output '-2, -4' (the bogus month value produces no output). 14 Lengths ********** A "length" is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument. Lengths come in two types. A "rigid length" such as '10pt' does not contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component. (Plain TeX calls this a "dimen".) A "rubber length" (what plain TeX calls a "skip" or "glue") such as with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm' can contain either or both of those components. In that rubber length, the '1cm' is the "natural length" while the other two, the 'plus' and 'minus' components, allow TeX to stretch or shrink the length to optimize placement. The illustrations below use these two commands. % make a black bar 10pt tall and #1 wide \newcommand{\blackbar}[1]{\rule{#1}{10pt}} % Make a box around #2 that is #1 wide (excluding the border) \newcommand{\showhbox}[2]{% \fboxsep=0pt\fbox{\hbox to #1{#2}}} This example uses those commands to show a black bar 100 points long between 'XXX' and 'YYY'. This length is rigid. XXX\showhbox{100pt}{\blackbar{100pt}}YYY As for rubber lengths, shrinking is simpler one: with '1cm minus 0.05cm', the natural length is 1cm but TeX can shrink it down as far as 0.95cm. Beyond that, TeX refuses to shrink any more. Thus, below the first one works fine, producing a space of 98 points between the two bars. XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{101pt}\hspace{100pt minus 2pt}\blackbar{101pt}}YYY XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{105pt}\hspace{100pt minus 1pt}\blackbar{105pt}}YYY But the second one gets a warning like 'Overfull \hbox (1.0pt too wide) detected at line 17'. In the output the first 'Y' is overwritten by the end of the black bar, because the box's material is wider than the 300pt allocated, as TeX has refused to shrink the total to less than 309 points. Stretching is like shrinking except that if TeX is asked to stretch beyond the given amount, it will do it. Here the first line is fine, producing a space of 110 points between the bars. XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 10pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 1pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY In the second line TeX needs a stretch of 10 points and only 1 point was specified. TeX stretches the space to the required length but it gives you a warning like 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) detected at line 22'. (We won't discuss badness.) You can put both stretch and shrink in the same length, as in '1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.02ex'. If TeX is setting two or more rubber lengths then it allocates the stretch or shrink in proportion. XXX\showhbox{300pt}{% \blackbar{100pt}% left \hspace{0pt plus 50pt}\blackbar{80pt}\hspace{0pt plus 10pt}% middle \blackbar{100pt}}YYY % right The left and right bars take up 100 points, so the middle needs another 100. The middle bar is 80 points so the two '\hspace''s must stretch 20 points. Because the two are 'plus 50pt' and 'plus 10pt', TeX gets 5/6 of the stretch from the first space and 1/6 from the second. The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a "fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'. This gives the length infinite stretchability or shrinkability so that TeX could set it to any distance. Here the two figures will be equal-spaced across the page. \begin{minipage}{\linewidth} \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{godel.png}% \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{einstein.png}% \hspace{0pt plus 1fill} \end{minipage} TeX actually has three levels of infinity for glue components: 'fil', 'fill', and 'filll'. The later ones are more infinite than the earlier ones. Ordinarily document authors only use the middle one (*note \hfill:: and *note \vfill::). Multiplying a rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and '\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'. 14.1 Units of length ==================== TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode. 'pt' Point, 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units is 1point = 2.845mm = .2845cm. 'pc' Pica, 12 pt 'in' Inch, 72.27 pt 'bp' Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript and many desktop publishing systems. 'cm' Centimeter 'mm' Millimeter 'dd' Didot point, 1.07 pt 'cc' Cicero, 12 dd 'sp' Scaled point, 1/65536 pt Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of the font. The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the height of the lowercase letter x, is often used for vertical lengths. Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is '0.5em'). Use of these can help make a definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition of the vertical space between list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}' is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition given in points. In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. *Note Spacing in math mode::. 14.2 '\setlength' ================= Synopsis: \setlength{LEN}{AMOUNT} Set the length LEN to AMOUNT. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. The 'amount' can be a rubber length (*note Lengths::). It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in any units that LaTeX understands (*note Units of length::). Below, with LaTeX's defaults the first paragraph will be indented while the second will not. I told the doctor I broke my leg in two places. \setlength{\parindent}{0em} He said stop going to those places. If you did not declare LEN with '\newlength', for example if you mistype the above as '\newlength{\specparindent}\setlength{\sepcparindent}{...}', then you get an error like 'Undefined control sequence. \sepcindent'. If you omit the backslash at the start of the length name then you get an error like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \relax l.19 \setlength{specparindent}{0.6\parindent}' 14.3 '\addtolength' =================== Synopsis: \addtolength{LEN}{AMOUNT} Increment the length LEN by AMOUNT. The length name LEN begins with a backslash, '\'. The 'amount' is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in any units that LaTeX understands (*note Units of length::). Below, if '\parskip' starts with the value '0pt plus 1pt' Doctor: how is the boy who swallowed the silver dollar? \addtolength{\parskip}{1pt} Nurse: no change. then it has the value '1pt plus 1pt' for the second paragraph. If you did not declare the length LEN with '\newlength', if for example you mistype the above as '\addtolength{\specparindent}{0.6\praindent}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \praindent'. If you leave off the backslash at the start of LEN, as in '\addtolength{parindent}{1pt}', then you get something like 'You can't use `the letter p' after \advance'. 14.4 '\settodepth' ================== Synopsis: \settodepth{LEN}{TEXT} Set the length LEN to the depth of box that LaTeX gets on typesetting the TEXT argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. This will show how low the character descenders go. \newlength{\alphabetdepth} \settodepth{\alphabetdepth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \the\alphabetdepth If you did not set aside the length LEN, if for example you mistype the above as '\settodepth{\aplhabetdepth}{abc...}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \aplhabetdepth'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in '\settodepth{alphabetdepth}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \setbox'. 14.5 '\settoheight' =================== Synopsis: \settoheight{LEN}{text} Sets the length LEN to the height of box that LaTeX gets on typesetting the 'text' argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. This will show how high the characters go. \newlength{\alphabetheight} \settoheight{\alphabetheight}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \the\alphabetheight If no such length LEN has been declared with '\newlength', if for example you mistype as '\settoheight{\aplhabetheight}{abc...}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \alphabetheight'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in '\settoheight{alphabetheight}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \setbox'. 14.6 '\settowidth' ================== Synopsis: \settowidth{LEN}{TEXT} Set the length LEN to the width of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting the TEXT argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash, '\'. This measures the width of the lowercase ASCII alphabet. \newlength{\alphabetwidth} \settowidth{\alphabetwidth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz} \the\alphabetwidth If no such length LEN has been set aside, if for example you mistype the above as '\settowidth{\aplhabetwidth}{abc...}', then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \aplhabetwidth'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in '\settoheight{alphabetwidth}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing number, treated as zero. \setbox'. 14.7 '\stretch' =============== Synopsis: \stretch{NUMBER} Produces a rubber length with zero natural length and NUMBER times '\fill' units of stretchability (*note Lengths::). The NUMBER can be positive or negative. This command is robust (*note \protect::). It works for both vertical and horizontal spacing. In this horizontal example, LaTeX produces three tick marks, and the distance between the first and second is half again as long as the distance between the second and third. \rule{0.4pt}{1ex}\hspace{\stretch{1.5}}% \rule{0.4pt}{1ex}\hspace{\stretch{1}}% \rule{0.4pt}{1ex} In this vertical example, the 'We dedicate ...' will have three times as much space under it as above it. \newenvironment{dedication}{% in document preamble \clearpage\thispagestyle{empty}% \vspace*{\stretch{1}} % stretchable space at top \it }{% \vspace{\stretch{3}} % space at bot is 3x as at top \clearpage } ... \begin{dedication} % in document body We dedicate this book to our wives. \end{dedication} 14.8 Expressions ================ Synopsis, one of: \numexpr EXPRESSION \dimexpr EXPRESSION \glueexpr EXPRESSION \muglue EXPRESSION Any place where you may write an integer, or a TeX dimen, or TeX glue, or muglue, you can instead write an expression to compute that type of quantity. An example is that '\the\dimexpr\linewidth-4pt\relax' will produce as output the length that is four points less than width of a line (the only purpose of '\the' is to show the result in the document). Analogously, '\romannumeral\numexpr6+3\relax' will produce 'ix', and '\the\glueexpr 5pt plus 1pt * 2 \relax' will produce '10.0pt plus 2.0pt'. A convenience here over doing calculations by allocating registers and then using '\advance', etc., is that the evaluation of expressions does not involve assignments and can therefore be performed in places where assignments are not allowed. The next example computes the width of the '\parbox'. \newlength{\offset}\setlength{\offset}{2em} \begin{center} \parbox{\dimexpr\linewidth-\offset*3}{With malice toward none with charity for all with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right let us strive on to finish the work we are in to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan \textasciitilde\ to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. ---Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, from the memorial} \end{center} The EXPRESSION consists of one or more terms of the same type (integer, dimension, etc.) that are added or subtracted. A term that is a type of number, dimension, etc., consists of a factor of that type, optionally multiplied or divided by factors. A factor of a type is either a quantity of that type or a parenthesized subexpression. The expression produces a result of the given type, so that '\numexpr' produces an integer, '\dimexpr' produces a dimension, etc. In the quotation example above, changing to '\dimexpr\linewidth-3*\offset' gives the error 'Illegal unit of measure (pt inserted)'. This is because for '\dimexpr' and '\glueexpr', the input consists of a dimension or glue value followed by an optional multiplication factor, and not the other way around. Thus '\the\dimexpr 1pt*10\relax' is valid and produces '10.0pt', but '\the\dimexpr 10*1pt\relax' gives the 'Illegal unit' error. The expressions absorb tokens and carry out appropriate mathematics up to a '\relax' (which will be absorbed), or up to the first non-valid token. Thus, '\the\numexpr2+3px' will print '5px', because LaTeX reads the '\numexpr2+3', which is made up of numbers, and then finds the letter 'p', which cannot be part of a number. It therefore terminates the expression and produces the '5', followed by the regular text 'px'. This termination behavior is useful in comparisons. In '\ifnum\numexpr\parindent*2 < 10pt Yes\else No\fi', the less than sign terminates the expression and the result is 'No' (in a standard LaTeX article). Expressions may use the operators '+', '-', '*' and '/' along with parentheses for subexpressions, '(...)'. In glue expressions the 'plus' and 'minus' parts do not need parentheses to be affected by a factor. So '\the\glueexpr 5pt plus 1pt * 2 \relax' results in '10pt plus 2pt'. TeX will coerce other numerical types in the same way as it does when doing register assignment. Thus '\the\numexpr\dimexpr 1pt\relax\relax' will result in '65536', which is '1pt' converted to scaled points (TeX's internal unit) and then coerced into an integer. With a '\glueexpr' here, the stretch and shrink would be dropped. Going the other way, a '\numexpr' inside a '\dimexpr' or '\glueexpr' will need appropriate units, as in '\the\dimexpr\numexpr 1 + 2\relax pt\relax', which produces '3.0pt'. The details of the arithmetic: each factor is checked to be in the allowed range, numbers must be less than 2^{31} in absolute value, and dimensions or glue components must be less than 2^{14} points, or 'mu', or 'fil', etc. The arithmetic operations are performed individually, except for a scaling operation (a multiplication immediately followed by a division) which is done as one combined operation with a 64-bit product as intermediate value. The result of each operation is again checked to be in the allowed range. Finally, division and scaling take place with rounding (unlike TeX's '\divide', which truncates). Thus '\the\dimexpr 5pt*(3/2)\relax' puts '10.0pt' in the document, because it rounds '3/2' to '2', while '\the\dimexpr 5pt*(4/3)\relax' produces '5.0pt'. 15 Making paragraphs ******************** To start a paragraph, just type some text. To end the current paragraph, put an empty line. This is three paragraphs, separated by two empty lines. It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters. ``My dear Mr. Bennet,'' said his lady to him one day, ``have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?'' The separator lines must be empty, including not containing a comment character, '%'. Once LaTeX has gathered all of a paragraph's contents it divides that content into lines in a way that is optimized over the entire paragraph (*note Line breaking::). There are places where a new paragraph is not permitted. Don't put a blank line in math mode (*note Modes::); here the line before the '\end{equation}' \begin{equation} 2^{|S|} > |S| \end{equation} will get you the error 'Missing $ inserted'. Similarly, the blank line in this 'section' argument \section{aaa bbb} gets 'Runaway argument? {aaa ! Paragraph ended before \@sect was complete'. 15.1 '\par' =========== Synopsis (note that while reading the input TeX converts two consecutive newlines to a '\par'): \par End the current paragraph. The usual way to separate paragraphs is with a blank line but the '\par' command is entirely equivalent. This command is robust (*note \protect::). This example uses '\par' rather than a blank line simply for readability. \newcommand{\syllabusLegalese}{% \whatCheatingIs\par\whatHappensWhenICatchYou} In LR mode or a vertical mode the '\par' command does nothing but it terminates paragraph mode, switching LaTeX to vertical mode (*note Modes::). You cannot use the '\par' command in a math mode. You also cannot use it in the argument of many commands, such as the '\section' command (*note Making paragraphs:: and *note \newcommand & \renewcommand::). The '\par' command is not the same as the '\paragraph' command. The latter is, like '\section' or '\subsection', a sectioning unit used by the standard LaTeX documents (*note \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph::). The '\par' command is not the same as '\newline' or the line break double backslash, '\\'. The difference is that '\par' ends the paragraph, not just the line, and also triggers the addition of the between-paragraph vertical space '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). The output from this example xyz \setlength{\parindent}{3in} \setlength{\parskip}{5in} \noindent test\indent test1\par test2 is: after 'xyz' there is a vertical skip of 5 inches and then 'test' appears, aligned with the left margin. On the same line, there is an empty horizontal space of 3 inches and then 'test1' appears. Finally. there is a vertical space of 5 inches, followed by a fresh paragraph with a paragraph indent of 3 inches, and then LaTeX puts the text 'test2'. 15.2 '\indent' & '\noindent' ============================ Synopsis: \indent or \noindent Go into horizontal mode (*note Modes::). The '\indent' command first outputs an empty box whose width is '\parindent'. These commands are robust (*note \protect::). Ordinarily you create a new paragraph by putting in a blank line. *Note \par::, for the difference between this command and '\par'. To start a paragraph without an indent, or to continue an interrupted paragraph, use '\noindent'. In the middle of a paragraph the '\noindent' command has no effect, because LaTeX is already in horizontal mode there. The '\indent' command's only effect is to output a space. This example starts a fresh paragraph. ... end of the prior paragraph. \noindent This paragraph is not indented. and this continues an interrupted paragraph. The data \begin{center} \begin{tabular}{rl} ... \end{tabular} \end{center} \noindent shows this clearly. To omit indentation in the entire document put '\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble. If you do that, you may want to also set the length of spaces between paragraphs, '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). Default LaTeX styles have the first paragraph after a section that is not indented, as is traditional typesetting in English. To change that, look on CTAN for the package 'indentfirst'. 15.3 '\parindent' & '\parskip' ============================== Synopsis: \setlength{\parindent}{HORIZONTAL LEN} \setlength{\parskip}{VERTICAL LEN} Both are rubber lengths (*note Lengths::). They affect the indentation of ordinary paragraphs, not paragraphs inside minipages (*note minipage::), and the vertical space between paragraphs, respectively. For example, if this is put in the preamble: \setlength{\parindent}{0em} \setlength{\parskip}{1ex} The document will have paragraphs that are not indented, but instead are vertically separated by about the height of a lowercase 'x'. In standard LaTeX documents, the default value for '\parindent' in one-column documents is '15pt' when the default text size is '10pt', '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em' for '12pt'. In two-column documents it is '1em'. (These values are set before LaTeX calls '\normalfont' so 'em' is derived from the default font, Computer Modern. If you use a different font then to set '\parindent' in units matching that font, do '\AtBeginDocument{\setlength{\parindent}{1em}}'.) The default value for '\parskip' in LaTeX's standard document styles is '0pt plus1pt'. 15.4 Marginal notes =================== Synopsis, one of: \marginpar{RIGHT} \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT} Create a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the '\marginpar' occurs. The margin that LaTeX uses for the note depends on the current layout (*note Document class options::) and also on '\reversemarginpar' (see below). If you are using one-sided layout (document option 'oneside') then it goes in the right margin. If you are using two-sided layout (document option 'twoside') then it goes in the outside margin. If you are in two-column layout (document option 'twocolumn') then it goes in the nearest margin. If you declare '\reversemarginpar' then LaTeX will place subsequent marginal notes in the opposite margin to that given in the prior paragraph. Revert that to the default position with '\normalmarginpar'. When you specify the optional argument LEFT then it is used for a note in the left margin, while the mandatory argument RIGHT is used for a note in the right margin. Normally, a note's first word will not be hyphenated. You can enable hyphenation there by beginning LEFT or RIGHT with '\hspace{0pt}'. These parameters affect the formatting of the note: '\marginparpush' Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt' documents, '5pt' else. See also *note page layout parameters marginparpush::. '\marginparsep' Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt' for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else. '\marginparwidth' Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is '48pt'. The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page. 16 Math formulas **************** Produce mathematical text by putting LaTeX into math mode or display math mode (*note Modes::). This example shows both. The wave equation for \( u \) is \begin{displaymath} \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial t^2} = c^2\nabla^2u \end{displaymath} where \( \nabla^2 \) is the spatial Laplacian and \( c \) is constant. Math mode is for inline mathematics. In the above example it is invoked by the starting '\(' and finished by the matching ending '\)'. Display math mode is for displayed equations and here is invoked by the 'displaymath' environment. Note that any mathematical text whatever, including mathematical text consisting of just one character, is handled in math mode. When in math mode or display math mode, LaTeX handles many aspects of your input text differently than in other text modes. For example, contrast x+y with \( x+y \) in math mode the letters are in italics and the spacing around the plus sign is different. There are three ways to make inline formulas, to put LaTeX in math mode. \( MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \) $ MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL $ \begin{math} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{math} The first form is preferred and the second is quite common, but the third form is rarely used. You can sometimes use one and sometimes another, as in '\(x\) and $y$'. You can use these in paragraph mode or in LR mode (*note Modes::). To make displayed formulas, put LaTeX into display math mode with either: \begin{displaymath} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{displaymath} or \begin{equation} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{equation} (*note displaymath::, *note equation::). The only difference is that with the 'equation' environment, LaTeX puts a formula number alongside the formula. The construct '\[ MATH \]' is equivalent to '\begin{displaymath} MATH \end{displaymath}'. These environments can only be used in paragraph mode (*note Modes::). The two mathematics modes are similar, but there are some differences. One involves the placement of subscripts and superscripts; in display math mode they are further apart and in inline math mode they are closer together. Sometimes you want the display math typographical treatment to happen in the inline math mode. For this, the '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of 'displaymath'. Thus '\(\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n\)' will have the limits above and below the summation sign, not next to it. Another example is that \begin{tabular}{r|cc} \textsc{Name} &\textsc{Series} &\textsc{Sum} \\ \hline Arithmetic &\( a+(a+b)+(a+2b)+\cdots+(a+(n-1)b) \) &\( na+(n-1)n\cdot\frac{b}{2}\) \\ Geometric &\( a+ab+ab^2+\cdots+ab^{n-1} \) &\(\displaystyle a\cdot\frac{1-b^n}{1-b}\) \\ \end{tabular} because it has no '\displaystyle', the 'Arithmetic' line's fraction will be scrunched. But, because of its '\displaystyle', the 'Geometric' line's fraction will be easy to read, with characters the same size as in the rest of the line. The American Mathematical Society has made freely available a set of packages that greatly expand your options for writing mathematics, 'amsmath' and 'amssymb' (also be aware of the 'mathtools' package that is an extension to, and loads, 'amsmath'). New documents that will have mathematical text should use these packages. Descriptions of these packages is outside the scope of this document; see their documentation on CTAN. 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts ============================== Synopsis (in math mode or display math mode), one of: BASE^EXP BASE^{EXP} or, one of: BASE_EXP BASE_{EXP} Make EXP appear as a superscript of BASE (with the caret character, '^') or a subscript (with underscore, '_'). In this example the '0''s and '1''s are subscripts while the '2''s are superscripts. \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \leq (x_0)^2+(x_1)^2 \) To have the subscript or superscript contain more than one character, surround the expression with curly braces, as in 'e^{-2x}'. This example's fourth line shows curly braces used to group an expression for the exponent. \begin{displaymath} (3^3)^3=27^3=19\,683 \qquad 3^{(3^3)}=3^{27}=7\,625\,597\,484\,987 \end{displaymath} LaTeX knows how to handle a superscript on a superscript, or a subscript on a subscript, or supers on subs, or subs on supers. So, expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{i_0}' give correct output. Note the use in those expressions of curly braces to give the BASE a determined EXP. If you enter '\(3^3^3\)' then you get 'Double superscript'. LaTeX does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. In this example the integral has both. They come out in the correct place without any author intervention. \begin{displaymath} \int_{x=a}^b f'(x)\,dx = f(b)-f(a) \end{displaymath} Note the parentheses around 'x=a' to make the entire expression a subscript. To put a superscript or subscript before a symbol, use a construct like '{}_t K^2'. The empty curly braces '{}' give the subscript something to attach to and keeps it from accidentally attaching to a prior symbols. Using the subscript or superscript character outside of math mode or display math mode, as in 'the expression x^2', will get you the error 'Missing $ inserted'. A common reason to want subscripts outside of a mathematics mode is to typeset chemical formulas. There are packages for that, such as 'mhchem'; see CTAN. 16.2 Math symbols ================= LaTeX provides almost any mathematical or technical symbol that anyone uses. For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi symbol π. See the "Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List" package at . Here is a list of commonly-used symbols. It is by no means exhaustive. Each symbol is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class, which determines the spacing around it, is given in parenthesis. Unless said otherwise, the commands for these symbols can be used only in math mode. To redefine a command so that it can be used whatever the current mode, see *note \ensuremath::. '\|' ∥ Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\parallel'. '\aleph' ℵ Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary). '\alpha' α Lowercase Greek letter alpha (ordinary). '\amalg' ⨿ Disjoint union (binary) '\angle' ∠ Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign '<' and angle bracket '\langle'. '\approx' ≈ Almost equal to (relation). '\ast' ∗ Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary). Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes reserved for cross-correlation. '\asymp' ≍ Asymptotically equivalent (relation). '\backslash' \ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus '\setminus', and '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode. '\beta' β Lowercase Greek letter beta (ordinary). '\bigcap' ⋂ Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar: binary intersection '\cap'. '\bigcirc' ⚪ Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function composition '\circ'. '\bigcup' ⋃ Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary union '\cup'. '\bigodot' ⨀ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator). '\bigoplus' ⨁ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator). '\bigotimes' ⨂ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator). '\bigtriangledown' ▽ Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator). '\bigtriangleup' △ Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator). '\bigsqcup' ⨆ Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator). '\biguplus' ⨄ Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.) '\bigvee' ⋁ Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator). '\bigwedge' ⋀ Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator). '\bot' ⊥, Up tack, bottom, least element of a partially ordered set, or a contradiction (ordinary). See also '\top'. '\bowtie' ⋈ Natural join of two relations (relation). '\Box' □ Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\bullet' • Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'. '\cap' ∩ Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcap'. '\cdot' ⋅ Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'. '\chi' χ Lowercase Greek chi (ordinary). '\circ' ∘ Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'. '\clubsuit' ♣ Club card suit (ordinary). '\complement' ∁, Set complement, used as a superscript as in '$S^\complement$' (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. Also used: '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'. '\cong' ≅ Congruent (relation). '\coprod' ∐ Coproduct (operator). '\cup' ∪ Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigcup'. '\dagger' † Dagger relation (binary). '\dashv' ⊣ Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar: turnstile '\vdash'. '\ddagger' ‡ Double dagger relation (binary). '\Delta' Δ Greek uppercase delta, used for increment (ordinary). '\delta' δ Greek lowercase delta (ordinary). '\Diamond' ◇ Large diamond operator (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\diamond' ⋄ Diamond operator (binary). Similar: large diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'. '\diamondsuit' ♢ Diamond card suit (ordinary). '\div' ÷ Division sign (binary). '\doteq' ≐ Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal to '\Doteq'. '\downarrow' ↓ Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: '\Downarrow' double line down arrow. '\Downarrow' ⇓ Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: '\downarrow' single line down arrow. '\ell' ℓ Lowercase cursive letter l (ordinary). '\emptyset' ∅ Empty set symbol (ordinary). The variant form is '\varnothing'. '\epsilon' ϵ Lowercase lunate epsilon (ordinary). Similar to Greek text letter. More widely used in mathematics is the script small letter epsilon '\varepsilon' ε. Related: the set membership relation '\in' ∈. '\equiv' ≡ Equivalence (relation). '\eta' η Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\exists' ∃ Existential quantifier (ordinary). '\flat' ♭ Musical flat (ordinary). '\forall' ∀ Universal quantifier (ordinary). '\frown' ⌢ Downward curving arc (ordinary). '\Gamma' Γ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\gamma' γ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\ge' ≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\geq'. '\geq' ≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\ge'. '\gets' ← Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: '\leftarrow'. '\gg' ≫ Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less than '\ll'. '\hbar' ℏ Planck constant over two pi (ordinary). '\heartsuit' ♡ Heart card suit (ordinary). '\hookleftarrow' ↩ Hooked left arrow (relation). '\hookrightarrow' ↪ Hooked right arrow (relation). '\iff' ⟷ If and only if (relation). It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with a '\thickmuskip' on either side. '\Im' ℑ Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part '\Re'. '\imath' Dotless i; used when you are putting an accent on an i (*note Math accents::). '\in' ∈ Set element (relation). See also: lowercase lunate epsilon '\epsilon'ϵ and small letter script epsilon '\varepsilon'. '\infty' ∞ Infinity (ordinary). '\int' ∫ Integral (operator). '\iota' ι Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\Join' ⨝ Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TeX. '\jmath' Dotless j; used when you are putting an accent on a j (*note Math accents::). '\kappa' κ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\Lambda' Λ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\lambda' λ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\land' ∧ Logical and (binary). Synonym: '\wedge'. See also logical or '\lor'. '\langle' ⟨ Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar: less-than '<'. Matches '\rangle'. '\lbrace' { Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: '\{'. Matches '\rbrace'. '\lbrack' [ Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: '['. Matches '\rbrack'. '\lceil' ⌈ Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom shaved off (opening). Matches '\rceil'. '\le' ≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\leq'. '\leadsto' ⇝ Squiggly right arrow (relation). To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and then use '\Leadsto' instead. '\Leftarrow' ⇐ Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar: single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'. '\leftarrow' ← Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: '\gets'. Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'. '\leftharpoondown' ↽ Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation). '\leftharpoonup' ↼ Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation). '\Leftrightarrow' ⇔ Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'. '\leftrightarrow' ↔ Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'. '\leq' ≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for '\le'. '\lfloor' ⌊ Left floor bracket (opening). Matches: '\floor'. '\lhd' ◁ Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\ll' ≪ Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater than '\gg'. '\lnot' ¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\neg'. '\longleftarrow' ⟵ Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'. '\longleftrightarrow' ⟷ Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'. '\longmapsto' ⟼ Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'. '\longrightarrow' ⟶ Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'. '\lor' ∨ Logical or (binary). Synonym: '\vee'. See also logical and '\land'. '\mapsto' ↦ Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'. '\mho' ℧ Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). '\mid' ∣ Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'. Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'. '\models' ⊨ Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash (relation). Similar: long double dash '\vDash'. '\mp' ∓ Minus or plus (relation). '\mu' μ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\nabla' ∇ Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary). '\natural' ♮ Musical natural notation (ordinary). '\ne' ≠ Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\neq'. '\nearrow' ↗ North-east arrow (relation). '\neg' ¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\lnot'. Sometimes instead used for negation: '\sim'. '\neq' ≠ Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\ne'. '\ni' ∋ Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\owns'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\not' Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation). Many negated operators are available that don't require '\not', particularly with the 'amssymb' package. For example, '\notin' is typographically preferable to '\not\in'. '\notin' ∉ Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset of '\nsubseteq'. '\nu' ν Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\nwarrow' ↖ North-west arrow (relation). '\odot' ⊙ Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigodot'. '\oint' ∮ Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator). '\Omega' Ω uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\omega' ω Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\ominus' ⊖ Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary). '\oplus' ⊕ Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigoplus'. '\oslash' ⊘ Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary). '\otimes' ⊗ Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'. '\owns' ∋ Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: '\ni'. Similar: is a member of '\in'. '\parallel' ∥ Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\|'. '\partial' ∂ Partial differential (ordinary). '\perp' ⟂ Perpendicular (relation). Similar: '\bot' uses the same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class ordinary. '\Phi' Φ Uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\phi' ϕ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varphi' φ. '\Pi' Π uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\pi' π Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varpi' ϖ. '\pm' ± Plus or minus (binary). '\prec' ≺ Precedes (relation). Similar: less than '<'. '\preceq' ⪯ Precedes or equals (relation). Similar: less than or equals '\leq'. '\prime' ′ Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically used as a superscript: '$f^\prime$'; '$f^\prime$' and '$f'$' produce the same result. An advantage of the second is that '$f'''$' produces the desired symbol, that is, the same result as '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses rather less typing. You can only use '\prime' in math mode. Using the right single quote ''' in text mode produces a different character (apostrophe). '\prod' ∏ Product (operator). '\propto' ∝ Is proportional to (relation) '\Psi' Ψ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\psi' ψ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\rangle' ⟩ Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater than '>'. Matches:'\langle'. '\rbrace' } Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: '\}'. Matches '\lbrace'. '\rbrack' ] Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: ']'. Matches '\lbrack'. '\rceil' ⌉ Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches '\lceil'. '\Re' ℜ Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access this, load the 'amsfonts' package. '\restriction' ↾, Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym: '\upharpoonright'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\revemptyset' ⦰, Reversed empty set symbol (ordinary). Related: '\varnothing'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'stix' package. '\rfloor' ⌋ Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut off (closing). Matches '\lfloor'. '\rhd' ◁ Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\rho' ρ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varrho' ϱ. '\Rightarrow' ⇒ Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'. '\rightarrow' → Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\to'. Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'. '\rightharpoondown' ⇁ Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation). '\rightharpoonup' ⇀ Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation). '\rightleftharpoons' ⇌ Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation). '\searrow' ↘ Arrow pointing southeast (relation). '\setminus' ⧵ Set difference, reverse solidus or reverse slash, like \ (binary). Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also '\textbackslash' outside of math mode. '\sharp' ♯ Musical sharp (ordinary). '\Sigma' Σ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\sigma' σ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\varsigma' ς. '\sim' ∼ Similar, in a relation (relation). '\simeq' ≃ Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation). '\smallint' ∫ Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator). '\smile' ⌣ Upward curving arc, smile (ordinary). '\spadesuit' ♠ Spade card suit (ordinary). '\sqcap' ⊓ Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar: intersection 'cap'. '\sqcup' ⊔ Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union 'cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'. '\sqsubset' ⊏, Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset '\subset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsubseteq' ⊑ Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or equal to '\subseteq'. '\sqsupset' ⊐, Square superset symbol (relation). Similar: superset '\supset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\sqsupseteq' ⊒ Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset or equal '\supseteq'. '\star' ⋆ Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript, as with the Kleene star. '\subset' ⊂ Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation). '\subseteq' ⊆ Subset or equal to (relation). '\succ' ≻ Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less than '>'. '\succeq' ⪰ Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or equal to '\leq'. '\sum' ∑ Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital sigma '\Sigma'. '\supset' ⊃ Superset (relation). '\supseteq' ⊇ Superset or equal to (relation). '\surd' √ Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command '\sqrt{...}' typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends to cover the argument. '\swarrow' ↙ Southwest-pointing arrow (relation). '\tau' τ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\theta' θ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is '\vartheta' ϑ. '\times' × Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See also '\cdot'. '\to' → Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: '\rightarrow'. '\top' ⊤ Top, greatest element of a partially ordered set (ordinary). See also '\bot'. '\triangle' △ Triangle (ordinary). '\triangleleft' ◁ Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary). Similar: '\lhd'. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\triangleright' ▷ Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unlhd' ⊴ Left-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\unrhd' ⊵ Right-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which is a relation and so gives better spacing). '\Uparrow' ⇑ Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'. '\uparrow' ↑ Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'. '\Updownarrow' ⇕ Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\updownarrow'. '\updownarrow' ↕ Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow '\Updownarrow'. '\upharpoonright' ↾, Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation). Synonym: '\restriction'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\uplus' ⊎ Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle (binary). Similar: union '\cup'. Related: variable-sized operator '\biguplus'. '\Upsilon' Υ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\upsilon' υ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\varepsilon' ε Small letter script epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in mathematics than the non-variant lunate epsilon form '\epsilon' ϵ. Related: set membership '\in'. '\vanothing' ∅, Empty set symbol. Similar: '\emptyset'. Related: '\revemptyset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. '\varphi' φ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\phi' ϕ. '\varpi' ϖ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\pi' π. '\varrho' ϱ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\rho' ρ. '\varsigma' ς Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\sigma' σ. '\vartheta' ϑ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is '\theta' θ. '\vdash' ⊢ Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'. '\vee' ∨ Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical and '\wedge'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'. '\Vert' ‖ Vertical double bar (ordinary). *Note Delimiters::, for how to use the 'mathtools' package to create flexibly-sized norm symbols. '\vert' | Single line vertical bar (ordinary). For "such that", as in the definition of a set, use '\mid' because it is a relation. *Note Delimiters::, for how to use the 'mathtools' package to create flexibly-sized absolute-value symbols. '\wedge' ∧ Logical and (binary). Synonym: '\land'. See also logical or '\vee'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'. '\wp' ℘ Weierstrass p (ordinary). '\wr' ≀ Wreath product (binary). '\Xi' Ξ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\xi' ξ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). '\zeta' ζ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The following symbols are most often used in plain text but LaTeX provides versions to use in mathematical text. '\mathdollar' Dollar sign in math mode: $. '\mathparagraph' Paragraph sign (pilcrow) in math mode, ¶. '\mathsection' Section sign in math mode §. '\mathsterling' Sterling sign in math mode: £. '\mathunderscore' Underscore in math mode: _. 16.2.1 Arrows ------------- These are the arrows that come with standard LaTeX. The 'latexsym' and 'amsfonts' packages contain many more. Symbol Command --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ⇓ '\Downarrow' ↓ '\downarrow' ↩ '\hookleftarrow' ↪ '\hookrightarrow' ← '\leftarrow' ⇐ '\Leftarrow' ⇔ '\Leftrightarrow' ↔ '\leftrightarrow' ⟵ '\longleftarrow' ⟸ '\Longleftarrow' ⟷ '\longleftrightarrow' ⟺ '\Longleftrightarrow' ⟼ '\longmapsto' ⟹ '\Longrightarrow' ⟶ '\longrightarrow' ↦ '\mapsto' ↗ '\nearrow' ↖ '\nwarrow' ⇒ '\Rightarrow' → '\rightarrow', or '\to' ↘ '\searrow' ↙ '\swarrow' ↑ '\uparrow' ⇑ '\Uparrow' ↕ '\updownarrow' ⇕ '\Updownarrow' An example of the difference between '\to' and '\mapsto' is: '\( f\colon D\to C \) given by \( n\mapsto n^2 \)'. For commutative diagrams there are a number of packages, including 'tikz-cd' and 'amscd'. 16.2.2 '\boldmath' & '\unboldmath' ---------------------------------- Synopsis (used in paragraph mode or LR mode): \boldmath \( MATH \) or \unboldmath \( MATH \) Declarations to change the letters and symbols in MATH to be in a bold font, or to countermand that and bring back the regular (non-bold) default. They must be used when not in math mode or display math mode (*note Modes::). Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::). In this example each '\boldmath' command takes place inside an '\mbox', we have $\mbox{\boldmath \( v \)} = 5\cdot\mbox{\boldmath \( u \)$}$ which means '\boldmath' is only called in a text mode, here LR mode, and explains why LaTeX must switch to math mode to set 'v' and 'u'. If you use either command inside math mode, as with 'Trouble: \( \boldmath x \)', then you get something like 'LaTeX Font Warning: Command \boldmath invalid in math mode on input line 11' and 'LaTeX Font Warning: Command \mathversion invalid in math mode on input line 11'. There are many issues with '\boldmath'. New documents should use the 'bm' package provided by the LaTeX Project team. A complete description is outside the scope of this document (see the full documentation on CTAN) but even this small example \usepackage{bm} % in preamble ... we have $\bm{v} = 5\cdot\bm{u}$ shows that it is an improvement over '\boldmath'. 16.2.3 Blackboard bold ---------------------- Synopsis: \usepackage{amssymb} % in preamble ... \mathbb{UPPERCASE-LETTER} Provide blackboard bold symbols, sometimes also known as doublestruck letters, used to denote number sets such as the natural numbers, the integers, etc. Here \( \forall n \in \mathbb{N}, n^2 \geq 0 \) the '\mathbb{N}' gives blackboard bold symbol ℕ, representing the natural numbers. If you use other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an error but you get strange results, including unexpected characters. There are packages that give access to symbols other than just the capital letters; look on CTAN. 16.2.4 Calligraphic ------------------- Synopsis: \mathcal{UPPERCASE-LETTERS} Use a script-like font. In this example the graph identifier is output in a cursive font. Let the graph be \( \mathcal{G} \). If you use something other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an error but you also do not get math calligraphic output. For instance, '\mathcal{g}' outputs a close curly brace symbol. 16.2.5 Delimiters ----------------- Delimiters are parentheses, braces, or other characters used to mark the start and end of subformulas. This formula has three sets of parentheses delimiting the three subformulas. (z-z_0)^2 = (x-x_0)^2 + (y-y_0)^2 The delimiters do not need to match, so you can enter '\( [0,1) \)'. Here are the common delimiters: DelimiterCommand Name ------------------------------------------------------ ( '(' Left parenthesis ) ')' Right parenthesis \} '{' or Left brace '\lbrace' \{ '}' or Right brace '\rbrace' [ '[' or Left bracket '\lbrack' ] ']' or Right bracket '\rbrack' ⌊ '\lfloor' Left floor bracket ⌋ '\rfloor' Right floor bracket ⌈ '\lceil' Left ceiling bracket ⌉ '\rceil' Right ceiling bracket ⟨ '\langle' Left angle bracket ⟩ '\rangle' Right angle bracket / '/' Slash, or forward slash \ '\backslash' Reverse slash, or backslash | '|' or Vertical bar '\vert' ‖ '\|' or Double vertical bar '\Vert' The 'mathtools' package allows you to create commands for paired delimiters. For instance, if you put '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}' in your preamble then you get two commands for single-line vertical bars (they only work in math mode). The starred version, such as '\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}', has the height of the vertical bars match the height of the argument. The unstarred version, such as '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}', has the bars fixed at a default height. This version accepts an optional argument, as in '\abs[SIZE COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}', where the height of the bars is given in SIZE COMMAND, such as '\Bigg'. Using '\lVert' and '\rVert' as the symbols will give you a norm symbol with the same behavior. 16.2.5.1 '\left' & '\right' ........................... Synopsis: \left DELIMITER1 ... \right DELIMITER2 Make matching parentheses, braces, or other delimiters. LaTeX makes the delimiters tall enough to just cover the size of the formula that they enclose. This makes a unit vector surrounded by parentheses tall enough to cover the entries. \begin{equation} \left(\begin{array}{c} 1 \\ 0 \\ \end{array}\right) \end{equation} *Note Delimiters::, for a list of the common delimiters. Every '\left' must have a matching '\right'. In the above example, leaving out the '\left(' gets the error message 'Extra \right'. Leaving out the '\right)' gets 'You can't use `\eqno' in math mode'. However, DELIMITER1 and DELIMITER2 need not match. A common case is that you want an unmatched brace, as below. Use a period, '.', as a null delimiter. \begin{equation} f(n)=\left\{\begin{array}{ll} 1 &\mbox{--if \(n=0\)} \\ f(n-1)+3n^2 &\mbox{--else} \end{array}\right. \end{equation} Note that to get a curly brace as a delimiter you must prefix it with a backslash, '\{'. (The packages 'amsmath' and 'mathtools' allow you to get the above construct through in a 'cases' environment.) The '\left ... \right' pair make a group. One consequence is that the formula enclosed in the '\left ... \right' pair cannot have line breaks in the output. This includes both manual line breaks and LaTeX-generated automatic ones. In this example, LaTeX breaks the equation to make the formula fit the margins. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet \( (a+b+c+d+e+f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m+n+o+p+q+r+s+t+u+v+w+x+y+z) \) But with '\left' and '\right' Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet \( \left(a+b+c+d+e+f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m+n+o+p+q+r+s+t+u+v+w+x+y+z\right) \) LaTeX won't break the line, causing the formula to extend into the margin. Because '\left ... \right' make a group, all the usual grouping rules hold. Here, the value of '\testlength' set inside the equation will be forgotten, and the output is '1.2pt'. \newlength{\testlength} \setlength{\testlength}{1.2pt} \begin{equation} \left( a+b=c \setlength{\testlength}{3.4pt} \right) \the\testlength \end{equation} The '\left ... \right' pair affect the horizontal spacing of the enclosed formula, in two ways. The first is that in '\( \sin(x) = \sin\left(x\right) \)' the one after the equals sign has more space around the 'x'. That's because '\left( ... \right)' inserts an inner node while '( ... )' inserts an opening node. The second way that the pair affect the horizontal spacing is that because they form a group, the enclosed subformula will be typeset at its natural width, with no stretching or shrinking to make the line fit better. TeX scales the delimiters according to the height and depth of the contained formula. Here LaTeX grows the brackets to extend the full height of the integral. \begin{equation} \left[ \int_{x=r_0}^{\infty} -G\frac{Mm}{r^2}\, dr \right] \end{equation} Manual sizing is often better. For instance, although below the rule has no depth, TeX will create delimiters that extend far below the rule. \begin{equation} \left( \rule{1pt}{1cm} \right) \end{equation} TeX can choose delimiters that are too small, as in '\( \left| |x|+|y| \right| \)'. It can also choose delimiters that are too large, as here. \begin{equation} \left( \sum_{0\leq i1/2}+ \underbrace{1/5+1/6+1/7+1/8}_{>1/2}+\cdots \end{displaymath} The superscript appears on top of the expression, and so can look unconnected to the underbrace. '\overbrace{MATH}' Put a brace over MATH, as with '\overbrace{x+x+\cdots+x}^{\mbox{\(k\) times}}'. See also '\underbrace'. The package 'mathtools' adds an over- and underbrace, as well as some improvements on the braces. See the documentation on CTAN. 16.6 Spacing in math mode ========================= When typesetting mathematics, LaTeX puts in spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If you enter 'y=m x' then LaTeX ignores the space and in the output the m is next to the x, as y=mx. But LaTeX's rules occasionally need tweaking. For example, in an integral the tradition is to put a small extra space between the 'f(x)' and the 'dx', here done with the '\,' command: \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx LaTeX provides the commands that follow for use in math mode. Many of these spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit "mu". It is defined as 1/18em, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family (*note Units of length::). Thus, a '\thickspace' is something like 5/18 times the width of a 'M'. '\;' Synonym: '\thickspace'. Normally '5.0mu plus 5.0mu'. With 'amsmath', or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode; before that, in math mode only. '\negthickspace' Normally '-5.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'. With 'amsmath', or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode; before that, in math mode only. '\:' '\>' Synonym: '\medspace'. Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'. With 'amsmath', or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode; before that, in math mode only. '\negmedspace' Normally '-4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'. With 'amsmath', or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode; before that, in math mode only. '\,' Synonym: '\thinspace'. Normally '3mu', which is 1/6em. Can be used in both math mode and text mode (*note \thinspace & \negthinspace::). This space is widely used, for instance between the function and the infinitesimal in an integral '\int f(x)\,dx' and, if an author does this, before punctuation in a displayed equation. The antiderivative is \begin{equation} 3x^{-1/2}+3^{1/2}\,. \end{equation} '\!' A negative thin space. Normally '-3mu'. With 'amsmath', or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode; before that, The '\!' command is math mode only but the '\negthinspace' command has always worked in text mode (*note \thinspace & \negthinspace::). '\quad' This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment. It is available in both text and math mode. '\qquad' A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both text and math mode. 16.6.1 '\smash' --------------- Synopsis: \smash{SUBFORMULA} Typeset SUBFORMULA as if its height and depth were zero. In this example the exponential is so tall that without the '\smash' command LaTeX would separate its line from the line above it, and the uneven line spacing might be unsightly. To compute the tetration $\smash{2^{2^{2^2}}}$, evaluate from the top down, as $2^{2^4}=2^{16}=65536$. (Because of the '\smash' the printed expression could run into the line above so you may want to wait until the final version of the document to make such adjustments.) This pictures the effect of '\smash' by using '\fbox' to surround the box that LaTeX will put on the line. The '\blackbar' command makes a bar extending from 10 points below the baseline to 20 points above. \newcommand{\blackbar}{\rule[-10pt]{5pt}{30pt}} \fbox{\blackbar} \fbox{\smash{\blackbar}} The first box that LaTeX places is 20 points high and 10 points deep. But the second box is treated by LaTeX as having zero height and zero depth, despite that the ink printed on the page still extends well above and below the line. The '\smash' command appears often in mathematics to adjust the size of an element that surrounds a subformula. Here the first radical extends below the baseline while the second lies just on the baseline. \begin{equation} \sqrt{\sum_{0\leq k< n} f(k)} \sqrt{\vphantom{\sum}\smash{\sum_{0\leq k< n}} f(k)} \end{equation} Note the use of '\vphantom' to give the '\sqrt' command an argument with the height of the '\sum' (*note \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom::). While most often used in mathematics, the '\smash' command can appear in other contexts. However, it doesn't change into horizontal mode. So if it starts a paragraph then you should first put a '\leavevmode', as in the bottom line below. xxx xxx xxx \smash{yyy} % no paragraph indent \leavevmode\smash{zzz} % usual paragraph indent The package 'mathtools' has operators that provide even finer control over smashing a subformula box. 16.6.2 '\phantom' & '\vphantom' & '\hphantom' --------------------------------------------- Synopsis: \phantom{SUBFORMULA} or \vphantom{SUBFORMULA} or \hphantom{SUBFORMULA} The '\phantom' command creates a box with the same height, depth, and width as SUBFORMULA, but empty. That is, this command causes LaTeX to typeset the space but not fill it with the material. Here LaTeX will put a box of the right size for the quotation, but empty. \fbox{\phantom{Conservatism is the fear-filled worship of dead radicals. --- Mark Twain}} The '\vphantom' variant produces an invisible box with the same vertical size as SUBFORMULA, the same height and depth, but having zero width. And '\hphantom' makes a box with the same width as SUBFORMULA but with zero height and depth. In this example, the tower of exponents in the second summand expression is so tall that TeX places this expression further down than its default. Without adjustment, the two summand expressions would be at different levels. The '\vphantom' in the first expression tells TeX to leave as much vertical room as it does for the tower, so the two expressions come out at the same level. \begin{displaymath} \sum_{j\in\{0,\ldots\, 10\}\vphantom{3^{3^{3^j}}}} \sum_{i\in\{0,\ldots\, 3^{3^{3^j}}\}} i\cdot j \end{displaymath} These commands are often used in conjunction with '\smash'. *Note \smash::, which includes another example of '\vphantom'. The three phantom commands appear often but note that LaTeX provides a suite of other commands to work with box sizes that may be more convenient, including '\makebox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) as well as '\settodepth' (*note \settodepth::), '\settoheight' (*note \settoheight::), and '\settowidth' (*note \settowidth::). In addition, the 'mathtools' package has many commands that offer fine-grained control over spacing. All three commands produce an ordinary box, without any special mathematics status. So to do something like attaching a superscript you should give it such a status, for example with the '\operatorname' command from the package 'amsmath'. While most often used in mathematics, these three can appear in other contexts. However, they don't cause LaTeX to change into horizontal mode. So if one of these starts a paragraph then you should prefix it with '\leavevmode'. 16.6.3 '\mathstrut' ------------------- Synopsis: \mathstrut The analogue of '\strut' for mathematics. *Note \strut::. The input '$\sqrt{x} + \sqrt{x^i}$' gives output where the second radical is taller than the first. To add extra vertical space without any horizontal space, so that the two have the same height, use '$\sqrt{x\mathstrut} + \sqrt{x^i\mathstrut}$'. The '\mathstrut' command adds the vertical height of an open parenthesis, '(', but no horizontal space. It is defined as '\vphantom{(}', so see *note \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom:: for more. An advantage over '\strut' is that '\mathstrut' adds no depth, which is often the right thing for formulas. Using the height of an open parenthesis is just a convention; for complete control over the amount of space, use '\rule' with a width of zero. *Note \rule::. 16.7 Math miscellany ==================== LaTeX contains a wide variety of mathematics facilities. Here are some that don't fit into other categories. 16.7.1 Colon character ':' & '\colon' ------------------------------------- Synopsis, one of: : \colon In mathematics, the colon character, ':', is a relation. With side ratios \( 3:4 \) and \( 4:5 \), the triangle is right. Ordinary LaTeX defines '\colon' to produce the colon character with the spacing appropriate for punctuation, as in set-builder notation '\{x\colon 0\leq x<1\}'. But the widely-used 'amsmath' package defines '\colon' for use in the definition of functions 'f\colon D\to C'. So if you want the colon character as a punctuation then use '\mathpunct{:}'. 16.7.2 '\*' ----------- Synopsis: \* A multiplication symbol that allows a line break. If there is a break then LaTeX puts a '\times' symbol, ×, before that break. In '\( A_1\* A_2\* A_3\* A_4 \)', if there is no line break then LaTeX outputs it as though it were '\( A_1 A_2 A_3 A_4 \)'. If a line break does happen, for example between the two middle ones, then LaTeX sets it like '\( A_1 A_2 \times \)', followed by the break, followed by '\( A_3 A_4 \)'. 16.7.3 '\frac' -------------- Synopsis: \frac{NUMERATOR}{DENOMINATOR} Produces the fraction. Used as: '\begin{displaymath} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma}} \end{displaymath}'. In inline math mode it comes out small; see the discussion of '\displaystyle' (*note Math formulas::). 16.7.4 '\sqrt' -------------- Synopsis, one of: \sqrt{ARG} \sqrt[ROOT-NUMBER]{ARG} The square root, or optionally other roots, of ARG. The optional argument ROOT-NUMBER gives the root, i.e., enter the cube root of 'x+y' as '\sqrt[3]{x+y}'. The radical grows with the size of ARG (as the height of the radical grows, the angle on the leftmost part gets steeper, until for a large enough 'arg', it is vertical). LaTeX has a separate '\surd' character (*note Math symbols::). 16.7.5 '\stackrel' ------------------ Synopsis, one of: \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION} Put TEXT above RELATION. To put a function name above an arrow enter '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'. 17 Modes ******** As LaTeX processes your document, at any point it is in one of six modes. They fall into three categories of two each, the horizontal modes, the math modes, and the vertical modes. Some commands only work in one mode or another (in particular, many commands only work in one of the math modes), and error messages will refer to these. * "Paragraph mode" is what LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. It breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. This is the mode LaTeX is in most of the time. "LR mode" (for left-to-right mode; in plain TeX this is called "restricted horizontal mode") is in effect when LaTeX starts making a box with an '\mbox' command. As in paragraph mode, LaTeX's output is a string of words with spaces between them. Unlike in paragraph mode, in LR mode LaTeX never starts a new line, it just keeps going from left to right. (Although LaTeX will not complain that the LR box is too long, when it is finished and next tries to put that box into a line, it could very well complain that the finished LR box won't fit there.) * "Math mode" is when LaTeX is generating an inline mathematical formula. "Display math mode" is when LaTeX is generating a displayed mathematical formula. (Displayed formulas differ somewhat from inline ones. One example is that the placement of the subscript on '\int' differs in the two situations.) * "Vertical mode" is when LaTeX is building the list of lines and other material making the output page. This is the mode LaTeX is in when it starts a document. "Internal vertical mode" is in effect when LaTeX starts making a '\vbox'. This is the vertical analogue of LR mode. For instance, if you begin a LaTeX article with 'Let \( x \) be ...' then these are the modes: first LaTeX starts every document in vertical mode, then it reads the 'L' and switches to paragraph mode, then the next switch happens at the '\(' where LaTeX changes to math mode, and then when it leaves the formula it pops back to paragraph mode. Paragraph mode has two subcases. If you use a '\parbox' command or a 'minipage' then LaTeX is put into paragraph mode. But it will not put a page break here. Inside one of these boxes, called a "parbox", LaTeX is in "inner paragraph mode". Its more usual situation, where it can put page breaks, is "outer paragraph mode" (*note Page breaking::). 17.1 '\ensuremath' ================== Synopsis: \ensuremath{FORMULA} Ensure that FORMULA is typeset in math mode. For instance, you can redefine commands that ordinarily can be used only in math mode, so that they can be used both in math and in plain text. \newcommand{\dx}{\ensuremath{dx}} In $\int f(x)\, \dx$, the \dx{} is an infinitesimal. Caution: the '\ensuremath' command is useful but not a panacea. \newcommand{\alf}{\ensuremath{\alpha}} You get an alpha in text mode: \alf. But compare the correct spacing in $\alf+\alf$ with that in \alf+\alf. Best is to typeset math things in a math mode. 18 Page styles ************** The style of a page determines where LaTeX places the components of that page, such as headers and footers, and the text body. This includes pages in the main part of the document but also includes special pages such as the title page of a book, a page from an index, or the first page of an article. The package 'fancyhdr' is very helpful for constructing page styles. See its documentation on CTAN. 18.1 '\maketitle' ================= Synopsis: \maketitle Generate a title. In the standard classes the title appears on a separate page, except in the 'article' class where it is at the top of the first page. (*Note Document class options::, for information about the 'titlepage' document class option.) This example shows '\maketitle' appearing in its usual place, immediately after '\begin{document}'. \documentclass{article} \title{Constructing a Nuclear Reactor Using Only Coconuts} \author{Jonas Grumby\thanks{% With the support of a Ginger Grant from the Roy Hinkley Society.} \\ Skipper, \textit{Minnow} \and Willy Gilligan\thanks{% Thanks to the Mary Ann Summers foundation and to Thurston and Lovey Howell.} \\ Mate, \textit{Minnow} } \date{1964-Sep-26} \begin{document} \maketitle Just sit right back and you'll hear a tale, a tale of a fateful trip. That started from this tropic port, aboard this tiny ship. The mate was a mighty sailin' man, the Skipper brave and sure. Five passengers set sail that day for a three hour tour. A three hour tour. ... You tell LaTeX the information used to produce the title by making the following declarations. These must come before the '\maketitle', either in the preamble or in the document body. '\author{NAME1 \and NAME2 \and ...}' Required. Declare the document author or authors. The argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. To separate lines within a single author's entry, for instance to give the author's institution or address, use a double backslash, '\\'. If you omit the '\author' declaration then you get 'LaTeX Warning: No \author given'. '\date{TEXT}' Optional. Declare TEXT to be the document's date. The TEXT doesn't need to be in a date format; it can be any text at all. If you omit '\date' then LaTeX uses the current date (*note \today::). To have no date, instead use '\date{}'. '\thanks{TEXT}' Optional. Produce a footnote. You can use it in the author information for acknowledgements as illustrated above, but you can also use it in the title, or any place a footnote makes sense. It can be any text at all so you can use it for any purpose, such as to print an email address. '\title{TEXT}' Required. Declare TEXT to be the title of the document. Get line breaks inside TEXT with a double backslash, '\\'. If you omit the '\title' declaration then you get 'LaTeX Error: No \title given'. To make your own title page, see *note titlepage::. You can either create this as a one-off or you can include it as part of a renewed '\maketitle' command. (Many publishers will provide a class to use in place of 'article' that formats the title according to their house requirements.) 18.2 '\pagenumbering' ===================== Synopsis: \pagenumbering{NUMBER-STYLE} Specifies the style of page numbers, and resets the page number. The numbering style is reflected on the page, and also in the table of contents and other page references. This declaration has global scope so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments. In this example, before the Main section the pages are numbered 'a', etc. Starting on the page containing that section, the pages are numbered '1', etc. \begin{document}\pagenumbering{alph} ... \section{Main}\pagenumbering{arabic} ... The argument NUMBER-STYLE is one of the following (see also *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::). 'arabic' Arabic numerals: 1, 2, ... 'roman' lowercase Roman numerals: i, ii, ... 'Roman' uppercase Roman numerals: I, II, ... 'alph' lowercase letters: a, b, ... If you have more than 26 pages then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large'. 'Alph' uppercase letters: A, B, ... If you have more than 26 pages then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large'. 'gobble' LaTeX does not output a page number, although it does get reset. References to that page also are blank. (This does not work with the popular package 'hyperref' so to have the page number not appear you may want to instead use '\pagestyle{empty}' or '\thispagestyle{empty}'.) Traditionally, if a document has front matter--preface, table of contents, etc.--then it is numbered with lowercase Roman numerals. The main matter of a document uses arabic. *Note \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter::. If you want to address where the page number appears on the page, see *note \pagestyle::. If you want to change the value of page number then you will manipulate the 'page' counter (*note Counters::). 18.3 '\pagestyle' ================= Synopsis: \pagestyle{STYLE} Declaration that specifies how the page headers and footers are typeset, from the current page onwards. A discussion with an example is below. Note first that the package 'fancyhdr' is now the standard way to manipulate headers and footers. New documents that need to do anything other than one of the standard options below should use this package. See its documentation on CTAN. Values for STYLE: 'plain' The header is empty. The footer contains only a page number, centered. 'empty' The header and footer is empty. 'headings' Put running headers and footers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in there; see the discussion below. 'myheadings' Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright' commands. Some discussion of the motivation for LaTeX's mechanism will help you work with the options 'headings' or 'myheadings'. The document source below produces an article, two-sided, with the pagestyle 'headings'. On this document's left hand pages, LaTeX wants (in addition to the page number) the title of the current section. On its right hand pages LaTeX wants the title of the current subsection. When it makes up a page, LaTeX gets this information from the commands '\leftmark' and '\rightmark'. So it is up to '\section' and '\subsection' to store that information there. \documentclass[twoside]{article} \pagestyle{headings} \begin{document} ... \section{Section 1} ... \subsection{Subsection 1.1} ... \section{Section 2} ... \subsection{Subsection 2.1} ... \subsection{Subsection 2.2} ... Suppose that the second section falls on a left page. Although when the page starts it is in the first section, LaTeX will put 'Section 2' in the left page header. As to the right header, if no subsection starts before the end of the right page then LaTeX blanks the right hand header. If a subsection does appear before the right page finishes then there are two cases. If at least one subsection starts on the right hand page then LaTeX will put in the right header the title of the first subsection starting on that right page. If at least one of 2.1, 2.2, ..., starts on the left page but none starts on the right then LaTeX puts in the right hand header the title of the last subsection to start, that is, the one in effect during the right hand page. To accomplish this, in a two-sided article, LaTeX has '\section' issue a command '\markboth', setting '\leftmark' to 'Section 2' and setting '\rightmark' to blank. And, LaTeX has '\subsection' issue a command '\markright', setting '\rightmark' to 'Subsection 2.1', etc. Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright': '\markboth{LEFT-HEAD}{RIGHT-HEAD}' Sets both the right hand and left hand heading information for either a page style of 'headings' or 'myheadings'. A left hand page heading LEFT-HEAD is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end of the page. A right hand page heading RIGHT-HEAD is generated by the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one that came before that page. '\markright{RIGHT}' Sets the right hand page heading, leaving the left unchanged. 18.4 '\thispagestyle' ===================== Synopsis: \thispagestyle{STYLE} Works in the same way as the '\pagestyle' (*note \pagestyle::), except that it changes to STYLE for the current page only. This declaration has global scope, so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments. Often the first page of a chapter or section has a different style. For example, this LaTeX book document has the first page of the first chapter in 'plain' style, as is the default (*note Page styles::). \documentclass{book} \pagestyle{headings} \begin{document} \chapter{First chapter} ... \chapter{Second chapter}\thispagestyle{empty} ... The 'plain' style has a page number on it, centered in the footer. To make the page entirely empty, the command '\thispagestyle{empty}' immediately follows the second '\chapter'. 19 Spaces ********* LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Some of these are best suited to mathematical text; see *note Spacing in math mode::. Some spacing commands are suitable for both regular text and mathematical text; versions of some of these commands are in this chapter. 19.1 '\enspace' & '\quad' & '\qquad' ==================================== Synopsis, one of: \enspace \quad \qquad Insert a horizontal space of 1/2em, 1em, or 2em. The em is a length defined by a font designer, often thought of as being the width of a capital M. One advantage of describing space in ems is that it can be more portable across documents than an absolute measurement such as points (*note Lengths/em::). This puts a suitable gap between two graphics. \begin{center} \includegraphics{womensmile.png}% \qquad\includegraphics{mensmile.png} \end{center} *Note Spacing in math mode::, for '\quad' and '\qquad'. These are lengths from centuries of typesetting and so may be a better choice in many circumstances than arbitrary lengths, such as you get with '\hspace'. 19.2 '\hspace' ============== Synopsis, one of: \hspace{LENGTH} \hspace*{LENGTH} Insert the horizontal space LENGTH. The LENGTH can be positive, negative, or zero; adding negative space is like backspacing. It is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, or both (*note Lengths::). Because the space is stretchable and shrinkable, it is sometimes called "glue". This makes a line with 'Name:' an inch from the right margin. \noindent\makebox[\linewidth][r]{Name:\hspace{1in}} The '*'-version inserts horizontal space that non-discardable. More precisely, when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines any white space--glues and kerns--that come at a line break are discarded. The '*'-version avoids that (technically, it adds a non-discardable invisible item in front of the space). In this example \parbox{0.8\linewidth}{% Fill in each blank: Four \hspace*{1in} and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new \hspace*{1in}, conceived in \hspace*{1in}, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created \hspace*{1in}.} the 1 inch blank following 'conceived in' falls at the start of a line. If you erase the '*' then LaTeX discards the blank. Here, the '\hspace' separates the three graphics. \begin{center} \includegraphics{lion.png}% comment keeps out extra space \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{tiger.png}% \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{bear.png} \end{center} Because the argument to each '\hspace' has 'minus 0.25cm', each can shrink a little if the three figures are too wide. But each space won't shrink more than 0.25cm (*note Lengths::). 19.3 '\hfill' ============= Synopsis: \hfill Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but that can stretch horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::). This creates a one-line paragraph with 'Name:' on the left side of the page and 'Quiz One' on the right. \noindent Name:\hfill Quiz One The '\hfill' command is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}' and so the space can be discarded at line breaks. To avoid that instead use '\hspace*{\fill}' (*note \hspace::). Here the graphs are evenly spaced in the middle of the figure. \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}} ... \begin{figure} \hspace*{\fill}% \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph0.png}}% \hfill\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph1.png}}% \hspace*{\fill}% \caption{Comparison of two graphs} \label{fig:twographs} \end{figure} Note the '\hspace*''s where the space could otherwise be dropped. 19.4 '\hss' =========== Synopsis: \hss Produce a horizontal space that is infinitely shrinkable as well as infinitely stretchable (this command is a TeX primitive). LaTeX authors should reach first for the '\makebox' command to get the effects of '\hss' (*note \mbox & \makebox::). Here, the first line's '\hss' makes the Z stick out to the right, overwriting the Y. In the second line the Z sticks out to the left, overwriting the X. X\hbox to 0pt{Z\hss}Y X\hbox to 0pt{\hss Z}Y Without the '\hss' you get something like 'Overfull \hbox (6.11111pt too wide) detected at line 20'. 19.5 '\spacefactor' =================== Synopsis: \spacefactor=INTEGER Influence LaTeX's glue stretch and shrink behavior. Most user-level documents do not use this command. While LaTeX is laying out the material, it may stretch or shrink the gaps between words. (This space is not a character; it is called the "interword glue"; *note \hspace::). The '\spacefactor' command (from Plain TeX) allows you to, for instance, have the space after a period stretch more than the space after a word-ending letter. After LaTeX places each character, or rule or other box, it sets a parameter called the "space factor". If the next thing in the input is a space then this parameter affects how much stretching or shrinking can happen. A space factor that is larger than the normal value means that the glue can stretch more and shrink less. Normally, the space factor is 1000. This value is in effect following most characters, and any non-character box or math formula. But it is 3000 after a period, exclamation mark, or question mark, it is 2000 after a colon, 1500 after a semicolon, 1250 after a comma, and 0 after a right parenthesis or bracket, or closing double quote or single quote. Finally, it is 999 after a capital letter. If the space factor F is 1000 then the glue gap will be the font's normal space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is 3.3333 points). Otherwise, if the space factor F is greater than 2000 then TeX adds the font's extra space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is 1.11111 points), and then the font's normal stretch value is multiplied by f /1000 and the normal shrink value is multiplied by 1000/f (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point these are 1.66666 and 1.11111 points). For example, consider the period ending 'A man's best friend is his dog.' After it, TeX puts in a fixed extra space, and also allows the glue to stretch 3 times as much and shrink 1/3 as much, as the glue after 'friend', which does not end in a period. The rules for space factors are even more complex because they play additional roles. In practice, there are two consequences. First, if a period or other punctuation is followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote then the spacing effect of that period carries through those characters (that is, the following glue will have increased stretch and shrink). Second, if punctuation comes after a capital letter then its effect is not in place so you get an ordinary space. This second case also affects abbreviations that do not end in a capital letter (*note \@::). You can only use '\spacefactor' in paragraph mode or LR mode (*note Modes::). You can see the current value with '\the\spacefactor' or '\showthe\spacefactor'. (Comment, not really related to '\spacefactor': if you get errors like 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode', or 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in math mode.', or 'Improper \spacefactor' then you have probably tried to redefine an internal command. *Note \makeatletter & \makeatother::.) 19.5.1 '\@' ----------- Synopsis: CAPITAL-LETTER\@. Treat a period as sentence-ending, where LaTeX would otherwise think it is part of an abbreviation. LaTeX thinks that a period ends an abbreviation if the period comes after a capital letter, and otherwise thinks the period ends the sentence. By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than it adjusts the space between words (*note \spacefactor::). This example shows the two cases to remember. The songs \textit{Red Guitar}, etc.\ are by Loudon Wainwright~III\@. The second period ends the sentence, despite that it is preceded by a capital. We tell LaTeX that it ends the sentence by putting '\@' before it. The first period ends the abbreviation 'etc.' but not the sentence. The backslash-space, '\ ', produces a mid-sentence space. So: if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the sentence, then put '\@' before the period. This holds even if there is an intervening right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote, because the spacing effect of that period carries through those characters. For example, this Use the \textit{Instructional Practices Guide}, (a book by the MAA)\@. will have correct inter-sentence spacing after the period. The '\@' command is only for a text mode. If you use it outside of a text mode then you get 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode' (*note Modes::). Comment: the converse case is a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the sentence. For that case follow the period with a backslash-space, ('\ '), or a tie, ('~'), or '\@'. Examples are 'Nat.\ Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and '(manure, etc.\@) for sale' (note in the last one that the '\@' comes before the closing parenthesis). 19.5.2 '\frenchspacing' ----------------------- Synopsis, one of: \frenchspacing \nonfrenchspacing The first declaration causes LaTeX to treat spacing between sentences in the same way as spacing between words in the middle of a sentence. The second causes spacing between sentences to stretch or shrink more (*note \spacefactor::); this is the default. Some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or spaces following a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words that are in the middle of a sentence. Declaring '\frenchspacing' (the command is from plain TeX) switches to the tradition that all spaces are treated equally. 19.5.3 '\normalsfcodes' ----------------------- Synopsis: \normalsfcodes Reset the LaTeX space factor values to the default (*note \spacefactor::). 19.6 Backslash-space, '\ ' ========================== This section refers to the command consisting of two characters, a backslash followed by a space. Synopsis: \ Produce a space. By default it produces white space of length 3.33333pt plus 1.66666pt minus 1.11111pt. When you type one or more blanks between words, LaTeX produces white space. But that is different than an explicit space. This illustrates. \begin{tabular}{l} One blank: makes some space \\ Three blanks: in a row \\ Three spaces:\ \ \ in a row \\ \end{tabular} On the first line LaTeX puts some space after the colon. On the second line LaTeX collapses the three blanks to output one whitespace, so you end with the same space after the colon as in the first line. LaTeX would similarly collapse a blank followed by a tab, or a blank and a newline and a blank. However, the bottom line asks for three spaces so the white area is wider. That is, the backslash-space command creates a fixed amount of horizontal space. (Note that you can define a horizontal space of any width at all with '\hspace'; see *note \hspace::.) The backslash-space command has two main uses. It is often used after control sequences to keep them from gobbling the space that follows, as in '\TeX\ is nice'. (But using curly parentheses, as in '\TeX{} is best', has the advantage of still working if the next character is a period.) The other common use is that it marks a period as ending an abbreviation instead of ending a sentence, as in 'So says Prof.\ Smith' or 'Jones et al.\ (1993)' (*note \@::). Under normal circumstances, '\' and '\' are equivalent to backslash-space, '\ '. 19.7 '~' ======== Synopsis: BEFORE~AFTER The tie character, '~', produces a space between BEFORE and AFTER at which the line will not be broken. By default the white space has length 3.33333pt plus 1.66666pt minus 1.11111pt (*note Lengths::). Here LaTeX will not break the line between the final two words. Thanks to Prof.~Lerman. In addition, despite the period, LaTeX does not use the end-of-sentence spacing (*note \@::). Ties prevent the end of line separation of things where that could cause confusion. They also still allow hyphenation (of either of the tied words), so they are generally preferable to putting consecutive words in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::). They are also matters of taste, sometimes alarmingly dogmatic taste, among readers. Nevertheless, here are some usage models, many of them from 'The TeXbook'. * Between an enumerator and its item, such as in references: 'Chapter~12', or 'Theorem~\ref{th:Wilsons}', or 'Figure~\ref{fig:KGraph}'. * When cases are enumerated inline: '(b)~Show that $f(x)$ is (1)~continuous, and (2)~bounded'. * Between a number and its unit: '$745.7.8$~watts' (the 'siunitx' package has a special facility for this) or '144~eggs'. This includes between a month and a date: 'October~12' or '12~Oct'. In general, in any expressions where numbers and abbreviations or symbols are separated by a space: 'AD~565', or '2:50~pm', or 'Boeing~747', or '268~Plains Road', or '\$$1.4$~billion'. Other common choices here are a thin space (*note \thinspace & \negthinspace::) and no space at all. * When mathematical phrases are rendered in words: 'equals~$n$', or 'less than~$\epsilon$', or 'given~$X$', or 'modulo~$p^e$ for all large~$n$' (but compare 'is~$15$' with 'is $15$~times the height'). Between mathematical symbols in apposition with nouns: 'dimension~$d$' or 'function~$f(x)$' (but compare 'with length $l$~or more'). When a symbol is a tightly bound object of a preposition: 'of~$x$', or 'from $0$ to~$1$', or 'in common with~$m$'. * Between symbols in series: '$1$,~$2$, or~$3$' or '$1$,~$2$, \ldots,~$n$'. * Between a person's given names and between multiple surnames: 'Donald~E. Knuth', or 'Luis~I. Trabb~Pardo', or 'Charles~XII'--but you must give TeX places to break the line so you might do 'Charles Louis Xavier~Joseph de~la Vall\'ee~Poussin'. 19.8 '\thinspace' & '\negthinspace' =================================== Synopsis, one of: \thinspace \negthinspace These produce unbreakable and unstretchable spaces of 1/6em and -1/6em, respectively. These are the text mode equivalents of '\,' and '\!' (*note Spacing in math mode/\thinspace::). You can use '\,' as a synonym for '\thinspace' in text mode. One common use of '\thinspace' is as the space between nested quotes: Killick replied, ``I heard the Captain say, `Ahoy there.'\thinspace'' Another use is that some style guides call for a '\thinspace' between an ellipsis and a sentence ending period (other style guides, think the three dots and/or four dots are plenty). Another style-specific use is between initials, as in 'D.\thinspace E.\ Knuth'. LaTeX provides a variety of similar spacing commands (*note Spacing in math mode::). With 'amsmath', or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, they can be used in text mode as well as math mode, including '\!' for '\negthinspace'; before that, they were available only in math mode. 19.9 '\/' ========= Synopsis: BEFORE-CHARACTER\/AFTER-CHARACTER Insert an "italic correction", a small space defined by the font designer for each character (possibly zero), to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. When you use '\/', LaTeX takes the correction from the font metric file, scales it by any scaling that has been applied to the font, and then inserts that much horizontal space. Here, were it not for the '\/', the BEFORE-CHARACTER italic f would hit the AFTER-CHARACTER roman H \newcommand{\companylogo}{{\it f}\/H} because the italic letter f leans far to the right. If AFTER-CHARACTER is a period or comma then don't insert an italic correction since those punctuation symbols are so low to the baseline already. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as with normal letters, the italic correction can help. It is typically used between a switch from italic or slanted fonts to an upright font. When you use commands such as '\emph' and '\textit' and '\textsl' to change fonts, LaTeX automatically inserts the italic correction when needed (*note Font styles::). However, declarations such as '\em' and '\itshape' and '\slshape' do not automatically insert italic corrections. Upright characters can also have an italic correction. An example where this is needed is the name 'pdf\/\TeX'. However, most upright characters have a zero italic correction. Some font creators do not include italic correction values even for italic fonts. Technically, LaTeX uses another font-specific value, the so-called slant parameter (namely '\fontdimen1'), to determine whether to possibly insert an italic correction, rather than tying the action to particular font commands. There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; math spacing is done in a different way. 19.10 '\hrulefill' & '\dotfill' =============================== Synopsis, one of: \hrulefill \dotfill Produce an infinite horizontal rubber length (*note Lengths::) that LaTeX fills with a rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of white space. This outputs a line 2 inches long. Name:~\makebox[2in]{\hrulefill} This example, when placed between blank lines, creates a paragraph that is left and right justified and where the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots. \noindent John Aubrey, RN \dotfill{} Melbury Lodge To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the start or end. To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as here \renewcommand{\hrulefill}{% \leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@} which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with \renewcommand{\dotfill}{% \leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@} which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em. This example produces a line for a signature. \begin{minipage}{4cm} \centering \hrulefill\\ Signed \end{minipage} The line is 4cm long. 19.11 '\bigskip' & '\medskip' & '\smallskip' ============================================ Synopsis, one of: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip Produce an amount of vertical space, large or medium-sized or small. These commands are fragile (*note \protect::). Here the skip suggests the passage of time (from The Golden Ocean by O'Brian). Mr Saumarez would have something rude to say to him, no doubt: he was at home again, and it was delightful. \bigskip ``A hundred and fifty-seven miles and one third, in twenty-four hours,'' said Peter. Each command is associated with a length defined in the document class file. '\bigskip' The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt'. '\medskip' The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt'. '\smallskip' The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt'. Because each command is a '\vspace', if you use on in mid-paragraph then it will insert its vertical space between the line in which you use it and the next line, not necessarily at the place that you use it. So these are best between paragraphs. The commands '\bigbreak', '\medbreak', and '\smallbreak' are similar but also suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to put a page break (*note \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak::. 19.12 '\bigbreak' & '\medbreak' & '\smallbreak' =============================================== Synopsis, one of: \bigbreak \medbreak \smallbreak Produce a vertical space that is big or medium-sized or small, and suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to break the page. (The associated penalties are -200, -100, and -50.) *Note \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip::, for more. These commands produce the same vertical space but differ in that they also remove a preceding vertical space if it is less than what they would insert (as with '\addvspace'). In addition, they terminate a paragraph where they are used: this example abc\bigbreak def ghi jkl mno pqr will output three paragraphs, the first ending in 'abc' and the second starting, after an extra vertical space and a paragraph indent, with 'def'. 19.13 '\strut' ============== Synopsis: \strut Ensure that the current line has height at least '0.7\baselineskip' and depth at least '0.3\baselineskip'. Essentially, LaTeX inserts into the line a rectangle having zero width, '\rule[-0.3\baselineskip]{0pt}{\baselineskip}' (*note \rule::). The '\baselineskip' changes with the current font and fontsize. In this example the '\strut' keeps the box inside the frame from having zero height. \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[2in]{\strut} This example has four lists. In the first there is a much bigger gap between items 2 and 3 than there is between items 1 and 2. The second list fixes that with a '\strut' at the end of its first item's second line. \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt} \noindent\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test} \item test \item test \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut} \item test \item test \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}} \item \fbox{test} \item \fbox{test} \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}} \item \fbox{test} \item \fbox{test} \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}% The final two lists use '\fbox' to show what's happening. The third list's '\parbox' goes only to the bottom of its second 'test', which happens not have any characters that descend below the baseline. The fourth list adds the strut that gives the needed extra below-baseline space. The '\strut' command is often useful in graphics, such as in 'TikZ' or 'Asymptote'. For instance, you may have a command such as '\graphnode{NODE-NAME}' that fits a circle around NODE-NAME. However, unless you are careful the NODE-NAME's 'x' and 'y' will produce different-diameter circles because the characters are different sizes. A careful '\graphnode' might insert a '\strut', then NODE-NAME, and then draw the circle. The general approach of using a zero width '\rule' is useful in many circumstances. In this table, the zero-width rule keeps the top of the first integral from hitting the '\hline'. Similarly, the second rule keeps the second integral from hitting the first. \begin{tabular}{rl} \textsc{Integral} &\textsc{Value} \\ \hline $\int_0^x t\, dt$ &$x^2/2$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \\ $\int_0^x t^2\, dt$ &$x^3/3$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \end{tabular} (Although the line-ending double backslash command has an available optional argument to put in more vertical room, that won't work here. Changing the first double backslash to something like '\\[2.5ex]' will put the room between the header line and the '\hline', and the integral would still hit the line.) 19.14 '\vspace' =============== Synopsis, one of: \vspace{LENGTH} \vspace*{LENGTH} Add the vertical space LENGTH. The LENGTH can be positive, negative, or zero. It is a rubber length--it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component (*note Lengths::). This puts space between the two paragraphs. And I slept. \vspace{1ex plus 0.5ex} The new day dawned cold. (*Note \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip::, for common inter-paragraph spaces.) The '*'-version inserts vertical space that non-discardable. More precisely, LaTeX discards vertical space at a page break and the '*'-version causes the space to stay. This example leaves space between the two questions. Question: Find the integral of \( 5x^4+5 \). \vspace*{2cm plus 0.5cm} Question: Find the derivative of \( x^5+5x+9 \). That space will be present even if the page break happens to fall between the questions. If you use '\vspace' in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in horizontal mode) then the space is inserted after the line containing the '\vspace' command; it does not start a new paragraph at the '\vspace' command. In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with at least one inch of space below each. \begin{document} 1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} 2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong? \vspace{1in plus 1fill} \end{document} 19.15 '\vfill' ============== Synopsis: \vfill End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed (*note Lengths::). It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that '\vfill' ends the current paragraph whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the infinite vertical space below its line, irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary; to circumvent this see the starred option in *note \vspace::. In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the second 'Lost Dog!' is exactly halfway between them. \begin{document} Lost Dog! \vfill Lost Dog! % perfectly in the middle \vfill Lost Dog! \end{document} 19.16 '\addvspace' ================== Synopsis: \addvspace{VERT-LENGTH} Add a vertical space of VERT-LENGTH. However, if there are two or more '\addvspace''s in a sequence then together they only add the space needed to make the natural length equal to the maximum of the VERT-LENGTH's in that sequence. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). The VERT-LENGTH is a rubber length (*note Lengths::). This example illustrates. The 'picture' draws a scale. In a standard LaTeX article the length '\baselineskip' is 12pt. The two rules here are 22pt apart: the sum of the '\baselineskip' and the 10pt from the first 'addvspace'. \documentclass{article} \usepackage{color} \begin{document} \setlength{\unitlength}{2pt}% \noindent\begin{picture}(0,0)% \multiput(0,0)(0,-1){25}{{\color{blue}\line(1,0){1}}} \multiput(0,0)(0,-5){6}{{\color{red}\line(1,0){2}}} \end{picture}% \rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}% \par\addvspace{10pt}% \addvspace{20pt}% \par\noindent\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}% \end{document} Now uncomment the second '\addvspace'. It does not make the gap 20pt longer; instead the gap is the sum of '\baselineskip' and 20pt. So '\addvspace' in a sense does the opposite of its name--it makes sure that multiple vertical spaces do not accumulate, but instead that only the largest one is used. LaTeX uses this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an environment that starts a new paragraph. For instance, a 'theorem' environment begins and ends with '\addvspace' so that two consecutive 'theorem''s are separated by one vertical space, not two. A error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' pointing to an '\addvspace' means that you were not in vertical mode when you hit this command. One way to change that is to precede '\addvspace' with a '\par' command (*note \par::), as in the above example. 20 Boxes ******** At its core, LaTeX puts things in boxes and then puts the boxes on a page. So these commands are central. There are many packages on CTAN that are useful for manipulating boxes. One useful adjunct to the commands here is 'adjustbox'. 20.1 '\mbox' & '\makebox' ========================= Synopsis, one of: \mbox{TEXT} \makebox{TEXT} \makebox[WIDTH]{TEXT} \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} Create a box, a container for material. The TEXT is typeset in LR mode (*note Modes::) so it is not broken into lines. The '\mbox' command is robust, while '\makebox' is fragile (*note \protect::). Because 'text' is not broken into lines, you can use '\mbox' to prevent hyphenation. In this example, LaTeX will not hyphenate the tank name, 'T-34'. The soviet tank \mbox{T-34} is a symbol of victory against nazism. The first two command synopsis versions, '\mbox' and '\makebox', are roughly equivalent. They create a box just wide enough to contain the TEXT. (They are like plain TeX's '\hbox'.) In the third version the optional argument WIDTH specifies the width of the box. Note that the space occupied by the text need not equal the width of the box. For one thing, TEXT can be too small; this creates a full-line box \makebox[\linewidth]{Chapter Exam} with 'Chapter Exam' centered. But TEXT can also be too wide for WIDTH. See the example below of zero-width boxes. In the WIDTH argument you can use the following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting TEXT: '\depth', '\height', '\width', '\totalheight' (this is the box's height plus its depth). For example, to make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size you can say this. \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher} For the fourth command synopsis version the optional argument POSITION gives position of the text within the box. It may take the following values: 'c' The TEXT is centered (default). 'l' The TEXT is flush left. 'r' Flush right. 's' Stretch the interword space in TEXT across the entire WIDTH. The TEXT must contain stretchable space for this to work. For instance, this could head a press release: '\noindent\makebox[\textwidth][s]{\large\hfil IMMEDIATE\hfil RELEASE\hfil}' A common use of '\makebox' is to make zero-width text boxes. This puts the value of the quiz questions to the left of those questions. \newcommand{\pts}[1]{\makebox[0em][r]{#1 points\hspace*{1em}}} \pts{10}What is the air-speed velocity of an unladen swallow? \pts{90}An African or European swallow? The right edge of the output '10 points ' (note the ending space after 'points') will be just before the 'What'. You can use '\makebox' similarly when making graphics, such as in 'TikZ' or 'Asymptote', where you put the edge of the text at a known location, regardless of the length of that text. For boxes with frames see *note \fbox & \framebox::. For colors see *note Colored boxes::. There is a related version of '\makebox' that is used within the 'picture' environment, where the length is given in terms of '\unitlength' (*note \makebox (picture)::). As TEXT is typeset in LR mode, neither a double backslash '\\' nor '\par' will give you a new line; for instance '\makebox{abc def \\ ghi}' outputs 'abc defghi' while '\makebox{abc def \par ghi}' outputs 'abc def ghi', both on a single line. To get multiple lines see *note \parbox:: and *note minipage::. 20.2 '\fbox' & '\framebox' ========================== Synopses, one of: \fbox{TEXT} \framebox{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH]{TEXT} \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT} Create a box with an enclosing frame, four lines surrounding the space. These commands are the same as '\mbox' and '\makebox' except for the frame (*note \mbox & \makebox::). The '\fbox' command is robust, the '\framebox' command is fragile (*note \protect::). \fbox{Warning! No work shown, no credit given.} LaTeX puts the text into a box that cannot be split or hyphenated. Around that box, separated from it by a small gap, are four lines making a frame. The first two command invocations, '\fbox{...}' and '\framebox{...}', are roughly the same. As to the third and fourth invocations, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box width as WIDTH and the position of the text inside that box as POSITION. *Note \mbox & \makebox::, for the full description but here is an example creating an empty box that is 1/4in wide. \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[0.25in]{\strut}} The '\strut' inserts a vertical height of '\baselineskip' (*note \strut::). These parameters determine the frame layout. '\fboxrule' The thickness of the lines around the enclosed box. The default is 0.2pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}' (*note \setlength::). '\fboxsep' The distance from the frame to the enclosed box. The default is 3pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}' (*note \setlength::). Setting it to 0pt is useful sometimes: this will put a frame around the picture with no white border. {\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt} \framebox{% \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{prudence.jpg}}} The extra curly braces keep the effect of the '\setlength' local. As with '\mbox' and '\makebox', LaTeX will not break lines in TEXT. But this example has LaTeX break lines to make a paragraph, and then frame the result. \framebox{% \begin{minipage}{0.6\linewidth} My dear, here we must run as fast as we can, just to stay in place. And if you wish to go anywhere you must run twice as fast as that. \end{minipage}} *Note Colored boxes::, for colors other than black and white. The 'picture' environment has a version of this command where the units depend on 'picture''s '\unitlength' (*note \framebox (picture)::). 20.3 '\parbox' ============== Synopses, one of: \parbox{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} \parbox[POSITION]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS} Produce a box of text that is WIDTH wide. Use this command to make a box of small pieces of text, of a single paragraph. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). \begin{picture}(0,0) ... \put(1,2){\parbox{1.75in}{\raggedright Because the graph is a line on this semilog paper, the relationship is exponential.}} \end{picture} The CONTENTS are processed in a text mode (*note Modes::) so LaTeX will break lines to make a paragraph. But it won't make multiple paragraphs; for that, use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::). The options for '\parbox' (except for CONTENTS) are the same as those for 'minipage'. For convenience a summary of the options is here but see *note minipage:: for a complete description. There are two required arguments. The WIDTH is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It sets the width of the box into which LaTeX typesets CONTENTS. The CONTENTS is the text that is placed in that box. It should not have any paragraph-making components. There are three optional arguments, POSITION, HEIGHT, and INNER-POS. The POSITION gives the vertical alignment of the "parbox" with respect to the surrounding material. The supported values are 'c' or 'm' to make the vertical center of the parbox lines up with the center of the adjacent text line (this is the default), or 't' to match the top line of the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding material, or 'b' to match the bottom line. The optional argument HEIGHT overrides the natural height of the box. The optional argument INNER-POS controls the placement of CONTENT inside the 'parbox'. Its default is the value of POSITION. Its possible values are: 't' to put the CONTENT at the top of the box, 'c' to put it in the vertical center, 'b' to put it at the bottom of the box, and 's' to stretch it out vertically (for this, the text must contain vertically stretchable space). 20.4 '\raisebox' ================ Synopsis, one of: \raisebox{DISTANCE}{TEXT} \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT]{TEXT} \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{TEXT} Raise or lower TEXT. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). This example makes a command for denoting the restriction of a function by lowering the vertical bar symbol. \newcommand*\restricted[1]{\raisebox{-.5ex}{$|$}_{#1}} $f\restricted{A}$ The first mandatory argument DISTANCE specifies how far to raise the second mandatory argument TEXT. This is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). If it is negative then it lowers TEXT. The TEXT is processed in LR mode so it cannot contain line breaks (*note Modes::). The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are specified, they override the natural height and depth of the box LaTeX gets by typesetting TEXT. In the arguments DISTANCE, HEIGHT, and DEPTH you can use the following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting TEXT: '\depth', '\height', '\width', '\totalheight' (this is the box's height plus its depth). This will align two graphics on their top (*note Graphics::). \usepackage{graphicx,calc} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \raisebox{1ex-\height}{% \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{lion.png}} \qquad \raisebox{1ex-\height}{% \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{meta.png}} \end{center} The first '\height' is the height of 'lion.png' while the second is the height of 'meta.png'. 20.5 '\sbox' & '\savebox' ========================= Synopsis, one of: \sbox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT} \savebox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT} \savebox{BOX-CMD}[WIDTH]{TEXT} \savebox{BOX-CMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT} Typeset TEXT just as with '\makebox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) except that LaTeX does not output it but instead saves it in a box register referred to by a variable named BOX-CMD. The variable name BOX-CMD begins with a backslash, '\'. You must have previously allocated the box register BOX-CMD with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). The '\sbox' command is robust while '\savebox' is fragile (*note \protect::). This creates and uses a box register. \newsavebox{\fullname} \sbox{\fullname}{John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt} ... \usebox{\fullname}! His name is my name, too! Whenever we go out, the people always shout! There goes \usebox{\fullname}! Ya da da da da da da. One advantage of using and reusing a box register over a '\newcommand' macro variable is efficiency, that LaTeX need not repeatedly retypeset the contents. See the example below. The first two command invocations, '\sbox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}' and '\savebox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}', are roughly equivalent. As to the third and fourth, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box width as WIDTH, and the position of the text inside that box as POSITION. *Note \mbox & \makebox::, for the full description. In the '\sbox' and '\savebox' commands the TEXT is typeset in LR mode so it does not have line breaks (*note Modes::). If you use these then LaTeX doesn't give you an error but it ignores what you want: if you enter '\sbox{\newreg}{test \\ test}' and '\usebox{\newreg}' then you get 'testtest', while if you enter '\sbox{\newreg}{test \par test}' and '\usebox{\newreg}' then you get 'test test', but no error or warning. To fix this use a '\parbox' or 'minipage' as here. \savebox{\areg}{% \begin{minipage}{\linewidth} \begin{enumerate} \item First item \item Second item \end{enumerate} \end{minipage}} ... \usebox{\areg} As an example of the efficiency of reusing a register's contents, this puts the same picture on each page of the document by putting it in the header. LaTeX only typesets it once. \usepackage{graphicx} % all this in the preamble \newsavebox{\sealreg} \savebox{\sealreg}{% \setlength{\unitlength}{1in}% \begin{picture}(0,0)% \put(1.5,-2.5){% \begin{tabular}{c} \includegraphics[height=2in]{companylogo.png} \\ Office of the President \end{tabular}} \end{picture}% } \markright{\usebox{\sealreg}} \pagestyle{headings} The 'picture' environment is good for fine-tuning the placement. If the register '\noreg' has not already been defined then you get something like 'Undefined control sequence. \noreg'. 20.6 'lrbox' ============ Synopsis: \begin{lrbox}{BOX-CMD} TEXT \end{lrbox} This is the environment form of the '\sbox' and '\savebox' commands, and is equivalent to them. for the full description, *Note \sbox & \savebox::. The TEXT inside the environment is saved in the box register referred to by variable 'BOX-CMD'. The variable name BOX-CMD must begin with a backslash, '\'. You must allocate this box register in advance with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). In this example the environment is convenient for entering the 'tabular'. \newsavebox{\jhreg} \begin{lrbox}{\jhreg} \begin{tabular}{c} \includegraphics[height=1in]{jh.png} \\ Jim Hef{}feron \end{tabular} \end{lrbox} ... \usebox{\jhreg} 20.7 '\usebox' ============== Synopsis: \usebox{BOX-CMD} Produce the box most recently saved in the box register BOX-CMD by the commands '\sbox' or '\savebox', or the 'lrbox' environment. For more information and examples, *Note \sbox & \savebox::. (Note that the variable name BOX-CMD starts with a backslash, '\'.) This command is robust (*note \protect::). 21 Color ******** You can add color to text, rules, etc. You can also have color in a box or on an entire page and write text on top of it. Color support comes as an additional package. So put '\usepackage{color}' in your document preamble to use the commands described here. Many other packages also supplement LaTeX's color abilities. Particularly worth mentioning is 'xcolor', which is widely used and significantly extends the capabilities described here, including adding 'HTML' and 'Hsb' color models. 21.1 'color' package options ============================ Synopsis (must be in the document preamble): \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{color} When you load the 'color' package there are two kinds of available options. The first specifies the "printer driver". LaTeX doesn't contain information about different output systems but instead depends on information stored in a file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completeness we include a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex', 'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex' (and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). The second kind of options, beyond the drivers, are below. 'monochrome' Disable the color commands, so that they do not generate errors but do not generate color either. 'dvipsnames' Make available a list of 68 color names that are often used, particularly in legacy documents. These color names were originally provided by the 'dvips' driver, giving the option name. 'nodvipsnames' Do not load that list of color names, saving LaTeX a tiny amount of memory space. 21.2 Color models ================= A "color model" is a way of representing colors. LaTeX's capabilities depend on the printer driver. However, the 'pdftex', 'xetex', and 'luatex' printer drivers are today by far the most commonly used. The models below work for those drivers. All but one of these is also supported by essentially all other printer drivers used today. Note that color combination can be additive or subtractive. Additive mixes colors of light, so that for instance combining full intensities of red, green, and blue produces white. Subtractive mixes pigments, such as with inks, so that combining full intensity of cyan, magenta, and yellow makes black. 'cmyk' A comma-separated list with four real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. The first number is the intensity of cyan, the second is magenta, and the others are yellow and black. A number value of 0 means minimal intensity, while a 1 is for full intensity. This model is often used in color printing. It is a subtractive model. 'gray' A single real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. The colors are shades of grey. The number 0 produces black while 1 gives white. 'rgb' A comma-separated list with three real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. The first number is the intensity of the red component, the second is green, and the third the blue. A number value of 0 means that none of that component is added in, while a 1 means full intensity. This is an additive model. 'RGB' ('pdftex', 'xetex', 'luatex' drivers) A comma-separated list with three integers between 0 and 255, inclusive. This model is a convenience for using 'rgb' since outside of LaTeX colors are often described in a red-green-blue model using numbers in this range. The values entered here are converted to the 'rgb' model by dividing by 255. 'named' Colors are accessed by name, such as 'PrussianBlue'. The list of names depends on the driver, but all support the names 'black', 'blue', 'cyan', 'green', 'magenta', 'red', 'white', and 'yellow' (See the 'dvipsnames' option in *note Color package options::). 21.3 Commands for color ======================= These are the commands available with the 'color' package. 21.3.1 Define colors -------------------- Synopsis: \definecolor{NAME}{MODEL}{SPECIFICATION} Give the name NAME to the color. For example, after this \definecolor{silver}{rgb}{0.75,0.75,0.74} you can use that color name with 'Hi ho, \textcolor{silver}{Silver}!'. This example gives the color a more abstract name, so it could change and not be misleading. \definecolor{logocolor}{RGB}{145,92,131} % RGB needs pdflatex \newcommand{\logo}{\textcolor{logocolor}{Bob's Big Bagels}} Often a document's colors are defined in the preamble, or in the class or style, rather than in the document body. 21.3.2 Colored text ------------------- Synopses: \textcolor{NAME}{...} \textcolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION}{...} or \color{NAME} \color[COLOR MODEL]{SPECIFICATION} The affected text gets the color. This line \textcolor{magenta}{My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:} Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! causes the first half to be in magenta while the rest is in black. You can use a color declared with '\definecolor' in exactly the same way that we just used the builtin color 'magenta'. \definecolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{rgb}{1.0,0.11,0.0} I'm thinking about getting a \textcolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{sports car}. The two '\textcolor' and '\color' differ in that the first is a command form, enclosing the text to be colored as an argument. Often this form is more convenient, or at least more explicit. The second form is a declaration, as in 'The moon is made of {\color{green} green} cheese', so it is in effect until the end of the current group or environment. This is sometimes useful when writing macros or as below where it colors everything inside the 'center' environment, including the vertical and horizontal lines. \begin{center} \color{blue} \begin{tabular}{l|r} UL &UR \\ \hline LL &LR \end{tabular} \end{center} You can use color in equations. A document might have this definition in the preamble \definecolor{highlightcolor}{RGB}{225,15,0} and then contain this equation. \begin{equation} \int_a^b \textcolor{highlightcolor}{f'(x)}\,dx=f(b)-f(a) \end{equation} Typically the colors used in a document are declared in a class or style but sometimes you want a one-off. Those are the second forms in the synopses. Colors of \textcolor[rgb]{0.33,0.14,0.47}{Purple} and {\color[rgb]{0.72,0.60,0.37}Gold} for the team. The format of COLOR SPECIFICATION depends on the color model (*note Color models::). For instance, while 'rgb' takes three numbers, 'gray' takes only one. The selection was \textcolor[gray]{0.5}{grayed out}. Colors inside colors do not combine. Thus \textcolor{green}{kind of \textcolor{blue}{blue}} has a final word that is blue, not a combination of blue and green. 21.3.3 Colored boxes -------------------- Synopses: \colorbox{NAME}{...} \colorbox[MODEL NAME]{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} or \fcolorbox{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} \fcolorbox[MODEL NAME]{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...} Make a box with the stated background color. The '\fcolorbox' command puts a frame around the box. For instance this Name:~\colorbox{cyan}{\makebox[5cm][l]{\strut}} makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its depth and height from the '\strut' (so the depth is '-.3\baselineskip' and the height is '\baselineskip'). This puts white text on a blue background. \colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}} The '\fcolorbox' commands use the same parameters as '\fbox' (*note \fbox & \framebox::), '\fboxrule' and '\fboxsep', to set the thickness of the rule and the boundary between the box interior and the surrounding rule. LaTeX's defaults are '0.4pt' and '3pt', respectively. This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points. Note that it is surrounded by curly braces so that the change ends at the end of the second line. {\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt} \fcolorbox{black}{red}{Under no circumstances turn this knob.}} 21.3.4 Colored pages -------------------- Synopses: \pagecolor{NAME} \pagecolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION} \nopagecolor The first two set the background of the page, and all subsequent pages, to the color. For an explanation of the specification in the second form *note Colored text::. The third returns the background to normal, which is a transparent background. (If that is not supported use '\pagecolor{white}', although that will make a white background rather than the default transparent background.) ... \pagecolor{cyan} ... \nopagecolor 22 Graphics *********** You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LaTeX document. You need an additional package, which comes standard with LaTeX. This example is the short how-to. \include{graphicx} % goes in the preamble ... \includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf} To use the commands described here your document preamble must contain either '\usepackage{graphicx}' or '\usepackage{graphics}'. Most of the time, 'graphicx' is the better choice. Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector. LaTeX can use both. In raster graphics the file contains an entry for each location in an array, describing what color it is. An example is a photograph, in JPG format. In vector graphics, the file contains a list of instructions such as 'draw a circle with this radius and that center'. An example is a line drawing produced by the Asymptote program, in PDF format. Generally vector graphics are more useful because you can rescale their size without pixelation or other problems, and because they often have a smaller size. There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a LaTeX document. For example, these allow you to use the same fonts as in your document. LaTeX comes with a 'picture' environment (*note picture::) that has simple capabilities. Besides that, there are other ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document. Two such systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages. There are also systems external to LaTeX, that generate a graphic that you include using the commands of this chapter. Two that use a programming language are Asymptote and MetaPost. One that uses a graphical interface is Xfig. Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document; see their documentation on CTAN. 22.1 'graphics' package options =============================== Synopsis (must be in the document preamble): \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphics} or \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphicx} The 'graphicx' package has a format for optional arguments to the '\includegraphics' command that is convenient (it is the key-value format), so it is the better choice for new documents. When you load the 'graphics' or 'graphicx' package with '\usepackage' there are two kinds of available options. The first is that LaTeX does not contain information about different output systems but instead depends on information stored in a "printer driver" file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completeness here is a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex', 'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex' (and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). These are stored in files with a '.def' extension, such as 'pdftex.def'. The second kind of options are below. 'demo' Instead of an image file, LaTeX puts in a 150 pt by 100 pt rectangle (unless another size is specified in the '\includegraphics' command). 'draft' For each graphic file, it is not shown but instead its file name is printed in a box of the correct size. In order to determine the size, the file must be present. 'final' (Default) Override any previous 'draft' option, so that the document shows the contents of the graphic files. 'hiderotate' Do not show rotated text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer does not have the capability to rotate text.) 'hidescale' Do not show scaled text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer does not have the capability to scale.) 'hiresbb' In a PS or EPS file the graphic size may be specified in two ways. The '%%BoundingBox' lines describe the graphic size using integer multiples of a PostScript point, that is, integer multiples of 1/72 inch. A later addition to the PostScript language allows decimal multiples, such as 1.23, in '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines. This option has LaTeX to read the size from the latter. 22.2 'graphics' package configuration ===================================== These commands configure the way LaTeX searches the file system for the graphic. The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform dependent. In this document we cover GNU/Linux, Macintosh, and Windows, as those systems are typically configured. For other situations consult the documentation in 'grfguide.pdf', or the LaTeX source, or your TeX distribution's documentation. 22.2.1 '\graphicspath' ---------------------- Synopsis: \graphicspath{LIST OF DIRECTORIES INSIDE CURLY BRACES} Declare a list of directories to search for graphics files. This allows you to later say something like '\includegraphics{lion.png}' instead of having to give its path. LaTeX always looks for graphic files first in the current directory (and the output directory, if specified; *note output directory::). The declaration below tells the system to then look in the subdirectory 'pix', and then '../pix'. \usepackage{graphicx} % or graphics; put in preamble ... \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} } The '\graphicspath' declaration is optional. If you don't include it then LaTeX's default is to search all of the places that it usually looks for a file (it uses LaTeX's '\input@path'). In particular, in this case one of the places it looks is the current directory. Enclose each directory name in curly braces; for example, above it says ''{pix}''. Do this even if there is only one directory. Each directory name must end in a forward slash, '/'. This is true even on Windows, where good practice is to use forward slashes for all the directory separators since it makes the document portable to other platforms. If you have spaces in your directory name then use double quotes, as with '{"my docs/"}'. Getting one of these rules wrong will cause LaTeX to report 'Error: File `FILENAME' not found'. Basically, the algorithm is that with this example, after looking in the current directory, \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} } ... \usepackage{lion.png} for each of the listed directories, LaTeX concatenates it with the filename and searches for the result, checking for 'pix/lion.png' and then '../pix/lion.png'. This algorithm means that the '\graphicspath' command does not recursively search subdirectories: if you issue '\graphicspath{{a/}}' and the graphic is in 'a/b/lion.png' then LaTeX will not find it. It also means that you can use absolute paths such as '\graphicspath{{/home/jim/logos/}}' or '\graphicspath{{C:/Users/Albert/Pictures/}}'. However, using these means that the document is not portable. (You could preserve portability by adjusting your TeX system settings configuration file parameter 'TEXINPUTS'; see the documentation of your system.) You can use '\graphicspath' anywhere in the document. You can use it more than once. Show its value with '\makeatletter\typeout{\Ginput@path}\makeatother'. The directories are taken with respect to the base file. That is, suppose that you are working on a document based on 'book/book.tex' and it contains '\include{chapters/chap1}'. If in 'chap1.tex' you put '\graphicspath{{plots/}}' then LaTeX will not search for graphics in 'book/chapters/plots', but instead in 'book/plots'. 22.2.2 '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' ----------------------------------- Synopses: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{COMMA-SEPARATED LIST OF FILE EXTENSIONS} Declare the filename extensions to try. This allows you to specify the order in which to choose graphic formats when you include graphic files by giving the filename without the extension, as in '\includegraphics{functionplot}'. In this example, LaTeX will find files in the PNG format before PDF files. \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.png,PNG,.pdf,.PDF} ... \includegraphics{lion} % will find lion.png before lion.pdf Because the filename 'lion' does not have a period, LaTeX uses the extension list. For each directory in the graphics path (*note \graphicspath::), LaTeX will try the extensions in the order given. If it does not find such a file after trying all the directories and extensions then it reports '! LaTeX Error: File `'lion'' not found'. Note that you must include the periods at the start of the extensions. Because GNU/Linux and Macintosh filenames are case sensitive, the list of file extensions is case sensitive on those platforms. The Windows platform is not case sensitive. You are not required to include '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' in your document; the printer driver has a sensible default. For example, the most recent 'pdftex.def' has this extension list. .pdf,.png,.jpg,.mps,.jpeg,.jbig2,.jb2,.PDF,.PNG,.JPG,.JPEG,.JBIG2,.JB2 To change the order, use the 'grfext' package. You can use this command anywhere in the document. You can use it more than once. Show its value with '\makeatletter\typeout{\Gin@extensions}\makeatother'. 22.2.3 '\DeclareGraphicsRule' ----------------------------- Synopsis: \DeclareGraphicsRule{EXTENSION}{TYPE}{SIZE-FILE EXTENSION}{COMMAND} Declare how to handle graphic files whose names end in EXTENSION. This example declares that all files with names have the form 'filename-without-dot.mps' will be treated as output from MetaPost, meaning that the printer driver will use its MetaPost-handling code to input the file. \DeclareGraphicsRule{.mps}{mps}{.mps}{} This \DeclareGraphicsRule{*}{mps}{*}{} tells LaTeX that it should handle as MetaPost output any file with an extension not covered by another rule, so it covers 'filename.1', 'filename.2', etc. This describes the four arguments. EXTENSION The file extension to which this rule applies. The extension is anything after and including the first dot in the filename. Use the Kleene star, '*', to denote the default behavior for all undeclared extensions. TYPE The type of file involved. This type is a string that must be defined in the printer driver. For instance, files with extensions '.ps', '.eps', or '.ps.gz' may all be classed as type 'eps'. All files of the same type will be input with the same internal command by the printer driver. For example, the file types that 'pdftex' recognizes are: 'jpg', 'jbig2', 'mps', 'pdf', 'png', 'tif'. SIZE-FILE EXTENSION The extension of the file to be read to determine the size of the graphic, if there is such a file. It may be the same as EXTENSION but it may be different. As an example, consider a PostScript graphic. To make it smaller, it might be compressed into a '.ps.gz' file. Compressed files are not easily read by LaTeX so you can put the bounding box information in a separate file. If SIZE-FILE EXTENSION is empty then you must specify size information in the arguments of '\includegraphics'. If the driver file has a procedure for reading size files for 'type' then that will be used, otherwise it will use the procedure for reading '.eps' files. (Thus you may specify the size of bitmap files in a file with a PostScript style '%%BoundingBox' line if no other format is available.) COMMAND A command that will be applied to the file. This is very often left empty. This command must start with a single backward quote. Thus, '\DeclareGraphicsRule{.eps.gz}{eps}{.eps.bb}{`gunzip -c #1}' specifies that any file with the extension '.eps.gz' should be treated as an 'eps' file, with the BoundingBox information stored in the file with extension '.eps.bb', and that the command 'gunzip -c' will run on your platform to decompresses the file. Such a command is specific to your platform. In addition, your TeX system must allow you to run external commands; as a security measure modern systems restrict running commands unless you explicitly allow it. See the documentation for your TeX distribution. 22.3 Commands for graphics ========================== These are the commands available with the 'graphics' and 'graphicx' packages. 22.3.1 '\includegraphics' ------------------------- Synopses for 'graphics' package: \includegraphics{FILENAME} \includegraphics[URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[URX,URY]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME} Synopses for 'graphicx' package: \includegraphics{FILENAME} \includegraphics[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME} \includegraphics*{FILENAME} \includegraphics*[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME} Include a graphics file. The starred form '\includegraphics*' will clip the graphic to the size specified, while for the unstarred form any part of the graphic that is outside the box of the specified size will over-print the surrounding area. This \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \includegraphics{plot.pdf} \end{center} will incorporate into the document the graphic in 'plot.pdf', centered and at its nominal size. You can also give a path to the file, as with '\includegraphics{graphics/plot.pdf}'. To specify a list of locations to search for the file, *note \graphicspath::. If your filename includes spaces then put it in double quotes. An example is '\includegraphics{"sister picture.jpg"}'. The '\includegraphics{FILENAME}' command decides on the type of graphic by splitting FILENAME on the first dot. You can instead use FILENAME with no dot, as in '\includegraphics{turing}', and then LaTeX tries a sequence of extensions such as '.png' and '.pdf' until it finds a file with that extension (*note \DeclareGraphicsExtensions::). If your file name contains dots before the extension then you can hide them with curly braces, as in '\includegraphics{{plot.2018.03.12.a}.pdf}'. Or, if you use the 'graphicx' package then you can use the options 'type' and 'ext'; see below. This and other filename issues are also handled with the package 'grffile'. This example puts a graphic in a 'figure' environment so LaTeX can move it to the next page if fitting it on the current page is awkward (*note figure::). \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=3cm]{lungxray.jpg} \caption{The evidence is overwhelming: don't smoke.} \label{fig:xray} \end{figure} This places a graphic that will not float, so it is sure to appear at this point in the document even if makes LaTeX stretch the text or resort to blank areas on the page. It will be centered and will have a caption. \usepackage{caption} % in preamble ... \begin{center} \includegraphics{pix/nix.png} \captionof{figure}{The spirit of the night} \label{pix:nix} % optional \end{center} This example puts a box with a graphic side by side with one having text, with the two vertically centered. \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}} ... \begin{center} \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{plot}} \hspace{1em} \vcenteredhbox{\begin{minipage}{0.4\textwidth} \begin{displaymath} f(x)=x\cdot \sin (1/x) \end{displaymath} \end{minipage}} \end{center} If you use the 'graphics' package then the only options involve the size of the graphic (but see *note \rotatebox:: and *note \scalebox::). When one optional argument is present then it is '[URX,URY]' and it gives the coordinates of the top right corner of the image, as a pair of TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::). If the units are omitted they default to 'bp'. In this case, the lower left corner of the image is assumed to be at (0,0). If two optional arguments are present then the leading one is '[LLX,LLY]', specifying the coordinates of the image's lower left. Thus, '\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...}' calls for the graphic to be placed so it is 1 inch wide and 0.618 inches tall and so its origin is at (0,0). The 'graphicx' package gives you many more options. Specify them in a key-value form, as here. \begin{center} \includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion} \hspace{2em} \includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion} \end{center} The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made one inch wide and then rotated, while the second is rotated and then made one inch wide. Thus, unless the graphic is perfectly square, the two will end with different widths and heights. There are many options. The primary ones are listed first. Note that a graphic is placed by LaTeX into a box, which is traditionally referred to as its "bounding box" (distinct from the PostScript BoundingBox described below). The graphic's printed area may go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LaTeX makes up a page it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the graphic. 'width' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width. An example is '\includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}'. You can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::) and also convenient is '\linewidth', or in a two-column document, '\columnwidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). An example is that by using the 'calc' package you can make the graphic be 1 cm narrower than the width of the text with '\includegraphics[width=\linewidth-1.0cm]{hefferon.jpg}'. 'height' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height. You can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::), and also convenient are '\pageheight' and '\textheight' (*note Page layout parameters::). For instance, the command '\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel}' will make the graphic a quarter of the height of the text area. 'totalheight' The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus depth. This differs from the height if the graphic was rotated. For instance, if it has been rotated by -90 then it will have zero height but a large depth. 'keepaspectratio' If set to 'true', or just specified as here \includegraphics[...,keepaspectratio,...]{...} and you give as options both 'width' and 'height' (or 'totalheight'), then LaTeX will make the graphic is as large as possible without distortion. That is, LaTeX will ensure that neither is the graphic wider than 'width' nor taller than 'height' (or 'totalheight'). 'scale' Factor by which to scale the graphic. To make a graphic twice its nominal size, enter '\includegraphics[scale=2.0]{...}'. This number may be any value; a number between 0 and 1 will shrink the graphic and a negative number will reflect it. 'angle' Rotate the graphic. The angle is taken in degrees and counterclockwise. The graphic is rotated about its 'origin'; see that option. For a complete description of how rotated material is typeset, *note \rotatebox::. 'origin' The point of the graphic about which the rotation happens. Possible values are any string containing one or two of: 'l' for left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top, and 'B' for baseline. Thus, entering the command '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon}' will turn the picture upside down about that picture's center, while the command '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau}' will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc', but gives the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc'.) The default is 'lB'. To rotate about an arbitrary point, *note \rotatebox::. These are lesser-used options. 'viewport' Pick out a subregion of the graphic to show. Takes four arguments, separated by spaces and given in TeX dimensions, as with '\includegraphics[.., viewport=0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. When the unit is omitted, the dimensions default to big points, 'bp'. They are taken relative to the origin specified by the bounding box. See also the 'trim' option. 'trim' Gives parts of the graphic to not show. Takes four arguments, separated by spaces, that are given in TeX dimensions, as with '\includegraphics[.., trim= 0in 0.1in 0.2in 0.3in, ...]{...}'. These give the amounts of the graphic not to show, that is, LaTeX will crop the picture by 0 inches on the left, 0.1 inches on the bottom, 0.2 inches on the right, and 0.3 inches on the top. See also the 'viewport' option. 'clip' If set to 'true', or just specified as here \includegraphics[...,clip,...]{...} then the graphic is cropped to the bounding box. This is the same as using the starred form of the command, '\includegraphics*[...]{...}'. 'page' Give the page number of a multi-page PDF file. The default is 'page=1'. 'pagebox' Specifies which bounding box to use for PDF files from among 'mediabox', 'cropbox', 'bleedbox', 'trimbox', or 'artbox'. PDF files do not have the BoundingBox that PostScript files have, but may specify up to four predefined rectangles. The MediaBox gives the boundaries of the physical medium. The CropBox is the region to which the contents of the page are to be clipped when displayed. The BleedBox is the region to which the contents of the page should be clipped in production. The TrimBox is the intended dimensions of the finished page. The ArtBox is the extent of the page's meaningful content. The driver will set the image size based on CropBox if present, otherwise it will not use one of the others, with a driver-defined order of preference. MediaBox is always present. 'interpolate' Enable or disable interpolation of raster images by the viewer. Can be set with 'interpolate=true' or just specified as here. \includegraphics[...,interpolate,...]{...} 'quiet' Do not write information to the log. You can set it with 'quiet=true' or just specified it with '\includegraphics[...,quiet,...]{...}', 'draft' If you set it with 'draft=true' or just specify it with \includegraphics[...,draft,...]{...} then the graphic will not appear in the document, possibly saving color printer ink. Instead, LaTeX will put an empty box of the correct size with the filename printed in it. These options address the bounding box for Encapsulated PostScript graphic files, which have a size specified with a line '%%BoundingBox' that appears in the file. It has four values, giving the lower x coordinate, lower y coordinate, upper x coordinate, and upper y coordinate. The units are PostScript points, equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch. For example, if an '.eps' file has the line '%%BoundingBox 10 20 40 80' then its natural size is 30/72 inch wide by 60/72 inch tall. 'bb' Specify the bounding box of the displayed region. The argument is four dimensions separated by spaces, as with '\includegraphics[.., bb= 0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. Usually '\includegraphics' reads the BoundingBox numbers from the EPS file automatically, so this option is only useful if the bounding box is missing from that file or if you want to change it. 'bbllx, bblly, bburx, bbury' Set the bounding box. These four are obsolete, but are retained for compatibility with old packages. 'natwidth, natheight' An alternative for 'bb'. Setting \includegraphics[...,natwidth=1in,natheight=0.618in,...]{...} is the same as setting 'bb=0 0 1in 0.618in'. 'hiresbb' If set to 'true', or just specified as with \includegraphics[...,hiresbb,...]{...} then LaTeX will look for '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines instead of '%%BoundingBox' lines. (The 'BoundingBox' lines use only natural numbers while the 'HiResBoundingBox' lines use decimals; both use units equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch.) To override a prior setting of 'true', you can set it to 'false'. These following options allow a user to override LaTeX's method of choosing the graphic type based on the filename extension. An example is that '\includegraphics[type=png,ext=.xxx,read=.xxx]{lion}' will read the file 'lion.xxx' as though it were 'lion.png'. For more on these, *note \DeclareGraphicsRule::. 'type' Specify the graphics type. 'ext' Specify the graphics extension. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. 'read' Specify the file extension of the read file. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. 'command' Specify a command to be applied to this file. Only use this in conjunction with the option 'type'. *Note Command line options::, for a discussion of enabling the '\write18' functionality to run external commands. 22.3.2 '\rotatebox' ------------------- Synopsis if you use the 'graphics' package: \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} Synopses if you use the 'graphicx' package: \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} \rotatebox[KEY-VALUE LIST]{ANGLE}{MATERIAL} Put MATERIAL in a box and rotate it ANGLE degrees counterclockwise. This example rotates the table column heads forty-five degrees. \begin{tabular}{ll} \rotatebox{45}{Character} &\rotatebox{45}{NATO phonetic} \\ A &AL-FAH \\ B &BRAH-VOH \end{tabular} The MATERIAL can be anything that goes in a box, including a graphic. \rotatebox[origin=c]{45}{\includegraphics[width=1in]{lion}} To place the rotated material, the first step is that LaTeX sets MATERIAL in a box, with a reference point on the left baseline. The second step is the rotation, by default about the reference point. The third step is that LaTeX computes a box to bound the rotated material. Fourth, LaTeX moves this box horizontally so that the left edge of this new bounding box coincides with the left edge of the box from the first step (they need not coincide vertically). This new bounding box, in its new position, is what LaTeX uses as the box when typesetting this material. If you use the 'graphics' package then the rotation is about the reference point of the box. If you use the 'graphicx' package then these are the options that can go in the KEY-VALUE LIST, but note that you can get the same effect without needing this package, except for the 'x' and 'y' options (*note \includegraphics::). 'origin' The point of the MATERIAL's box about which the rotation happens. Possible value is any string containing one or two of: 'l' for left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top, and 'B' for baseline. Thus, the first line here \rotatebox[origin=c]{180}{moon} \rotatebox[origin=lB]{180}{LeBateau} will turn the picture upside down from the center while the second will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc' but gives the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc', and gives both in 'c'.) The default is 'lB'. 'x, y' Specify an arbitrary point of rotation with '\rotatebox[x=TeX DIMENSION,y=TeX DIMENSION]{...}' (*note Units of length::). These give the offset from the box's reference point. 'units' This key allows you to change the default of degrees counterclockwise. Setting 'units=-360' changes the direction to degrees clockwise and setting 'units=6.283185' changes to radians counterclockwise. 22.3.3 '\scalebox' ------------------ Synopses: \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}{MATERIAL} \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}[VERTICAL FACTOR]{MATERIAL} \reflectbox{MATERIAL} Scale the MATERIAL. This example halves the size, both horizontally and vertically, of the first text and doubles the size of the second. \scalebox{0.5}{DRINK ME} and \scalebox{2.0}{Eat Me} If you do not specify the optional VERTICAL FACTOR then it defaults to the same value as the HORIZONTAL FACTOR. You can use this command to resize a graphic, as here. \scalebox{0.5}{\includegraphics{lion}} If you use the 'graphicx' package then you can accomplish the same thing with optional arguments to '\includegraphics' (*note \includegraphics::). The '\reflectbox' command abbreviates '\scalebox{-1}[1]{MATERIAL}'. Thus, 'Able was I\reflectbox{Able was I}' will show the phrase 'Able was I' immediately followed by its mirror reflection. 22.3.4 '\resizebox' ------------------- Synopses: \resizebox{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL} \resizebox*{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL} Given a size, such as '3cm', transform MATERIAL to make it that size. If either HORIZONTAL LENGTH or VERTICAL LENGTH is an exclamation point '!' then the other argument is used to determine a scale factor for both directions. This example makes the graphic be a half inch wide and scales it vertically by the same factor to keep it from being distorted. \resizebox{0.5in}{!}{\includegraphics{lion}} The unstarred form '\resizebox' takes VERTICAL LENGTH to be the box's height while the starred form '\resizebox*' takes it to be height+depth. For instance, make the text have a height+depth of a quarter inch with '\resizebox*{!}{0.25in}{\parbox{1in}{This box has both height and depth.}}'. You can use '\depth', '\height', '\totalheight', and '\width' to refer to the original size of the box. Thus, make the text two inches wide but keep the original height with '\resizebox{2in}{\height}{Two inches}'. 23 Special insertions ********************* LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type. 23.1 Reserved characters ======================== LaTeX sets aside the following characters for special purposes. For example, the percent sign '%' is for comments. They are called "reserved characters" or "special characters". They are all discussed elsewhere in this manual. # $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \ If you want a reserved character to be printed as itself, in the text body font, for all but the final three characters in that list simply put a backslash '\' in front of the character. Thus, typing '\$1.23' will produce '$1.23' in your output. As to the last three characters, to get a tilde in the text body font use '\~{}' (omitting the curly braces would result in the next character receiving a tilde accent). Similarly, to get a text body font circumflex use '\^{}'. To get a backslash in the font of the text body, enter '\textbackslash{}'. To produce the reserved characters in a typewriter font use '\verb!!' as below (the double backslash '\\' is only there to split the lines in the output). \begin{center} \# \$ \% \& \{ \} \_ \~{} \^{} \textbackslash \\ \verb!# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \! \end{center} 23.2 Upper and lower case ========================= Synopsis: \uppercase{TEXT} \lowercase{TEXT} \MakeUppercase{TEXT} \MakeLowercase{TEXT} Change the case of characters. The TeX primitive commands '\uppercase' and '\lowercase' are set up by default to work only with the 26 letters a-z and A-Z. The LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' commands also change characters accessed by commands such as '\ae' or '\aa'. The commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' are robust but they have moving arguments (*note \protect::). These commands do not change the case of letters used in the name of a command within TEXT. But they do change the case of every other Latin letter inside the argument TEXT. Thus, '\MakeUppercase{Let $y=f(x)$'} produces 'LET Y=F(X)'. Another example is that the name of an environment will be changed, so that '\MakeUppercase{\begin{tabular} ... \end{tabular}}' will produce an error because the first half is changed to '\begin{TABULAR}'. LaTeX uses the same fixed table for changing case throughout a document, The table used is designed for the font encoding T1; this works well with the standard TeX fonts for all Latin alphabets but will cause problems when using other alphabets. To change the case of text that results from a macro inside TEXT you need to do expansion. Here the '\Schoolname' produces 'COLLEGE OF MATHEMATICS'. \newcommand{\schoolname}{College of Mathematics} \newcommand{\Schoolname}{\expandafter\MakeUppercase \expandafter{\schoolname}} The 'textcase' package brings some of the missing feature of the standard LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowerCase'. To uppercase only the first letter of words, you can use the package 'mfirstuc'. Handling all the casing rules specified by Unicode, e.g., for non-Latin scripts, is a much bigger job than anything envisioned in the original TeX and LaTeX. It has been implemented in the 'expl3' package as of 2020. The article "Case changing: From TeX primitives to the Unicode algorithm", (Joseph Wright, 'TUGboat' 41:1, ), gives a good overview of the topic, past and present. 23.3 Symbols by font position ============================= You can access any character of the current font using its number with the '\symbol' command. For example, the visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code decimal 32 in the standard Computer Modern typewriter font, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'. You can also specify numbers in octal (base 8) by using a ''' prefix, or hexadecimal (base 16) with a '"' prefix, so the visible space at 32 decimal could also be written as '\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'. 23.4 Text symbols ================= LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1. As of the LaTeX February 2020 release, all symbols are available by default; before that, it was necessary to use the 'textcomp' package for some (technically, those in the 'TS1' font encoding). '\copyright' '\textcopyright' (C) The copyright symbol. '\dag' † The dagger symbol (in text). '\ddag' ‡ The double dagger symbol (in text). '\LaTeX' The LaTeX logo. '\LaTeXe' The LaTeX2e logo. '\guillemotleft («)' '\guillemotright (»)' '\guilsinglleft (‹)' '\guilsinglright (›)' «, », ‹, › Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French. '\ldots' '\dots' '\textellipsis' ... An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '\ldots' and '\dots' also work in math mode. '\lq' ' Left (opening) quote. '\P' '\textparagraph' ¶ Paragraph sign (pilcrow). '\pounds' '\textsterling' £ English pounds sterling. '\quotedblbase („)' '\quotesinglbase (‚)' „ and ‚ Double and single quotation marks on the baseline. '\rq' ' Right (closing) quote. '\S' '\textsection' § Section sign. '\TeX' The TeX logo. '\textasciicircum' ^ ASCII circumflex. '\textasciitilde' ~ ASCII tilde. '\textasteriskcentered' * Centered asterisk. '\textbackslash' \ Backslash. '\textbar' | Vertical bar. '\textbardbl' ⏸ Double vertical bar. '\textbigcircle' ◯, Big circle symbol. '\textbraceleft' { Left brace. '\textbraceright' } Right brace. '\textbullet' * Bullet. '\textcircled{LETTER}' Ⓐ, Circle around LETTER. '\textcompwordmark' '\textcapitalcompwordmark' '\textascendercompwordmark' Used to separate letters that would normally ligature. For example, 'f\textcompwordmark i' produces 'fi' without a ligature. This is most useful in non-English languages. The '\textcapitalcompwordmark' form has the cap height of the font while the '\textascendercompwordmark' form has the ascender height. '\textdagger' † Dagger. '\textdaggerdbl' ‡ Double dagger. '\textdollar (or '\$')' $ Dollar sign. '\textemdash (or '---')' -- Em-dash. Used for punctuation, usually similar to commas or parentheses, as in ''The playoffs---if you're lucky enough to make the playoffs---are more like a sprint.'' Conventions for spacing around em-dashes vary widely. '\textendash (or '--')' - En-dash. Used for ranges, as in ''see pages 12--14''. '\texteuro' The Euro currency symbol: €. For an alternative glyph design, try the 'eurosym' package; also, most fonts nowadays come with their own Euro symbol (Unicode U+20AC). '\textexclamdown (or '!`')' ¡ Upside down exclamation point. '\textfiguredash' Dash used between numerals, Unicode U+2012. Defined in the June 2021 release of LaTeX. When used in pdfTeX, approximated by an en-dash; with a Unicode engine, either typesets the glyph if available in the current font, or writes the usual "Missing character" warning to the log file. '\textgreater' > Greater than symbol. '\texthorizontalbar' Horizontal bar character, Unicode U+2015. Defined in the June 2021 release of LaTeX. Behavior as with '\textfiguredash' above; the pdfTeX approximation is an em-dash. '\textless' < Less than symbol. '\textleftarrow' ←, Left arrow. '\textnonbreakinghyphen' Non-breaking hyphen character, Unicode U+2011. Defined in the June 2021 release of LaTeX. Behavior as with '\textfiguredash' above; the pdfTeX approximation is a regular ASCII hyphen (with breaks disallowed after). '\textordfeminine' '\textordmasculine' ª, º Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols. '\textperiodcentered' · Centered period. '\textquestiondown (or '?`')' ¿ Upside down question mark. '\textquotedblleft (or '``')' " Double left quote. '\textquotedblright (or '''')' " Double right quote. '\textquoteleft (or '`')' ' Single left quote. '\textquoteright (or ''')' ' Single right quote. '\textquotesingle' ', Straight single quote. (From TS1 encoding.) '\textquotestraightbase' '\textquotestraightdblbase' Single and double straight quotes on the baseline. '\textregistered' (R) Registered symbol. '\textrightarrow' →, Right arrow. '\textthreequartersemdash' ﹘, "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\texttrademark' ™ Trademark symbol. '\texttwelveudash' ﹘, "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash. '\textunderscore' _ Underscore. '\textvisiblespace' ␣, Visible space symbol. 23.5 Accents ============ LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages, provided through the core 'babel' package, which supports pdfLaTeX, XeLaTeX and LuaLaTeX. The 'polyglossia' package provides similar support with the latter two engines. This section does not cover that support. It only lists the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters. The '\capital...' commands shown here produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1. Below, to make them easier to find, the accents are all illustrated with lowercase 'o'. Note that '\i' produces a dotless i, and '\j' produces a dotless j. These are often used in place of their dotted counterparts when they are accented. '\"' '\capitaldieresis' ö Umlaut (dieresis). '\'' '\capitalacute' ó Acute accent. '\.' ȯ Dot accent. '\=' '\capitalmacron' ō Macron (overbar) accent. '\^' '\capitalcircumflex' ô Circumflex (hat) accent. '\`' '\capitalgrave' ò Grave accent. '\~' '\capitaltilde' ñ Tilde accent. '\b' o̲ Bar accent underneath. Related to this, '\underbar{TEXT}' produces a bar under TEXT. The argument is always processed in LR mode (*note Modes::). The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::. '\c' '\capitalcedilla' ç Cedilla accent underneath. '\d' '\capitaldotaccent' ọ Dot accent underneath. '\H' '\capitalhungarumlaut' ő Long Hungarian umlaut accent. '\k' '\capitalogonek' ǫ Ogonek. Not available in the OT1 encoding. '\r' '\capitalring' o̊ Ring accent. '\t' '\capitaltie' '\newtie' '\capitalnewtie' oo͡ Tie-after accent. The '\newtie' form is centered in its box. '\u' '\capitalbreve' ŏ Breve accent. '\v' '\capitalcaron' ǒ Háček (check, caron) accent. 23.5.1 '\accent' ---------------- Synopsis: \accent NUMBER CHARACTER A TeX primitive command used to generate accented characters from accent marks and letters. The accent mark is selected by NUMBER, a numeric argument, followed by a space and then a CHARACTER argument constructs the accented character in the current font. These are accented 'e' characters. \accent18 e \accent20 e \accent21 e \accent22 e \accent23 e The first is a grave, the second is breve, etc. The position of the accent is determined by the font designer and so the outcome of '\accent' use may differ between fonts. In LaTeX it is desirable to have glyphs for accented characters rather than building them using '\accent'. Using glyphs that already contain the accented characters (as in T1 encoding) allows correct hyphenation whereas '\accent' disables hyphenation (specifically with OT1 font encoding where accented glyphs are absent). There can be an optional font change between NUMBER and CHARACTER. Note also that this command sets the '\spacefactor' to 1000 (*note \spacefactor::). An unavoidable characteristic of some Cyrillic letters and the majority of accented Cyrillic letters is that they must be assembled from multiple elements (accents, modifiers, etc.) while '\accent' provides for a single accent mark and a single letter combination. There are also cases where accents must appear between letters that \accent does not support. Still other cases exist where the letters I and J have dots above their lowercase counterparts that conflict with dotted accent marks. The use of '\accent' in these cases will not work as it cannot analyze upper/lower case. 23.6 Additional Latin letters ============================= Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting letters beyond A-Z that extend the Latin alphabet, used primarily in languages other than English. '\aa' '\AA' å and Å. '\ae' '\AE' æ and Æ. '\dh' '\DH' Icelandic letter eth: ð and Ð. Not available with OT1 encoding, you need the 'fontenc' package to select an alternate font encoding, such as T1. '\dj' '\DJ' Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke. Not available with OT1 encoding, you need the 'fontenc' package to select an alternate font encoding, such as T1. '\ij' '\IJ' ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here). '\l' '\L' ł and Ł. '\ng' '\NG' Lappish letter eng, also used in phonetics. '\o' '\O' ø and Ø. '\oe' '\OE' œ and Œ. '\ss' '\SS' ß and SS. '\th' '\TH' Icelandic letter thorn: þ and Þ. Not available with OT1 encoding, you need the 'fontenc' package to select an alternate font encoding, such as T1. 23.7 'inputenc' package ======================= Synopsis: \usepackage[ENCODING-NAME]{inputenc} Declare the input file's text encoding to be ENCODING-NAME. The default, if this package is not loaded, is UTF-8. Technically, specifying the encoding name is optional, but in practice it is not useful to omit it. In a computer file, the characters are stored according to a scheme called the "encoding". There are many different encodings. The simplest is ASCII, which supports 95 printable characters, not enough for most of the world's languages. For instance, to typeset the a-umlaut character ä in an ASCII-encoded LaTeX source file, the sequence '\"a' is used. This would make source files for anything but English hard to read; even for English, often a more extensive encoding is more convenient. The modern encoding standard, in some ways a union of the others, is UTF-8, one of the representations of Unicode. This is the default for LaTeX since 2018. The 'inputenc' package is how LaTeX knows what encoding is used. For instance, the following command explicitly says that the input file is UTF-8 (note the lack of a dash). \usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} Caution: use 'inputenc' only with the pdfTeX engine (*note TeX engines::). (The XeTeX and LuaTeX engines assume that the input file is UTF-8 encoded.) If you invoke LaTeX with either the 'xelatex' command or the 'lualatex' command, and try to declare a non-UTF-8 encoding with 'inputenc', such as 'latin1', then you will get the error 'inputenc is not designed for xetex or luatex'. An 'inputenc' package error such as 'Invalid UTF-8 byte "96' means that some of the material in the input file does not follow the encoding scheme. Often these errors come from copying material from a document that uses a different encoding than the input file; this one is a left single quote from a web page using 'latin1' inside a LaTeX input file that uses UTF-8. The simplest solution is to replace the non-UTF-8 character with its UTF-8 equivalent, or use a LaTeX equivalent command or character. In some documents, such as a collection of journal articles from a variety of authors, changing the encoding in mid-document may be necessary. Use the command '\inputencoding{ENCODING-NAME}'. The most common values for ENCODING-NAME are: 'ascii', 'latin1', 'latin2', 'latin3', 'latin4', 'latin5', 'latin9', 'latin10', and 'utf8'. 23.8 '\rule' ============ Synopsis, one of: \rule{WIDTH}{THICKNESS} \rule[RAISE]{WIDTH}{THICKNESS} Produce a "rule", a filled-in rectangle. This example produces a rectangular blob, sometimes called a Halmos symbol, or just "qed", often used to mark the end of a proof: \newcommand{\qedsymbol}{\rule{0.4em}{2ex}} The 'amsthm' package includes this command, with a somewhat different-looking symbol. The mandatory arguments give the horizontal WIDTH and vertical THICKNESS of the rectangle. They are rigid lengths (*note Lengths::). The optional argument RAISE is also a rigid length, and tells LaTeX how much to raise the rule above the baseline, or lower it if the length is negative. This produces a line, a rectangle that is wide but not tall. \noindent\rule{\textwidth}{0.4pt} The line is the width of the page and 0.4 points tall. This line thickness is common in LaTeX. A rule that has zero width, or zero thickness, will not show up in the output, but can cause LaTeX to change the output around it. *Note \strut::, for examples. 23.9 '\today' ============= Synopsis: \today Produce today's date in the format 'MONTH DD, YYYY'. An example of a date in that format is 'July 4, 1976'. Multilingual packages such as 'babel' or 'polyglossia', or classes such as 'lettre', will localize '\today'. For example, the following will output '4 juillet 1976': \year=1976 \month=7 \day=4 \documentclass{minimal} \usepackage[french]{babel} \begin{document} \today \end{document} '\today' uses the counters '\day', '\month', and '\year' (*note \day & \month & \year::). A number of package on CTAN work with dates. One is 'datetime' package which can produce a wide variety of date formats, including ISO standards. The date is not updated as the LaTeX process runs, so in principle the date could be incorrect by the time the program finishes. 24 Splitting the input ********************** LaTeX lets you split a large document into several smaller ones. This can simplify editing or allow multiple authors to work on the document. It can also speed processing. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is always one "root file", on which LaTeX compilation starts. This shows such a file with five included files. \documentclass{book} \includeonly{ % comment out lines below to omit compiling pref, chap1, chap2, append, bib } \begin{document} \frontmatter \include{pref} \mainmatter \include{chap1} \include{chap2} \appendix \include{append} \backmatter \include{bib} \end{document} This will bring in material from 'pref.tex', 'chap1.tex', 'chap2.tex', 'append.tex', and 'bib.tex'. If you compile this file, and then comment out all of the lines inside '\includeonly{...}' except for 'chap1', and compile again, then LaTeX will only process the material in the first chapter. Thus, your output will appear more quickly and be shorter to print. However, the advantage of the '\includeonly' command is that LaTeX will retain the page numbers and all of the cross reference information from the other parts of the document so these will appear in your output correctly. *Note Larger book template::, for another example of '\includeonly'. 24.1 '\endinput' ================ Synopsis: \endinput When you '\include{filename}', inside 'filename.tex' the material after '\endinput' will not be included. This command is optional; if 'filename.tex' has no '\endinput' then LaTeX will read all of the file. For example, suppose that a document's root file has '\input{chap1}' and this is 'chap1.tex'. \chapter{One} This material will appear in the document. \endinput This will not appear. This can be useful for putting documentation or comments at the end of a file, or for avoiding junk characters that can be added if the file is transmitted in the body of an email. It is also useful for debugging: one strategy to localize errors is to put '\endinput' halfway through the included file and see if the error disappears. Now, knowing which half contains the error, moving '\endinput' to halfway through that area further narrows down the location. This process rapidly finds the offending line. After reading '\endinput', LaTeX continues to read to the end of the line, so something can follow this command and be read nonetheless. This allows you, for instance, to close an '\if...' with a '\fi'. 24.2 '\include' & '\includeonly' ================================ Synopsis: \includeonly{ % in document preamble ... FILENAME, ... } ... \include{FILENAME} % in document body Bring material from the external file 'FILENAME.tex' into a LaTeX document. The '\include' command does three things: it executes '\clearpage' (*note \clearpage & \cleardoublepage::), then it inputs the material from 'FILENAME.tex' into the document, and then it does another '\clearpage'. This command can only appear in the document body. The '\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by LaTeX under subsequent '\include' commands. Its list of filenames is comma-separated. It must appear in the preamble or even earlier, e.g., the command line; it can't appear in the document body. This example root document, 'constitution.tex', brings in three files, 'preamble.tex', 'articles.tex', and 'amendments.tex'. \documentclass{book} \includeonly{ preamble, articles, amendments } \begin{document} \include{preamble} \include{articles} \include{amendments} \end{document} The file 'preamble.tex' contains no special code; you have just excerpted the chapter from 'consitution.tex' and put it in a separate file just for editing convenience. \chapter{Preamble} We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, ... Running LaTeX on 'constitution.tex' makes the material from the three files appear in the document but also generates the auxiliary files 'preamble.aux', 'articles.aux', and 'amendments.aux'. These contain information such as page numbers and cross-references (*note Cross references::). If you now comment out '\includeonly''s lines with 'preamble' and 'amendments' and run LaTeX again then the resulting document shows only the material from 'articles.tex', not the material from 'preamble.tex' or 'amendments.tex'. Nonetheless, all of the auxiliary information from the omitted files is still there, including the starting page number of the chapter. If the document preamble does not have '\includeonly' then LaTeX will include all the files you call for with '\include' commands. The '\include' command makes a new page. To avoid that, see *note \input:: (which, however, does not retain the auxiliary information). *Note Larger book template::, for another example using '\include' and '\includeonly'. That example also uses '\input' for some material that will not necessarily start on a new page. File names can involve paths. \documentclass{book} \includeonly{ chapters/chap1, } \begin{document} \include{chapters/chap1} \end{document} To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use dashes or underscores. Nevertheless, for the name 'amo amas amat', this works under TeX Live on GNU/Linux: \documentclass{book} \includeonly{ "amo\space amas\space amat" } \begin{document} \include{"amo\space amas\space amat"} \end{document} and this works under MiKTeX on Windows: \documentclass{book} \includeonly{ {"amo amas amat"} } \begin{document} \include{{"amo amas amat"}} \end{document} You cannot use '\include' inside a file that is being included or you get 'LaTeX Error: \include cannot be nested.' The '\include' command cannot appear in the document preamble; you will get 'LaTeX Error: Missing \begin{document}'. If a file that you '\include' does not exist, for instance if you '\include{athiesm}' but you meant '\include{atheism}', then LaTeX does not give you an error but will warn you 'No file athiesm.tex.' (It will also create 'athiesm.aux'.) If you '\include' the root file in itself then you first get 'LaTeX Error: Can be used only in preamble.' Later runs get 'TeX capacity exceeded, sorry [text input levels=15]'. To fix this, you must remove the inclusion '\include{ROOT}' but also delete the file 'ROOT.aux' and rerun LaTeX. 24.3 '\input' ============= Synopsis: \input{FILENAME} LaTeX processes the file as if its contents were inserted in the current file. For a more sophisticated inclusion mechanism see *note \include & \includeonly::. If FILENAME does not end in '.tex' then LaTeX first tries the filename with that extension; this is the usual case. If FILENAME ends with '.tex' then LaTeX looks for the filename as it is. For example, this \input{macros} will cause LaTeX to first look for 'macros.tex'. If it finds that file then it processes its contents as thought they had been copy-pasted in. If there is no file of the name 'macros.tex' then LaTeX tries the name 'macros', without an extension. (This may vary by distribution.) To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use dashes or underscores. Nevertheless, for the name 'amo amas amat', this works under TeX Live on GNU/Linux: \input{"amo\space amas\space amat"} and this works under MiKTeX on Windows: \input{{"amo amas amat"}} 25 Front/back matter ******************** 25.1 Table of contents etc. =========================== Synopsis, one of: \tableofcontents \listoffigures \listoftables Produce a table of contents, or list of figures, or list of tables. Put the command in the input file where you want the table or list to go. You do not type the entries; for example, typically the table of contents entries are automatically generated from the sectioning commands '\chapter', etc. This example illustrates the first command, '\tableofcontents'. LaTeX will produce a table of contents on the book's first page. \documentclass{book} % \setcounter{tocdepth}{1} \begin{document} \tableofcontents\newpage ... \chapter{...} ... \section{...} ... \subsection{...} ... \end{document} Uncommenting the second line would cause that table to contain chapter and section listings but not subsection listings, because the '\section' command has level 1. *Note Sectioning::, for level numbers of the sectioning units. For more on the 'tocdepth' *note Sectioning/tocdepth::. Another example of the use of '\tableofcontents' is in *note Larger book template::. If you want a page break after the table of contents, write a '\newpage' command after the '\tableofcontents' command, as above. To make the table of contents, LaTeX stores the information in an auxiliary file named 'ROOT-FILE.toc' (*note Splitting the input::). For example, this LaTeX file 'test.tex' \documentclass{article} \begin{document} \tableofcontents\newpage \section{First section} \subsection{First subsection} ... writes these lines to 'test.toc'. \contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}First section}{2} \contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}First subsection}{2} Each line contains a single command, '\contentsline' (*note \contentsline::). The first argument, the 'section' or 'subsection', is the sectioning unit. The second argument has two components. The hook '\numberline' determines how the sectioning number, '1' or '1.1', appears in the table of contents (*note \numberline::). The remainder of the second argument of '\contentsline', 'First section' or 'First subsection', is the sectioning title text. Finally, the third argument, '2', is the page number on which this sectioning unit starts. To typeset these lines, the document class provides '\l@SECTION-UNIT' commands such as '\l@section{TEXT}{PAGENUMBER}' and '\l@subsection{TEXT}{PAGENUMBER}'. These commands often use the '\@dottedtocline' command (*note \@dottedtocline::). A consequence of LaTeX's strategy of using auxiliary files is that to get the correct information in the document you must run LaTeX twice, once to store the information and the second time to retrieve it. In the ordinary course of writing a document authors run LaTeX a number of times, but you may notice that the first time that you compile a new document, the table of contents page will be empty except for its 'Contents' header. Just run LaTeX again. The commands '\listoffigures' and '\listoftables' produce a list of figures and a list of tables. Their information is stored in files with extension '.lof' and '.lot'. They work the same way as '\tableofcontents' but the latter is more common, so we use it for most examples. You can manually add material to the table of contents, the list of figures, and the list of tables. For instance, add a line about a section to the table of contents with '\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{TEXT}'. (*note \addcontentsline::). Add arbitrary material, that is, non-line material, with '\addtocontents', as with the command '\addtocontents{lof}{\protect\vspace{2ex}}', which adds vertical space to the list of figures (*note \addtocontents::). Lines in the table of contents, the list of figures, and the list of tables, have four parts. First is an indent. Next is a box into which sectioning numbers are placed, and then the third box holds the title text, such as 'First section'. Finally there is a box up against the right margin, inside of which LaTeX puts the page number box. For the indent and the width of the number box, *note \@dottedtocline::. The right margin box has width '\@tocrmarg' and the page number is flush right in that space, inside a box of width '\@pnumwidth'. By default '\@tocrmarg' is '2.55em' and '\@pnumwidth' is '1.55em'. Change these as with '\renewcommand{\@tocrmarg}{3.5em}'. CTAN has many packages for the table of contents and lists of figures and tables (*note CTAN::). The package 'tocloft' is convenient for adjusting some aspects of the default such as spacing. And, 'tocbibbind' will automatically add the bibliography, index, etc. to the table of contents. To change the header for the table of contents page, do something like these commands before you call '\tableofcontents', etc. \renewcommand{\contentsname}{Table of Contents} \renewcommand{\listfigurename}{Plots} \renewcommand{\listtablename}{Specifications} Internationalization packages such as 'babel' or 'polyglossia' will change these headers depending on the chosen base language. 25.1.1 '\@dottedtocline' ------------------------ Synopsis: \@dottedtocline{SECTION-LEVEL-NUM}{INDENT}{NUMWIDTH}{TEXT}{PAGENUMBER} Used internally by LaTeX to format an entry line in the table of contents, list of figures, or list of tables. Authors do not directly enter '\@dottedtocline' commands. This command is typically used by '\l@section', '\l@subsection', etc., to format the content lines. For example, the 'article.cls' file contains these definitions: \newcommand*\l@section{\@dottedtocline{1}{1.5em}{2.3em}} \newcommand*\l@subsection{\@dottedtocline{2}{3.8em}{3.2em}} \newcommand*\l@subsubsection{\@dottedtocline{3}{7.0em}{4.1em}} In this example, '\@dottedcline' appears to have been given only three arguments. But tracing the internal code shows that it picks up the final TEXT and PAGENUMBER arguments in the synopsis from a call to '\contentsline'. Between the box for the title text of a section and the right margin box, these '\@dottedtocline' commands insert "leaders", that is, evenly-spaced dots. The dot-to-dot space is given by the command '\@dotsep'. By default it is 4.5 (it is in math units, which are '1/18' em. Change it using '\renewcommand', as in '\renewcommand{\@dotsep}{3.5}'. In the default book class, LaTeX does not use dotted leaders for the Part and Chapter table entries, and in the default article class it does not use dotted leaders for Section entries. 25.1.2 '\addcontentsline' ------------------------- Synopsis: \addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT} Add an entry to the auxiliary file with extension EXT. The following will result in an 'Appendices' line in the table of contents. \addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}} It will appear at the same indentation level as the sections, will be in boldface, and will be assigned the page number associated with the point where it appears in the input file. The '\addcontentsline' command writes information to the file 'ROOT-NAME.EXT'. It writes that information as the text of the command '\contentsline{UNIT}{TEXT}{NUM}', where 'NUM' is the current value of counter 'UNIT' (*note \contentsline::). The most common case is the table of contents and there NUM is the page number of the first page of UNIT. This command is invoked by the sectioning commands '\chapter', etc., and also by '\caption' inside a float environment. But it is also used by authors. For example, an author writing a book whose style is to have an unnumbered preface may use the starred '\chapter*'. But that command leaves out table of contents information, which can be entered manually, as here. \chapter*{Preface} \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{\protect\numberline{}Preface} In the '.toc' file LaTeX will put the line '\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {}Preface}{3}'; note that the page number '3' is automatically generated by the system, not entered manually. All of the arguments for '\addcontentsline' are required. EXT Typically one of the strings 'toc' for the table of contents, 'lof' for the list of figures, or 'lot' for the list of tables. The filename extension of the information file. UNIT A string that depends on the value of the EXT argument: 'toc' For the table of contents, this is the name of a sectional unit: 'part', 'chapter', 'section', 'subsection', etc. 'lof' For the list of figures: 'figure'. 'lot' For the list of tables: 'table'. TEXT The text of the entry. You must '\protect' any commands that are fragile (*note \protect::). The '\addcontentsline' command has an interaction with '\include' (*note \include & \includeonly::). If you use them at the same level, as with '\addcontentsline{...}{...}{...}\include{...}' then lines in the table of contents can come out in the wrong order. The solution is to move '\addcontentsline' into the file being included. If you use a UNIT that LaTeX does not recognize, as here \addcontentsline{toc}{setcion}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}} then you don't get an error but the formatting in the table of contents will not make sense. 25.1.3 '\addtocontents' ----------------------- Synopsis: \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT} Add TEXT, which may be text or formatting commands, directly to the auxiliary file with extension EXT. This is most commonly used for the table of contents so that is the discussion here, but it also applies to the list of figures and list of tables. This will put some vertical space in the table of contents after the 'Contents' header. \tableofcontents\newpage \addtocontents{toc}{\protect\vspace*{3ex}} This puts the word 'Page', in boldface, above the column of page numbers and after the header. \tableofcontents \addtocontents{toc}{~\hfill\textbf{Page}\par} \chapter{...} This adds a line announcing work by a new author. \addtocontents{toc}{% \protect\vspace{2ex} \textbf{Chapters by N. Other Author}\par} The difference between '\addtocontents' and '\addcontentsline' is that the latter is strictly for lines, such as with a line giving the page number for the start of a new subset of the chapters. As the above examples show, '\addtocontents' is for material such as spacing. The '\addtocontents' command has two arguments. Both are required. EXT Typically one of: 'toc' for the table of contents, 'lof' for the list of figures, or 'lot' for the list of tables. The extension of the file holding the information. TEXT The text, and possibly commands, to be written. The sectioning commands such as '\chapter' use the '\addcontentsline' command to store information. This command creates lines in the '.toc' auxiliary file containing the '\contentsline' command (*note \addcontentsline::). In contrast, the command '\addtocontents' puts material directly in that file. The '\addtocontents' command has an interaction with '\include' (*note \include & \includeonly::). If you use them at the same level, as with '\addtocontents{...}{...}\include{...}' then lines in the table of contents can come out in the wrong order. The solution is to move '\addtocontents' into the file being included. 25.1.4 '\contentsline' ---------------------- Synopsis: \contentsline{UNIT}{TEXT}{PAGENUMBER} Used internally by LaTeX to typeset an entry of the table of contents, list of figures, or list of tables (*note Table of contents etc.::). Authors do not directly enter '\contentsline' commands. Usually adding material to these lists is done automatically by the commands '\chapter', '\section', etc. for the table of contents, or by the '\caption' command inside of a '\figure' or '\table' environment (*note figure:: and *note table::). Thus, where the base file is 'thesis.tex', and contains the declaration '\tableofcontents', the command '\chapter{Chapter One}' produces something like this in the file 'thesis.toc'. \contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {1}Chapter One}{3} If the file contains the declaration '\listoffigures' then a figure environment involving '\caption{Test}' will produce something like this in 'thesis.lof'. \contentsline {figure}{\numberline {1.1}{\ignorespaces Test}}{6} To manually add material, use '\addcontentsline{FILETYPE}{UNIT}{TEXT}', where FILETYPE is 'toc', 'lof', or 'lot' (*note \addcontentsline::). For manipulating how the '\contentline' material is typeset, see the 'tocloft' package. Note that the 'hyperref' package changes the definition of '\contentsline' (and '\addcontentsline') to add more arguments, to make hyperlinks. This is the source of the error 'Argument of \contentsline has an extra }'. Fix this error by deleting the '.toc' or '.lof' or '.lot' file, and running LaTeX again. 25.1.5 '\nofiles' ----------------- Synopsis: \nofiles Prevent LaTeX from writing any auxiliary files. The only output will be the '.log' and '.pdf' (or '.dvi') files. This command must go in the preamble. Because of the '\nofiles' command this example will not produce a '.toc' file. \documentclass{book} \nofiles \begin{document} \tableofcontents\newpage \chapter{...} ... LaTeX will not erase any existing auxiliary files, so if you insert the '\nofiles' command after you have run the file and gotten a '.toc' then the table of contents page will continue to show the old information. 25.1.6 '\numberline' -------------------- Synopsis: \numberline{NUMBER} Typeset its argument flush left in a box. This is used in a '\contentsline' command to typeset the section number (*note \contentsline::). For example, this line in a '.toc' file causes the '1' to be typeset flush left. \contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}Motivation}{2} By default, LaTeX typesets the section numbers in a box of length '\@tempdima'. That length is set by the commands '\l@section', '\l@subsection', etc. Put section numbers inside a natural-width box with '\renewcommand{\numberline}[1]{#1~}'. This command is fragile, so you may need to precede it with '\protect' (*note \protect::). An example is the use of '\protect' in the command '\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\protect\numberline{}Summary}' to get the '\numberline' into this command in the '.toc' file: '\contentsline {section}{\numberline {}Summary}{6}' (the page number '6' is automatically added by LaTeX; *note \addcontentsline::). 25.2 Indexes ============ This document has an index. \documentclass{article} \usepackage{makeidx} \makeindex ... \begin{document} ... Recall Wilson's Theorem: \index{Wilson's Theorem} a number \( n>1 \) is prime if and only if the factorial of \( n-1 \) is congruent to \( -1 \) modulo~\( n \). ... \printindex ... The '\usepackage{makeidx}' and '\makeindex' in the preamble bring in the relevant commands. Producing an index is a three stage process. First, in the document body you declare index entries with the '\index' command (*note \index::). When you run LaTeX, the '\index' writes its information to an auxiliary file 'ROOT-NAME.idx'. Next, to alphabetize and to do other manipulations you run an external command, typically 'makeindex' or 'xindy' (*note makeindex::). These output a file 'ROOT-NAME.ind'. Finally, you bring the information back into your document and typeset it with the '\printindex' command (*note \printindex::). There are many packages in the area of indexing. The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index. The 'multind' package, among others, supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic, , and the CTAN topic, . 25.2.1 '\index' --------------- Synopsis: \index{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING} Declare an entry in the index. This command is fragile (*note \protect::). For example, as described in *note Indexes::, one way to get an index from what's below is to compile the document with 'pdflatex test', then process the index entries with 'makeindex test', and then compile again with 'pdflatex test'. W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann} ... Ackermann function\index{Ackermann!function} ... rate of growth\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate} All three index entries will get a page number, such as 'Ackermann, 22'. LaTeX will format the second as a subitem of the first, on the line below it and indented, and the third as a subitem of the second. Three levels deep is as far as you can nest subentries. (If you add '\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate!comparison}' then 'makeindex' says 'Scanning input file test.idx....done (4 entries accepted, 1 rejected)' and nothing appears in the index). If you enter a second '\index' with the same INDEX-ENTRY-STRING then you will get a single index entry with two page numbers (unless they happen to fall on the same page). Thus, adding 'as for Ackermann.\index{Ackermann}' later in the same document as above will give an index entry like 'Ackermann, 22, 151'. Also, you can enter the index entries in any order, so for instance '\index{Ackermann!function}' could come before '\index{Ackermann}'. Get a page range in the output, like 'Hilbert, 23--27', as here. W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann} ... D~Hilbert (1862--1943)\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\(} ... disapproved of his marriage.\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\)} If the beginning and ending of the page range are equal then the system just gives a single page entry, not a range. If you index subentries but not a main entry, as with '\index{Jones!program}' and '\index{Jones!results}', then the output is the item 'Jones' with no comma or page number, followed by two subitems, like 'program, 50' and 'results, 51'. Generate a index entry that says 'See' by using a vertical bar character: '\index{Ackermann!function|see{P\'eter's function}}'. You can instead get 'See also' with 'seealso'. (The text 'See' is defined by '\seename', and 'See also' by '\alsoname'. You can redefine these either by using an internationalization package such as 'babel' or 'polyglossia', or directly as with '\renewcommand{\alsoname}[1]{Also see #1}'.) The 'See' feature is part of a more general functionality. After the vertical bar you can put the name of a one-input command, as in '\index{group|textit}' (note the missing backslash on the '\textit' command) and the system will apply that command to the page number, here giving something like '\textit{7}'. You can define your own one-input commands, such as '\newcommand{\definedpage}[1]{{\color{blue}#1}}' and then '\index{Ackermann!function|definedpage}' will give a blue page number (*note Color::). Another, less practical, example is this, \newcommand\indexownpage[1]{#1, \thepage} ... Epimenides.\index{self-reference|indexownpage} which creates an entry citing the page number of its own index listing. The two functions just described combine, as here \index{Ackermann!function|(definedpage} ... \index{Ackermann!function|)} which outputs an index entry like 'function, 23--27' where the page number range is in blue. Consider an index entry such as 'α-ring'. Entering it as '$\alpha$-ring' will cause it to be alphabetized according to the dollar sign. You can instead enter it using an at-sign, as '\index{alpha-ring@$\alpha$-ring}'. If you specify an entry with an at-sign separating two strings, 'POS@TEXT', then POS gives the alphabetical position of the entry while TEXT produces the text of the entry. Another example is that '\index{Saint Michael's College@SMC}' produces an index entry 'SMC' alphabetized into a different location than its spelling would naturally give it. To put a '!', or '@', or '|' character in an index entry, preceding it with a double quote, '"'. (The double quote gets deleted before alphabetization.) A number of packages on CTAN have additional functionality beyond that provided by 'makeidx'. One is 'index', which allows for multiple indices and contains a command '\index*{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}' that prints the INDEX-ENTRY-STRING as well as indexing it. The '\index' command writes the indexing information to the file 'ROOT-NAME.idx' file. Specifically, it writes text of the command '\indexentry{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}{PAGE-NUM}', where PAGE-NUM is the value of the '\thepage' counter. On occasion, when the '\printindex' command is confused, you have to delete this file to start with a fresh slate. If you omit the closing brace of an '\index' command then you get a message like this. Runaway argument? {Ackermann!function ! Paragraph ended before \@wrindex was complete. 25.2.2 'makeindex' ------------------ Synopsis, one of: makeindex FILENAME makeindex -s STYLE-FILE FILENAME makeindex OPTIONS FILENAME0 ... Sort, and otherwise process, the index information in the auxiliary file FILENAME. This is a command line program. It takes one or more raw index files, 'FILENAME.idx' files, and produces the actual index file, the 'FILENAME.ind' file that is input by '\printindex' (*note \printindex::). The first form of the command suffices for many uses. The second allows you to format the index by using an "index style file", a '.isty' file. The third form is the most general; see the full documentation on CTAN. This is a simple '.isty' file. % book.isty % $ makeindex -s book.isty -p odd book.idx % creates the index as book.ind, starting on an odd page. preamble "\\pagestyle{empty} \\small \\begin{theindex} \\thispagestyle{empty}" postamble "\n \\end{theindex}" The description here covers only some of the index formatting possibilities in STYLE-FILE. For a full list see the documentation on CTAN. A style file consists of a list of pairs: SPECIFIER and ATTRIBUTE. These can appear in the file in any order. All of the ATTRIBUTES are strings, except where noted. Strings are surrounded with double quotes, '"', and the maximum length of a string is 144 characters. The '\n' is for a newline and '\t' is for a tab. Backslashes are escaped with another backslash, '\\'. If a line begins with a percent sign, '%', then it is a comment. 'preamble' Preamble of the output file. Defines the context in which the index is formatted. Default: '"\\begin{theindex}\n"'. 'postamble' Postamble of the output file. Default: '"\n\n\\end{theindex}\n"'. 'group_skip' Traditionally index items are broken into groups, typically a group for entries starting with 'a', etc. This specifier gives what is inserted when a new group begins. Default: '"\n\n \\indexspace\n"' ('\indexspace' is a command inserting a rubber length, by default '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'). 'lethead_flag' An integer. It governs what is inserted for a new group or letter. If it is 0 (which is the default) then other than 'group_skip' nothing will be inserted before the group. If it is positive then at a new letter the 'lethead_prefix' and 'lethead_suffix' will be inserted, with that letter in uppercase between them. If it is negative then what will be inserted is the letter in lowercase. The default is 0. 'lethead_prefix' If a new group begins with a different letter then this is the prefix inserted before the new letter header. Default: '""' 'lethead_suffix' If a group begins with a different letter then this is the suffix inserted after the new letter header. Default: '""'. 'item_0' What is put between two level 0 items. Default: '"\n \\item "'. 'item_1' Put between two level 1 items. Default: '"\n \\subitem "'. 'item_2' put between two level 2 items. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'. 'item_01' What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item. Default: '"\n \\subitem "'. 'item_x1' What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item in the case that the level 0 item doesn't have any page numbers (as in '\index{aaa|see{bbb}}'). Default: '"\n \\subitem "'. 'item_12' What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'. 'item_x2' What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item, if the level 1 item doesn't have page numbers. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'. 'delim_0' Delimiter put between a level 0 key and its first page number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_1' Delimiter put between a level 1 key and its first page number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_2' Delimiter between a level 2 key and its first page number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_n' Delimiter between two page numbers for the same key (at any level). Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'. 'delim_r' What is put between the starting and ending page numbers of a range. Default: '"--"'. 'line_max' An integer. Maximum length of an index entry's line in the output, beyond which the line wraps. Default: '72'. 'indent_space' What is inserted at the start of a wrapped line. Default: '"\t\t"'. 'indent_length' A number. The length of the wrapped line indentation. The default 'indent_space' is two tabs and each tab is eight spaces so the default here is '16'. 'page_precedence' A document may have pages numbered in different ways. For example, a book may have front matter pages numbered in lowercase roman while main matter pages are in arabic. This string specifies the order in which they will appear in the index. The 'makeindex' command supports five different types of numerals: lowercase roman 'r', and numeric or arabic 'n', and lowercase alphabetic 'a', and uppercase roman 'R', and uppercase alphabetic 'A'. Default: '"rnaRA"'. There are a number of other programs that do the job 'makeindex' does. One is 'xindy' (https://ctan.org/pkg/xindy), which does internationalization and can process indexes for documents marked up using LaTeX and a number of other languages. It is written in Lisp, highly configurable, both in markup terms and in terms of the collating order of the text, as described in its documentation. A more recent indexing program supporting Unicode is 'xindex', written in Lua (). 25.2.3 '\printindex' -------------------- Synopsis: \printindex Place the index into the output. To get an index you must first include '\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex' in the document preamble and compile the document, then run the system command 'makeindex', and then compile the document again. *Note Indexes::, for further discussion and an example of the use of '\printindex'. 25.3 Glossaries =============== Synopsis: \usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries ... \newglossaryentry{LABEL}{SETTINGS} ... \gls{LABEL}. ... \printglossaries The 'glossaries' package allows you to make glossaries, including multiple glossaries, as well as lists of acronyms. To get the output from this example, compile the document (for instance with 'pdflatex filename'), then run the command line command 'makeglossaries filename', and then compile the document again. \documentclass{...} \usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries \newglossaryentry{tm}{% name={Turing machine}, description={A model of a machine that computes. The model is simple but can compute anything any existing device can compute. It is the standard model used in Computer Science.}, } \begin{document} Everything begins with the definition of a \gls{tm}. ... \printglossaries \end{document} That gives two things. In the main text it outputs '... definition of a Turing machine'. In addition, in a separate sectional unit headed 'Glossary' there appears a description list. In boldface it says 'Turing machine' and the rest of the item says in normal type 'A model of a machine ... Computer Science'. The command '\makeglossary' opens the file that will contain the entry information, 'ROOT-FILE.glo'. Put the '\printglossaries' command where you want the glossaries to appear in your document. The 'glossaries' package is very powerful. For instance, besides the commands '\newglossaryentry' and '\gls', there are similar commands for a list of acronyms. See the package documentations on CTAN. 25.3.1 '\newglossaryentry' -------------------------- Synopsis, one of: \newglossaryentry{LABEL} { name={NAME}, description={DESCRIPTION}, OTHER OPTIONS, ... } or \longnewglossaryentry{LABEL} { name={NAME}, OTHER OPTIONS ..., } {DESCRIPTION} Declare a new entry for a glossary. The LABEL must be unique for the document. The settings associated with the label are pairs: 'KEY=VALUE'. This puts the blackboard bold symbol for the real numbers ℝ, in the glossary. \newglossaryentry{R} { name={\ensuremath{\mathbb{R}}}, description={the real numbers}, } Use the second command form if the DESCRIPTION spans more than one paragraph. For a full list of KEYs see the package documentation on CTAN but here are a few. 'name' (Required.) The word, phrase, or symbol that you are defining. 'description' (Required.) The description that will appear in the glossary. If this has more than one paragraph then you must use the second command form given in the synopsis. 'plural' The plural form of NAME. Refer to the plural form using '\glspl' or '\Glspl' (*note \gls::). 'sort' How to place this entry in the list of entries that the glossary holds. 'symbol' A symbol, such as a mathematical symbol, besides the name. 25.3.2 '\gls' ------------- Synopsis, one of: \gls{LABEL} \glspl{LABEL} \Gls{LABEL} \Glspl{LABEL} Refer to a glossary entry. The entries are declared with '\newglossaryentry' (*note \newglossaryentry::). This \newglossaryentry{N}{% name={the natural numbers}, description={The numbers $0$, $1$, $2$, $\ldots$\@}, symbol={\ensuremath{\mathbb{N}}}, } ... Consider \gls{N}. gives the output 'Consider the natural numbers'. The second command form '\glspl{LABEL}' produces the plural of NAME (by default it tries adding an 's'). The third form capitalizes the first letter of NAME, as does the fourth form, which also takes the plural. 26 Letters ********** Synopsis: \documentclass{letter} \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} % return address \signature{SENDER NAME} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS} \opening{SALUTATION} LETTER BODY \closing{CLOSING TEXT} \end{letter} ... \end{document} Produce one or more letters. Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double backslash, ('\\'). For example, you might have: \begin{letter}{Ninon de l'Enclos \\ l'h\^otel Sagonne} ... \end{letter} The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1, and the footnote number to 1 also. The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines separated by a double backslash ('\\'). LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature. Each 'letter' environment body begins with a required '\opening' command such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'. The LETTER BODY text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each 'letter' environment body typically ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'. Additional material may come after the '\closing'. You can say who is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}'. There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'. LaTeX's default is to indent the sender name and the closing above it by a length of '\longindentation'. By default this is '0.5\textwidth'. To make them flush left, put '\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your preamble. To set a fixed date use something like '\renewcommand{\today}{1958-Oct-12}'. If put in your preamble then it will apply to all the letters. This example shows only one 'letter' environment. The three lines marked as optional are typically omitted. \documentclass{letter} \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town} \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title} % optional: \location{Mailbox 13} % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101} \begin{document} \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address} \opening{Sir:} % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage} I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you. \closing{Your most humble, etc.,} \end{letter} \end{document} These commands are used with the 'letter' class. 26.1 '\address' =============== Synopsis: \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} Specify the return address, as it appears on the letter and on the envelope. Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double backslash, '\\'. Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an individual 'letter' environment. This command is optional: if you do not use it then the letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed letterhead paper. If you do use the '\address' declaration then it is formatted as a personal letter. Here is an example. \address{Stephen Maturin \\ The Grapes of the Savoy} 26.2 '\cc' ========== Synopsis: \cc{NAME0 \\ ... } Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after '\closing'. Put the names on different lines by separating them with a double backslash, '\\', as in: \cc{President \\ Vice President} 26.3 '\closing' =============== Synopsis: \closing{TEXT} Produce the letter's closing. This is optional, but usual. It appears at the end of a letter, above a handwritten signature. For example: \closing{Regards,} 26.4 '\encl' ============ Synopsis: \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\ ... } Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, '\\'. \encl{License \\ Passport} 26.5 '\location' ================ Synopsis: \location{TEXT} The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the page. It only appears if the page style is 'firstpage'. 26.6 '\makelabels' ================== Synopsis: \makelabels % in preamble Optional, for a document that contains 'letter' environments. If you just put '\makelabels' in the preamble then at the end of the document you will get a sheet with labels for all the recipients, one for each letter environment, that you can copy to a sheet of peel-off address labels. Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels', '\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' (and perhaps '\name') in the preamble. The command '\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed. The command '\mlabel{RETURN ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the RETURN ADDRESS) for each letter environment. The first argument, RETURN ADDRESS, is the value returned by the macro '\returnaddress'. The second argument, RECIPIENT ADDRESS, is the value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment. By default '\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the RETURN ADDRESS, causing the default behavior described in the prior paragraph. This illustrates customization. Its output includes a page with two columns having two labels each. \documentclass{letter} \renewcommand*{\returnaddress}{Fred McGuilicuddy \\ Oshkosh, Mineola 12305} \newcommand*\originalMlabel{} \let\originalMlabel\mlabel \def\mlabel#1#2{\originalMlabel{}{#1}\originalMlabel{}{#2}} \makelabels ... \begin{document} \begin{letter}{A Einstein \\ 112 Mercer Street \\ Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540} ... \end{letter} \begin{letter}{K G\"odel \\ 145 Linden Lane \\ Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540} ... \end{letter} \end{document} The first column contains the return address twice. The second column contains the address for each recipient. The package 'envlab' makes formatting the labels easier, with standard sizes already provided. The preamble lines '\usepackage[personalenvelope]{envlab}' and '\makelabels' are all that you need to print envelopes. 26.7 '\name' ============ Synopsis: \name{NAME} Optional. Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address. 26.8 '\opening' =============== Synopsis: \opening{SALUTATION} Required. Follows the '\begin{letter}{...}'. The argument SALUTATION is mandatory. For instance: \opening{Dear John:} 26.9 '\ps' ========== Synopsis: \ps{TEXT} Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after '\closing'. \ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.} 26.10 '\signature' ================== Synopsis: \signature{FIRST LINE \\ ... } The sender's name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual. The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing. LaTeX leaves some vertical space for a handwritten signature. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, '\\'. For example: \signature{J Fred Muggs \\ White House} LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times '\medskipamount' (where '\medskipamount' is equal to a '\parskip', which in turn is defined by default here to 0.7em). This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a 'letter' environment and before the '\closing'. You can include a graphic in the signature as here. \signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My name} For this you must put '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble (*note Graphics::). 26.11 '\telephone' ================== Synopsis: \telephone{NUMBER} The sender's telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where it applies to all letters. This only appears if the 'firstpage' pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the page. 27 Input/output *************** LaTeX uses the ability to write to a file and later read it back in to build document components such as a table of contents or index. You can also read a file that other programs written, or write a file for others to read. You can communicate with users through the terminal. And, you can issue instructions for the operating system. 27.1 '\openin' & '\openout' =========================== Synopsis: \openin NUMBER=FILENAME or: \openout NUMBER=FILENAME Open a file for reading material, or for writing it. The NUMBER must be between 0 and 15, as in '\openin3' (in LuaLaTeX NUMBER can be between 0 and 255). Here TeX opens the file 'presidents.tex' for reading. \newread\presidentsfile \openin\presidentsfile=presidents \typeout{presidentsfile is \the\presidentsfile} \read\presidentsfile to\presidentline \typeout{\presidentline} The '\newread' command allocates input stream numbers from 0 to 15 (there is also a '\newwrite'). The '\presidentsfile' is more memorable but under the hood it is still a number; the first '\typeout' gives something like 'presidentsfile is 1'. In addition, '\newread' keeps track of the allocation so that if you use too many then you get an error like '! No room for a new \read'. The second '\typeout' gives the first line of the file, something like '1 Washington, George'. Ordinarily TeX will not try to open the file until the next page shipout. To change this, use '\immediate\openin NUMBER=FILENAME' or '\immediate\openout NUMBER=FILENAME'. Close files with '\closein NUMBER' and '\closeout NUMBER'. How LaTeX handles filenames varies among distributions, and even can vary among versions of a distribution. If the file does not have an extension then TeX will add a '.tex'. This creates 'presidents.tex', writes one line to it, and closes it. \newwrite\presidentsfile \openout\presidentsfile=presidents \write\presidentsfile{1 Washington, George} \closeout\presidentsfile But filenames with a period can cause trouble: if TeX finds a FILENAME of 'presidents.dat' it could look first for 'presidents.dat.tex' and later for 'presidents.dat', or it could do the opposite. Your distribution's documentation should say more, and if you find something that works for you then you are good, but to ensure complete portability the best thing is to use file names containing only the twenty six ASCII letters (not case-sensitive) and the ten digits, along with underscore and dash, and in particular with no dot or space. For '\openin', if TeX cannot find the file then it does not give an error. It just considers that the stream is not open (test for this with '\ifeof'; one recourse is the command '\InputIfFileExists', *note Class and package commands::). If you try to use the same number twice, LaTeX won't give you an error. If you try to use a bad number then you get an error message like '! Bad number (16). = l.30 \openin16=test.jh'. 27.2 '\read' ============ Synopsis: \read NUMBER toMACRO Make the command MACRO contain the next line of input from text stream NUMBER, as in '\read5 to\data'. This opens the file 'email.tex' for reading, puts the contents of the first line into the command '\email', and then closes the file. \newread\recipientfile \openin\recipientfile=email \read\recipientfile to\email \typeout{Email address: \email} \closein\recipientfile If NUMBER is outside the range from 0 to 15 or if no file of that number is open, or if the file has ended, then '\read' will take input from the terminal (or exit if interaction is not allowed, e.g., '\nonstopmode'; *note interaction modes::). (However, the natural way in LaTeX to take input from the terminal is '\typein' (*note \typein::.) To read an entire file as additional LaTeX source, use '\input' (*note \input::) or '\include' (*note \include & \includeonly::). A common reason to want to read from a data file is to do mail merges. CTAN has a number of packages for that; one is 'datatool'. 27.3 '\typein' ============== Synopsis, one of: \typein{PROMPT-MSG} \typein[CMD]{PROMPT-MSG} Print PROMPT-MSG on the terminal and cause LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a line of input. This line of input ends when you hit the return key. For example, this As long as I live I shall never forget \typein{Enter student name:} coupled with this command line interaction Enter student name: \@typein=Aphra Behn gives the output '... never forget Aphra Behn'. The first command version, '\typein{PROMPT-MSG}', causes the input you typed to be processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command. In the second command version the optional argument 'CMD' argument must be a command name, that is, it must begin with a backslash, \. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the input that you typed. For example, this \typein[\student]{Enter student name:} \typeout{Recommendation for \student .} gives this output on the command line, Enter student name: \student=John Dee Recommendation for John Dee. where the user has entered 'John Dee.' 27.4 '\typeout' =============== Synopsis: \typeout{MSG} Print 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file. This \newcommand{\student}{John Dee} \typeout{Recommendation for \student .} outputs 'Recommendation for John Dee'. Like what happens here with '\student', commands that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed. LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. As above, use the command '\space' to get a single space, independent of surrounding spaces. Use '^^J' to get a newline. Get a percent character with '\csname @percentchar\endcsname'. This command can be useful for simple debugging, as here: \newlength{\jhlength} \setlength{\jhlength}{5pt} \typeout{The length is \the\jhlength.} produces on the command line 'The length is 5.0pt'. 27.5 '\write' ============= Synopsis: \write NUMBER{STRING} Write STRING to the log file, to the terminal, or to a file opened by '\openout'. For instance, '\write6' writes to text stream number 6. If the following appears in 'BASEFILE.tex' then it opens 'BASEFILE.jh', writes 'Hello World!' and a newline to it, and closes that file. \newwrite\myfile \immediate\openout\myfile=\jobname.jh % \jobname is root file basename ... \immediate\write\myfile{Hello world!} ... \immediate\closeout\myfile The '\newwrite' allocates a stream number, giving it a symbolic name to make life easier, so that 'stream \newwrite\myfile\the\myfile' produces something like 'stream 3'. Then '\openout' associates the stream number with the given file name. TeX ultimately executed '\write3' which puts the string in the file. Typically NUMBER is between 0 and 15, because typically LaTeX authors follow the prior example and the number is allocated by the system. If NUMBER is outside the range from 0 to 15 or if it is not associated with an open file then LaTeX writes STRING to the log file. If NUMBER is positive then in addition LaTeX writes STRING to the terminal. Thus, 'test \write-1{Hello World!}' puts 'Hello World!' followed by a newline in the log file. (This is what the '\wlog' command does; *note \wlog::). And '\write100{Hello World!}' puts the same in the log file but also puts 'Hello World!' followed by a newline in the terminal output. (But 16, 17, and 18 are special as NUMBER; see below.) In LuaTeX, instead of 16 output streams there are 256 (*note TeX engines::). Use '\write\@auxout{STRING}' to write to the current '.aux' file, which is associated with either the root file or with the current include file; and use '\write\@mainaux{STRING}' to write to the main '.aux'. These symbolic names are defined by LaTeX. By default LaTeX does not write STRING to the file right away. This is because, for example, you may need '\write' to save the current page number, but when TeX comes across a '\write' it typically does not know what the page number is, since it has not yet done the page breaking. So, you use '\write' in one of three contexts: \immediate\write\@auxout{STRING} %1 \write\@auxout{STRING} %2 \protected@write\@auxout{}{STRING} %3 1. With the first, LaTeX writes STRING to the file immediately. Any macros in STRING are fully expanded (just as in '\edef') so to prevent expansion you must use '\noexpand', 'toks', etc., except that you should use '#' instead of '##'). 2. With the second, STRING is stored on the current list of things (as a TeX "whatsit" item) and kept until the page is shipped out and likewise the macros are unexpanded until '\shipout'. At '\shipout', STRING is fully expanded. 3. The third, '\protected@write', is like the second except that you can use '\protect' to avoid expansion. The extra first argument allows you to locally insert extra definitions to make more macros protected or to have some other special definition for the write. As a simple example of expansion with '\write', STRING here contains a control sequence '\triplex' which we've defined to be the text 'XYZ': \newwrite\jhfile \openout\jhfile=test.jh \newcommand{\triplex}{XYZ} \write\jhfile{test \triplex test} This results in the file 'test.jh' containing the text 'test XYZtest' followed by a newline. The cases where NUMBER is 16, 17, or 18 are special. Because of '\write''s behavior when NUMBER is outside the range from 0 to 15 described above, in Plain TeX '\write16' and '\write17' were sometimes used to write to the log file and the terminal; however, in LaTeX, the natural way to do that is with '\typeout' (*note \typeout::). The '\write18' command is even more special; modern TeX systems use it for giving commands to the operating system (*note \write18::). Ordinarily '\write' outputs a single line. You can include a newline with '^^J'. Thus, this produces two lines in the log file: \wlog{Parallel lines have a lot in common.^^JBut they never meet.} A common case where authors need to write their own file is for answers to exercises, or another situation where you want to write out verbatim, without expanding the macros. CTAN has a number of packages for this; one is 'answers'. 27.5.1 '\write' and security ---------------------------- The ability to write files raises security issues. If you compiled a downloaded LaTeX file and it overwrote your password file then you would be justifiably troubled. Thus, by default TeX systems only allow you to open files for writing that are in the current directory or output directory, if specified (*note output directory::), or in a subdirectory of those. So, this code \newwrite\jhfile \openout\jhfile=../test.jh gives an error like: Not writing to ../test.jh (openout_any = p). ! I can't write on file `../test.jh' You can get just such an error when using commands such as '\include{../filename}' because LaTeX will try to open '../filename.aux'. The simplest solution is to put the included files in the same directory as the root file, or in subdirectories. 27.5.2 '\message' ----------------- Synopsis: \message{STRING} Write STRING to the log file and the terminal. Typically, LaTeX authors use '\typeout' (*note \typeout::). It allows you to use '\protect' on any fragile commands in STRING (*note \protect::). But '\typeout' always inserts a newline at the end of STRING while '\message' does not, so the latter can be useful. With this example document body. before\message{One Two}\message{Three}\message{Four^^JI} \message{declare a thumb war.}After under some circumstances (see below) LaTeX writes the following to both the terminal and the log file. One Two Three Four I declare a thumb war. The '^^J' produces a newline. Also, in the output document, between 'before' and 'After' will be a single space (from the end of line following 'I}'). While '\message' allows you more control over formatting, a gotcha is that LaTeX may mess up that formatting because it inserts line breaks depending on what it has already written. Contrast this document body, where the 'Two' has moved, to the one given above. before\message{One}\message{Two Three}\message{Four^^JI} \message{declare a thumb war.}After This can happen: when LaTeX is outputting the messages to the terminal, now the message with 'One' is shorter and it fits at the end of the output terminal line, and so LaTeX breaks the line between it and the 'Two Three'. That line break appears also in the log file. This line break insertion can depend on, for instance, the length of the full path names of included files. So producing finely-formatted lines in a way that is portable is hard, likely requiring starting your message at the beginning of a line. 27.5.3 '\wlog' -------------- Synopsis: \wlog{STRING} Write STRING to the log file. \wlog{Did you hear about the mathematician who hates negatives?} \wlog{He'll stop at nothing to avoid them.} Ordinarily STRING appears in a single separate line. Use '^^J' to insert a newline. \wlog{Helvetica and Times Roman walk into a bar.} \wlog{The barman says,^^JWe don't serve your type.} 27.5.4 '\write18' ----------------- Synopsis: \write18{SHELL_COMMAND} Issue a command to the operating system shell. The operating system runs the command and LaTeX's execution is blocked until that finishes. This sequence (on Unix) \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble ... \newcommand{\fignum}{1} \immediate\write18{cd pix && asy figure\fignum} \includegraphics{pix\figure\fignum.pdf} will run Asymptote (the 'asy' program) on 'pix/figure1.asy', so that the document can later read in the resulting graphic (*note \includegraphics::). Like any '\write', here LaTeX expands macros in SHELL_COMMAND so that '\fignum' is replaced by '1'. Another example is that you can automatically run BibTeX at the start of each LaTeX run (*note Using BibTeX::) by including '\immediate\write18{bibtex8 \jobname}' as the first line of the file. Note that '\jobname' expands to the basename of the root file unless the '--jobname' option is passed on the command line, in which case this is the option argument. You sometimes need to do a multi-step process to get the information that you want. This will insert into the input a list of all PDF files in the current directory (but see 'texosquery' below): \immediate\write18{ls *.pdf > tmp.dat} \input{tmp.dat} The standard behavior of any '\write' is to wait until a page is being shipped out before expanding the macros or writing to the stream (*note \write::). But sometimes you want it done now. For this, use '\immediate\write18{SHELL_COMMAND}'. There are obvious security issues with allowing system commands inside a LaTeX file. If you download a file off the net and it contains commands to delete all your files then you would be unhappy. The standard settings in modern distributions turn off full shell access. You can turn it on, if you are sure the shell commands are safe, by compiling with 'latex --enable-write18 FILENAME' (*note Command line options::). (The '--shell-escape' option is a synonym, in TeX Live.) In the place of full shell access, modern distributions by default use a restricted version that allows some commands to work, such as those that run Metafont to generate missing fonts, even if you do not use the 'enable-write18' option. By default this list of allowed commands is short and features only commands that are under the control of the distribution maintainers (*note Command line options::). The SHELL_COMMAND text is always passed to '/bin/sh' on Unix-like operating systems, and the DOS command interpreter 'cmd.exe' on Windows. Any different shell set by the user, and the 'SHELL' environment variable, is ignored. If what you need is system information, such as the operating system name, locale information, or directory contents, take a look at the 'texosquery' package, which provides a convenient and secure interface for this, unlike the above examples using the raw '\write18': . LaTeX provides a package 'shellesc' on top of the primitive '\write18' command. Its primary purpose is to provide a command '\ShellEscape' which works identically on all TeX engines; LuaTeX intentionally did not retain '\write18' as a way to invoke a shell command, so some engine-specific code is needed. The 'shellesc' package also provides a command '\DelayedShellEscape', executed at '\output' time, for the same reason. 28 Command line interface ************************* Synopsis (from a terminal command line): pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT Run LaTeX on ARGUMENT. In place of 'pdflatex' you can also use (for PDF output) 'xelatex' or 'lualatex', or (for DVI output) 'latex' or 'dvilualatex', among others (*note TeX engines::). For example, this will run LaTeX on the file 'thesis.tex', creating the output 'thesis.pdf'. pdflatex thesis Note that '.tex' is the default file name extension. pdfTeX is an extension of the original TeX program, as are XeTeX and LuaTeX (*note TeX engines::). The first two are completely backward compatible and the latter, almost so. Perhaps the most fundamental new feature for all three is that the original TeX output its own DVI format, while the newer ones can output directly to PDF. This allows them to take advantage of the extra features in PDF such as hyperlinks, support for modern image formats such as JPG and PNG, and ubiquitous viewing programs. In short, if you run 'pdflatex' or 'xelatex' or 'lualatex' then you will by default get PDF and have access to all its modern features. If you run 'latex', or 'dvilualatex', then you will get DVI. The description here assumes pdfLaTeX. *Note Command line options::, for a selection of the most useful command line options. As to ARGUMENT, the usual case is that it does not begin with a backslash, so the system takes it to be the name of a file and it compiles that file. If ARGUMENT begins with a backslash then the system will interpret it as a line of LaTeX input, which can be used for special effects (*note Command line input::). If you gave no arguments or options then 'pdflatex' prompts for input from the terminal. You can escape from this by entering 'CTRL-D'. If LaTeX finds an error in your document then by default it stops and asks you about it. *Note Recovering from errors::, for an outline of what to do. 28.1 Command line options ========================= These are the command-line options relevant to ordinary document authoring. For a full list, try running 'latex --help' from the command line. With many implementations you can specify command line options by prefixing them with '-' or '--'. This is the case for both TeX Live (including MacTeX) and MiKTeX. We will use both conventions interchangeably. If an option takes a value, it can be specified either as a separate argument ('--foo val'), or as one argument with an '=' sign ('--foo=val'), but there can be no spaces around the '='. We will generally use the '=' syntax. '-version' Show the current version, like 'pdfTeX 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.16 (TeX Live 2015/Debian)' along with a small amount of additional information, and exit. '-help' Give a brief usage message that is useful as a prompt and exit. '-interaction=MODE' TeX compiles a document in one of four interaction modes: 'batchmode', 'nonstopmode', 'scrollmode', 'errorstopmode'. In "errorstopmode" (the default), TeX stops at each error and asks for user intervention. In "batchmode" it prints nothing on the terminal, errors are scrolled as if the user hit 'RETURN' at every error, and missing files cause the job to abort. In "nonstopmode", diagnostic message appear on the terminal but as in batch mode there is no user interaction. In "scrollmode", TeX stops for missing files or keyboard input, but nothing else. For instance, starting LaTeX with this command line pdflatex -interaction=batchmode FILENAME eliminates most terminal output. '-jobname=STRING' Set the value of TeX's "jobname" to the string. The log file and output file will then be named 'STRING.log' and 'STRING.pdf'. *note Jobname::. '-output-directory=DIRECTORY' Write files in the directory DIRECTORY. It must already exist. This applies to all external files created by TeX or LaTeX, such as the '.log' file for the run, the '.aux', '.toc', etc., files created by LaTeX, as well as the main '.pdf' or '.dvi' output file itself. When specified, the output directory DIRECTORY is also automatically checked first for any file that it is input, so that the external files can be read back in, if desired. The true current directory (in which LaTeX was run) remains unchanged, and is also checked for input files. '--enable-write18' '--disable-write18' '--shell-escape' '--no-shell-escape' Enable or disable '\write18{SHELL_COMMAND}' (*note \write18::). The first two options are supported by both TeX Live and MiKTeX, while the second two are synonyms supported by TeX Live. Enabling this functionality has major security implications, since it allows a LaTeX file to run any command whatsoever. Thus, by default, unrestricted '\write18' is not allowed. (The default for TeX Live, MacTeX, and MiKTeX is to allow the execution of a limited number of TeX-related programs, which they distribute.) For example, if you invoke LaTeX with the option 'no-shell-escape', and in your document you call '\write18{ls -l}', then you do not get an error but the log file says 'runsystem(ls -l)...disabled'. '-halt-on-error' Stop processing at the first error. '-file-line-error' '-no-file-line-error' Enable or disable 'FILENAME:LINENO:ERROR'-style error messages. These are only available with TeX Live or MacTeX. 28.2 Command line input ======================= As part of the command line invocation LATEX-ENGINE OPTIONS ARGUMENT you can specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting ARGUMENT with a backslash. (All the engines support this.) This allows you to do some special effects. For example, this file (which uses the 'hyperref' package for hyperlinks) can produce two kinds of output, one to be read on physical paper and one to be read online. \ifdefined\paperversion % in preamble \newcommand{\urlcolor}{black} \else \newcommand{\urlcolor}{blue} \fi \usepackage[colorlinks=true,urlcolor=\urlcolor]{hyperref} ... \href{https://www.ctan.org}{CTAN} % in body ... Compiling this document 'book.tex' with the command line 'pdflatex book' will give the 'CTAN' link in blue. But compiling it with pdflatex "\def\paperversion{}\input book.tex" has the link in black. We use double quotes to prevent interpretation of the symbols by the command line shell. (This usually works on both Unix and Windows systems, but there are many peculiarities to shell quoting, so read your system documentation if need be.) In a similar way, from the single file 'main.tex' you can compile two different versions. pdflatex -jobname=students "\def\student{}\input{main}" pdflatex -jobname=teachers "\def\teachers{}\input{main}" The 'jobname' option is there because otherwise both files would be called 'main.pdf' and the second would overwrite the first. (See the next section.) In this example, we pass the 'draft' option to the 'graphicx' package: pdflatex "\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\input{aa.tex}" so the graphic files are read for their bounding box size information but replaced in the PDF by a box with same size and that contains only the file name, which speeds up compilation time and saves printer ink. 28.3 Jobname ============ Running LaTeX creates a number of files, including the main PDF (or DVI) output but also including others. These files are named with the so-called "jobname". The most common case is also the simplest, where for instance the command 'pdflatex thesis' creates 'thesis.pdf' and also 'thesis.log' and 'thesis.aux'. Here the job name is 'thesis'. In general, LaTeX is invoked as 'LATEX-ENGINE OPTIONS ARGUMENT', where LATEX-ENGINE is 'pdflatex', 'lualatex', etc. (*note TeX engines::). If ARGUMENT does not start with a backslash, as is the case above with 'thesis', then TeX considers it to be the name of the file to input as the main document. The name of that root file, without the '.tex' extension, is the jobname. If ARGUMENT does start with a backslash, or if TeX is in interactive mode, then it waits for the first '\input' command, and the jobname is the argument to '\input'. There are two more possibilities for the jobname. It can be directly specified with the '-jobname' option, as in 'pdflatex -jobname=myname' (*note Command line input:: for a real example). The final possibility is 'texput', which is the final fallback default if no other name is available to TeX. For example, if no '-jobname' option was specified, and the compilation stops before there is any output, then the log file will be named 'texput.log'. A special case of this is that in LaTeX versions of (approximately) 2020 or later, the jobname is also 'texput' if the first '\input' occurs as a result of being called by either '\documentclass' or '\RequirePackage'. So this will produce a file named 'texput.pdf': pdflatex "\documentclass{minimal}\begin{document}Hello!\end{document}" However, this special case only applies to those two commands. Thus, with pdflatex "\documentclass{article}\usepackage{lipsum}\input{thesis}" the output file is 'lipsum.pdf', as '\usepackage' calls '\input'. Within the document, the macro '\jobname' expands to the jobname. (When you run LaTeX on a file whose name contains spaces, the string returned by '\jobname' contains matching start and end quotes.) In the expansion of that macro, all characters are of catcode 12 (other) except that spaces are category 10, including letters that are normally catcode 11. Because of this catcode situation, using the jobname in a conditional can become complicated. One solution is to use the macro '\IfBeginWith' from the 'xstring' package in its star variant, which is insensitive to catcode. For example, in the following text the footnote "Including Respublica Bananensis Francorum." is only present if the task name starts with 'my-doc'. If a democracy is just a regime where citizens vote then all banana republics \IfBeginWith*{\jobname}{my-doc}% {\footnote{Including Respublica Bananensis Francorum.}}{} are democracies. Manipulating the value of '\jobname' inside of a document does not change the name of the output file or the log file. 28.4 Recovering from errors =========================== If LaTeX finds an error in your document then it gives you an error message and prompts you with a question mark, '?'. For instance, running LaTeX on this file \newcommand{\NP}{\ensuremath{\textbf{NP}}} The \PN{} problem is a million dollar one. causes it show this, and wait for input. ! Undefined control sequence. l.5 The \PN {} problem is a million dollar one. ? The simplest thing is to enter 'x' and 'RETURN' and fix the typo. You could instead enter '?' and 'RETURN' to see other options. There are two other error scenarios. The first is that you forgot to include the '\end{document}' or misspelled it. In this case LaTeX gives you a '*' prompt. You can get back to the command line by typing '\stop' and 'RETURN'; this command does its best to exit LaTeX immediately, whatever state it may be in. The last scenario is that you mistyped the filename. For instance, instead of 'pdflatex test' you might type 'pdflatex tste'. ! I can't find file `tste'. <*> tste (Press Enter to retry, or Control-D to exit) Please type another input file name: The simplest thing is to enter 'CTRL d' (holding the Control and d keys down at the same time), and then retype the correct command line. Appendix A Document templates ***************************** Although illustrative material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at . A.1 'beamer' template ===================== The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template: \documentclass{beamer} \title{Beamer Class template} \author{Alex Author} \date{July 31, 2020} \begin{document} \maketitle % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors. \begin{frame}[fragile] \frametitle{First Slide} \begin{verbatim} This is \verbatim! \end{verbatim} \end{frame} \end{document} The Beamer package on CTAN: . A.2 'article' template ====================== A simple template for an article. \documentclass{article} \title{Article Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \section{First section} Some text. \subsection{First section, first subsection} Additional text. \section{Second section} Some more text. \end{document} A.3 'book' template =================== This is a straightforward template for a book. *Note Larger book template::, for a more elaborate one. \documentclass{book} \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \begin{document} \maketitle \chapter{First} Some text. \chapter{Second} Some other text. \section{A subtopic} The end. \end{document} A.4 Larger 'book' template ========================== This is a somewhat elaborate template for a book. *Note book template::, for a simpler one. This template uses '\frontmatter', '\mainmatter', and '\backmatter' to control the typography of the three main areas of a book (*note \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter::). The book has a bibliography and an index. Also notable is that it uses '\include' and '\includeonly' (*note Splitting the input::). While you are working on a chapter you can comment out all the other chapter entries from the argument to '\includeonly'. That will speed up compilation without losing any information such as cross-references. (Material that does not need to come on a new page is brought in with '\input' instead of '\include'. You don't get the cross-reference benefit with '\input'.) \documentclass[titlepage]{book} \usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex \title{Book Class Template} \author{Alex Author} \includeonly{% % frontcover, preface, chap1, % appenA, } \begin{document} \frontmatter \include{frontcover} % maybe comment out while drafting: \maketitle \input{dedication} \input{copyright} \tableofcontents \include{preface} \mainmatter \include{chap1} ... \appendix \include{appenA} ... \backmatter \bibliographystyle{apalike} \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Bibliography} \bibliography \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Index} \printindex \include{backcover} \end{document} Index ***** * Menu: * $ inline math: math. (line 4674) * $$...$$ plain TeX display math: displaymath. (line 3779) * & for table cells: tabular. (line 5641) * * prompt: Recovering from errors. (line 16032) * *-form of environment commands: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 7497) * *-form of sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 2569) * *-form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7127) * --disable-write18 command-line option: Command line options. (line 15867) * --enable-write18 command-line option: Command line options. (line 15867) * --file-line-error command-line option: Command line options. (line 15888) * --halt-on-error command-line option: Command line options. (line 15885) * --help command-line option: Command line options. (line 15829) * --interaction command-line option: Command line options. (line 15832) * --jobname command-line option: Command line options. (line 15849) * --no-file-line-error command-line option: Command line options. (line 15888) * --no-shell-escape command-line option: Command line options. (line 15867) * --output-directory command-line option: Command line options. (line 15854) * --shell-escape command-line option: Command line options. (line 15867) * --version command-line option: Command line options. (line 15824) * -1, write stream number: \write. (line 15526) * .aux file: Output files. (line 486) * .dvi file: Output files. (line 463) * .fmt file: TeX engines. (line 505) * .glo file: Glossaries. (line 14923) * .idx file: Indexes. (line 14560) * .idx file <1>: makeindex. (line 14711) * .ind file: makeindex. (line 14711) * .isty file: makeindex. (line 14723) * .lof file: Output files. (line 496) * .lof file <1>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * .lof file <2>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * .log file: Output files. (line 481) * .lot file: Output files. (line 496) * .lot file <1>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * .lot file <2>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * .pdf file: Output files. (line 473) * .tex, default extension: Command line interface. (line 15781) * .toc file: Output files. (line 496) * .toc file <1>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * .toc file <2>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * .xdv file: TeX engines. (line 541) * /bin/sh, used by \write18: \write18. (line 15746) * 10pt option: Document class options. (line 737) * 11pt option: Document class options. (line 737) * 12pt option: Document class options. (line 737) * : for math: Colon character & \colon. (line 10730) * [...] for optional arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 591) * \ (backslash-space): \(SPACE). (line 11412) * \ character starting commands: LaTeX command syntax. (line 591) * \!: Spacing in math mode. (line 10561) * \" (umlaut accent): Accents. (line 13648) * \#: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \$: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \%: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \&: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \' (acute accent): Accents. (line 13652) * \' (tabbing): tabbing. (line 5489) * \(...\) inline math: math. (line 4674) * \*: \*. (line 10750) * \+: tabbing. (line 5481) * \,: Spacing in math mode. (line 10547) * \-: tabbing. (line 5485) * \- (hyphenation): \- (hyphenation). (line 6520) * \. (dot-over accent): Accents. (line 13655) * \/: \/. (line 11541) * \:: Spacing in math mode. (line 10537) * \;: Spacing in math mode. (line 10526) * \<: tabbing. (line 5477) * \= (macron accent): Accents. (line 13659) * \= (tabbing): tabbing. (line 5471) * \>: tabbing. (line 5475) * \> <1>: Spacing in math mode. (line 10537) * \> (tabbing): tabbing. (line 5474) * \@: \@. (line 11336) * \@auxout: \write. (line 15541) * \@beginparpenalty: list. (line 4556) * \@dottedtocline: \@dottedtocline. (line 14296) * \@endparpenalty: list. (line 4564) * \@fnsymbol: \footnote. (line 6876) * \@ifstar: \@ifstar. (line 7310) * \@itempenalty: list. (line 4560) * \@mainaux: \write. (line 15541) * \@startsection: \@startsection. (line 3055) * \a (tabbing): tabbing. (line 5504) * \a' (acute accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 5505) * \a= (macron accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 5505) * \aa (å): Additional Latin letters. (line 13769) * \AA (Å): Additional Latin letters. (line 13769) * \accent: \accent. (line 13719) * \acute: Math accents. (line 10419) * \addcontentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 14332) * \address: \address. (line 15102) * \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: \addtocontents. (line 14408) * \addtocounter: \addtocounter. (line 8090) * \addtolength: \addtolength. (line 8336) * \addvspace: \addvspace. (line 11876) * \ae (æ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13773) * \AE (Æ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13773) * \aleph: Math symbols. (line 8965) * \Alph example: enumerate. (line 3890) * \alpha: Math symbols. (line 8968) * \alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7965) * \Alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7970) * \alsoname: \index. (line 14646) * \amalg: Math symbols. (line 8971) * \and for \author: \maketitle. (line 10927) * \angle: Math symbols. (line 8974) * \appendix: \appendix. (line 2986) * \approx: Math symbols. (line 8979) * \arabic{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7975) * \arccos: Math functions. (line 10302) * \arcsin: Math functions. (line 10305) * \arctan: Math functions. (line 10308) * \arg: Math functions. (line 10311) * \arraycolsep: array. (line 3573) * \arrayrulewidth: tabular. (line 5766) * \arraystretch: tabular. (line 5772) * \ast: Math symbols. (line 8982) * \asymp: Math symbols. (line 8990) * \AtBeginDocument: \AtBeginDocument. (line 3803) * \AtBeginDvi: Class and package commands. (line 917) * \AtEndDocument: \AtEndDocument. (line 3819) * \AtEndOfClass: Class and package commands. (line 922) * \AtEndOfPackage: Class and package commands. (line 922) * \author{NAME1 \and NAME2 \and ...}: \maketitle. (line 10926) * \a` (grave accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 5505) * \b (bar-under accent): Accents. (line 13674) * \backmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * \backslash: Math symbols. (line 8993) * \bar: Math accents. (line 10422) * \baselineskip: Low-level font commands. (line 1981) * \baselineskip <1>: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * \baselinestretch: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * \begin: Environments. (line 3465) * \beta: Math symbols. (line 8997) * \bf: Font styles. (line 1770) * \bfseries: Font styles. (line 1735) * \bibitem: \bibitem. (line 5995) * \bibliography: Using BibTeX. (line 6119) * \bibliographystyle: Using BibTeX. (line 6119) * \bibname: thebibliography. (line 5978) * \bigcap: Math symbols. (line 9000) * \bigcirc: Math symbols. (line 9005) * \bigcup: Math symbols. (line 9008) * \bigodot: Math symbols. (line 9013) * \bigoplus: Math symbols. (line 9016) * \bigotimes: Math symbols. (line 9019) * \bigskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 11657) * \bigskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 11658) * \bigsqcup: Math symbols. (line 9028) * \bigtriangledown: Math symbols. (line 9022) * \bigtriangleup: Math symbols. (line 9025) * \biguplus: Math symbols. (line 9031) * \bigvee: Math symbols. (line 9035) * \bigwedge: Math symbols. (line 9038) * \bmod: Math functions. (line 10314) * \boldmath: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9875) * \boldmath <1>: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9883) * \bot: Math symbols. (line 9041) * \bottomfraction: Floats. (line 2482) * \bottomfraction <1>: Floats. (line 2483) * \bowtie: Math symbols. (line 9046) * \Box: Math symbols. (line 9049) * \breve: Math accents. (line 10425) * \bullet: Math symbols. (line 9054) * \c (cedilla accent): Accents. (line 13684) * \cal: Font styles. (line 1773) * \cap: Math symbols. (line 9057) * \capitalacute: Accents. (line 13652) * \capitalbreve: Accents. (line 13710) * \capitalcaron: Accents. (line 13714) * \capitalcedilla: Accents. (line 13684) * \capitalcircumflex: Accents. (line 13663) * \capitaldieresis: Accents. (line 13648) * \capitaldotaccent: Accents. (line 13688) * \capitalgrave: Accents. (line 13667) * \capitalhungarumlaut: Accents. (line 13692) * \capitalmacron: Accents. (line 13659) * \capitalnewtie: Accents. (line 13706) * \capitalogonek: Accents. (line 13696) * \capitalring: Accents. (line 13700) * \capitaltie: Accents. (line 13706) * \capitaltilde: Accents. (line 13671) * \caption: figure. (line 4016) * \caption <1>: table. (line 5593) * \cc: \cc. (line 15128) * \cdot: Math symbols. (line 9062) * \cdots: Dots. (line 10213) * \centering: \centering. (line 3655) * \chapter: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \chapter <1>: \chapter. (line 2684) * \check: Math accents. (line 10428) * \CheckCommand: Class and package commands. (line 929) * \CheckCommand*: Class and package commands. (line 929) * \chi: Math symbols. (line 9065) * \circ: Math symbols. (line 9068) * \circle: \circle. (line 5143) * \cite: \cite. (line 6053) * \ClassError: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \ClassInfo: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \ClassInfoNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \ClassWarning: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \ClassWarningNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \cleardoublepage: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6699) * \clearpage: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6699) * \cline: \cline. (line 5900) * \closein: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * \closeout: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * \closing: \closing. (line 15144) * \clubsuit: Math symbols. (line 9073) * \colon: Colon character & \colon. (line 10730) * \columnsep: \twocolumn. (line 2046) * \columnsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * \columnsep <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 2174) * \columnseprule: \twocolumn. (line 2052) * \columnseprule <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2172) * \columnseprule <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 2174) * \columnwidth: \twocolumn. (line 2059) * \columnwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2173) * \columnwidth <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 2174) * \complement: Math symbols. (line 9076) * \cong: Math symbols. (line 9082) * \contentsline: Table of contents etc.. (line 14228) * \contentsline <1>: \addcontentsline. (line 14336) * \contentsline <2>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \coprod: Math symbols. (line 9085) * \copyright: Text symbols. (line 13424) * \cos: Math functions. (line 10317) * \cosh: Math functions. (line 10320) * \cot: Math functions. (line 10323) * \coth: Math functions. (line 10326) * \csc: Math functions. (line 10329) * \cup: Math symbols. (line 9088) * \CurrentOption: Class and package commands. (line 968) * \d (dot-under accent): Accents. (line 13688) * \dag: Text symbols. (line 13428) * \dagger: Math symbols. (line 9092) * \dashbox: \dashbox. (line 5348) * \dashv: Math symbols. (line 9095) * \date{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 10934) * \day: \day & \month & \year. (line 8139) * \dblfloatpagefraction: \twocolumn. (line 2092) * \dblfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 2098) * \dbltextfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 2105) * \dbltopfraction: \twocolumn. (line 2071) * \dbltopnumber: \twocolumn. (line 2110) * \ddag: Text symbols. (line 13431) * \ddagger: Math symbols. (line 9100) * \ddot: Math accents. (line 10431) * \ddots: Dots. (line 10217) * \DeclareFontEncoding: \DeclareFontEncoding. (line 1384) * \DeclareGraphicsExtensions: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions. (line 12741) * \DeclareGraphicsRule: \DeclareGraphicsRule. (line 12783) * \DeclareOption: Class and package commands. (line 974) * \DeclareOption*: Class and package commands. (line 974) * \DeclareRobustCommand: Class and package commands. (line 1004) * \DeclareRobustCommand*: Class and package commands. (line 1004) * \DeclareTextAccent: \DeclareTextAccent. (line 1418) * \DeclareTextAccent <1>: \DeclareTextAccentDefault. (line 1441) * \DeclareTextAccentDefault: \DeclareTextAccentDefault. (line 1441) * \DeclareTextCommand: \DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand. (line 1469) * \DeclareTextCommand <1>: \DeclareTextCommandDefault & \ProvideTextCommandDefault. (line 1518) * \DeclareTextCommandDefault: \DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand. (line 1469) * \DeclareTextCommandDefault <1>: \DeclareTextCommandDefault & \ProvideTextCommandDefault. (line 1518) * \DeclareTextComposite: \DeclareTextComposite. (line 1550) * \DeclareTextCompositeCommand: \DeclareTextCompositeCommand. (line 1575) * \DeclareTextSymbol: \DeclareTextSymbol. (line 1593) * \DeclareTextSymbol <1>: \DeclareTextSymbolDefault. (line 1620) * \DeclareTextSymbolDefault: \DeclareTextSymbolDefault. (line 1620) * \deg: Math functions. (line 10332) * \DelayedShellEscape: \write18. (line 15757) * \Delta: Math symbols. (line 9103) * \delta: Math symbols. (line 9106) * \det: Math functions. (line 10335) * \dh (ð): Additional Latin letters. (line 13777) * \DH (Ð): Additional Latin letters. (line 13777) * \Diamond: Math symbols. (line 9109) * \diamond: Math symbols. (line 9113) * \diamondsuit: Math symbols. (line 9118) * \dim: Math functions. (line 10338) * \displaystyle: Math formulas. (line 8851) * \div: Math symbols. (line 9121) * \dj: Additional Latin letters. (line 13783) * \DJ: Additional Latin letters. (line 13783) * \documentclass: Document classes. (line 694) * \documentclass, and texput jobname: Jobname. (line 15974) * \dot: Math accents. (line 10434) * \doteq: Math symbols. (line 9124) * \dotfill: \hrulefill & \dotfill. (line 11586) * \dots: Text symbols. (line 13448) * \doublerulesep: tabular. (line 5777) * \downarrow: Math symbols. (line 9129) * \Downarrow: Math symbols. (line 9133) * \ell: Math symbols. (line 9137) * \emph: Font styles. (line 1755) * \emptyset: Math symbols. (line 9140) * \encl: \encl. (line 15157) * \end: Environments. (line 3465) * \endinput: \endinput. (line 13982) * \enlargethispage: \enlargethispage. (line 6773) * \enspace: \enspace & \quad & \qquad. (line 11141) * \enumi: enumerate. (line 3876) * \enumii: enumerate. (line 3876) * \enumiii: enumerate. (line 3876) * \enumiv: enumerate. (line 3876) * \epsilon: Math symbols. (line 9143) * \equiv: Math symbols. (line 9150) * \eta: Math symbols. (line 9153) * \evensidemargin: Document class options. (line 807) * \evensidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2232) * \evensidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 2233) * \ExecuteOptions: Class and package commands. (line 1080) * \exists: Math symbols. (line 9156) * \exp: Math functions. (line 10341) * \externaldocument: xr package. (line 3410) * \extracolsep: tabular. (line 5717) * \fbox: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12023) * \fboxrule: \framebox (picture). (line 5325) * \fboxrule <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12056) * \fboxrule <2>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12055) * \fboxsep: \framebox (picture). (line 5325) * \fboxsep <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12061) * \fboxsep <2>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12060) * \fill: \hfill. (line 11228) * \flat: Math symbols. (line 9159) * \floatpagefraction: Floats. (line 2486) * \floatpagefraction <1>: Floats. (line 2487) * \floatsep: Floats. (line 2502) * \floatsep <1>: Floats. (line 2503) * \flushbottom: \flushbottom. (line 2139) * \fnsymbol, and footnotes: \footnote. (line 6876) * \fnsymbol{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7988) * \fontdimen1: \/. (line 11575) * \fontencoding: Low-level font commands. (line 1891) * \fontfamily: Low-level font commands. (line 1901) * \fontseries: Low-level font commands. (line 1928) * \fontshape: Low-level font commands. (line 1968) * \fontsize: Low-level font commands. (line 1981) * \footnote: \footnote. (line 6858) * \footnotemark: \footnotemark. (line 6924) * \footnoterule: \footnote. (line 6886) * \footnotesep: \footnote. (line 6898) * \footnotesize: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \footnotetext: \footnotetext. (line 6980) * \footskip: Page layout parameters. (line 2191) * \footskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2192) * \forall: Math symbols. (line 9162) * \frac: \frac. (line 10766) * \frame: \frame. (line 5336) * \framebox: \framebox (picture). (line 5300) * \framebox <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12023) * \frenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 11382) * \frontmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * \frown: Math symbols. (line 9165) * \fussy: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6578) * \Gamma: Math symbols. (line 9168) * \gamma: Math symbols. (line 9171) * \gcd: Math functions. (line 10344) * \ge: Math symbols. (line 9174) * \geq: Math symbols. (line 9178) * \gets: Math symbols. (line 9182) * \gg: Math symbols. (line 9185) * \gls: \gls. (line 14993) * \graphicspath: \graphicspath. (line 12678) * \graphpaper: \graphpaper. (line 5046) * \grave: Math accents. (line 10437) * \guillemotleft («): Text symbols. (line 13440) * \guillemotright (»): Text symbols. (line 13441) * \guilsinglleft (‹): Text symbols. (line 13442) * \guilsinglright (›): Text symbols. (line 13443) * \H (Hungarian umlaut accent): Accents. (line 13692) * \hat: Math accents. (line 10440) * \hbar: Math symbols. (line 9188) * \headheight: Page layout parameters. (line 2179) * \headheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2180) * \headsep: Page layout parameters. (line 2184) * \headsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2185) * \heartsuit: Math symbols. (line 9191) * \hfill: \hfill. (line 11216) * \hline: \hline. (line 5923) * \hom: Math functions. (line 10347) * \hookleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 9194) * \hookrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9197) * \hrulefill: \hrulefill & \dotfill. (line 11586) * \hsize: Page layout parameters. (line 2284) * \hsize <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2285) * \hspace: \hspace. (line 11169) * \hss: \hss. (line 11249) * \huge: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \Huge: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \hyphenation: \hyphenation. (line 6619) * \i (dotless i): Accents. (line 13642) * \IfBeginWith* macro from xstring: Jobname. (line 15997) * \iff: Math symbols. (line 9200) * \IfFileExists: Class and package commands. (line 1036) * \ignorespaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 7806) * \ignorespacesafterend: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 7806) * \ij (ij): Additional Latin letters. (line 13789) * \IJ (IJ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13789) * \Im: Math symbols. (line 9204) * \imath: Math symbols. (line 9207) * \immediate\write: \write. (line 15556) * \in: Math symbols. (line 9211) * \include: \include & \includeonly. (line 14014) * \includegraphics: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * \includeonly: \include & \includeonly. (line 14014) * \indent: \indent & \noindent. (line 8665) * \index: Indexes. (line 14560) * \index <1>: \index. (line 14596) * \indexentry: \index. (line 14696) * \indexspace: makeindex. (line 14763) * \inf: Math functions. (line 10350) * \infty: Math symbols. (line 9215) * \input: \input. (line 14133) * \InputIfFileExists: Class and package commands. (line 1036) * \int: Math symbols. (line 9218) * \intextsep: Floats. (line 2506) * \intextsep <1>: Floats. (line 2507) * \iota: Math symbols. (line 9221) * \it: Font styles. (line 1776) * \item: description. (line 3722) * \item <1>: enumerate. (line 3858) * \item <2>: itemize. (line 4210) * \item <3>: itemize. (line 4234) * \itemindent: list. (line 4381) * \itemsep: list. (line 4385) * \itshape: Font styles. (line 1729) * \j (dotless j): Accents. (line 13642) * \jmath: Math symbols. (line 9227) * \jobname: Jobname. (line 15950) * \jobname <1>: Jobname. (line 15988) * \Join: Math symbols. (line 9224) * \k (ogonek): Accents. (line 13696) * \kappa: Math symbols. (line 9231) * \ker: Math functions. (line 10353) * \kill: tabbing. (line 5509) * \l (ł): Additional Latin letters. (line 13793) * \L (Ł): Additional Latin letters. (line 13793) * \l@chapter: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \l@section: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \l@subsection: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \label: \label. (line 3299) * \labelenumi: enumerate. (line 3885) * \labelenumii: enumerate. (line 3885) * \labelenumiii: enumerate. (line 3885) * \labelenumiv: enumerate. (line 3885) * \labelitemi: itemize. (line 4246) * \labelitemii: itemize. (line 4246) * \labelitemiii: itemize. (line 4246) * \labelitemiv: itemize. (line 4246) * \labelsep: list. (line 4397) * \labelwidth: list. (line 4402) * \Lambda: Math symbols. (line 9234) * \lambda: Math symbols. (line 9237) * \land: Math symbols. (line 9240) * \langle: Math symbols. (line 9244) * \large: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \Large: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \LARGE: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \LastDeclaredEncoding: \LastDeclaredEncoding. (line 1646) * \LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 13434) * \LaTeXe: Text symbols. (line 13437) * \lbrace: Math symbols. (line 9248) * \lbrack: Math symbols. (line 9251) * \lceil: Math symbols. (line 9254) * \ldots: Dots. (line 10220) * \ldots <1>: Text symbols. (line 13447) * \le: Math symbols. (line 9259) * \leadsto: Math symbols. (line 9262) * \left: \left & \right. (line 10008) * \Leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 9268) * \leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 9273) * \lefteqn: eqnarray. (line 3942) * \leftharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 9277) * \leftharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 9280) * \leftmargin: itemize. (line 4262) * \leftmargin <1>: list. (line 4422) * \leftmargini: itemize. (line 4262) * \leftmarginii: itemize. (line 4262) * \leftmarginiii: itemize. (line 4262) * \leftmarginiv: itemize. (line 4262) * \leftmarginv: itemize. (line 4262) * \leftmarginvi: itemize. (line 4262) * \Leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9283) * \leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9288) * \leq: Math symbols. (line 9293) * \lfloor: Math symbols. (line 9296) * \lg: Math functions. (line 10356) * \lhd: Math symbols. (line 9299) * \lim: Math functions. (line 10359) * \liminf: Math functions. (line 10362) * \limsup: Math functions. (line 10365) * \line: \line. (line 5070) * \linebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6637) * \lineskip: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2343) * \lineskiplimit: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2343) * \linespread: Low-level font commands. (line 1992) * \linespread <1>: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * \linethickness: \linethickness. (line 5115) * \linewidth: Page layout parameters. (line 2198) * \linewidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2199) * \listoffigures: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * \listoffigures <1>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \listoftables: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * \listoftables <1>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \listparindent: list. (line 4439) * \ll: Math symbols. (line 9305) * \ln: Math functions. (line 10368) * \lnot: Math symbols. (line 9308) * \LoadClass: Class and package commands. (line 1056) * \LoadClassWithOptions: Class and package commands. (line 1056) * \location: \location. (line 15172) * \log: Math functions. (line 10371) * \long: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7127) * \longleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 9311) * \longleftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9316) * \longmapsto: Math symbols. (line 9321) * \longrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9326) * \lor: Math symbols. (line 9331) * \lq: Text symbols. (line 13453) * \mainmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * \makebox: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11932) * \makebox (for picture): \makebox (picture). (line 5262) * \makeglossary: Glossaries. (line 14886) * \makeglossary <1>: Glossaries. (line 14923) * \makeindex: Indexes. (line 14560) * \makelabel: list. (line 4358) * \makelabels: \makelabels. (line 15182) * \maketitle: \maketitle. (line 10890) * \mapsto: Math symbols. (line 9335) * \marginpar: Marginal notes. (line 8746) * \marginparpush: Page layout parameters. (line 2205) * \marginparpush <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2208) * \marginparpush <2>: Marginal notes. (line 8775) * \marginparsep: Marginal notes. (line 8780) * \marginparwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 2207) * \marginparwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2208) * \marginparwidth <2>: Marginal notes. (line 8784) * \marginsep: Page layout parameters. (line 2206) * \marginsep <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2208) * \markboth{LEFT-HEAD}{RIGHT-HEAD}: \pagestyle. (line 11088) * \markright{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 11097) * \mathbf: Font styles. (line 1806) * \mathcal: Font styles. (line 1822) * \mathdollar: Math symbols. (line 9816) * \mathnormal: Font styles. (line 1819) * \mathparagraph: Math symbols. (line 9819) * \mathring: Math accents. (line 10443) * \mathrm: Font styles. (line 1803) * \mathsection: Math symbols. (line 9822) * \mathsf: Font styles. (line 1809) * \mathsterling: Math symbols. (line 9825) * \mathstrut: \mathstrut. (line 10702) * \mathtt: Font styles. (line 1812) * \mathunderscore: Math symbols. (line 9828) * \mathversion: Font styles. (line 1824) * \max: Math functions. (line 10374) * \mbox: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11932) * \mdseries: Font styles. (line 1732) * \medskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 11662) * \medskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 11663) * \medspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 10537) * \message: \message. (line 15628) * \mho: Math symbols. (line 9340) * \mid: Math symbols. (line 9343) * \min: Math functions. (line 10377) * \models: Math symbols. (line 9353) * \month: \day & \month & \year. (line 8139) * \mp: Math symbols. (line 9358) * \mu: Math symbols. (line 9361) * \multicolumn: \multicolumn. (line 5792) * \multiput: \multiput. (line 4983) * \nabla: Math symbols. (line 9364) * \name: \name. (line 15239) * \natural: Math symbols. (line 9367) * \ne: Math symbols. (line 9370) * \nearrow: Math symbols. (line 9373) * \NeedsTeXFormat: Class and package commands. (line 1090) * \neg: Math symbols. (line 9376) * \negmedspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 10542) * \negthickspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 10531) * \negthinspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 10561) * \negthinspace <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 11513) * \neq: Math symbols. (line 9380) * \newcommand: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7106) * \newcounter: \newcounter. (line 7385) * \newenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 7476) * \newfont: \newfont. (line 7722) * \newglossaryentry: \newglossaryentry. (line 14934) * \newlength: \newlength. (line 7426) * \newline: \newline. (line 6496) * \NEWLINE: \(SPACE). (line 11412) * \newpage: \newpage. (line 6740) * \newsavebox: \newsavebox. (line 7448) * \newtheorem: \newtheorem. (line 7610) * \newtie: Accents. (line 13706) * \newwrite: \write. (line 15520) * \ng: Additional Latin letters. (line 13797) * \NG: Additional Latin letters. (line 13797) * \ni: Math symbols. (line 9383) * \nocite: \nocite. (line 6104) * \nocorr: Font styles. (line 1717) * \nocorrlist: Font styles. (line 1717) * \nofiles: \nofiles. (line 14506) * \noindent: \indent & \noindent. (line 8665) * \nolinebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6637) * \nonfrenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 11382) * \nonumber: eqnarray. (line 3937) * \nopagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6798) * \normalfont: Font styles. (line 1753) * \normalmarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 8762) * \normalsfcodes: \normalsfcodes. (line 11402) * \normalsize: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \not: Math symbols. (line 9388) * \notin: Math symbols. (line 9396) * \nu: Math symbols. (line 9400) * \numberline: \numberline. (line 14531) * \nwarrow: Math symbols. (line 9403) * \o (ø): Additional Latin letters. (line 13801) * \O (Ø): Additional Latin letters. (line 13801) * \obeycr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6456) * \oddsidemargin: Document class options. (line 807) * \oddsidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2231) * \oddsidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters. (line 2233) * \odot: Math symbols. (line 9406) * \oe (œ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13805) * \OE (Œ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13805) * \oint: Math symbols. (line 9410) * \oldstylenums: Font styles. (line 1828) * \Omega: Math symbols. (line 9413) * \omega: Math symbols. (line 9416) * \ominus: Math symbols. (line 9419) * \onecolumn: \onecolumn. (line 2020) * \openin: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * \opening: \opening. (line 15249) * \openout: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * \oplus: Math symbols. (line 9422) * \OptionNotUsed: Class and package commands. (line 1108) * \oslash: Math symbols. (line 9427) * \otimes: Math symbols. (line 9430) * \oval: \oval. (line 5162) * \overbrace{MATH}: Over- and Underlining. (line 10498) * \overline{TEXT}: Over- and Underlining. (line 10479) * \owns: Math symbols. (line 9435) * \P: Text symbols. (line 13456) * \PackageError: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \PackageInfo: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \PackageInfoNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \PackageWarning: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \PackageWarningNoLine: Class and package commands. (line 949) * \pagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6798) * \pagenumbering: \pagenumbering. (line 10961) * \pageref: \pageref. (line 3357) * \pagestyle: \pagestyle. (line 11019) * \paperheight: Page layout parameters. (line 2244) * \paperheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2245) * \paperwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 2250) * \paperwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2251) * \par: \par. (line 8612) * \paragraph: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \paragraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2919) * \parallel: Math symbols. (line 9440) * \parbox: \parbox. (line 12090) * \parindent: minipage. (line 4777) * \parindent <1>: \indent & \noindent. (line 8665) * \parindent <2>: \parindent & \parskip. (line 8714) * \parsep: list. (line 4445) * \parskip: \parindent & \parskip. (line 8714) * \parskip example: itemize. (line 4282) * \part: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \part <1>: \part. (line 2630) * \partial: Math symbols. (line 9443) * \partopsep: list. (line 4454) * \PassOptionsToClass: Class and package commands. (line 1114) * \PassOptionsToPackage: Class and package commands. (line 1114) * \pdfpageheight: Document class options. (line 763) * \pdfpagewidth: Document class options. (line 763) * \perp: Math symbols. (line 9446) * \Phi: Math symbols. (line 9450) * \phi: Math symbols. (line 9453) * \Pi: Math symbols. (line 9458) * \pi: Math symbols. (line 9461) * \pm: Math symbols. (line 9465) * \pmod: Math functions. (line 10380) * \poptabs: tabbing. (line 5515) * \poptabs <1>: tabbing. (line 5516) * \pounds: Text symbols. (line 13460) * \Pr: Math functions. (line 10383) * \prec: Math symbols. (line 9468) * \preceq: Math symbols. (line 9471) * \prevdepth: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2343) * \prime: Math symbols. (line 9475) * \printglossaries: Glossaries. (line 14886) * \printglossaries <1>: Glossaries. (line 14923) * \printindex: \printindex. (line 14871) * \printindex <1>: \printindex. (line 14875) * \ProcessOptions: Class and package commands. (line 1151) * \ProcessOptions*: Class and package commands. (line 1151) * \prod: Math symbols. (line 9484) * \propto: Math symbols. (line 9487) * \protect: \protect. (line 7754) * \protected@write: \write. (line 15566) * \providecommand: \providecommand. (line 7233) * \ProvidesClass: Class and package commands. (line 1189) * \ProvidesFile: Class and package commands. (line 1222) * \ProvidesPackage: Class and package commands. (line 1189) * \ProvideTextCommand: \DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand. (line 1469) * \ProvideTextCommand <1>: \DeclareTextCommandDefault & \ProvideTextCommandDefault. (line 1518) * \ProvideTextCommandDefault: \DeclareTextCommandDefault & \ProvideTextCommandDefault. (line 1518) * \ps: \ps. (line 15261) * \Psi: Math symbols. (line 9490) * \psi: Math symbols. (line 9493) * \pushtabs: tabbing. (line 5518) * \put: \put. (line 4965) * \qbezier: \qbezier. (line 5006) * \qquad: Spacing in math mode. (line 10574) * \qquad <1>: \enspace & \quad & \qquad. (line 11141) * \quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 10568) * \quad <1>: \enspace & \quad & \qquad. (line 11141) * \quotedblbase („): Text symbols. (line 13464) * \quotesinglbase (‚): Text symbols. (line 13465) * \r (ring accent): Accents. (line 13700) * \raggedbottom: \raggedbottom. (line 2160) * \raggedleft: \raggedleft. (line 4183) * \raggedright: \raggedright. (line 4130) * \raisebox: \raisebox. (line 12142) * \rangle: Math symbols. (line 9496) * \rbrace: Math symbols. (line 9501) * \rbrack: Math symbols. (line 9504) * \rceil: Math symbols. (line 9508) * \Re: Math symbols. (line 9511) * \read: \read. (line 15393) * \ref: \ref. (line 3381) * \reflectbox: \scalebox. (line 13251) * \refname: thebibliography. (line 5978) * \refstepcounter: \refstepcounter. (line 8106) * \renewenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 7476) * \RequirePackage: Class and package commands. (line 1231) * \RequirePackage, and texput jobname: Jobname. (line 15974) * \RequirePackageWithOptions: Class and package commands. (line 1231) * \resizebox: \resizebox. (line 13282) * \restorecr: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6456) * \restriction: Math symbols. (line 9517) * \revemptyset: Math symbols. (line 9522) * \reversemarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 8762) * \rfloor: Math symbols. (line 9527) * \rhd: Math symbols. (line 9532) * \rho: Math symbols. (line 9538) * \right: \left & \right. (line 10008) * \Rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9543) * \rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 9548) * \rightharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 9552) * \rightharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 9555) * \rightleftharpoons: Math symbols. (line 9558) * \rightmargin: list. (line 4469) * \rm: Font styles. (line 1779) * \rmfamily: Font styles. (line 1726) * \roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7978) * \Roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7983) * \rotatebox: \rotatebox. (line 13183) * \rq: Text symbols. (line 13468) * \rule: \rule. (line 13873) * \S: Text symbols. (line 13471) * \savebox: \sbox & \savebox. (line 12188) * \sbox: \sbox & \savebox. (line 12188) * \sc: Font styles. (line 1782) * \scalebox: \scalebox. (line 13251) * \scriptsize: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \scshape: Font styles. (line 1747) * \searrow: Math symbols. (line 9561) * \sec: Math functions. (line 10386) * \section: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \section <1>: \section. (line 2777) * \seename: \index. (line 14646) * \selectfont: Low-level font commands. (line 1998) * \setcounter: \setcounter. (line 8072) * \setlength: \setlength. (line 8308) * \setminus: Math symbols. (line 9564) * \settodepth: \settodepth. (line 8365) * \settoheight: \settoheight. (line 8389) * \settowidth: \settowidth. (line 8413) * \sf: Font styles. (line 1785) * \sffamily: Font styles. (line 1744) * \sharp: Math symbols. (line 9570) * \ShellEscape: \write18. (line 15757) * \shipout and expansion: \write. (line 15561) * \shortstack: \shortstack. (line 5198) * \Sigma: Math symbols. (line 9573) * \sigma: Math symbols. (line 9576) * \signature: \signature. (line 15278) * \sim: Math symbols. (line 9580) * \simeq: Math symbols. (line 9583) * \sin: Math functions. (line 10389) * \sinh: Math functions. (line 10392) * \sl: Font styles. (line 1788) * \sloppy: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6578) * \slshape: Font styles. (line 1741) * \small: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \smallint: Math symbols. (line 9586) * \smallskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 11667) * \smallskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip. (line 11668) * \smile: Math symbols. (line 9590) * \SPACE: \(SPACE). (line 11412) * \SPACE <1>: \(SPACE). (line 11412) * \spacefactor: \spacefactor. (line 11275) * \spadesuit: Math symbols. (line 9593) * \sqcap: Math symbols. (line 9596) * \sqcup: Math symbols. (line 9600) * \sqrt: \sqrt. (line 10778) * \sqsubset: Math symbols. (line 9604) * \sqsubseteq: Math symbols. (line 9609) * \sqsupset: Math symbols. (line 9614) * \sqsupseteq: Math symbols. (line 9619) * \ss (ß): Additional Latin letters. (line 13809) * \SS (SS): Additional Latin letters. (line 13809) * \stackrel: \stackrel. (line 10794) * \star: Math symbols. (line 9624) * \stepcounter: \stepcounter. (line 8124) * \stop: Recovering from errors. (line 16032) * \stretch: \stretch. (line 8437) * \strut: \strut. (line 11711) * \subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \subparagraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2919) * \subsection: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \subsection <1>: \subsection. (line 2855) * \subset: Math symbols. (line 9632) * \subseteq: Math symbols. (line 9635) * \subsubsection: Sectioning. (line 2544) * \subsubsection <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2919) * \succ: Math symbols. (line 9638) * \succeq: Math symbols. (line 9641) * \sum: Math symbols. (line 9646) * \sup: Math functions. (line 10395) * \suppressfloats: Floats. (line 2475) * \supset: Math symbols. (line 9649) * \supseteq: Math symbols. (line 9652) * \surd: Math symbols. (line 9655) * \swarrow: Math symbols. (line 9660) * \symbol: Symbols by font position. (line 13405) * \t (tie-after accent): Accents. (line 13706) * \TAB: \(SPACE). (line 11412) * \tabbingsep: tabbing. (line 5523) * \tabcolsep: tabular. (line 5781) * \tableofcontents: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * \tableofcontents <1>: \contentsline. (line 14466) * \tan: Math functions. (line 10398) * \tanh: Math functions. (line 10401) * \tau: Math symbols. (line 9663) * \telephone: \telephone. (line 15308) * \TeX: Text symbols. (line 13475) * \textascendercompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 13513) * \textasciicircum: Text symbols. (line 13478) * \textasciitilde: Text symbols. (line 13481) * \textasteriskcentered: Text symbols. (line 13484) * \textbackslash: Reserved characters. (line 13332) * \textbackslash <1>: Text symbols. (line 13487) * \textbar: Text symbols. (line 13490) * \textbardbl: Text symbols. (line 13493) * \textbf: Font styles. (line 1735) * \textbigcircle: Text symbols. (line 13496) * \textbraceleft: Text symbols. (line 13499) * \textbraceright: Text symbols. (line 13502) * \textbullet: Text symbols. (line 13505) * \textcapitalcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 13512) * \textcircled{LETTER}: Text symbols. (line 13508) * \textcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 13511) * \textcopyright: Text symbols. (line 13425) * \textdagger: Text symbols. (line 13520) * \textdaggerdbl: Text symbols. (line 13523) * \textdollar (or \$): Text symbols. (line 13526) * \textellipsis: Text symbols. (line 13449) * \textemdash (or ---): Text symbols. (line 13529) * \textendash (or --): Text symbols. (line 13535) * \texteuro: Text symbols. (line 13538) * \textexclamdown (or !`): Text symbols. (line 13546) * \textfiguredash: Text symbols. (line 13549) * \textfloatsep: Floats. (line 2511) * \textfloatsep <1>: Floats. (line 2512) * \textfraction: Floats. (line 2490) * \textfraction <1>: Floats. (line 2491) * \textgreater: Text symbols. (line 13556) * \textheight: Page layout parameters. (line 2256) * \textheight <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2257) * \texthorizontalbar: Text symbols. (line 13559) * \textit: Font styles. (line 1729) * \textleftarrow: Text symbols. (line 13567) * \textless: Text symbols. (line 13564) * \textmd: Font styles. (line 1732) * \textnonbreakinghyphen: Text symbols. (line 13570) * \textnormal: Font styles. (line 1753) * \textordfeminine: Text symbols. (line 13576) * \textordmasculine: Text symbols. (line 13577) * \textparagraph: Text symbols. (line 13457) * \textperiodcentered: Text symbols. (line 13580) * \textquestiondown (or ?`): Text symbols. (line 13583) * \textquotedblleft (or ``): Text symbols. (line 13586) * \textquotedblright (or ''): Text symbols. (line 13589) * \textquoteleft (or `): Text symbols. (line 13592) * \textquoteright (or '): Text symbols. (line 13595) * \textquotesingle: Text symbols. (line 13598) * \textquotestraightbase: Text symbols. (line 13601) * \textquotestraightdblbase: Text symbols. (line 13602) * \textregistered: Text symbols. (line 13605) * \textrightarrow: Text symbols. (line 13608) * \textrm: Font styles. (line 1726) * \textsc: Font styles. (line 1747) * \textsection: Text symbols. (line 13472) * \textsf: Font styles. (line 1744) * \textsl: Font styles. (line 1741) * \textsterling: Text symbols. (line 13461) * \textthreequartersemdash: Text symbols. (line 13611) * \texttrademark: Text symbols. (line 13614) * \texttt: Font styles. (line 1750) * \texttwelveudash: Text symbols. (line 13617) * \textunderscore: Text symbols. (line 13620) * \textup: Font styles. (line 1738) * \textvisiblespace: Text symbols. (line 13623) * \textwidth: Page layout parameters. (line 2264) * \textwidth <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2265) * \th (þ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13813) * \TH (Þ): Additional Latin letters. (line 13813) * \thanks{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 10940) * \theta: Math symbols. (line 9666) * \thicklines: \thicklines. (line 5135) * \thickspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 10526) * \thinlines: \thinlines. (line 5127) * \thinspace: Spacing in math mode. (line 10547) * \thinspace <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 11513) * \thispagestyle: \thispagestyle. (line 11103) * \tilde: Math accents. (line 10446) * \times: Math symbols. (line 9670) * \tiny: Font sizes. (line 1845) * \title{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 10947) * \to: Math symbols. (line 9673) * \today: \today. (line 13908) * \top: Math symbols. (line 9677) * \topfraction: Floats. (line 2495) * \topfraction <1>: Floats. (line 2496) * \topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 2289) * \topsep: list. (line 4474) * \topskip: Page layout parameters. (line 2296) * \topskip <1>: Page layout parameters. (line 2297) * \triangle: Math symbols. (line 9682) * \triangleleft: Math symbols. (line 9685) * \triangleright: Math symbols. (line 9691) * \tt: Font styles. (line 1791) * \ttfamily: Font styles. (line 1750) * \twocolumn: \twocolumn. (line 2032) * \typein: \typein. (line 15424) * \typeout: \typeout. (line 15469) * \u (breve accent): Accents. (line 13710) * \unboldmath: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9875) * \unboldmath <1>: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9883) * \underbar: Accents. (line 13676) * \underbrace{MATH}: Over- and Underlining. (line 10484) * \underline{TEXT}: Over- and Underlining. (line 10467) * \unitlength: picture. (line 4860) * \unlhd: Math symbols. (line 9697) * \unrhd: Math symbols. (line 9703) * \Uparrow: Math symbols. (line 9709) * \uparrow: Math symbols. (line 9713) * \Updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 9717) * \updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 9722) * \upharpoonright: Math symbols. (line 9727) * \uplus: Math symbols. (line 9732) * \upshape: Font styles. (line 1738) * \Upsilon: Math symbols. (line 9739) * \upsilon: Math symbols. (line 9742) * \usebox: \usebox. (line 12296) * \usecounter: \usecounter. (line 8013) * \usefont: Low-level font commands. (line 2006) * \usepackage: Additional packages. (line 828) * \UseTextAccent: \UseTextSymbol & \UseTextAccent. (line 1663) * \UseTextSymbol: \UseTextSymbol & \UseTextAccent. (line 1663) * \v (breve accent): Accents. (line 13714) * \value: \value. (line 8039) * \vanothing: Math symbols. (line 9750) * \varepsilon: Math symbols. (line 9745) * \varphi: Math symbols. (line 9755) * \varpi: Math symbols. (line 9759) * \varrho: Math symbols. (line 9763) * \varsigma: Math symbols. (line 9767) * \vartheta: Math symbols. (line 9771) * \vbox plain TeX: minipage. (line 4731) * \vdash: Math symbols. (line 9775) * \vdots: Dots. (line 10229) * \vec: Math accents. (line 10449) * \vector: \vector. (line 5240) * \vee: Math symbols. (line 9779) * \verb: \verb. (line 6290) * \Vert: Math symbols. (line 9783) * \vert: Math symbols. (line 9787) * \vfill: \vfill. (line 11847) * \vline: \vline. (line 5874) * \vspace: \vspace. (line 11796) * \vtop plain TeX: minipage. (line 4727) * \wedge: Math symbols. (line 9794) * \widehat: Math accents. (line 10452) * \widetilde: Math accents. (line 10455) * \wlog: \wlog. (line 15674) * \wp: Math symbols. (line 9798) * \wr: Math symbols. (line 9801) * \write: \write. (line 15502) * \write and security: \write and security. (line 15604) * \write streams 16, 17, 18: \write. (line 15582) * \write18: \write18. (line 15692) * \write18, enabling: Command line options. (line 15867) * \Xi: Math symbols. (line 9804) * \xi: Math symbols. (line 9807) * \xspace: xspace package. (line 7880) * \year: \day & \month & \year. (line 8139) * \zeta: Math symbols. (line 9810) * \[...\] display math: displaymath. (line 3773) * \\ (for center): center. (line 3617) * \\ (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 3925) * \\ (for flushright): flushright. (line 4169) * \\ (for \shortstack objects): \shortstack. (line 5224) * \\ (tabbing): tabbing. (line 5468) * \\ for flushleft: flushleft. (line 4109) * \\ for letters: Letters. (line 15066) * \\ for tabular: tabular. (line 5644) * \\ for verse: verse. (line 6356) * \\ for \author: \maketitle. (line 10927) * \\ for \title: \maketitle. (line 10948) * \\ force line break: \\. (line 6394) * \\* (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 3933) * \^: Reserved characters. (line 13332) * \^ (circumflex accent): Accents. (line 13663) * \_: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \` (grave accent): Accents. (line 13667) * \` (tabbing): tabbing. (line 5495) * \{: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \|: Math symbols. (line 8962) * \}: Reserved characters. (line 13325) * \~: Reserved characters. (line 13332) * \~ (tilde accent): Accents. (line 13671) * ^ superscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8887) * ^^J, in \write: \write. (line 15591) * _ subscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8887) * {...} for required arguments: LaTeX command syntax. (line 591) * ~: ~. (line 11453) * a4paper option: Document class options. (line 742) * a5paper option: Document class options. (line 742) * abstract environment: abstract. (line 3482) * abstract package: abstract. (line 3503) * abstracts: abstract. (line 3482) * accents: Accents. (line 13629) * accents, defining: \DeclareFontEncoding. (line 1384) * accents, defining <1>: \DeclareTextAccent. (line 1418) * accents, defining <2>: \DeclareTextAccentDefault. (line 1441) * accents, defining <3>: \DeclareTextComposite. (line 1550) * accents, defining <4>: \DeclareTextCompositeCommand. (line 1575) * accents, defining <5>: \DeclareTextSymbolDefault. (line 1620) * accents, mathematical: Math accents. (line 10415) * accessing any character of a font: Symbols by font position. (line 13405) * acronyms, list of: Glossaries. (line 14886) * acute accent: Accents. (line 13652) * acute accent, math: Math accents. (line 10420) * additional packages, loading: Additional packages. (line 828) * adjustbox package: Boxes. (line 11926) * ae ligature: Additional Latin letters. (line 13773) * algorithm2e package: tabbing. (line 5548) * align environment, from amsmath: eqnarray. (line 3902) * aligning equations: eqnarray. (line 3902) * alignment via tabbing: tabbing. (line 5408) * amscd package: Arrows. (line 9869) * amsfonts package: Math formulas. (line 8876) * amsfonts package <1>: Arrows. (line 9834) * amsmath package: array. (line 3577) * amsmath package <1>: array. (line 3588) * amsmath package <2>: displaymath. (line 3769) * amsmath package <3>: equation. (line 3972) * amsmath package <4>: theorem. (line 6199) * amsmath package <5>: Math formulas. (line 8876) * amsmath package <6>: \left & \right. (line 10032) * amsmath package <7>: \bigl & \bigr etc.. (line 10177) * amsmath package <8>: Dots. (line 10232) * amsmath package <9>: Math functions. (line 10404) * amsmath package <10>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10689) * amsmath package <11>: Colon character & \colon. (line 10739) * amsmath package <12>: Colon character & \colon. (line 10743) * amsmath package, replacing eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 3902) * amsthm package: theorem. (line 6199) * amsthm package <1>: \rule. (line 13885) * answers package: \write. (line 15596) * appendices: \appendix. (line 2986) * appendix: \appendix. (line 2986) * appendix package: \appendix. (line 3009) * aring: Additional Latin letters. (line 13769) * array (package) package: array. (line 3599) * array environment: array. (line 3528) * arrays, math: array. (line 3528) * arrow, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 13568) * arrow, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 13609) * arrows: Arrows. (line 9834) * article class: Document classes. (line 699) * ascender height: Text symbols. (line 13514) * ASCII circumflex, in text: Text symbols. (line 13479) * ASCII tilde, in text: Text symbols. (line 13482) * asterisk, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 13485) * Asymptote package: \line. (line 5100) * Asymptote package <1>: \strut. (line 11767) * Asymptote package <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 12000) * Asymptote package <3>: \write18. (line 15699) * at clause, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 7735) * at-sign: \@. (line 11336) * author, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 10927) * auxiliary file: Output files. (line 486) * b5paper option: Document class options. (line 742) * babel package: \chapter. (line 2749) * babel package <1>: thebibliography. (line 5987) * babel package <2>: Accents. (line 13629) * babel package <3>: \today. (line 13915) * babel package <4>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14289) * babel package <5>: \index. (line 14646) * back matter of a book: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * background, colored: Colored pages. (line 12544) * backslash, in text: Text symbols. (line 13488) * bar, double vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 13494) * bar, vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 13491) * bar-over accent: Accents. (line 13659) * bar-over accent, math: Math accents. (line 10423) * bar-under accent: Accents. (line 13674) * basics of LaTeX: Overview. (line 397) * batchmode: Command line options. (line 15833) * beamer package: beamer template. (line 16060) * beamer template and class: beamer template. (line 16060) * beginning of document hook: \AtBeginDocument. (line 3803) * bibliography format, open: Document class options. (line 790) * bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX. (line 6119) * bibliography, creating (manually): thebibliography. (line 5940) * bibTeX, using: Using BibTeX. (line 6119) * big circle symbols, in text: Text symbols. (line 13497) * big point: Units of length. (line 8272) * bigfoot package: Footnotes of footnotes. (line 7085) * black boxes, omitting: Document class options. (line 776) * blackboard bold: Blackboard bold. (line 9915) * bm package: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9901) * bold font: Font styles. (line 1771) * bold math: Font styles. (line 1824) * bold typewriter, avoiding: description. (line 3727) * boldface mathematics: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9875) * book class: Document classes. (line 699) * book, back matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * book, end matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * book, front matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * book, main matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * bottomnumber: Floats. (line 2518) * bottomnumber <1>: Floats. (line 2519) * bounding box: \includegraphics. (line 12978) * box: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11932) * box, allocating new: \newsavebox. (line 7448) * box, bounding: \includegraphics. (line 12978) * box, colored: Colored boxes. (line 12507) * box, save: \sbox & \savebox. (line 12188) * box, use saved box: \usebox. (line 12296) * boxes: Boxes. (line 11923) * bp: Units of length. (line 8272) * brace, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 13500) * brace, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 13503) * braces: Delimiters. (line 9958) * brackets: Delimiters. (line 9958) * breaking lines: Line breaking. (line 6377) * breaking pages: Page breaking. (line 6668) * breaks, multiplication discretionary: \*. (line 10750) * breve accent: Accents. (line 13710) * breve accent, math: Math accents. (line 10426) * bug reporting: About this document. (line 373) * bullet lists: itemize. (line 4210) * bullet symbol: Math symbols. (line 9055) * bullet, in text: Text symbols. (line 13506) * bulleted lists: itemize. (line 4210) * calligraphic fonts: Calligraphic. (line 9941) * calligraphic letters for math: Font styles. (line 1774) * cap height: Text symbols. (line 13514) * caron accent: Accents. (line 13714) * catcode: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 7274) * category code, character: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 7274) * cc: Units of length. (line 8285) * cc list, in letters: \cc. (line 15128) * cedilla accent: Accents. (line 13684) * center environment: center. (line 3607) * centered asterisk, in text: Text symbols. (line 13485) * centered equations: Document class options. (line 780) * centered period, in text: Text symbols. (line 13581) * centering text, declaration for: \centering. (line 3655) * centering text, environment for: center. (line 3607) * centimeter: Units of length. (line 8276) * changing case of characters: Upper and lower case. (line 13351) * chapter: Sectioning. (line 2544) * chapter <1>: \chapter. (line 2684) * character category code: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 7274) * character encoding: inputenc package. (line 13829) * character, invisible: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10641) * character, invisible <1>: \mathstrut. (line 10702) * characters, accented: Accents. (line 13629) * characters, case of: Upper and lower case. (line 13351) * characters, non-English: Additional Latin letters. (line 13763) * characters, reserved: Reserved characters. (line 13317) * characters, special: Reserved characters. (line 13317) * check accent: Accents. (line 13714) * check accent, math: Math accents. (line 10429) * cicero: Units of length. (line 8285) * circle symbol, big, in text: Text symbols. (line 13497) * circled letter, in text: Text symbols. (line 13509) * circumflex accent: Accents. (line 13663) * circumflex accent, math: Math accents. (line 10441) * circumflex, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 13479) * citation key: \bibitem. (line 6004) * class and package commands: Class and package commands. (line 914) * class and package difference: Class and package construction. (line 853) * class and package structure: Class and package structure. (line 867) * class file example: Class and package structure. (line 900) * class file layout: Class and package structure. (line 867) * class options: Document class options. (line 729) * class options <1>: Class and package structure. (line 867) * class options <2>: Class and package commands. (line 974) * classes of documents: Document classes. (line 694) * cleveref package: Cross references. (line 3291) * cleveref package <1>: \ref. (line 3404) * cleveref package <2>: \footnotemark. (line 6966) * CLI: Command line interface. (line 15768) * clock option to slides class: Document class options. (line 822) * closing letters: \closing. (line 15144) * closing quote: Text symbols. (line 13469) * cm: Units of length. (line 8276) * cm-super package: fontenc package. (line 1327) * cmd.exe, used by \write18: \write18. (line 15746) * code, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6246) * colon character: Colon character & \colon. (line 10730) * color: Color. (line 12309) * color <1>: Define colors. (line 12414) * color <2>: Colored text. (line 12436) * color <3>: Colored boxes. (line 12507) * color <4>: Colored pages. (line 12544) * color models: Color models. (line 12362) * color package commands: Commands for color. (line 12409) * color package options: Color package options. (line 12324) * color, define: Define colors. (line 12414) * colored boxes: Colored boxes. (line 12507) * colored page: Colored pages. (line 12544) * colored text: Colored text. (line 12436) * command line interface: Command line interface. (line 15768) * command syntax: LaTeX command syntax. (line 591) * commands, class and package: Class and package commands. (line 914) * commands, defining new ones: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7106) * commands, defining new ones <1>: \providecommand. (line 7233) * commands, document class: Class and package construction. (line 844) * commands, graphics package: Commands for graphics. (line 12856) * commands, ignore spaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 7806) * commands, ignore spaces <1>: xspace package. (line 7880) * commands, redefining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7106) * commands, run from LaTeX: \write18. (line 15692) * commands, star-variants: \@ifstar. (line 7310) * composite word mark, in text: Text symbols. (line 13514) * comprehensive package: Math symbols. (line 8950) * computer programs, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6246) * configuration, graphics package: Graphics package configuration. (line 12666) * contents file: Output files. (line 496) * copyright symbol: Text symbols. (line 13426) * counters, a list of: Counters. (line 7929) * counters, defining new: \newcounter. (line 7385) * counters, getting value of: \value. (line 8039) * counters, printing: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol. (line 7957) * counters, setting: \setcounter. (line 8072) * cprotect package: verbatim. (line 6266) * cprotect package <1>: \verb. (line 6329) * creating pictures: picture. (line 4838) * creating tables: table. (line 5557) * credit footnote: \maketitle. (line 10941) * cross references: Cross references. (line 3259) * cross references, resolving: Output files. (line 486) * cross referencing with page number: \pageref. (line 3357) * cross referencing, across documents: xr package. (line 3410) * cross referencing, symbolic: \ref. (line 3381) * CTAN: CTAN. (line 666) * curly braces: Delimiters. (line 9958) * currency, dollar: Text symbols. (line 13527) * currency, euro: Text symbols. (line 13539) * dagger, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 13524) * dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 13429) * dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 13521) * DANTE e.V.: CTAN. (line 680) * datatool package: \read. (line 15418) * date, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 10935) * date, today's: \today. (line 13908) * datetime package: \today. (line 13929) * dbltopnumber: Floats. (line 2522) * dbltopnumber <1>: Floats. (line 2523) * dcolumn package: array. (line 3599) * dd: Units of length. (line 8282) * declaration form of font size commands: Font sizes. (line 1858) * declaration form of font style commands: Font styles. (line 1703) * define color: Define colors. (line 12414) * defining a new command: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7106) * defining a new command <1>: \providecommand. (line 7233) * defining new environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 7476) * defining new fonts: \newfont. (line 7722) * defining new theorems: \newtheorem. (line 7610) * definitions: Definitions. (line 7101) * delayed \write: \write. (line 15561) * delimiters: Delimiters. (line 9958) * delimiters, paired: \left & \right. (line 10008) * delim_0: makeindex. (line 14815) * delim_1: makeindex. (line 14819) * delim_2: makeindex. (line 14823) * delim_n: makeindex. (line 14827) * delim_r: makeindex. (line 14831) * description: \newglossaryentry. (line 14974) * description environment: description. (line 3697) * description lists, creating: description. (line 3697) * design size, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 7735) * didot point: Units of length. (line 8282) * dieresis accent: Accents. (line 13648) * difference between class and package: Class and package construction. (line 853) * dimen plain TeX: Lengths. (line 8161) * directory listings, from system: \write18. (line 15751) * discretionary breaks, multiplication: \*. (line 10750) * discretionary hyphenation: \discretionary. (line 6555) * display math mode: Modes. (line 10827) * displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * displaymath environment: displaymath. (line 3753) * displaymath environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 8796) * document class commands: Class and package construction. (line 844) * document class options: Document class options. (line 729) * document class, defined: Starting and ending. (line 438) * document classes: Document classes. (line 694) * document environment: document. (line 3797) * document root name: Jobname. (line 15950) * document templates: Document templates. (line 16053) * dollar sign: Text symbols. (line 13527) * dot accent: Accents. (line 13655) * dot over accent, math: Math accents. (line 10435) * dot-over accent: Accents. (line 13655) * dot-under accent: Accents. (line 13688) * dotless i: Accents. (line 13642) * dotless i, math: Math symbols. (line 9208) * dotless j: Accents. (line 13642) * dotless j, math: Math symbols. (line 9228) * dots: Dots. (line 10202) * double angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 13444) * double dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 13432) * double dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 13524) * double dot accent, math: Math accents. (line 10432) * double guillemets: Text symbols. (line 13444) * double left quote: Text symbols. (line 13587) * double low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 13466) * double quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 13603) * double right quote: Text symbols. (line 13590) * double spacing: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * double vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 13494) * doublestruck: Blackboard bold. (line 9915) * draft option: Document class options. (line 772) * dvilualatex-dev: TeX engines. (line 562) * dvipdfmx command: Output files. (line 463) * dvips command: Output files. (line 463) * dvitype command: Output files. (line 463) * e-dash: Text symbols. (line 13536) * e-TeX: TeX engines. (line 515) * ellipses: Dots. (line 10202) * ellipsis: Text symbols. (line 13450) * em: Units of length. (line 8290) * em <1>: Units of length. (line 8290) * em-dash: Text symbols. (line 13530) * em-dash, three-quarters: Text symbols. (line 13612) * em-dash, two-thirds: Text symbols. (line 13618) * emphasis: Font styles. (line 1755) * enclosure list: \encl. (line 15157) * encoding, font: \DeclareFontEncoding. (line 1384) * encoding, of input files: inputenc package. (line 13829) * end matter of a book: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * end of document hook: \AtEndDocument. (line 3819) * ending and starting: Starting and ending. (line 427) * engines, TeX: TeX engines. (line 505) * enlarge current page: \enlargethispage. (line 6773) * enumerate environment: enumerate. (line 3835) * enumitem package: itemize. (line 4270) * enumitem package <1>: list. (line 4568) * environment: Starting and ending. (line 446) * environment form of font size commands: Font sizes. (line 1870) * environment, abstract: abstract. (line 3482) * environment, array: array. (line 3528) * environment, center: center. (line 3607) * environment, description: description. (line 3697) * environment, displaymath: displaymath. (line 3753) * environment, displaymath <1>: Math formulas. (line 8796) * environment, document: document. (line 3797) * environment, enumerate: enumerate. (line 3835) * environment, eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 3902) * environment, equation: equation. (line 3958) * environment, equation <1>: Math formulas. (line 8796) * environment, figure: figure. (line 3978) * environment, filecontents: filecontents. (line 4036) * environment, filecontents*: filecontents. (line 4036) * environment, flushleft: flushleft. (line 4101) * environment, flushright: flushright. (line 4163) * environment, itemize: itemize. (line 4210) * environment, letter: letter. (line 4298) * environment, list: list. (line 4303) * environment, math: math. (line 4668) * environment, math <1>: Math formulas. (line 8796) * environment, minipage: minipage. (line 4680) * environment, picture: picture. (line 4838) * environment, quotation: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * environment, quote: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * environment, tabbing: tabbing. (line 5408) * environment, table: table. (line 5557) * environment, tabular: tabular. (line 5615) * environment, thebibliography: thebibliography. (line 5940) * environment, theorem: theorem. (line 6177) * environment, theorem-like: \newtheorem. (line 7610) * environment, titlepage: titlepage. (line 6207) * environment, verbatim: verbatim. (line 6246) * environment, verse: verse. (line 6341) * environments: Environments. (line 3465) * environments, defining: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 7476) * envlab package: \makelabels. (line 15231) * EPS files: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * eqnarray environment: eqnarray. (line 3902) * equation environment: equation. (line 3958) * equation environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 8796) * equation number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 3381) * equation numbers, left vs. right: Document class options. (line 786) * equation numbers, omitting: eqnarray. (line 3937) * equations, aligning: eqnarray. (line 3902) * equations, environment for: equation. (line 3958) * equations, flush left vs. centered: Document class options. (line 780) * errorstopmode: Command line options. (line 15833) * es-zet German letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 13809) * etex command: TeX engines. (line 515) * eth, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 13777) * etoolbox package: Class and package commands. (line 1018) * euro symbol: Text symbols. (line 13539) * eurosym package: Text symbols. (line 13539) * eurosym package <1>: Text symbols. (line 13540) * ex: Units of length. (line 8290) * ex <1>: Units of length. (line 8290) * exclamation point, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 13547) * executivepaper option: Document class options. (line 742) * expl3 package: LaTeX command syntax. (line 622) * expl3 package <1>: Upper and lower case. (line 13394) * exponent: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8887) * expressions: Expressions. (line 8473) * extended Latin: Additional Latin letters. (line 13763) * external commands: \write18. (line 15692) * external files, writing: filecontents. (line 4036) * fallback jobname: Jobname. (line 15969) * families, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 1901) * fancyhdr package: Page styles. (line 10884) * fancyhdr package <1>: \pagestyle. (line 11026) * fancyvrb package: tabbing. (line 5548) * fancyvrb package <1>: verbatim. (line 6282) * feminine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 13578) * figure dash character: Text symbols. (line 13550) * figure environment: figure. (line 3978) * figure number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 3381) * figures, footnotes in: minipage. (line 4781) * figures, inserting: figure. (line 3978) * file, closing: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * file, opening: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * file, reading: \read. (line 15393) * file, root: Splitting the input. (line 13943) * filecontents environment: filecontents. (line 4036) * filecontents* environment: filecontents. (line 4036) * filename for current job: Command line options. (line 15849) * final option: Document class options. (line 772) * first-latex-doc document: About this document. (line 385) * fixed-width font: Font styles. (line 1792) * flafter package: Floats. (line 2470) * fleqn option: Document class options. (line 772) * float package: Floats. (line 2440) * float page: Floats. (line 2446) * flush left equations: Document class options. (line 780) * flushing floats and starting a page: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6699) * flushleft environment: flushleft. (line 4101) * flushright environment: flushright. (line 4163) * font catalogue: Low-level font commands. (line 1901) * font commands, low-level: Low-level font commands. (line 1886) * font dimension, slant: \/. (line 11575) * font encoding: fontenc package. (line 1297) * font encoding <1>: \DeclareTextAccent. (line 1418) * font encoding, declaring: \DeclareFontEncoding. (line 1384) * font size: Low-level font commands. (line 1981) * font sizes: Font sizes. (line 1840) * font styles: Font styles. (line 1701) * font symbols, by number: Symbols by font position. (line 13405) * fontenc: fontenc package. (line 1297) * fonts: Fonts. (line 1259) * fonts, new commands for: \newfont. (line 7722) * fonts, script: Calligraphic. (line 9941) * footer style: \pagestyle. (line 11019) * footer, parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * footnote number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 3381) * footnote parameters: \footnote. (line 6886) * footnote, in a table: Footnotes in a table. (line 7015) * footnote, in section headings: Footnotes in section headings. (line 6996) * footnote, of a footnote: Footnotes of footnotes. (line 7085) * footnotes in figures: minipage. (line 4781) * footnotes, creating: Footnotes. (line 6839) * footnotes, in a minipage: \footnote. (line 6914) * footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: \footnote. (line 6876) * force option for filecontents: filecontents. (line 4061) * format files, TeX: TeX engines. (line 505) * formulas, environment for: equation. (line 3958) * formulas, math: Math formulas. (line 8796) * forward reference: Cross references. (line 3280) * forward references, resolving: Output files. (line 486) * fraction: \frac. (line 10766) * fragile commands: \protect. (line 7754) * frame rule width: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12056) * frame, line width: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12056) * frame, separation from contents: \fbox & \framebox. (line 12061) * French quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 13444) * front matter of a book: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * functions, math: Math functions. (line 10299) * geometry package: Document class options. (line 763) * geometry package <1>: Document class options. (line 767) * global options: Document class options. (line 729) * global options <1>: Additional packages. (line 837) * glossaries: Glossaries. (line 14886) * glossary: Glossaries. (line 14886) * glossary, entries: \newglossaryentry. (line 14934) * glossary, entry reference: \gls. (line 14993) * glue plain TeX: Lengths. (line 8161) * glue register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 7426) * graphics: Graphics. (line 12565) * graphics <1>: Graphics package configuration. (line 12666) * graphics <2>: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * graphics package: Graphics. (line 12565) * graphics package <1>: Graphics package configuration. (line 12666) * graphics package <2>: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * graphics package commands: Commands for graphics. (line 12856) * graphics package options: Graphics package options. (line 12602) * graphics packages: \line. (line 5100) * graphics, resizing: \scalebox. (line 13251) * graphics, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 13282) * graphics, scaling: \scalebox. (line 13251) * graphics, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 13282) * graphpap package: \graphpaper. (line 5051) * grave accent: Accents. (line 13667) * grave accent, math: Math accents. (line 10438) * greater than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 13557) * greek letters: Math symbols. (line 8950) * Greek letters: Greek letters. (line 10256) * grfext package: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions. (line 12774) * group, and environments: Environments. (line 3477) * group_skip: makeindex. (line 14762) * hacek accent: Accents. (line 13714) * Halmos symbol: \rule. (line 13880) * hard space: ~. (line 11453) * hat accent: Accents. (line 13663) * hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 10441) * header style: \pagestyle. (line 11019) * header, parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * hello, world: Starting and ending. (line 427) * here, putting floats: Floats. (line 2440) * home page for manual: About this document. (line 355) * horizontal bar character: Text symbols. (line 13560) * horizontal paragraph indentation: \parindent & \parskip. (line 8714) * horizontal space: \hss. (line 11249) * horizontal space, stretchable: \hss. (line 11249) * horizontal spacing: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10641) * hungarian umlaut accent: Accents. (line 13692) * hyperref package: \footnotemark. (line 6966) * hyperref package <1>: \footnotemark. (line 6975) * hyperref package <2>: \pagenumbering. (line 11000) * hyperref package <3>: Command line input. (line 15904) * hyphen character, non-breaking: Text symbols. (line 13571) * hyphenation, defining: \hyphenation. (line 6619) * hyphenation, discretionary: \discretionary. (line 6555) * hyphenation, forcing: \- (hyphenation). (line 6520) * hyphenation, preventing: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11932) * háček accent, math: Math accents. (line 10429) * Icelandic eth: Additional Latin letters. (line 13777) * Icelandic thorn: Additional Latin letters. (line 13813) * idx file: \index. (line 14696) * ij letter, Dutch: Additional Latin letters. (line 13789) * immediate \write: \write. (line 15556) * implementations of TeX: TeX engines. (line 505) * importing graphics: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * in: Units of length. (line 8269) * inch: Units of length. (line 8269) * including graphics: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * indent, forcing: \indent & \noindent. (line 8665) * indentation of paragraphs, in minipage: minipage. (line 4777) * indentfirst package: \part. (line 2674) * indentfirst package <1>: \chapter. (line 2736) * indentfirst package <2>: \section. (line 2831) * indentfirst package <3>: \subsection. (line 2897) * indentfirst package <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2974) * indentfirst package <5>: \indent & \noindent. (line 8707) * indent_length: makeindex. (line 14843) * indent_space: makeindex. (line 14839) * index entries, 'see' and 'see also': \index. (line 14646) * index entry: \index. (line 14596) * index package: \index. (line 14691) * index, multiple: Indexes. (line 14586) * index, page range: \index. (line 14630) * index, printing: \printindex. (line 14871) * index, processing: makeindex. (line 14711) * index, style file: makeindex. (line 14723) * indexes: Indexes. (line 14560) * infinite horizontal stretch: \hfill. (line 11216) * infinite vertical stretch: \vfill. (line 11847) * inline formulas: math. (line 4668) * inner paragraph mode: Modes. (line 10845) * input file: Splitting the input. (line 13939) * input, on command line: Command line input. (line 15896) * input/output: Input/output. (line 15320) * input/output, to terminal: Input/output. (line 15320) * inputenc: inputenc package. (line 13820) * inserting figures: figure. (line 3978) * insertions of special characters: Special insertions. (line 13311) * interface, command line: Command line interface. (line 15768) * interline space: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * internal vertical mode: Modes. (line 10836) * invisible character: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10641) * invisible character <1>: \mathstrut. (line 10702) * italic correction: \/. (line 11541) * italic font: Font styles. (line 1777) * itemize environment: itemize. (line 4210) * item_0: makeindex. (line 14786) * item_01: makeindex. (line 14795) * item_1: makeindex. (line 14789) * item_12: makeindex. (line 14805) * item_2: makeindex. (line 14792) * item_x1: makeindex. (line 14799) * item_x2: makeindex. (line 14809) * jobname: Command line options. (line 15849) * jobname <1>: Jobname. (line 15950) * JPEG files: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * JPG files: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * justification, ragged left: \raggedleft. (line 4183) * justification, ragged right: \raggedright. (line 4130) * Knuth, Donald E.: Overview. (line 397) * label: Cross references. (line 3259) * labelled lists, creating: description. (line 3697) * Lamport TeX: Overview. (line 419) * Lamport, Leslie: Overview. (line 397) * landscape option: Document class options. (line 772) * landscape orientation: Document class options. (line 783) * latex: TeX engines. (line 513) * latex command: Output files. (line 463) * LaTeX format (.fmt) files: TeX engines. (line 505) * LaTeX logo: Text symbols. (line 13435) * LaTeX overview: Overview. (line 397) * LaTeX Project team: About this document. (line 369) * LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e: About this document. (line 365) * latex-dev: TeX engines. (line 563) * latex-doc-ptr document: About this document. (line 382) * LaTeX2e logo: Text symbols. (line 13438) * LaTeX3 syntax: LaTeX command syntax. (line 622) * email address: About this document. (line 369) * latexsym package: Arrows. (line 9834) * Latin letters, additional: Additional Latin letters. (line 13763) * layout commands: Layout. (line 2015) * layout, page parameters for: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * leaders, dots in table of contents: \@dottedtocline. (line 14317) * leading: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * left angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 13444) * left arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 13568) * left brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 13500) * left quote: Text symbols. (line 13454) * left quote, double: Text symbols. (line 13587) * left quote, single: Text symbols. (line 13593) * left-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 786) * left-justifying text: \raggedright. (line 4130) * left-justifying text, environment for: flushleft. (line 4101) * left-to-right mode: Modes. (line 10814) * legalpaper option: Document class options. (line 742) * lengths, adding to: \addtolength. (line 8336) * lengths, allocating new: \newlength. (line 7426) * lengths, defining and using: Lengths. (line 8158) * lengths, setting: \setlength. (line 8308) * leqno option: Document class options. (line 772) * less than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 13565) * lethead_flag: makeindex. (line 14769) * lethead_prefix: makeindex. (line 14778) * lethead_suffix: makeindex. (line 14782) * letter class: Document classes. (line 699) * letter environment: letter. (line 4298) * letterpaper option: Document class options. (line 742) * letters, accented: Accents. (line 13629) * letters, additional Latin: Additional Latin letters. (line 13763) * letters, ending: \closing. (line 15144) * letters, starting: \opening. (line 15249) * letters, writing: Letters. (line 15023) * line break, forcing: \\. (line 6394) * line breaking: Line breaking. (line 6377) * line breaks, changing: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6578) * line breaks, forcing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6637) * line breaks, multiplication discretionary: \*. (line 10750) * line breaks, preventing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak. (line 6637) * lines in tables: tabular. (line 5615) * line_max: makeindex. (line 14835) * lining numerals: Font styles. (line 1828) * lining text up in tables: tabular. (line 5615) * lining text up using tab stops: tabbing. (line 5408) * list environment: list. (line 4303) * list items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 8013) * list of figures file: Output files. (line 496) * list of tables file: Output files. (line 496) * listings package: tabbing. (line 5548) * listings package <1>: verbatim. (line 6276) * listings package <2>: \verb. (line 6326) * lists of items: itemize. (line 4210) * lists of items, generic: list. (line 4303) * lists of items, numbered: enumerate. (line 3835) * lmodern package: fontenc package. (line 1327) * loading additional packages: Additional packages. (line 828) * locale information, from system: \write18. (line 15751) * log file: Output files. (line 481) * log file, writing to: \write. (line 15526) * logo, LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 13435) * logo, LaTeX2e: Text symbols. (line 13438) * logo, TeX: Text symbols. (line 13476) * long command: Class and package commands. (line 931) * low-9 quotation marks, single and double: Text symbols. (line 13466) * low-level font commands: Low-level font commands. (line 1886) * lowercase: Upper and lower case. (line 13351) * LR box: picture. (line 4925) * LR mode: Modes. (line 10814) * lrbox: lrbox. (line 12267) * lshort document: About this document. (line 388) * lualatex: TeX engines. (line 531) * lualatex-dev: TeX engines. (line 564) * LuaTeX: TeX engines. (line 532) * LuaTeX, 256 output streams in: \write. (line 15538) * m-width: Units of length. (line 8290) * macron accent: Accents. (line 13659) * macron accent, math: Math accents. (line 10423) * macros2e package: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 7296) * Madsen, Lars: eqnarray. (line 3902) * mail merges: \read. (line 15418) * main matter of a book: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter. (line 3019) * make a box: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11932) * makeindex: makeindex. (line 14711) * makeindex program: makeindex. (line 14711) * makeindex, style file: makeindex. (line 14723) * making a title page: titlepage. (line 6207) * making paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 8568) * marginal notes: Marginal notes. (line 8746) * masculine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 13578) * matching brackets: \left & \right. (line 10008) * matching parentheses: \left & \right. (line 10008) * math accents: Math accents. (line 10415) * math environment: math. (line 4668) * math environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 8796) * math formulas: Math formulas. (line 8796) * math functions: Math functions. (line 10299) * math miscellany: Math miscellany. (line 10724) * math mode: Modes. (line 10824) * math mode, entering: Math formulas. (line 8796) * math mode, spacing: Spacing in math mode. (line 10509) * math mode, spacing <1>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10641) * math mode, spacing <2>: \mathstrut. (line 10702) * math mode, vertical space: \smash. (line 10580) * math symbols: Math symbols. (line 8950) * math, arrows: Arrows. (line 9834) * math, bold: Font styles. (line 1824) * mathtools package: Math formulas. (line 8876) * mathtools package <1>: Delimiters. (line 9993) * mathtools package <2>: \left & \right. (line 10032) * mathtools package <3>: Over- and Underlining. (line 10503) * mathtools package <4>: \smash. (line 10635) * mathtools package <5>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10681) * MetaPost package: \line. (line 5100) * mfirstuc package: Upper and lower case. (line 13391) * mhchem package: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8943) * millimeter: Units of length. (line 8279) * minipage environment: minipage. (line 4680) * minipage, creating a: minipage. (line 4680) * minted package: tabbing. (line 5548) * minted package <1>: verbatim. (line 6276) * minted package <2>: \verb. (line 6326) * mirrors of CTAN: CTAN. (line 685) * mm: Units of length. (line 8279) * modes: Modes. (line 10804) * monospace font: Font styles. (line 1792) * moving arguments: \protect. (line 7767) * mpfootnote counter: \footnote. (line 6914) * mu: Units of length. (line 8301) * mu, math unit: Units of length. (line 8301) * multicolumn text: \twocolumn. (line 2032) * multilingual support: Accents. (line 13629) * multind package: Indexes. (line 14586) * multiple indexes: Indexes. (line 14586) * multiplication, discretionary: \*. (line 10750) * name: \newglossaryentry. (line 14971) * name of document root: Jobname. (line 15950) * NBSP: ~. (line 11453) * nested \include, not allowed: \include & \includeonly. (line 14114) * new class commands: Class and package construction. (line 844) * new command, check: Class and package commands. (line 929) * new command, definition: Class and package commands. (line 1004) * new commands, defining: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7106) * new commands, defining <1>: \providecommand. (line 7233) * new line, output as input: \obeycr & \restorecr. (line 6456) * new line, starting: \\. (line 6394) * new line, starting (paragraph mode): \newline. (line 6496) * new page, starting: \newpage. (line 6740) * newline, in \write: \write. (line 15591) * noheader option for filecontents: filecontents. (line 4064) * non-breaking hyphen character: Text symbols. (line 13571) * non-English characters: Additional Latin letters. (line 13763) * nonstopmode: Command line options. (line 15833) * nosearch option for filecontents: filecontents. (line 4067) * notes in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 8746) * notitlepage option: Document class options. (line 772) * null delimiter: \left & \right. (line 10008) * numbered items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 8013) * numerals, old-style: Font styles. (line 1828) * oblique font: Font styles. (line 1789) * oe ligature: Additional Latin letters. (line 13805) * ogonek: Accents. (line 13696) * old-style numerals: Font styles. (line 1828) * one-column output: \onecolumn. (line 2020) * onecolumn option: Document class options. (line 801) * oneside option: Document class options. (line 801) * open a file: \openin & \openout. (line 15329) * openany option: Document class options. (line 801) * openbib option: Document class options. (line 772) * opening quote: Text symbols. (line 13454) * openright option: Document class options. (line 801) * OpenType fonts: TeX engines. (line 505) * operating system information: \write18. (line 15751) * options, class: Class and package commands. (line 974) * options, color package: Color package options. (line 12324) * options, command line: Command line options. (line 15812) * options, document class: Document class options. (line 729) * options, document class <1>: Class and package structure. (line 867) * options, global: Additional packages. (line 837) * options, graphics package: Graphics package options. (line 12602) * options, package: Class and package structure. (line 867) * options, package <1>: Class and package commands. (line 974) * ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 13578) * oslash: Additional Latin letters. (line 13801) * OT1: fontenc package. (line 1297) * outer paragraph mode: Modes. (line 10845) * output directory for all external files: Command line options. (line 15854) * overbar accent: Accents. (line 13659) * overdot accent, math: Math accents. (line 10435) * overlining: Over- and Underlining. (line 10464) * overview of LaTeX: Overview. (line 397) * overwrite option for filecontents: filecontents. (line 4061) * package file layout: Class and package structure. (line 867) * package options: Class and package structure. (line 867) * package options <1>: Class and package commands. (line 974) * package, abstract: abstract. (line 3503) * package, adjustbox: Boxes. (line 11926) * package, algorithm2e: tabbing. (line 5548) * package, amscd: Arrows. (line 9869) * package, amsfonts: Math formulas. (line 8876) * package, amsfonts <1>: Arrows. (line 9834) * package, amsmath: array. (line 3577) * package, amsmath <1>: array. (line 3588) * package, amsmath <2>: displaymath. (line 3769) * package, amsmath <3>: equation. (line 3972) * package, amsmath <4>: theorem. (line 6199) * package, amsmath <5>: Math formulas. (line 8876) * package, amsmath <6>: \left & \right. (line 10032) * package, amsmath <7>: \bigl & \bigr etc.. (line 10177) * package, amsmath <8>: Dots. (line 10232) * package, amsmath <9>: Math functions. (line 10404) * package, amsmath <10>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10689) * package, amsmath <11>: Colon character & \colon. (line 10739) * package, amsmath <12>: Colon character & \colon. (line 10743) * package, amsthm: theorem. (line 6199) * package, amsthm <1>: \rule. (line 13885) * package, answers: \write. (line 15596) * package, appendix: \appendix. (line 3009) * package, array (package): array. (line 3599) * package, Asymptote: \line. (line 5100) * package, Asymptote <1>: \strut. (line 11767) * package, Asymptote <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 12000) * package, Asymptote <3>: \write18. (line 15699) * package, babel: \chapter. (line 2749) * package, babel <1>: thebibliography. (line 5987) * package, babel <2>: Accents. (line 13629) * package, babel <3>: \today. (line 13915) * package, babel <4>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14289) * package, babel <5>: \index. (line 14646) * package, beamer: beamer template. (line 16060) * package, bigfoot: Footnotes of footnotes. (line 7085) * package, bm: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9901) * package, cleveref: Cross references. (line 3291) * package, cleveref <1>: \ref. (line 3404) * package, cleveref <2>: \footnotemark. (line 6966) * package, cm-super: fontenc package. (line 1327) * package, comprehensive: Math symbols. (line 8950) * package, cprotect: verbatim. (line 6266) * package, cprotect <1>: \verb. (line 6329) * package, datatool: \read. (line 15418) * package, datetime: \today. (line 13929) * package, dcolumn: array. (line 3599) * package, enumitem: itemize. (line 4270) * package, enumitem <1>: list. (line 4568) * package, envlab: \makelabels. (line 15231) * package, etoolbox: Class and package commands. (line 1018) * package, eurosym: Text symbols. (line 13539) * package, eurosym <1>: Text symbols. (line 13540) * package, expl3: LaTeX command syntax. (line 622) * package, expl3 <1>: Upper and lower case. (line 13394) * package, fancyhdr: Page styles. (line 10884) * package, fancyhdr <1>: \pagestyle. (line 11026) * package, fancyvrb: tabbing. (line 5548) * package, fancyvrb <1>: verbatim. (line 6282) * package, flafter: Floats. (line 2470) * package, float: Floats. (line 2440) * package, geometry: Document class options. (line 763) * package, geometry <1>: Document class options. (line 767) * package, graphpap: \graphpaper. (line 5051) * package, grfext: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions. (line 12774) * package, hyperref: \footnotemark. (line 6966) * package, hyperref <1>: \footnotemark. (line 6975) * package, hyperref <2>: \pagenumbering. (line 11000) * package, hyperref <3>: Command line input. (line 15904) * package, indentfirst: \part. (line 2674) * package, indentfirst <1>: \chapter. (line 2736) * package, indentfirst <2>: \section. (line 2831) * package, indentfirst <3>: \subsection. (line 2897) * package, indentfirst <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2974) * package, indentfirst <5>: \indent & \noindent. (line 8707) * package, index: \index. (line 14691) * package, latexsym: Arrows. (line 9834) * package, listings: tabbing. (line 5548) * package, listings <1>: verbatim. (line 6276) * package, listings <2>: \verb. (line 6326) * package, lmodern: fontenc package. (line 1327) * package, macros2e: \makeatletter & \makeatother. (line 7296) * package, mathtools: Math formulas. (line 8876) * package, mathtools <1>: Delimiters. (line 9993) * package, mathtools <2>: \left & \right. (line 10032) * package, mathtools <3>: Over- and Underlining. (line 10503) * package, mathtools <4>: \smash. (line 10635) * package, mathtools <5>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10681) * package, MetaPost: \line. (line 5100) * package, mfirstuc: Upper and lower case. (line 13391) * package, mhchem: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8943) * package, minted: tabbing. (line 5548) * package, minted <1>: verbatim. (line 6276) * package, minted <2>: \verb. (line 6326) * package, multind: Indexes. (line 14586) * package, pict2e: \line. (line 5100) * package, polyglossia: Accents. (line 13629) * package, polyglossia <1>: \today. (line 13915) * package, polyglossia <2>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14290) * package, polyglossia <3>: \index. (line 14646) * package, PSTricks: \line. (line 5100) * package, setspace: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2377) * package, shellesc: \write18. (line 15757) * package, showidx: Indexes. (line 14586) * package, siunitx: minipage. (line 4811) * package, siunitx <1>: ~. (line 11484) * package, suffix: \@ifstar. (line 7370) * package, texosquery: \write18. (line 15751) * package, textcase: Upper and lower case. (line 13388) * package, TikZ: \line. (line 5100) * package, TikZ <1>: \strut. (line 11767) * package, TikZ <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11999) * package, tikz-cd: Arrows. (line 9869) * package, titlesec: Sectioning. (line 2598) * package, titlesec <1>: \part. (line 2678) * package, titlesec <2>: \chapter. (line 2757) * package, titlesec <3>: \section. (line 2835) * package, titlesec <4>: \subsection. (line 2901) * package, titlesec <5>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2978) * package, tocbibbind: Table of contents etc.. (line 14276) * package, tocloft: Table of contents etc.. (line 14276) * package, ulem: Over- and Underlining. (line 10473) * package, unicode-math: Greek letters. (line 10287) * package, url: \verb. (line 6323) * package, verbatimbox: verbatim. (line 6282) * package, xparse: LaTeX command syntax. (line 622) * package, xparse <1>: \@ifstar. (line 7370) * package, xstring: Jobname. (line 15997) * packages, loading additional: Additional packages. (line 828) * page break, forcing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6798) * page break, preventing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak. (line 6798) * page breaking: Page breaking. (line 6668) * page layout parameters: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * page number, cross referencing: \pageref. (line 3357) * page numbering style: \pagenumbering. (line 10961) * page style, this page: \thispagestyle. (line 11103) * page styles: Page styles. (line 10878) * page, colored: Colored pages. (line 12544) * page_precedence: makeindex. (line 14848) * paired delimiters: \left & \right. (line 10008) * paragraph: Sectioning. (line 2544) * paragraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2919) * paragraph indentation: \parindent & \parskip. (line 8714) * paragraph indentation, in minipage: minipage. (line 4777) * paragraph indentations in quoted text: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * paragraph mode: Modes. (line 10810) * paragraph mode <1>: \parbox. (line 12090) * paragraph symbol: Text symbols. (line 13458) * paragraph, ending: \par. (line 8612) * paragraph, in a box: \parbox. (line 12090) * paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 8568) * parameters, for footnotes: \footnote. (line 6886) * parameters, page layout: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * parent directories, cannot write to: \write and security. (line 15620) * parentheses: Delimiters. (line 9958) * part: Sectioning. (line 2544) * part <1>: \part. (line 2630) * pattern, current tab stops, tabbing: tabbing. (line 5453) * pc: Units of length. (line 8266) * PDF graphic files: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * pdflatex: TeX engines. (line 514) * pdflatex command: Output files. (line 473) * pdflatex-dev: TeX engines. (line 565) * pdfTeX: Output files. (line 473) * pdfTeX engine: TeX engines. (line 515) * period, abbreviation-ending: \@. (line 11336) * period, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 13581) * period, sentence-ending: \@. (line 11336) * period, spacing after: \@. (line 11336) * pica: Units of length. (line 8266) * pict2e package: \line. (line 5100) * pict2e package <1>: \line. (line 5100) * picture environment: picture. (line 4838) * pictures, creating: picture. (line 4838) * pilcrow: Text symbols. (line 13458) * placement of floats: Floats. (line 2419) * platex: TeX engines. (line 553) * platex-dev: TeX engines. (line 566) * plural: \newglossaryentry. (line 14979) * PNG files: \includegraphics. (line 12862) * poetry, an environment for: verse. (line 6341) * point: Units of length. (line 8262) * polish l: Additional Latin letters. (line 13793) * polyglossia package: Accents. (line 13629) * polyglossia package <1>: \today. (line 13915) * polyglossia package <2>: Table of contents etc.. (line 14290) * polyglossia package <3>: \index. (line 14646) * portrait orientation: Document class options. (line 783) * position, in picture: picture. (line 4896) * positional parameter: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7154) * postamble: makeindex. (line 14759) * postscript, in letters: \ps. (line 15261) * pounds symbol: Text symbols. (line 13462) * preamble: makeindex. (line 14755) * preamble, defined: Starting and ending. (line 443) * prerelease testing: TeX engines. (line 569) * prompt, *: Recovering from errors. (line 16032) * pronunciation: Overview. (line 419) * PSTricks package: \line. (line 5100) * pt: Units of length. (line 8262) * quad: Spacing in math mode. (line 10568) * question mark, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 13584) * quotation environment: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * quotation marks, French: Text symbols. (line 13444) * quote environment: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * quote, single straight: Text symbols. (line 13599) * quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 13603) * quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation & quote. (line 5378) * radical: \sqrt. (line 10778) * ragged left text: \raggedleft. (line 4183) * ragged left text, environment for: flushright. (line 4163) * ragged right text: \raggedright. (line 4130) * ragged right text, environment for: flushleft. (line 4101) * read a file: \read. (line 15393) * redefining environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment. (line 7476) * reference, forward: Cross references. (line 3280) * references, resolving forward: Output files. (line 486) * registered symbol: Text symbols. (line 13606) * relation, text above: \stackrel. (line 10794) * release candidates: TeX engines. (line 569) * remarks in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 8746) * report class: Document classes. (line 699) * reporting bugs: About this document. (line 373) * reserved characters: Reserved characters. (line 13317) * resizing: \scalebox. (line 13251) * resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 13282) * restricted shell access: \write18. (line 15739) * right angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 13444) * right arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 13609) * right brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 13503) * right quote: Text symbols. (line 13469) * right quote, double: Text symbols. (line 13590) * right quote, single: Text symbols. (line 13596) * right-hand equation numbers: Document class options. (line 786) * right-justifying text: \raggedleft. (line 4183) * right-justifying text, environment for: flushright. (line 4163) * rigid lengths: Lengths. (line 8161) * ring accent: Accents. (line 13700) * ring accent, math: Math accents. (line 10444) * robust commands: \protect. (line 7754) * roman font: Font styles. (line 1780) * root file: Splitting the input. (line 13943) * roots: \sqrt. (line 10778) * rotating graphics: \rotatebox. (line 13183) * rotating text: \rotatebox. (line 13183) * rotation: \rotatebox. (line 13183) * row, tabbing: tabbing. (line 5448) * rubber lengths: Lengths. (line 8161) * rubber lengths, defining new: \newlength. (line 7426) * running header and footer: Page layout parameters. (line 2171) * running header and footer style: \pagestyle. (line 11019) * sans serif font: Font styles. (line 1786) * scaled point: Units of length. (line 8288) * scaling: \scalebox. (line 13251) * scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 13282) * script fonts: Calligraphic. (line 9941) * script letters for math: Font styles. (line 1774) * scrollmode: Command line options. (line 15833) * secnumdepth: Sectioning. (line 2607) * secnumdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 2608) * section: Sectioning. (line 2544) * section <1>: \section. (line 2777) * section number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 3381) * section numbers, printing: Sectioning. (line 2608) * section symbol: Text symbols. (line 13473) * section, redefining: \@startsection. (line 3055) * sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 2544) * sectioning, part: \part. (line 2630) * security and \write: \write and security. (line 15604) * see and see also index entries: \index. (line 14646) * self-contained sources: filecontents. (line 4072) * series, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 1928) * setspace package: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2377) * setting counters: \setcounter. (line 8072) * sh, used by \write18: \write18. (line 15746) * shapes, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 1968) * sharp S letters: Additional Latin letters. (line 13809) * shell access: \write18. (line 15692) * shell escape: Command line options. (line 15867) * SHELL, environment variables: \write18. (line 15746) * shellesc package: \write18. (line 15757) * showidx package: Indexes. (line 14586) * simulating typed text: verbatim. (line 6246) * single angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 13444) * single guillemets: Text symbols. (line 13444) * single left quote: Text symbols. (line 13593) * single low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 13466) * single quote, straight: Text symbols. (line 13599) * single right quote: Text symbols. (line 13596) * siunitx package: minipage. (line 4811) * siunitx package <1>: ~. (line 11484) * sizes of text: Font sizes. (line 1840) * skip plain TeX: Lengths. (line 8161) * skip register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 7426) * slanted font: Font styles. (line 1789) * slides class: Document classes. (line 699) * sloppypar: sloppypar. (line 6591) * sloppypar environment: sloppypar. (line 6591) * small caps font: Font styles. (line 1783) * sort: \newglossaryentry. (line 14983) * source files, making self-contained: filecontents. (line 4072) * sp: Units of length. (line 8288) * space between lines: \baselineskip & \baselinestretch. (line 2304) * space, inserting horizontal: \hss. (line 11249) * space, inserting vertical: \addvspace. (line 11876) * space, negative thin: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 11513) * space, thin: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 11513) * space, unbreakable: ~. (line 11453) * space, vertical: \vspace. (line 11796) * spaces: Spaces. (line 11131) * spaces, ignore around commands: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend. (line 7806) * spaces, ignore around commands <1>: xspace package. (line 7880) * spacing within math mode: Spacing in math mode. (line 10509) * spacing, inter-sentence: \frenchspacing. (line 11382) * spacing, inter-sentence <1>: \normalsfcodes. (line 11402) * spacing, math mode: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10641) * spacing, math mode <1>: \mathstrut. (line 10702) * Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 13578) * special characters: Reserved characters. (line 13317) * special characters <1>: Additional Latin letters. (line 13763) * special insertions: Special insertions. (line 13311) * specifier, float placement: Floats. (line 2419) * splitting the input file: Splitting the input. (line 13939) * square root: \sqrt. (line 10778) * stack math: \stackrel. (line 10794) * star-variants, commands: \@ifstar. (line 7310) * starred form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand. (line 7127) * starting a new page: \newpage. (line 6740) * starting a new page and clearing floats: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6699) * starting and ending: Starting and ending. (line 427) * starting on a right-hand page: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage. (line 6699) * sterling symbol: Text symbols. (line 13462) * straight double quote, base: Text symbols. (line 13603) * straight quote, base: Text symbols. (line 13603) * straight single quote: Text symbols. (line 13599) * stretch, infinite horizontal: \hfill. (line 11216) * stretch, infinite vertical: \vfill. (line 11847) * stretch, omitting vertical: \raggedbottom. (line 2160) * strut: \strut. (line 11711) * styles of text: Font styles. (line 1701) * styles, page: Page styles. (line 10878) * subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 2544) * subparagraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2919) * subscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8887) * subsection: Sectioning. (line 2544) * subsection <1>: \subsection. (line 2855) * subsubsection: Sectioning. (line 2544) * subsubsection <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2919) * suffix package: \@ifstar. (line 7370) * superscript: Subscripts & superscripts. (line 8887) * symbol: \newglossaryentry. (line 14987) * symbol, defining: \DeclareTextSymbol. (line 1593) * symbols, arrows: Arrows. (line 9834) * symbols, boldface: \boldmath & \unboldmath. (line 9875) * symbols, math: Math symbols. (line 8950) * symbols, text: Text symbols. (line 13417) * system commands, run from LaTeX: \write18. (line 15692) * system information: \write18. (line 15751) * T1: fontenc package. (line 1297) * tab stops, using: tabbing. (line 5408) * tabbing environment: tabbing. (line 5408) * table environment: table. (line 5557) * table of contents: \contentsline. (line 14466) * table of contents entry, create dotted line: \@dottedtocline. (line 14296) * table of contents entry, manually adding: \addcontentsline. (line 14332) * table of contents file: Output files. (line 496) * table of contents, avoiding footnotes: Footnotes in section headings. (line 6996) * table of contents, creating: Table of contents etc.. (line 14171) * table of contents, sectioning numbers printed: Sectioning. (line 2619) * tables, creating: table. (line 5557) * tabular environment: tabular. (line 5615) * template (simple), article: article template. (line 16090) * template, beamer: beamer template. (line 16060) * template, book: book template. (line 16113) * template, book <1>: Larger book template. (line 16137) * templates, document: Document templates. (line 16053) * terminal input/output: Input/output. (line 15320) * terminal, writing to: \write. (line 15526) * TeX format (.fmt) files: TeX engines. (line 505) * TeX logo: Text symbols. (line 13476) * texosquery package: \write18. (line 15751) * texput, jobname default: Jobname. (line 15969) * text symbols: Text symbols. (line 13417) * text, resizing: \scalebox. (line 13251) * text, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 13282) * text, scaling: \scalebox. (line 13251) * text, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 13282) * textcase package: Upper and lower case. (line 13388) * textcomp package: Text symbols. (line 13417) * thanks, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 10941) * thebibliography environment: thebibliography. (line 5940) * theorem environment: theorem. (line 6177) * theorem-like environment: \newtheorem. (line 7610) * theorems, defining: \newtheorem. (line 7610) * theorems, typesetting: theorem. (line 6177) * thin space: Spacing in math mode. (line 10547) * thin space <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 11513) * thin space, negative: Spacing in math mode. (line 10561) * thin space, negative <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace. (line 11513) * thorn, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters. (line 13813) * three-quarters em-dash: Text symbols. (line 13612) * tie: ~. (line 11453) * tie-after accent: Accents. (line 13706) * TikZ package: \line. (line 5100) * TikZ package <1>: \strut. (line 11767) * TikZ package <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 11999) * tikz-cd package: Arrows. (line 9869) * tilde accent: Accents. (line 13671) * tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 10447) * tilde, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 13482) * title page, separate or run-in: Document class options. (line 794) * title pages, creating: titlepage. (line 6207) * title, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 10948) * titlepage environment: titlepage. (line 6207) * titlepage option: Document class options. (line 772) * titles, making: \maketitle. (line 10890) * titlesec package: Sectioning. (line 2598) * titlesec package <1>: \part. (line 2678) * titlesec package <2>: \chapter. (line 2757) * titlesec package <3>: \section. (line 2835) * titlesec package <4>: \subsection. (line 2901) * titlesec package <5>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph. (line 2978) * tocbibbind package: Table of contents etc.. (line 14276) * tocdepth: Sectioning. (line 2618) * tocdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 2619) * tocloft package: Table of contents etc.. (line 14276) * today's date: \today. (line 13908) * tombstone: \rule. (line 13880) * topmargin: Page layout parameters. (line 2290) * topnumber: Floats. (line 2526) * topnumber <1>: Floats. (line 2527) * totalnumber: Floats. (line 2530) * totalnumber <1>: Floats. (line 2531) * trademark symbol: Text symbols. (line 13615) * transcript file: Output files. (line 481) * TrueType fonts: TeX engines. (line 505) * TS1 encoding: Text symbols. (line 13417) * two-column output: \twocolumn. (line 2032) * two-thirds em-dash: Text symbols. (line 13618) * twocolumn option: Document class options. (line 801) * twoside option: Document class options. (line 801) * type styles: Font styles. (line 1701) * typed text, simulating: verbatim. (line 6246) * typeface sizes: Font sizes. (line 1840) * typefaces: Fonts. (line 1259) * typewriter font: Font styles. (line 1792) * typewriter labels in lists: description. (line 3727) * ulem package: Over- and Underlining. (line 10473) * umlaut accent: Accents. (line 13648) * unbreakable space: ~. (line 11453) * underbar: Accents. (line 13676) * underlining: Over- and Underlining. (line 10464) * underscore, in text: Text symbols. (line 13621) * Unicode: inputenc package. (line 13829) * Unicode input, native: TeX engines. (line 505) * unicode-math package: Greek letters. (line 10287) * units, of length: Units of length. (line 8258) * unofficial nature of this manual: About this document. (line 369) * unordered lists: itemize. (line 4210) * uplatex: TeX engines. (line 554) * uplatex-dev: TeX engines. (line 567) * uppercase: Upper and lower case. (line 13351) * url package: \verb. (line 6323) * using BibTeX: Using BibTeX. (line 6119) * UTF-8, default LaTeX input encoding: Overview. (line 403) * UTF-8, engine support for: TeX engines. (line 505) * UTF-8, font support for: fontenc package. (line 1297) * variables, a list of: Counters. (line 7929) * vector symbol, math: Math accents. (line 10450) * verbatim environment: verbatim. (line 6246) * verbatim text: verbatim. (line 6246) * verbatim text, inline: \verb. (line 6290) * verbatimbox package: verbatim. (line 6282) * verse environment: verse. (line 6341) * vertical bar, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 13494) * vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 13491) * vertical mode: Modes. (line 10832) * vertical space: \vspace. (line 11796) * vertical space <1>: \addvspace. (line 11876) * vertical space before paragraphs: \parindent & \parskip. (line 8714) * vertical spacing: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom. (line 10641) * vertical spacing <1>: \mathstrut. (line 10702) * vertical spacing, math mode: \smash. (line 10580) * visible space: \verb. (line 6315) * visible space symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 13624) * weights, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 1938) * whatsit item: \write. (line 15561) * white space: Spaces. (line 11131) * wide hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 10453) * wide tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 10456) * widths, of fonts: Low-level font commands. (line 1950) * Wright, Joseph: Upper and lower case. (line 13394) * writing external files: filecontents. (line 4036) * writing letters: Letters. (line 15023) * x-height: Units of length. (line 8290) * xdvi command: Output files. (line 463) * xdvipdfmx: TeX engines. (line 541) * xelatex: TeX engines. (line 540) * xelatex-dev: TeX engines. (line 568) * XeTeX: TeX engines. (line 541) * xindex program: makeindex. (line 14865) * xindy program: makeindex. (line 14858) * xparse package: LaTeX command syntax. (line 622) * xparse package <1>: \@ifstar. (line 7370) * xr package: xr package. (line 3410) * xr-hyper package: xr package. (line 3410) * xstring package: Jobname. (line 15997)