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diff --git a/fonts/aboensis/doc/aboensis.tex b/fonts/aboensis/doc/aboensis.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..189cacd3f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/fonts/aboensis/doc/aboensis.tex @@ -0,0 +1,6939 @@ +%% aboensis.tex +%% Copyright 2021 Tommi Syrjönen +% +% This work may be distributed and/or modified under the conditions of +% the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3 of this license +% or (at your option) any later version. The latest version of this +% license is in http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt and version 1.3 +% or later is part of all distributions of LaTeX version 2005/12/01 or +% later. +% +% The images of digitized medieval manuscripts that are in this +% document have either been released to use by their creators under +% Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) or are +% Public Domain. The licensing details of each image is listed later +% in this file. +% +% This work has the LPPL maintenance status `maintained'. +% +% The Current Maintainer of this work is Tommi Syrjänen +% +% See file MANIFEST-Aboensis.txt to a list of files that make up this +% work. + +\documentclass[a4paper]{article} +\usepackage[T1]{fontenc} +\usepackage{fontspec} +\usepackage{xunicode} +\usepackage{xltxtra} +\usepackage{graphicx} +\usepackage{lscape} +\usepackage{longtable} +\usepackage{subfigure} +\usepackage{leading} +\usepackage{xcolor} + + +\newcommand{\package}[1]{\texttt{#1}} +\newcommand{\feature}[1]{\texttt{#1}} + +\newcommand{\samplefont}{\fontsize{16}{16}\abcursivefamily\spaceskip0.2em} +\newcommand{\sample}[1]{{\samplefont #1 \strut}} +\newcommand{\largesample}[1]{\scalebox{2.0}{{\samplefont #1 \strut}}} + +\newcommand{\samplebox}[1]{\fbox{\hbox{\sample{#1}}}} + +\newcommand{\lettersample}[1]{{\fontsize{18}{18}\fontspec[RawFeature=-calt;]{Aboensis}#1}} +\newcommand{\lombardsample}[1]{{\fontsize{32}{32}\fontspec{Aboensis}\abred{+#1+}}} + +\newcommand{\abgreen}[1]{{\addfontfeature{Color=62876E}#1}} +\newcommand{\lombardsampletwo}[1]{{\fontsize{32}{32}\fontspec{Aboensis}\abred{+#1+}\abgreen{+#1/+}}} +\newcommand{\lombardsampleother}[1]{{\fontsize{32}{32}\fontspec{Aboensis}\abred{+#1:+}\abgreen{+#1/+}}} + + + +\newcommand{\cursiveinitialsample}[1]{{\fontsize{64}{64}\fontspec{Aboensis}{+#1+}}} + +\newcommand{\topalign}[2]{\hbox{\vbox to \ht#1 + {\hbox{#2}\vfill}}} +\newcommand{\midalign}[2]{\hbox{\vbox to \ht#1 + {\vfill\hbox{#2}\vfill}}} + + +\newcommand{\ltxenv}[1]{\texttt{#1}} +\newcommand{\ltxncmd}[1]{\texttt{\textbackslash{}#1}} +\newcommand{\ltxcmd}[2]{\texttt{\textbackslash{}#1\{#2\}}} +\newcommand{\ltxcmdtwo}[3]{\texttt{\textbackslash{}#1\{#2\}\{#3\}}} +\newcommand{\ltxcmdthree}[4]{\texttt{\textbackslash{}#1\{#2\}\{#3\}\{#4\}}} +\newcommand{\ltxcmdfour}[5]{\texttt{\textbackslash{}#1\{#2\}\{#3\}\{#4\}\{#5\}}} + + + +\newbox\showletterbox +\newlength\showletterboxheight +\newlength\showletterboxwidth +\newcommand{\showlettertitle}[2]{% + \setbox\showletterbox\hbox{\lettersample{#1}}% + \showletterboxheight=2.5em% + \showletterboxwidth=2em% + \hbox{\raise1em\hbox{\fbox{\hbox to \showletterboxwidth{\vbox to\showletterboxheight{% + \hbox to \showletterboxwidth{\tiny\hfill#2\hfill}\vspace{1mm}\vfill% + \hbox to \showletterboxwidth{\hfill\hbox{\hfill\lettersample{#1}\hfill}\hfill}\vspace{2mm}}}}}}} + +\newcommand{\showlettertitletwo}[2]{% + \multicolumn{2}{l@{ }}{\setbox\showletterbox\hbox{\lettersample{#1}}% + \showletterboxheight=2.5em% + \showletterboxwidth=5em% +\hbox{\raise1em\hbox{\fbox{\hbox to \showletterboxwidth{\vbox to\showletterboxheight{% + \hbox to \showletterboxwidth{\tiny\hfill#2\hfill}\vspace{1mm}\vfill% + \hbox to \showletterboxwidth{\hfill\hbox{\hfill\lettersample{#1}\hfill}\hfill}\vspace{2mm}}}}}}}} + +\newcommand{\abred}[1]{{\addfontfeature{Color=B1523E}#1}} +\newcommand{\abdarkred}[1]{{\addfontfeature{Color=4D231C}#1}} + +\usepackage{aboensis} +\abtildes +\setcounter{tocdepth}{2} + + +\begin{document} + + +\bibliographystyle{plain} + +\title{\fontsize{36}{36}\fontspec[BoldFont=Aboensis]{Aboensis}\abcapital{A}boensis} +\author{Tommi Syrjänen} + +\maketitle + + +\begin{center} + +\begin{minipage}{10.5cm} + {{\fontsize{16}{19}\abcursivefamily + \abstartchapter{Q}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, + \abcapital{C}atilina, pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a diu + etiam furor jste} + \abl{tuus nos eludet? \abcapital{Q}uem ad finem sese effrena-} + \abl{ta jactabit audacia? \abcapital{N}ihilne te nocturn~u prae} + \abl{sidium palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor } + \abl{populi, nihil concursus bono[rum] omnium, nihil hic } + \abl{munitissim[us] habendi senat[us] locus, nihil horum } + \abl{ora voltus[que] moverunt? \abcapital{P}atere tua consilia non } + \abl{sen[tis], constrict~a iam ho[rum] omnium scientia te-} + \abl{neri coniurationem tuam non vides? \abcapital{Q}uid pro} + \abl{xima, quid su[per]iore nocte ege[ris], ubi fue[ris], quos } + \abl{convocave[ris], quid consilii ceperis, quem nostr~u } + \abl{ignorare arbitraris? \mbox{} \mbox{} \abotherrubric{!*************>>>>><}} +}} + +\end{minipage} +\end{center} + +\thispagestyle{empty} + + + +\newpage + + +\newpage + + +The text in the previous page is the beginning of Marcus Tullius +Cicero's \emph{Oratio in catilinam primo} that has been used to set +typographical speciments at least since the days of Gianbattista Bodoni +(1740–1813). In modern fonts its text reads: + +\thispagestyle{empty} + +\begin{quote} + Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? quam diu etiam + furor iste tuus nos eludet? quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit + audacia? Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis + vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum omnium, nihil + hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque + moverunt? Patere tua consilia non sentis, constrictam iam horum + omnium scientia teneri coniurationem tuam non vides? Quid proxima, + quid superiore nocte egeris, ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, quid + consilii ceperis, quem nostrum ignorare arbitraris? +\end{quote} + +C.\,D. Yonge \cite{yonge} translated the paragraph as: + + \begin{quote} + When, O Catiline, do you mean to cease abusing our patience? How + long is that madness of yours still to mock us? When is there to be + an end of that unbridled audacity of yours, swaggering about as it + does now? Do not the nightly guards placed on the Palatine Hill—do + not the watches posted throughout the city—does not the alarm of the + people, and the union of all good men—does not the precaution taken + of assembling the senate in this most defensible place—do not the + looks and countenances of this venerable body here present, have any + effect upon you? Do you not feel that your plans are detected? Do + you not see that your conspiracy is already arrested and rendered + powerless by the knowledge which every one here possesses of it? + What is there that you did last night, what the night before—where + is it that you were—who was there that you summoned to meet + you—what design was there which was adopted by you, with which you + think that any one of us is unacquainted? + \end{quote} + + +\vfill + + +The font Aboensis is copyrighted by Tommi Syrjänen, 2021. It may be +used and distributed under the Open Font License 1.1 (see +page \pageref{pg_license} for details). + +The documentation and LaTeX style files are also copyrighted by Tommi +Syrjänen, 2021, and they may be distributed under the terms of Latex +Project Public License 1.3c (see the accompanying file +\texttt{lppl.txt} for details or refer to +\texttt{http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt}). + +The image files showing original medieval documents are either Public +Domain or are licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 +International License by the organizations that digitized them. Their +individual licenses are listed on pages +\pageref{image_license_start}–\pageref{image_license_end}. + + +\newpage + +\nocite{aboensis_77} +\nocite{rea1996} +\nocite{df} +\nocite{sdhk} +\nocite{cf} +\nocite{coda} +\nocite{codc} +\nocite{suvanto1995} +\nocite{keranen2018} +\nocite{seppala09} +\nocite{vilkuna98} +\nocite{derolez03} +\nocite{valtionarkisto77} +\nocite{makela_alitalo07} +\nocite{jansson98} +\nocite{oxenstierna04} +\nocite{wiktorsson04} +\nocite{svensson74} +\nocite{jansson36} +\nocite{thulin36} +\nocite{voionmaa36} +\nocite{melander1892} +\nocite{voudintilit} +\nocite{dokumentteja1} + +\begin{center} +\fbox{ + \begin{minipage}{0.8\linewidth} + \begin{center} + \textbf{The Short Version of Important Stuff} + \end{center} + \begin{itemize} + \item \Aboensis{} is a free OpenType/CFF font intended for + emulating late medieval manuscripts. + + \item It should be used in relatively large size (14+ points). + + \item It is licensed under Open Font License (see the end of the + document for details). + + \item It is a 15th century typeface. It contains a large number of + symbols (see pages + \pageref{pg:symbols_start}–\pageref{pg:symbols_end}) that are no + longer in common use but it lacks many symbols that are nowadays + in common use. + + \item It has a large number of OpenType features that control its + behavior. See section \ref{sec_opentype} for details. + The "Standard ligatures" (\textrm{liga}) and "Contextual + alternates" (\textrm{calt}) features should be always turned on + for proper function of the font. + + \item It is designed to be used with XeLaTeX. See section + \ref{sec_latex_style} for details. + + \item \Aboensis{} works in recentish programs. Some old font + renderers will mess up the spacing between letters. This happens + at least in some old versions of MS Word. Newer programs shouldn't + have problems. However, some care is necessary when using + highlighted initials symbols with XeLaTeX, see + section \ref{ssec_correct_forms} for details. + +\end{itemize} + \end{minipage} +} +\end{center} + +\begin{table} + \centering + \fbox{\begin{minipage}{0.9\linewidth} + + \begin{itemize} + \item Abbreviate with brackets: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{eorum} & $\Longrightarrow$ & \sample{eo[rum]} \\ + eorum & & eo[rum] + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + \item Add an abbreviation symbol over a letter by preceding it + with tilde or single quote (use \ltxncmd{abtildes} to make tilde + regular letter): + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{ecc~ia} & \sample{'tminus} \\ + ecc~ia & 'tminus + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + \item Place a letter as a superscript using a grave accent: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{iiii`c} \\ + iiii`c + \end{tabular} + + \end{center} + + \item Use asterisk to prevent initial and final forms as needed: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{non} & $\Longrightarrow$ & \sample{*non*} \\ + non & & *non* + \end{tabular} + + \end{center} + \item Add red highlighting to capital letters by writing the + letter three times on top of itself: first with text color, + then with the highlight preceded by a slash, and + finally in darker highlight color with two slashes: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{A} & \sample{\abred{/A}} & \sample{\abdarkred{//A}} + & + $ \Longrightarrow$ & \sample{\abcapital{A}} \\ + A & {\color{abred}/A} & {\color{abdarkred}//A} & & + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + With XeLaTex you can use command + \texttt{\textbackslash{}abcapital} to add a highlighted + capital. + + \item Enter Lombardic initials by surrounding the letter with + '+' signs. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{\abred{A}} & $\Rightarrow$ & + \sample{\abred{+A+}} \\ + {\color{red} A} & & {\color{red}+A+} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + \item Enter cursive initials by surrounding the letter with two + '+' signs and use font size 5.5 times larger than the main + body + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{A} & $\Rightarrow$ & + \scalebox{2.0}{\sample{++A++}} \\ + {A} & & {++A++} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + \item Prevent uneven line spacing in XeLaTex with \ltxcmd{abl}{line}. + \end{itemize} + \end{minipage}} + \caption{A quick partial guide to special symbols} + \label{tab_special} +\end{table} + + +\newpage + +\tableofcontents + + +\mbox{} +\newpage + + +\section{Introduction} + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lllllllllll} + \lettersample{A} & + \lettersample{B} & + \lettersample{C} & + \lettersample{D} & + \lettersample{E} & + \lettersample{F} & + \lettersample{G} & + \lettersample{H} & + \lettersample{I} & + \lettersample{J} \\ + \lettersample{K} & + \lettersample{L} & + \lettersample{M} & + \lettersample{N} & + \lettersample{O} & + \lettersample{P} & + \lettersample{Q} & + \lettersample{R} & + \lettersample{S} & + \lettersample{T} \\ + \lettersample{U} & + \lettersample{V} & + \lettersample{W} & + \lettersample{X} & + \lettersample{Y} & + \lettersample{Z} & + \lettersample{Ä} & + \lettersample{Å} & + \lettersample{Ö} \\ + + \lettersample{\abcapital{A}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{B}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{C}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{D}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{E}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{F}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{G}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{H}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{I}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{J}} \\ + \lettersample{\abcapital{K}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{L}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{M}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{N}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{O}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{P}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{Q}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{R}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{S}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{T}} \\ + \lettersample{\abcapital{U}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{V}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{W}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{X}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{Y}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{Z}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{Ä}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{Å}} & + \lettersample{\abcapital{Ö}} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{The capital letters with and without red strikes} + \label{tab_alphabet} + + +\end{table} + +\Aboensis{} is a free unicode OpenType font that is intended for +emulating late-medieval documents. The font is an example of a 15th +century book cursive hand that was used in the Scandinavian countries. +The main source for the glyphs is \emph{Codex Aboensis} that is a +richly-illustrated law book written in the 1430s. The font also +includes a number of glyphs taken from other roughly contemporary +manuscripts. The largest group of them are cursive initials taken from +\emph{The Black Book of Abo Cathedral} that was compiled around the +end of the 15th century. + +As medieval cursive is very difficult to read for modern readers, this +font is not really suitable for any normal practical purposes. +Instead, it is aimed for users who want to recreate medieval-looking +documents with a computer. + +Table \ref{tab_alphabet} shows the basic capital letters of the font. +Capitals in 15th century texts were often further marked by drawing a +red strike over them. This font includes glyph variants for capitals +that can be used to draw the struck capitals and those are enabled +using OpenType features as described in section \ref{ssec_capitals}. +Table \ref{tab_lower_case} shows the basic forms of lower case +letters. However, many letters have than one form: an initial form +that is used when it starts a word, a final form if it ends a word, +and possibly others to tie it to other cursive letters better. + +\begin{table} + \centering +\begin{tabular}{lllllllllllll} + + \lettersample{a} & + \lettersample{b} & + \lettersample{c} & + \lettersample{d} & + \lettersample{e} & + \lettersample{f} & + \lettersample{g} & + \lettersample{h} & + \lettersample{i} & + \lettersample{j} & + \lettersample{k} & + \lettersample{l} \\ + \lettersample{m} & + \lettersample{n} & + \lettersample{o} & + \lettersample{p} & + \lettersample{q} & + \lettersample{r} & + \lettersample{r:} & + \lettersample{s} & + \lettersample{s:} & + \lettersample{t} & + \lettersample{u} & + \lettersample{v} \\ + \lettersample{w} & + \lettersample{x} & + \lettersample{y} & + \lettersample{z} & + \lettersample{ä} & + \lettersample{å} & + \lettersample{ö} & + \end{tabular} + \caption{The lower case alphabet. There are two symbols for \emph{r} + and \emph{s}.} + \label{tab_lower_case} +\end{table} + +The font has two sets of initials. The first ones are in the Lombardic +style and are taken from \emph{Codex Aboensis}.\footnote{With the + exception of \emph{X}, \emph{Y}, \emph{Z}, \emph{Ä}, \emph{Å} and + \emph{Ö} that do not occur in the book.} These are shown in table +\ref{tab_lombardian}. These have two sets: one for letters written in +single color and another for two-colored letters. Additionally, some +of the capitals have variant forms, one simpler and one more +complex one. These too are controlled with OpenType features and they +are described in section \ref{sec_initials}. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llllll} + \lombardsample{A} & + \lombardsample{B} & + \lombardsample{C} & + \lombardsample{D} & + \lombardsample{E} & + \lombardsample{F} \\ + \lombardsample{G} & + \lombardsample{H} & + \lombardsample{I} & + \lombardsample{J} & + \lombardsample{K} & + \lombardsample{L} \\ + \lombardsample{M} & + \lombardsample{N} & + \lombardsample{O} & + \lombardsample{P} & + \lombardsample{Q} & + \lombardsample{R} \\ + \lombardsample{S} & + \lombardsample{T} & + \lombardsample{U} & + \lombardsample{V} & + \lombardsample{W} & + \lombardsample{X} \\ + \lombardsample{Y} & + \lombardsample{Z} & + \lombardsample{Ä} & + \lombardsample{Å} & + \lombardsample{Ö} \\ + + \lombardsampletwo{{A}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{B}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{C}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{D}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{E}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{F}} \\ + \lombardsampletwo{{G}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{H}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{I}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{J}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{K}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{L}} \\ + \lombardsampletwo{{M}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{N}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{O}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{P}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{Q}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{R}} \\ + \lombardsampletwo{{S}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{T}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{U}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{V}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{W}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{X}} \\ + \lombardsampletwo{{Y}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{Z}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{Ä}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{Å}} & + \lombardsampletwo{{Ö}} \\ + \end{tabular} + + \caption{The Lombardian intials, one color and two colors.} + \label{tab_lombardian} +\end{table} + +The Lombardic initials are suitable when typesetting a medieval book, +but normal medieval documents did not use them as a rule. For this +reason \emph{Aboensis} has another set of initials that are suitable +for documentary use such as charters and deeds. These intials have +been taken from \emph{The Black Book of Abo + Cathedral},\footnote{Except for \emph{X}, \emph{Z}, \emph{Ä}, + \emph{Å}, and \emph{Ö} that do not occur in the text.} that is a +cartulary that was compiled in the late 15th century. These are shown +in table \ref{tab_cursive_init}. Note that these initials need a lot +of manual adjustment when they are added to the text because they all +should be positioned in a different way respective to the main block +of text. Section \ref{sec_initials} describes how they are +enabled using OpenType Features and section \ref{ssec_black_book} +shows how they are used in \emph{The Black Book}. + +All images of original texts that are in this document are from +digitized collections of \emph{Riksarkivet} and +\emph{Kansallisarkisto}. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{l@{\hspace{1.5cm}}l@{\hspace{1.5cm}}l@{\hspace{1.5cm}}l@{\hspace{1.5cm}}l} + \cursiveinitialsample{a} & + \cursiveinitialsample{b} & + \cursiveinitialsample{c} & + \cursiveinitialsample{d} & + \cursiveinitialsample{e} \\ + \cursiveinitialsample{f} & + \cursiveinitialsample{g} & + \cursiveinitialsample{h} & + \cursiveinitialsample{i} & + \cursiveinitialsample{j} \\ + \cursiveinitialsample{k} & + \cursiveinitialsample{l} & + \cursiveinitialsample{m} & + \cursiveinitialsample{n} & + \cursiveinitialsample{o} \\ + \cursiveinitialsample{p} & + \cursiveinitialsample{q} & + \cursiveinitialsample{r} & + \cursiveinitialsample{s} & + \cursiveinitialsample{t} \\ + \cursiveinitialsample{u} & + \cursiveinitialsample{v} & + \cursiveinitialsample{w} & + \cursiveinitialsample{x} & + \cursiveinitialsample{y} \\ + \cursiveinitialsample{z} & + \cursiveinitialsample{ä} & + \cursiveinitialsample{å} & + \cursiveinitialsample{ö} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{The cursive initials. Three of the letters (\emph{A}, + \emph{S}, and \emph{W}) have variant forms. These should be used in sizes 5–6 + times larger than the main body of text (the style file + defaults to 5.5) and they need considerble + amount of manual adjustment when positioned. Some of them extend + far above baseline and some far below. } + \label{tab_cursive_init} +\end{table} + + +\subsection{OpenType} + + +OpenType is a technology that combines two different approaches of +creating fonts under one package: Microsoft's \emph{true type} +(OpenType/TT) and Adobe's \emph{type 1} (OpenType/PS or OpenType/CFF) +fonts. The PS technology is older and it originated in the 80s for +defining digital fonts for printing. The true type fonts were designed +primarily for high-quality screen fonts for Windows. + +Aboensis is a PS font that has been designed explicitly for printing +and it is not very usable a screen font as many letters are +practically indistinguishable in screen sizes. + +\paragraph{OpenType features}\index{feature} + +OpenType fonts may contain a number of \emph{features} that alter +their behavior. The most common ones that are used with European +languages are ligature substitutions where two individual characters +are replaced by a glyph that contains both of them. For example, in +many fonts 'f' and 'l' are combined into 'fl'. + +\newbox\foobox +\setbox\foobox\hbox{\sample{o}} +\newcommand{\aqsample}[1]{\midalign{\foobox}{#1}} + +\begin{center} + \sample{f} \aqsample{+} \sample{l} \aqsample{=} \sample{fl} +\end{center} + +Different programs use different conventions for selecting features. +For example, in Photoshop the features are specified in a well-hidden +menu that's shown in figure \ref{fig_photoshop}. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=8cm]{pics/photoshop-one.png} + \includegraphics[width=8cm]{pics/photoshop-two.png} + \caption{The OpenType menu in Photoshop} + \label{fig_photoshop} +\end{figure} + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/photoshop-alternatives.png} + \caption{Selecting character variants in Photoshop} + \label{fig_photoshop_2} +\end{figure} + + + + +\subsection{Open Font License v.1.1} + + +\Aboensis{} may be used and distributed under the conditions of the +Open Font License v.1.1. The full text of the license is at the end of +this document. It and answers to frequently asked questions about it +are available at \texttt{http://scripts.sil.org/OFL}. The most +important features of OFL are: +\begin{enumerate} +\item You may freely use the font in your documents, including + embedding it in it. + +\item You may freely give the font to whoever you want, but you should + give the whole package (including the documentation files). You may + also sell it as long as you comply with the few restrictions that + are enumerated in the text of the license. + +\item You may freely modify the font, but if you distribute the + modified font you should give it a different name and release it + under OFL. +\end{enumerate} + + +\subsection{Latex Project Public License version 1.3c} + +The documentation files (except for images showing original medieval +documents) and the LaTeX style file are distributed under the Latex +Project Public License (LPPL version 1.3c). The exact conditions of +the license are defined in the file \texttt{lppl.txt} that should be +included in the font package but is also available at +\texttt{http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt}. + +The terms of LPPL are similar to those of the OFL. The short and +incomplete version is: +\begin{enumerate} +\item You may freely use the files however you want. + +\item You may freely distribute the package in its original form. + +\item If you modify the files, you may distribute them but you must + document what changes you have made in the files, make it clear that + the changed version is not the original, and distribute either the + original version or information on how it can be obtained with it. +\end{enumerate} + +\subsection{Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License} + +Most of the images that show reproductions original medieval documents +are copyrighted under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 +International License (CC BY 4.0) by the institutions that digitized +them. The list of copyright holders is on pages +\pageref{image_license_start}–\pageref{image_license_end}. + +The exact conditions of the license are defined in the file +\texttt{ccby4.txt} that should be included in the font package but the +text is also available at +\begin{center} +\texttt{https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/}. +\end{center} +The short and incomplete version of the license is that you are free +to: +\begin{enumerate} +\item \textbf{Share} — copy and redistribute the material in any + medium or format +\item \textbf{Adapt} — remix, transform, and build upon the material +for any purpose, even commercially. +\end{enumerate} +under the following terms: +\begin{enumerate} +\item \textbf{Attribution} — You must give appropriate credit, provide + a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do + so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the + licensor endorses you or your use +\item \textbf{No additional restrictions} — You may not apply legal + terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from + doing anything the license permits. +\end{enumerate} + +\emph{All images in this document that are licensed under CC BY 4.0 + have been cropped from larger originals, including those that show + the complete text of the document.} + + + +\section{Historical background} + +\subsection{Codex Aboensis} + +The \emph{Codex Aboensis} (\emph{Cod. Holm. B 172}) is a +richly-illustrated late-medieval book that is currently held in the +Swedish National Archives. It is known also by the name \emph{Codex + Kalmar} as it was for a time stored in a school library in Chalmers +before it was donated to the Archives in 1884. + +The main content of the book is the \emph{Law of the Realm of King + Magnus Eriksson} that has been supplemented by the \emph{Church Law + of Uppland}, the \emph{Manor Justice of Magnus Eriksson}, and the +\emph{Ledung code of Uppland} that decrees how the coastal fleet was +organized. + +The book is connected to Finland and the city Turku (\emph{Abo} in +Latin) in several ways. The most notable is that the book starts with +an ecclestical calendar of the Turku diocese. The other is that it is +known to have been in Finland for most of the 16th +century.\footnote{Its front and back leaves also contain material + written by the hand of Micael Agricola (1510–57) who was the main + Lutheran reformer of Finland.} However, the calendar is older than +the bulk of the text and dates from the latter half of the 14th +century with some modifications made around the beginning of the +1400s. + +The most striking feature of the manuscript are the large illuminated +initials that start almost every page. The images were drawn by the +original scribe, and he likely drew himself in one of them. The folio +78v shows a man in tunic, red hose and red hat holding a speech scroll +that declares him to be the master of books (figure \ref{fig_master}). +The page initials usually start mid-sentence. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=10cm]{pics/aboensis-78v.png} + \caption{Possibly the scribe of \emph{Codex Aboensis} himself. The + speech scroll reads: \emph{jak är een mesther i bokenä} which + translates to \emph{I am a master of books}. f.78v} + \label{fig_master} +\end{figure} + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \subfigure[A fox preaching to geese, f.18v]{\includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/aboensis-18v.png}} + \subfigure[A cleric carrying a woman, f.30v]{\includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/aboensis-30v.jpg}} + \subfigure[A hare playing bagpipes, f.37v]{\includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/aboensis-37v.jpg}} + \subfigure[A man carrying an ale barrel. The speech scroll reads \emph{wiliom wi dricka}, that is \emph{now we drink}. f.38v]{\includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/aboensis-38v.jpg}} + \subfigure[Ivan Lejonriddaren kills a dragon, f.39r]{\includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/aboensis-39r.jpg}} + \subfigure[Ivan Lejonriddaren riding his lion, f.39v]{\includegraphics[width=6cm]{pics/aboensis-39v.jpg}} + \caption{Picture samples from \emph{Codex Aboensis}.} + \label{fig_samples} +\end{figure} + +Most but by no means all of the images are at least loosely related to +the text where they occur. The figure \ref{fig_samples} shows a few +more samples. + +{\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}} +\begin{enumerate} +\item A fox preaching to geese from a transportable pulpit of the type + that friars used. This is in a section that defines how the bishop + should inspect a church that is suspected to have been desacrated. +\item A cleric carrying a woman. This is not directly related to text + that is about punishments for fighting in a tavern. +\item A hare playing bagpipes. This is probably connected to the + mention that a bride of a wedding may not donate wedding cloths to + musicians but only to a church or a monastery. +\item A man carrying an ale barrel while saying: "Now we drink". This + is in a section that gives rules on gifts given on the morning after + a wedding and it may refer to custom of drinking a toast when it + happened. +\item This and the next picture show probably scenes from the story of + Ivan Lejonriddare, Ivan the Lion Knight who killed a dragon and + befriended a lion that became his mount. The connection to the text + is that the text describes complex inheritance cases and Ivan of the + story was involved in one himself. +\end{enumerate}} + +There have been differing opinons on where and when the manuscript was +written. Paleographical details place it in the first half of the 15th +century. The two main opinions have been Uppland in Sweden and +Turku-Naantali region in Finland, both areas being proposed on +linguistic basis. + +The most recent paleographic analysis by Per-Axel Wiktorsson suggests +that the main body of text was written by an anonymous scribe who was +active in Stockholm between 1423–36. The scribe was connected to Bengt +Jönsson Oxenstierna (c.1390– c.1450) who was one of the +highest-ranking noblemen in Sweden, a Privy Council member who served +as a co-regent in 1448. Wiktorsson's theory is that Bengt Jönsson +commisioned the book in mid-1430s as a preparation for his bid to +become the \emph{lagman} (Lord Justice) of Uppland. He recived the +position in 1439. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=13.5cm]{pics/SDHK20000.jpg} + \caption{A sales deed dated 1.7.1423 at Almarestäk castle. + Wiktorsson identified it as being by the same scribe that copied + \emph{Codex Aboensis}, SDHK 20000.}\label{fig_alamarestak} +\end{figure} + + +The manuscript contains 123 parchment folios that are sandwiched +between blocks of paper at front and end. First six parchment folios +contain the calendar and the rest make up the legal text. The folios +are $24 \times 16.5$ cm in size where the text area is $16.5 \times +11.5$ cm. There are 25–29 lines of text per page where 27 is the most +common number. The pages in the front and at the end contain later +writing. For example, the end contains astrological material written +in hand of Micael Agricola (figure \ref{fig_astrology}). + +The \emph{Realm of the Land} is written in a cursive script of the +kind that was in wide use in Sweden around the time. The scribe used +very clear and careful hand suitable for a high-profile manuscript or +an important document. + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=12cm]{pics/budde-9v.png} + \caption{Sample from \emph{Jöns Budde's Book} that shows a less + clear cursive text from slightly later period c.1490 (\emph{Codex + HS A 58, f.9v}) } + \label{fig_jons_budde} +\end{figure} + + + + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=12cm]{pics/aboensis-e14v.jpg} + \caption{A part of an astrological text written by Michael Agricola + on the end pages of \emph{Codex Aboensis} (f14v)} + \label{fig_astrology} +\end{figure} + + + +\subsection{King Magnus Eriksson} + +Magnus Eriksson was born in 1316. At the time the situation in Sweden +was tense. King Birger Magnusson had fought a bitter civil war against +his brothers Erik and Valdemar, Dukes of Södermanland and Finland, and +now there was an uneasy peace. Magnus was the first son of Duke Erik +and Ingeborg of Norway, who was the daughter of King Haakon Magnusson +of Norway. + +The truce was broken in 1317 when Birger captured his brothers during +a celebration in Nyköping and had them killed. According to the +\emph{Eric Chronicle} they were starved to death. The supporters of +the dukes raised a rebellion and forced Birger to exile to Denmark +where he died in 1321. The 3-year old Magnus was elected as king at +the Stones of Mora in 1319. A few months later he was declared the +hereditary King of Norway after the death of his grandfather. + +Magnus was crowned in 1331 after a 12-year regency and he became the +longest-reigning King of Sweden before the currently reigning Karl XVI +Gustav. His rule as a King of Norway didn't last as long. The +Norwegian nobles were not enthuastic about union of Norway and Sweden +and after a series of revolts they came to a settlement in 1343 where +Magnus abdicated the throne in favour of his younger song Haakon. +Magnus continued to be the regent until Haakon came of age in 1355. + +In Sweden Magnus started a legislative reform. In the 1330s he +insituted his \emph{Manor Justice}, the \emph{The Law of the Realm} +that was intended to become the unified law in the whole country was +written in 1340s and in the next decade he followed it with \emph{The + Law of the Towns}. In practice these two law collections did not +come to force immediately and some areas used their old laws for the +next century. + +In 1360 King Valdemar IV of Denmark attacked Magnus's lands and +reconquered Scania that Magnus had held for a few decades. The next +year he conquered the island of Gotland. The decicively lost war +triggered a rebellion in Sweden that Magnus vanquished. A few of the +rebels, led by Bo Jonsson Grip went to the court of Albrecht of +Mecklenburg and offered the crown to him. With the support of the +Hanseatic league Albrecht conquered central parts of Sweden and he was +crowned a king in 1364. + +After that there was a civil war between supporters of Magnus and +Albrecht that lasted for almost eight years. Magnus himself was +captured at the Battle of Gataskogen in 1365 and had to spend years in +prison. In there was a peace agreement where Magnus agreed to leave +the kingdom for Albrecht and to go to exile in Norway where he died in +a shipwreck two years later in 1374. + + +\subsection{Swedish laws} + +At the beginning of the 14th century there were several provincial law +codes in effect in Sweden. The contents of nine of them are known +completely or partially, but there may have been others that are not +mentioned in sources. For example, it is not known what law code or +codes were followed in Finland. There are a few references to the +Hälsinge Law but there are also vague references to "laws and customs +of the land" that may refer to local law codes. The codes were divided +into two basic groups: \emph{Göta Laws}\footnote{Including the Older + and Younger Västgöta, the Östgöta, and the Småland Laws.} were +followed in the Western provinces and \emph{Svea Laws}\footnote{The + Uppland, Dala, Västmanna, Hälsinge and Södermanna Laws.} of Eastern +Sweden. The Scania Laws are nowdays usually grouped with the Danish +medieval laws because Scania belonged to the Danish crown for almost +the whole middle ages. + +The development of the laws is not clear. It is probable that at least +some of them existed orally before they were written down. The oldest +legal manuscripts contain The Older Västgöta Law and they date to the +early 13th century. + +Magnus Eriksson's \emph{The Laws of the Realm} contains 14 chapters +that are called \emph{balke}. The term translates literally to +\emph{beam}. Its etymology is not certain, but it may have been +intended to convey the meaning of support. + + +\paragraph {Konungs balker – King's Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Konungs balker} starts with laws about the election and +coronation of the king as well as giving the text of the regnal oath +that limited his powers. Then it describes the rules of the armed +service for noblemen. The third main part of the \emph{balke} gives +rules on how king's court work. In addition to these main parts there +are regulations on various matters. For example, the section 23 +decrees that taverns should be established along the main roads of the +kingdom and gives rules for their operation. + + +\paragraph {Giffto balken – Wedding Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Giffto balken} establishes regulations on the marriage. It +defines when an engagement and a marriage are legal and how dowry and +morning gift\footnote{A gift given by the husband to his new wife on + the first morning of their marriage.} are given. It also establishes +limits on the gifts and for the number of guests in a wedding. The +limit on the guests were probably intended to prevent large gatherings +that could be used as cover for mustering forces for a rebellion. + +\paragraph {Ärffdha balker – Inheritance Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Ärffdhe balker} is a short code that establishes rules for +dividing the inheritance. The basic principles are that the +inheritance goes to closest relatives and that a daughter inherits +half as much as her brothers. A special emphasis is placed on ensuring +that no one can inherit a person they have killed. + + +\paragraph {Jordha balker – Land Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Jordha balker} is a long code giving rules on how land +properties work. Land holdings were divided into two classes: +\emph{inherited} and \emph{bought}. The general rule was that a person +could freely sell land that they had bought, but inherited land needed +to be first offered for the relatives to buy. The law also decreed +that there needed to be a written sales for every land sale. The balk +contains also regulations for tenant farmers who rented the land that +they farmed. + +\paragraph {Bygningah balker – Building Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Bygningah balke} contains mostly rules on how villages work: +how the building plots are arranged and how common fields and meadows +were divided beween farms. Because each farm had a share on each +field, the whole village had to coordinate their work. Other parts of +the balk describe how servants are hired, how borders between villages +are marked, and how mills and bridges are built, among a few other +things. + +\paragraph {Köpmala balker – Trade Beam} \mbox{}\\ + + +The \emph{Köpmala balker} is a short code that contains regulations on +how trades are legally made. It establishes penalties for selling fake +or stolen things as well as regulates how loans are given and +guaranteed. + + +\paragraph {Thingmaala balker – Court Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{thing} was an assembly of men of a given area that +functioned also as the court of justice. The \emph{Thingmaala balker} +decrees how courts are held. It starts by giving rules on how +\emph{lagmans} and judges are selected and then establishes how and +when the \emph{things} were held. Each district had three sessions +each year (from Epiphany to Ash Wednesday, from June 17 to July 39, +and from St Michael's day to the First Advent) and during the sessions +the court sat on one day a week. + +Sworn oaths were the integral part of court proceedings. For each +possible dispute the rules said whether the plaintiff, the defendant, +or the jury needed to swear the oath and how many men were necessary +for it.\footnote{\emph{Men} is literal here because women were not + allowed to swear an oath at a \emph{thing}.} It was not allowed to +counter an oath with another oath and no one was allowed to swear an +oath alone but instead needed to find a number of co-swearers to go +along him. Very simple cases needed only an oath of two men, serious +cases needed 12. + +The balk also establishes rules on how fines could be collected and +decreed forced labour for those who couldn't pay them. + +\paragraph {Edzöris balker – Peace Oath Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The peace oaths were laws that gave special protection to different +areas of life. They originated in Germany and the first mentions for +them in Sweden come from the 12th century. They came to prominence +during the reign of King Magnus Ladulås (reigned 1275–90). The penalty +for breaking them was usually outlawry but doubling the normal fines +was used for less serious offences. Because children and women +couldn't be outlawed, they also could not be punished for breaking the +peace oath. + +The \emph{Edzöris balker} gave protection to: + +\begin{itemize} +\item Homes: attacking someone in his home broke the oath; +\item Justice: exacting a revenge on the other participant of a trial + after the case was settled in the court broke the oath as did + participating in a blood feud; +\item Women: raping a woman broke the oath; +\item Church: wounding or killing people in church or who were + traveling to or from church broke the oath; +\item Court: wounding or killing people at court or who were traveling + to or from it broke the oath. +\item Mutilation: mutilating someone by cutting of their body parts + broke the oath; +\item Fieldwork: attacking someone who was working on fields carried a + penalty of double fines but not outlawry. +\end{itemize} + +Attempts were not criminalized under the beam. Trying to attack +someone going to church but failing the attempt was explicitly said to +not break the oath. + +\paragraph {Högmalis balker – Capital Matters Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Högmalis balker} lists crimes for which the sentence was +death on a wheel for men or stoning for women. + +The crimes were secret murder where the body was hidden, killing one's +own child or parent, bigamy, killing someone with witchcraft or +poison, armed rebellion, helping an invading foreign army, killing +one's liege lord, and arsony. + +The final paragraph of the law decrees that an attempt to harm someone +with witchcraft or poison was punished by a fine of 40 marks. + + +\paragraph {Draapmala balker medh wiliä – Murder Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +There are two \emph{balker} about killings. The \emph{Draapmala balker + medh wiliä} handles the cases where the killing was intentional. +This has some overlap with the \emph{Högmalis balker}. + +In contrast to modern laws, the punishment for murder depended on when +the criminal was caught if it was not a secret murder. If the criminal +was caught within a day of the murder, then the punishment was death, +but if captured later, then the punishment was a fine that was +typically 40 marks but in some cases it could be smaller or larger. +The fine was divided into three parts, one third going to the +plaintiff, one third to the king, and one third to the parish. In case +the fine was larger than 40 marks, the shares of king and the parish +were capped at 13 marks 8 öres that corresponded to their share of the +40 marks. + +Magnus Eriksson's \emph{The Laws of the Realm} have still vestiges of +old feuding culture. If a close relative of a murder victim killed the +killer within one day of the murder, he could not get a death sentence +even if caught immediately afterwards and he would need to pay only +the king and the parish thirds of the fine. + +The balk also gives rules on how an exiled killer can get a safe +conduct to king's court and obtain reconciliation. + +\paragraph {Draapmala balker medh wadha – Manslaughter Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Draapmala balker medh wadha} considers accidental killings. +It gives rules on when a killing is counted as accidental and +specifies fines for different causes of death. The general rule is +that when the killer has taken some active action that causes death, +the fine is 9 marks divided in three, and if the death is because the +defendant has neglected to do something or if the victim was an active +participant of whatever caused the death, then the fine is four and +half marks. + +\paragraph {Saramalä balker medh wiliä – Intentional Wounding Beam} +\mbox{}\\ + +There are also two \emph{balker} about woundings and \emph{Saramalä + balker medh wiliä} is about cases where someone intended to cause an +injury. The balk lists different types of injuries and gives +compensations and fines that needed to be paid for them. The +compensation went fully to the injured party while the fine was +divided in three parts just like the fines for murders were. + +For example, cutting a hand away called for compensation of 12 marks +and a fine of 20 marks. Cutting a thumb had a nine mark compensation +and 12 mark fine. + +\paragraph {Saramalä balker medh wadha – Accidental Wounding Beam} +\mbox{}\\ + +The second wounding balk is about accidental woundings. It defines +when an injury is an accident and enumerates the compensations. In +general, the compensations were much smaller than for the intentional +cases. For example, accidentally causing the loss of a thumb called +for 12 öres compensation and 12 öres fines. + +The \emph{Saramalä balker medh wadha} considers accidental injuries. + +\paragraph {Thiuffua balker – Thief Beam} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Thiuffa balker} decrees punishments for thieves. As with the +case of murders, the punishment for thieves differed based on whether +they were caught in act or later. A thief who stole property worth of +half a mark or more who was caught in act would be hanged but if +caught later the punishment would be a fine of 40 marks and they would +need to pay the value of the goods. If the stolen property was worth +between 3 and 4 öres the punishment was flogging and cutting of ears +if caught in act or nine marks fine if not. If the value was between 2 +and 3 öres, it was flogging and losing one ear or six marks fine, and +smaller thefts if was flogging or a fine of three marks. + +The balk also gives rules how home inspections could be made to find +stolen goods and how someone who found lost property should act to +avoid been accused of thievery. + + +\paragraph {Gardz rättir – Manor Justice} \mbox{}\\ + +The \emph{Gards rättir} is a law for royal manors and the king's army +and its last section permits the lords of the Privy Council to apply +it also for their manors. In \emph{Codex Aboensis} it comes in the +middle of the \emph{Law of the Realm} between \emph{Konungs balker} +and \emph{Giffto balken}. This was the earliest law that Magnus +Eriksson enacted during his reign. + +The law decrees punishments for various crimes. In contrast to the +common law, violent crimes are punished by corporal punishment instead +of fines. This is probably because soldiers and servants would not be +able to pay fines. + + +\paragraph{Kyrko balker – Church Beam} + +The \emph{Kyrko balker} of provincial laws established the +organization of parish churches in Sweden. They originated during time +when canon law was not yet fully established. By Magnus Eriksson's +time the church was adamant that secular law should have nothing to do +with any matters relating to the church. This is almost certainly the +reason why Magnus didn't include \emph{Kyrko balker} in his laws. +Instead, the old provincial law balks were used in conjunction with +the new code. + +\emph{Codex Aboensis} contains the \emph{Kyrko balker} of the Uppland +law. In addition of decreeing how the parishes work, it also contains +statutes about moral crimes. + + +\paragraph{Ledung rules} + +The ledung institution was established near the end of the Viking age. +Its aim was to organize a semi-permanent navy. Each province was +responsible for providing a set number of ships and their crews and +provisions when king called for it. By Magnus Eriksson's time the +custom was antiquated enough that he didn't include it in the laws, +but \emph{Codex Aboensis} contains the ledung rules from the Uppland +provincial law. + + +\subsection{The Black Book of Abo Cathedral} + +The other main source for charaters in \Aboensis{} is \emph{Registrum + ecclesia Aboensis} or \emph{The Black Book of Abo Cathedral} that is +a cartulary originally compiled in the 1470s and new documents were +appended to it until 1515. The oldest documents that were copied into +it date from 1229 and the latest are from 1515. The most probable date +for when it was started is 1474 when the chancellary of the diocese +was was reformed. + +The first Swedish cartulary was the Uppsala Archdiocese +\emph{Registrum} that was started in 1344 and the cartularies of other +diacoses followed its example. + +The book is about the size of modern A4 the leaves being $28.5 \times +21$ cm in size. There are 329 paper quarto folios\footnote{About 1/3 + of the folios are left empty.} in it. The paper block is protected +by two sheets of vellum that have been added to the front sometime +after the reformation. + +The \emph{Black Book} contains copies of 727 documents that are +arranged by the subject and not chronologically. The book starts with +an index of the documents that were copied prior to 1486. Most of the +documents relate to the possessions of the cathedral and their +distribution between different \emph{tables} of the chapter. When +Reinhald Hausen published its contents in the early 20th century he +moved the documents to chronological order to make searching for them +easier. + + +\section{Typesetting Medieval Cursive} + +This section gives a general view on using \Aboensis{} to write +medieval cursive, and the next section will give specific instructions +of using the LaTeX style file \package{aboensis.sty}. As a general +note I will use in the examples the letters \emph{ä} and \emph{ö} even +though it would be more accurate to use \emph{æ} and \emph{ø}. The +font itself uses same symbols for both. + +Medieval cursive writing differs from modern computer-generated text +in many ways. The most obvious differences are that many letters have +multiple variant forms that occur in different positions, there are +many abbreviations, and punctuation conventions are very different +from modern. The \Aboensis{} font is made with OpenType features that +automatically choose the correct letter variant in most cases, but +there are cases where manual adjustment is needed. Many of the +adjustments are necessary because of limitations of OpenType engines +as changing the set of active features often breaks the letter context +that the automation relies on. + +The first thing to note is that many letters have specific initial and +final forms. The letter \emph{m} has also an additional isolated form. +The different forms of \emph{m} are: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{*m*} & \sample{m*} & \sample{*m} & \sample{m} + \\ + Normal & Initial & Final & Isolated \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +For example, the word \emph{non} is written as: +\begin{center} + \sample{non} +\end{center} + +These forms are selected using the \texttt{calt} feature and the +feature should always be turned on with the font. + +The two forms for letter \emph{s} are usually called \emph{long} +(\emph{ſ}) and \emph{short} \emph{s}. In gothic scripts the long +\emph{ſ} was used in initial and middle positions while the short +\emph{s} was used only in word-final positions:\footnote{This differs + from later Fraktur convention where the short \emph{s} was used also + at the end of syllables.} + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{*s*} & \sample{*s} \\ + Long & Short \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +For example, the word \emph{suspicious} is written with long \emph{s} +in first two places and short \emph{s} at the end: + +\begin{center} + \sample{suspicious} +\end{center} + +If an \emph{s} occurred by itself, the Swedish texts usually wrote it +with a long \emph{s}. Some other areas preferred a short \emph{s} for +isolated forms. + +A double \emph{s} is written either with two long \emph{s} or with the +\emph{ß} ligature.\footnote{Old Swedish often uses \emph{z} in place of + \emph{e} after \emph{h} and \emph{s} so \sample{ß} can also mean + \emph{se}.} The ligature is most often used at the end of the word: + +\begin{center} + \sample{mass} \\ + mass +\end{center} + + +The letter \emph{r} has also two forms, straight and round: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{*r*} & \sample{*r:} \\ + Straight & Round \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The general rule for them in Gothic scripts is that the round \emph{r} +is used after 'round' letters and the straight \emph{r} in other +positions. What counts as a round letter varies between scripts. In +\emph{Codex Aboensis} the round letters are \emph{a}, \emph{e}, +\emph{o}, and \emph{w}. The scribe was inconsistent about the letter +\emph{h} and there are some places with round \emph{r} after and +others with straight \emph{r}. The \texttt{calt} feature uses the +round \emph{r} with \emph{h}.\footnote{Most Gothic scripts use round + \emph{r} after \emph{u} and \emph{p} but \emph{Codex Aboensis} uses + straight.} + +\begin{center} + \sample{ar} \sample{er*} \sample{or} \sample{wr} \sample{hr} \sample{h*r} +\end{center} + +A special feature in Swedish writing is that both \emph{er} and +\emph{re} at the end of the word are written with the same +\emph{re}-ligature: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{riddare} & \sample{eller} + \\ + ridda\emph{re} & ell\emph{er} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +This usage is almost universal in \emph{Codex Aboensis} and very +common other Swedish texts, though many hands write the +\emph{re}-ligature as an superscript abbreviation mark: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{ridd'a} & \sample{ell'} \\ + ridda\emph{re} & ell\emph{er} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +During the middle ages the symbols \emph{u} and \emph{v} were still +considered to be variant ways of writing the same letter. Both forms +were used for the vowel and consonant and there was no standard rule +for selecting between them. One reasonably common convention was that +initial positions were written with \emph{v} and other positions used +\emph{u}.\footnote{A peculiar Swedish custom was to write \emph{v} in + the middle of a word as \emph{ffu} as in \sample{kloffue}.} + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{vniuerse} & \sample{seruus} \\ + universe & servus + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The symbols \emph{i} and \emph{j} were also considered to be variant +forms of the same letter. The most typical use was that \emph{i} was +the default form but \emph{j} was used as in final positions and as +the last letter in a sequence of \emph{i} letters. The letter \emph{y} +was also used often for \emph{ii}. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{xiii} & \sample{wii} & \sample{wy} & \sample{liiff} & \sample{gudi} \\ + xiii & wii & wii & liiff & gudi \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +Gothic cursive tends to have the problem that sequences of \emph{m}, +\emph{n}, \emph{u} and \emph{i} letters are quite unreadable. To make +these more legible, the font adds a dot over \emph{i} in a place where +it is next to a minim. For example, the word \emph{minimum} looks +without and with dots like: + +\begin{center} + \sample{m!i!n!i!m!u!m} \hspace{5mm} \sample{minimum} +\end{center} + + +Medieval scribes used many abbreviations in the texts. The most +commmon abbreviation was to leave out a \emph{m} or \emph{n} and mark +it by drawing a tilde over the previous letter: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{nõ} & \sample{kon~ugx} \\ + no\emph{n} & konu\emph{n}gx + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The tilde was also used to mark places where longer sequences of +letters were left out. There were several standard sigla for +abbreviating syllables. The abbreviations supported in +\Aboensis{} are described in section \ref{sec_abbrs}. Few further examples +are: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{ecc~ia} & \sample{[prop]heta} & + \sample{[quod]} & \sample{eo[rum]} \\ + ecc\emph{les}ia & \emph{pro}pheta & q\emph{uod} & eo\emph{rum} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Capital letters were used in a different way from modern. Proper nouns +were generally not capitalized and even God was usually written +lowercase. In \emph{Codex Aboensis} capital letters are mostly used to +mark beginning of paragraphs. In high-profile manuscripts capitals +were often marked by drawing a red strike through them. + + +\subsection{Creating highlighted capitals}\label{ssec_capitals} + + +The capital letters may have a highlight strike added to them. This is +implemented by writing three letters on top of each other: first the +capital itself, then a strike of the highlight color, and finally a +partial strike on a darker highlight color that covers the parts of +letters that are left under the strike. The two strikes are +interpreted as zero-width variant characters whose glyphs lie over the +previous character. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{c@{ }c@{ }cc@{ }c@{ }cc@{ }c@{ }c} + \fbox{\sample{A}} & + & \fbox{\sample{\abred{/A\phantom{A}}}} & + + & \fbox{\sample{\abdarkred{//A\phantom{A}}}} & = & \fbox{\sample{\abcapital{A}}}\\ + A & & {\color{abred}/A} & & {\color{abdarkred} //A} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The most common medieval highlight color was red but \emph{Codex + Aboensis} contains also highlights in green. Figure +\ref{fig:predefined_colors} shows HTML hex code values for three +colors. The red and blue are taken from \emph{Missale Aboense} +facsimile while the green is from the digitized version of \emph{Codex + Aboensis}. All values are in color space sRGB. These colors are also +defined in the LaTeX style file, the details are in section +\ref{ssec_color_model}. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lccccc} + Color & Highlight & Dark highlight & \package{xcolor} name \\ + \hline + Red & \fcolorbox{black}{abred}{\phantom{TEST}} & + \fcolorbox{black}{abdarkred}{\phantom{TEST}} & \package{abred}\\ + & B1523E & 4D231C \\ + Green &\fcolorbox{black}{abgreen}{\phantom{TEST}} & + \fcolorbox{black}{abdarkgreen}{\phantom{TEST}} & \package{abgreen} \\ + & 62876E & 3F4D3C & \\ + Blue &\fcolorbox{black}{abblue}{\phantom{TEST}} & + \fcolorbox{black}{abdarkblue}{\phantom{TEST}} & \package{abblue}\\ + & 455F9B & 202F4D \\ + \end{tabular} + + \caption{Predefined highlighting colors} + \label{fig:predefined_colors} +\end{figure} + + + + +\subsection{Selecting correct forms of letters}\label{ssec_correct_forms} + +\Aboensis{} tries to automate selecting correct form a letter but that +is not always possible. Many OpenType rendering engines break +substitution context when the set of active features change. The most +obvious problem that it causes is that letters in the middle of word +get turned to initial forms. Using ligature substitutions for +inserting special characters helps to avoid most of these problems. +However, when parts of a word are in different colors, many font +engines insert a context break there. This happens most often when a +word starts with a highlighted capital letter. For example the +\emph{n} has the initial form in the following word: +\begin{center} + \sample{\abcapital{I}nter} \\ + Inter +\end{center} +There are two special ligature substitutions with symbols \emph{*} and +\emph{!}. Both of them are treated as zero-width letters when used +next to a letter. We can add either of them between \emph{I} and +\emph{n} to remove the initial form: +\begin{center} + \sample{\abcapital{I}*nter} \\ + I*nter +\end{center} + +The difference between \emph{*} and \emph{!} is in how they tie +surrounding letters together. Several of the letters have two forms, + normal and tailed, where tailed is used to connect the letter to the + next letters that have beaks at the left edge. For example, the + letter \emph{a} has the following forms: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \scalebox{1.5}{\sample{a*}} & \scalebox{1.5}{\sample{a!}} \\ + Normal & Tailed \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + If there is a string \emph{ai} where the letters belong to different + contexts, then the \emph{a} will have the wrong form and they do not + tie together properly. Adding \emph{!} to the same context as + \emph{a} solves the issue +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \scalebox{1.5}{\sample{\abred{a}i*}} & & + \scalebox{1.5}{\sample{\abred{a!}i*}} \\ + {\color{abred}a}i & & {\color{abred}a!}i + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +In practice, it is rare for a situation to crop out where \emph{!} is +necessary and you can almost always use \emph{*} to solve context +breaking problems. + +The asterisk and exclamation mark can also be used to change a round +\emph{r} to straight or short \emph{s} to long if desired: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{or} & \sample{o*r} & \sample{is} & \sample{is*} \\ + or & o*r & is & is* + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Conversely, a straight \emph{r} or long \emph{s} can be changed to +round \emph{r} or short \emph{s} by adding \emph{:} after them: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{br} & \sample{br:} & \sample{sa} & \sample{s:a} \\ + br & br: & sa & s:a + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Abbreviation symbols can be added to symbols by prefixing them with +\emph{~}, \emph{'}, and \emph{/}. Not all combinations exists. Most +lettes have one with a tilde, many have single quote ones but there +are only a few with a slash.\footnote{Note that the slash implements + highlighting for capital letters.} + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{~d} & \sample{'t} & \sample{/d} \\ + ~d & 't & /d + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + + +\subsection{Lombard and cursive initials}\label{sec_initials} + +The font has three sets of initials: two sets of Lombardian initials +and one set of cursive initials. Lombardian initials were used in +books and cursive initials were used for documents. All three sets can +be accessed either using ligature substitutions or by turning on +suitable opentype features, and there are also XeLaTeX macros for +inserting them. + +The kind of Lombardian initials that are included in the font were +most often used as two-line initials in books, but they may also be +used as three- or one-line size. Larger initials were usually more +elaborate than these. Figure \ref{fig:initial_sample} shows a typical +example for two-line initial use. A longer version of the text is in +section \ref{sec_noble_service}. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \begin{minipage}{10.5cm} + {\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{15}{20}\selectfont\raggedright + \noindent\abstartchapter{I}{\abl{\abcapital{O}ca mies wapautta tacto hänen hyfuydhens, }}{% + {\abl{\hbox{\kern6.5pt{}mikä hän on \abcapital{R}iddari taicka \abcapital{S}wenni, ei }}}} + \abl{yctäken eroittadhen, hänen pitä hyfuydhens}} + \end{minipage} + \caption{Sample for typical Lombardic initial use}\label{fig:initial_sample} +\end{figure} + + + +\paragraph{Simpler Lombardian initials} + +The simpler set of Lombardian initials is accessed by writing the +capital between \emph{+} signs or by enabling the feature +\feature{ss03}: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{c} + \lombardsample{\abred{M}} \\ + +M+ \\ + (or \feature{ss03}) \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\paragraph{Swash Lombardian initials} + +The more complex Lombardian intials can be used either in one color or +with two colors in the same way that capitals may be highlighted. The +initial itself is written by adding a colon \emph{:} before the +closing plus and differently-colored parts are written using \emph{/} +in place of the colon: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccccccc} + \lombardsample{\abred{M:}} & & + \lombardsampleother{M} \\ + {\color{abred}+M:+} & & {\color{abred}+M:+}{\color{abgreen}+M/+} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The one-colored swash intials can also be accessed by using two +features: \feature{ss03} and \feature{swsh} at the same time. The +second color can be accessed by adding the feature \feature{ss04} in +top of them. + + +\paragraph{Cursive initials} + +In the 15th century Sweden, high-end books typically used Lombardic +initials and large cursive initials were used in documents. Low-end +books could have smaller cursive initials in them instead of Lombardic +ones. The cursive initials in \Aboensis{} do not form a unified set as +I based them\footnote{Except for \emph{X} that I designed myself and + \emph{Å}, \emph{Ä}, and \emph{Ö} where I modified the base + initials.} on historical examples and they were not all written by +the same scribe in the same context. Some of them, like the alternate +form for \emph{W} are suitable for starting important charters while +others like \emph{Y} and \emph{I} are very low-key. The initials are +designed so that the stroke width looks about right when they are set +in 5-6 times as big size of the main text. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{c@{\hspace{1cm}}cc} + \cursiveinitialsample{+W:+} & \cursiveinitialsample{+Y+} & \cursiveinitialsample{+I+} \\ + ++W:++ & ++Y++ & ++I++ \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{The difference between the largest and smallest cursive + initials. The \emph{W} is set hanging left outside of its box.} +\end{figure} + +The metrics for the initials are set on the assumption that the +intials are set with a font size that is 5.5 times the size of the +text body font. The initials will then be placed approximately like +they were in the documents from where I got them. There are reference +images in section \ref{ssec_black_book}. In practice, you will +probably need to do a lot of manual adjustments to get them exactly +where you want them and to ensure that they do not mess up the +following lines of text too much. + +The initials are set by either writing them in lower case and turning +on the feature \feature{ss03} or by writing them in upper case +surrounded by two plus signs: + +\begin{center} +\begin{tabular}{cc} + \cursiveinitialsample{+M+} \\ + ++M++ +\end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Three letters have variant forms that are activated by writing a colon +\emph{:} after the letter: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccccc} + \cursiveinitialsample{+A+} & + \cursiveinitialsample{+A:+} & + \cursiveinitialsample{+S+} & + \raise4ex\hbox{\cursiveinitialsample{+S:+}} & + \cursiveinitialsample{+W+} & + \mbox{}\hspace{2cm}\cursiveinitialsample{+W:+} \\ + ++A++ & + ++A:++ & + ++S++ & + ++S:++ & + ++W++ & + ++W:++ \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\subsection{Numbers} + +Even though Arabic numerals were already known in the 15th century and +are included in the font, the primary notation for numbers were still +Roman numerals. There were several different conventions for using +them and Aboensis gives some support for using them. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llc|lc|lc} + Symbol & Value & Symbol & Value & Symbol & Value \\ + \hline + I & \sample{*i*}, \sample{*j*} & 1 & & + & \sample{\abroman{0.5}}& 1/2 \\ + V & \sample{v} & 5 & \sample{\abroman{5000}} & 5000 & \sample{\abroman{4.5}} & 4 1/2 \\ + X & \sample{*x} & 10 & \sample{\abroman{10000}} & 10\,000 & \sample{\abroman{*9.5}} & 9 1/2 \\ + L & \sample{l} & 50 & \sample{\abroman{50000}} & 50\,000 & \\ + C & \sample{c} & 100 & \sample{\abroman{100000}} & 100\,000 & \\ + M & \sample{*m*} & 1000 & \sample{\abroman{*1000000}} & 1\,000\,000 & \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Roman numerals}\label{tab_roman_numerals} +\end{table} + +The basic principle was additive: different letters carried different +numerical values that are shown in table \ref{tab_roman_numerals} and +the number was the total value of the letters. The numerals were +written from largest to the smallest. For example, + +\begin{center} + 164 = $100 + 50 + 10 +4$ = CLXIIII = \sample{clxiiii}. +\end{center} + +This basic form was used in medieval documents, but it was more common +to combine addition with subtraction. Whenever there would be four +identical symbols in a row, the three last of them would be replaced +by the next larger numeral. The previous example would be written as: + +\begin{center} + 164 = $100 + 50 + 10 + (5 - 1)$ = CLXIV = \sample{\abroman{164}}. +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Large numbers} + + +There were several different ways to represent large numbers. Aboensis +supports two of them. First, a line drawn above a number multiplied +its value by 1000. Some writers used the letter \emph{m} with this notation, +some used \emph{ĩ}. For example: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{r@{ }l} + 12539 & = $10000 + 2000 + 500 + 3 + (10-1)$ \\ + & = \sample{\abroman{12539}} \\ + & = \sample{{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ornm;}x}i*{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ornm;}*i*}dxxxix} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +A positional notation came in use with Roman numerals in late medieval +times. There the hundreds and thousands would be marked by writing +superscript \emph{m} and \emph{c} bewteen parts of numbers. The +previous example would look like: + +\begin{center} +12539 = $12000 + 500 + 3 + (10-1)$ = \sample{\abromanother{12}{5}{39}} +\end{center} + +In France this notation extended to the numbers using the base of 20. +For example, the number 220 could be written as: + +\begin{center} + 220 = $11 \times 20$ = \sample{\abroman{11}`x`x} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Fractions} + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lll} + $1/3$ & tredjedel & \sample{\abthird} \\ + $1/4$ & qvarter & \sample{\abfourth} \\ + $1/6$ & setting & \sample{\absixth} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Common fractions in Swedish}\label{tab_fractions} +\end{table} + +The modern fraction notation $x/y$ was yet used. Instead, the +denominator was written out. The denominators that were in common in +everyday use were usually abbreviated as in table \ref{tab_fractions}. +The half was a special case that was marked by adding a stroke or a +loop to a letter. For numbers less than ten the halves were marked: +\begin{center} +\begin{tabular}{lclc} + 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{0.5}} & + 5 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{5.5}} \\ + 1 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{1.5}} & + 6 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{6.5}} \\ + 2 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{2.5}} & + 7 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{7.5}} \\ + 3 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{3.5}} & + 8 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{8.5}} \\ + 4 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{4.5}} & + 9 1/2 & \sample{\abroman{9.5}} +\end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The half-notation was used in combination of other fractions to +represent other fractions. For example, +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{rl} + $1/8$ & = $1/2 \times 1/4$ = \sample{\abroman{0.5} \abfourth} \\ + $3/12$ & = (1 $1/2) \times 1/6$ = \sample{\abroman{1.5} \absixth} . + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Automatic Roman number conversion} + +Turning on the feature \feature{onum} makes the font to convert +numbers into Roman numerals. This feature works for numbers 1–999\,999 +and it uses the subtractive method and supports halves but not other +fractions: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccccc} + \sample{\abroman{4.5}} & \sample{\abroman{49}} & \sample{\abroman{34552}} \\ + 4.5 & 49 & 34552 \\ + \feature{onum} & \feature{onum} & \feature{onum} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Arabic numerals} + +The \emph{Codex Aboensis} does not have Arabic numbers. However, the +font has two sets of them. The default set that is close to modern +forms of the symbols is taken from Hans Talhoffer's 1459 fencing +treatise \emph{Alte Armatur und Ringkunst} (Ms.Thott.290.2, f.150v, +Det Kgl. Bibliotek) while the other set is from a 15th century +illuminated copy of Fibonacci's \emph{Liber Abaci} (C.Vari 529.52, +f.3r, Biblioteca nazionale centrale di Firenze). The \emph{Liber + Abaci} numbers are entered using the \feature{tnum} feature: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{1234567890} & \sample{\abothernum{1234567890}} \\ + \feature{-tnum} & \feature{+tnum} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\paragraph{Arabic fractions} + +After Arabic numbers came to use, Swedish sources started to use +notation where a superscript \emph{le} was added to a number to denote +its basic fraction: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccccccccc} + & \sample{½} & \sample{⅓} & \sample{¼} & \sample{⅕} & \sample{⅙} & \sample{⅐} &\sample{⅛} & \sample{⅑} \\ + & 1/2 & 1/3 & 1/4 & 1/5 & 1/6 & 1/7 & 1/8 & 1/9 \\ + Unicode: & 00BD & 2153 & 00BC & 2155 & 2159 & 2150 & 215B & 2151 \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + + +\subsection{Punctuation} + +Medieval punctuation did not follow the modern conventions. +Essentially they were used to mark pauses of various lengths in speech +while reading them. \emph{Codex Aboensis} uses three different symbols +but if the difference between two of them is intended or accidental. +The symbols are: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{,} & \sample{.} & \sample{·} \\ + , or / & . & · \\ + virgule & punctus & punctus + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +The virgule signifies a shorter pause than a punctus. It is not clear +to me whether the two different heights of periods signify different +lengths of pauses or if the scribe just put those on different levels +by chance. + +The font has also some other punctuation symbols: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccccc} + \sample{:} & \sample{;} & \sample{?} & \sample{(} & \sample{)} & + \sample{¶} \\ + : & ; & ? & ( & ) & ¶ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\subsection{Miscellaneous} + + +\paragraph{Pointing fingers} + +The font has four pointing fingers that are based on two images taken +from the \emph{Nådendal Cloister's Book} (\emph{Codex Holm. A 49}) +that was written in the first half of the 15th century. Image from +folio 76r provides a small finger that points left that is also mirror +in the font and an image from folio 94v provides a large upwards +pointing finger that is also mirrorer to point down. + +The smaller finger can be used at a size approximately 5 times the +font size and the larger finger at 7 times. The images can be accessed +with their unicode values or with LaTeX macros defined for +them:\footnote{Macros \ltxncmd{ableftindex}, \ltxncmd{abrightindex}, + \ltxncmd{abupindex}, and \ltxncmd{abdownindex}.} + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + {\fontspec{Aboensis}{\ableftindex}} & {\fontspec{Aboensis}{\abrightindex}} & {\fontspec{Aboensis}\abupindex} & {\fontspec{Aboensis}\abdownindex} \\ + 261C & 261E & 261D & 261F + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Line end doodles} + +Many partial lines in \emph{Codex Aboensis} are filled by drawing +doodles with green ink. The font contains a selection of them that can +be combined to form lines. These are placed into symbols that do not +occur in medieval texts: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccccc} + \sample{!} & \sample{*} & \sample{_} & \sample{>} & \sample{<} \\ + ! & * & _ & > & < \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +For example, + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{c} + \sample{\abgreen{!**!___>><}} \\ + !**!___>{}>< + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + + + +\subsection{Making complete books} + +\paragraph{Page numbers} + +Because medieval books were written by hand, they differed from modern +books in several ways. In structure they were written on separate +\emph{quires}, each containing several sheets of parchament or paper +that were folded to produce a booklet. Quires typically had four +sheets that were folded to product 16 pages. A bookbinder took the +written quires and bound them into one volume. + +The books did not have title pages and instead the text started right +from the top of the first page, though there might be some explanatory +rubrics added to describe the nature of the work. If more than one +text was written at the same time, the next would start immediately +after the previous one ended. + +Modern page numbering was not taken to use before the 17th century. +Most medieval books are without page numbers. Those that have numbers +generally use either quire, sheet, or folio numbering. In quire +numbering each individual quire has its own number that is written on +either its first or last page using Roman numerals or letters. These +were added to help bookbinders to keep the quires in correct order. + +In sheet numbering the first page of each sheet has its own number but +the other three pages are empty. This is usually combined with quire +numbering where quires are marked with sequential letters and sheets +within the quire with Roman numbers. For example, \emph{B iv} would be +the fourth sheet of the second quire. + +Folio numbering extends the sheet numbering by putting the number on +each folio, that is, each individual leaf of the book. In almost all +cases the folio number is on the right hand side of the spread. In +modern terms this means that all odd pages are numbered and even are +not. Folio numbers also usually went by quires. Folio numbering was +typically used only for books that needed an index. + +When using LaTeX, the medieval page numbering conventions can be done +using the package \package{foliono}. + +\paragraph{Individual manuscripts} + +Many medieval books were made by taking a number of existing +manuscripts that had been written in different times by different +people and binding them into one volume. This can be simulated by +making each part of the book to have slightly different margins and +font size, and by ensuring that separate manuscripts don't end up in +the same quire. You can add a few empty pages between the texts to +fill up the quires. + +\paragraph{Rulings} + +Most books were ruled before writing to ensure that lines were +straight. The rulings should show us thin faint lines between the +lines of text. The ruling patterns were different in different places +and different times. + +In very simple cases it is possible to product rulings using LaTeX +tables, though I have found that to be quite cumbersome. The +\package{tabu} package contains useful functionality for it as it +allows the user to specify the line colors easily. + +Complex cases can be handled by creating a png image that contains the +rulings and then adding it to the page using +\ltxncmd{AddToShipoutPictureBG*} command of the \package{eso-pic} +package. + + + +\section{Abbreviations}\label{sec_abbrs} + +Medieval texts typically have many abbreviations. In the Swedish +cursive writing of the 15th century three different ways of marking +abbreviated words were used: + +\begin{itemize} +\item a mark, usually a tilde \~{} was added to the word at the place + where letters were left off; +\item a special symbol replaced a word or a part of it; and +\item a letter was written above the word to mark the abbreviation. +\end{itemize} + +In some cases it's debatable whether something is an abbreviation mark +or symbol. + +One area where abbreviations were used particularly often was in +measurement units. Medieval Swedish units were such a confusing affair +that they are discussed in detail in section \ref{sec_units}. + +\subsection{Abbreviation marks} + +\paragraph{Tilde} + +By far the most common abbreviation mark in use was the tilde. Most +often it signified that a nasal consonant (\emph{m} or \emph{n}) was +left out from the word, but it could also be used as a general mark +showing that something was left out. When used at the end of a word it +was drawn as a loop over the letter: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccc} + \sample{ma~ne} & \sample{x~pi} & \sample{m~a} \\ + ma\~{}ne & x\~{}pi& m\~{}a \\ + ma\emph{n}ne & Ch\emph{rist}i & ma\emph{n} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{A-abbreviation} Another abbreviation mark that occurs in +\emph{Codex Aboensis} is the \emph{a}-abbreviation that is writing a +squished \emph{a} on top of a letter to signify that something +containing an \emph{a} is abbreviated. However, in the book it occurs +only in one context: when writing the word \emph{mark}. Another place +where it is see is in Latin manuscripts where it stands for +\emph{qua}. These two letters are the only ones in \Aboensis{} that +have the mark and it accessed using ligature substitution instead of +the accent syntax: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{[ma]} & \sample{[qua]}\\ + {}[ma] & [qua] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{R-abbreviation} Texts written in Sweden in the 15th century +commonly used \emph{r}-abbrevation mark in the form of a hooked +\emph{s}-shape that was placed over a letter to signify that something +containing an \emph{r} was removed. It was most commonly used for +removing the \emph{er} syllable. It occurs in \emph{Codex Aboensis} in +only few places. In the font it is implemented as the acute accent. It +can be put over most letters. The commonly used syllables \emph{ter}, +\emph{ver}, and \emph{vir} have also ligature substitutions defined +for them. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{´tra} & \sample{[ter]ra} & \sample{[vir]ginis} & \sample{silff[ver]}\\ + ´{}tra & [ter]ra & [vir]ginis & silff[ver] \\ + t\emph{er}ra & t\emph{er}ra & v\emph{ir}ginis & silff[ver] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Texts that used the \emph{r}-abbreviation mark tended to use it also +in places where \Aboensis{} uses the \emph{re}-ligature: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{eller} & \sample{ell´} \\ + eller & ell´{} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Ur-abbreviation} A rare way to abbreviate \emph{tur} and +\emph{mur} syllables was to write a sideways hook over the base +letters. These are implemented as ligature substitutions: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{[mur]} & \sample{[tur]} \\ + {}[mur] & [tur] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\paragraph{Loop} When the end of a word is left out, it is marked by +drawing a loop after the last letter. In texts written in Latin the +syllable is most often \emph{is} but it has also other meanings. In +Swedish texts this is particularly common with measurement units, and +those will be described in section \ref{sec_units}. + +The loops are implemented as ligature substitutions. The basic +\emph{[is]} ligature draws a loop that attaches to a previous tailed +character: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{divin[is]} \\ + divin[is] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +There are substitutions for adding loops for \emph{c}, \emph{d}, +\emph{g}, \emph{r}, and \emph{t}: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccccccc} + \sample{bro[der]} & \sample{cru[cis]} & \sample{caupun[gis]} & \sample{hen[ges]} \\ + bro[der] & cru[cis] & caupun[gis] & hen[ges] \\ + \sample{docto[res]} & \sample{ter[ris]} & \sample{men[tis]}\\ + + docto[res] & ter[ris] & men[tis] \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Stroke} + +An additional stroke could be added to a letter to signify the +abbreviation. In \Aboensis{} there is only one such letter, \emph{d}: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{c} + \sample{/d} \\ + /d + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +In practice, Swedish texts used this symbol in abbreviations of +measurement units \emph{penning} and \emph{pund}. + +\subsection{Abbreviation symbols} + +This section goes through the abbreviation symbols that are included +in the font and that are activated with ligature substitutions. The +symbols that are included among the loop-abbreviations of previous +section could also be placed here. + +\begin{table} + \centering + + \begin{tabular}{cccccc} +{}[bet] & \sample{[bet]} & [Per] & \sample{[Per]} & [qui] & \sample{[qui]} \\ +{}[bus] & \sample{[bus]} & [per] & \sample{[per]} & [quo] & \sample{[quo]} \\ +{}[con] & \sample{[con]} & [pi] & \sample{[pi]} & [quod] & \sample{[quod]} \\ +{}[ei] & \sample{[ei]} & [por] & \sample{[por]} & [quos] & \sample{[quos]} \\ +{}[eo] & \sample{[eo]} & [prae] & \sample{[prae]} & [rum] & \sample{[rum]} \\ +{}[et:] & \sample{[et:]} & [pre] & \sample{[pre]} & [sed] & \sample{[sed]} \\ +{}[et] & \sample{[et]} & [pro] & \sample{[pro]} & [thet] & \sample{[thet]} \\ +{}[ger] & \sample{[ger]} & [qua] & \sample{[qua]} & [uer] & \sample{[uer]} \\ +{}[gre] & \sample{[gre]} & [quae] & \sample{[quae]} & [ver] & \sample{[ver]} \\ +{}[item] & \sample{[item]} & [quam] & \sample{[quam]} & [vir] & \sample{[vir]} \\ +{}[mi] & \sample{[mi]} & *[que] & \sample{*[que]} & [us:] & \sample{[us:]} \\ +{}[par] & \sample{[par]} & [que] & \sample{[que]} & [us] & \sample{[us]} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Abbreviation ligatures}\label{tab:abbreviation_ligatures} + +\end{table} + +\paragraph{C} + +While \emph{Codex Aboensis} does not use it, using a mirrored \emph{c} +that possibly had a cedilla attached to it was a common way to +abbreviate the syllable \emph{con}. It was typically used only at the +beginning of the word, but occasionally it can be seen in the middle +of a word: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{c} + \sample{[con]tra} \\ + {}[con]tra + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{E} + +The Latin word \emph{et} was often abbreviated with so called +\emph{Tironian et} symbol, that was named after its inventor Marcus +Tullius Tiro who devised a stenograph system for Latin: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccc} + \sample{[et]} \\ + {}[et] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +Scribes often used it to mean \emph{and} when writing in other +languages. + +A long form of the letter \emph{z} was commonly used as suffix +\emph{-et} or \emph{-ed} in Latin texts and it was also used when +writing Swedish. This was most common after letters \emph{b}, +\emph{h}, and \emph{s}. As the \emph{z} is placed in slightly +different places after each of the letters, there are ligature +substitutions with all of them in addtion of having it by itself, and +there is also one for the word \emph{thet} that is very common in +Swedish: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{[et:]} & \sample{ha[bet]} & \sample{[thet]} & + \sample{[sed]} \\ + {}[et:] & ha[bet] & [thet] & [sed] \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\paragraph{G} + +An initial and medial form of the letter \emph{g} combined with the +\emph{r}-abbreviation is treated as an abbreviation symbol in the +font: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{[gre]gorius} & \sample{[ger]manus} \\ + {}[gre]gorius & [ger]manus + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{I} + +The loop that often but not always denotes \emph{is}-suffix is +described in the previous section. Other than that there is one +abbreviation symbol for \emph{i}. When making lists the symbol for +\emph{item} was commonly used with all languages: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{[item]} \\ + {}[item] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{P} + +There are three symbols for abbreviating syllables that start with +\emph{p}, and two of them have more than one meaning: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{[per]} & \sample{[pro]} & \sample{[prae]} \\ + {}[per], [par], [por] & [pro] & [pre], [prae] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +There is also a capital version of \emph{Per}: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{[Per]} & \sample{[Per]\abred{/[Per]}\abdarkred{//[Per]}} \\ + {}[Per] & [Per]{\color{abred}/[Per]}{\color{abdarkred}{//[Per]}} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +% + +It is also possible to add abbreviation marks over \emph{per} and +\emph{pro} + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{[~per]} & \sample{[´per]} & \sample{[~pro]} & + \sample{[´pro]} \\ + {}[~per] & [´per] & [~pro] & [´pro] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Q} Medieval Latin texts typically have a large number of +abbreviation symbols defined for \emph{q}. They don't occur in +\emph{Codex Aboensis}, but the font has several that have been added +from various 15th century sources:\footnote{Note that different hands + used some of these symbols with different meanings.} + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccccccc} + \sample{[que]} & \sample{*[que]} & \sample{[quod]} & \sample{[qui]} & + \sample{[quo]} & \sample{[qua]} & + \sample{[quae]} + & \sample{[quam]} & \sample{[quos]} \\ + {}[que] & *[que] & [quod] & [qui] & [quo] & [qua] & [quae] & + [quam] & [quos] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +The difference between the two \emph{que} symbols is that the first +one was used for the word \emph{que} while the second was used for the +suffix \emph{-que}: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{us[que]} \\ + us[que] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{R} + +The only abbreviation symbol for \emph{r} in the font is the suffix +\emph{-rum}: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{[rum]} \\ + {}[rum] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Cursive scripts typically used the rotunda \emph{r} as a base for +\emph{rum} in all places, even in those that would normally have the +straight \emph{r}. + + +\paragraph{U, V} + +There were two ways to abbreviate the Latin suffix \emph{-us} +depending on the grammatical case: +\begin{center} +\begin{tabular}{cccccccccc} + \sample{[us:]} && \sample{[us]} \\ + Dative && Other \\ + suffix \emph{us} && suffix \emph{us}. +\end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The dative suffix \emph{us} occurs also in words that end in +\emph{-bus} even if they are in a different case. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccc} + \sample{de[us]} & \sample{omni[bus]} & \sample{tri[bus]} \\ + de[us] & omni[bus] & tri[bus] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +Note that \emph{-bet} and \emph{-bus} endings are the same and you +need to determine which is which by the context: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{ha[bet]} & \sample{tri[bus]} \\ + ha[bet] & tri[bus] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +A common way to mark the syllable \emph{ver} was to draw the +\emph{r}-abbreviation with a long tail: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{[uer]} \\ + {}[uer] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +A variant version for that was to add a \emph{r}-abbreviation mark to +the letter: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{[ver]} & \sample{[vir]} \\ + {}[ver] & [vir] + \end{tabular} + +\end{center} + + +\subsection{Abbreviation superscripts} + +Medieval scribes saved space by writing lettes as superscripts. In +\Aboensis{} there is an accent substitution with grave accent and also +there are a few combinations that have ligature substitutions defined +for them. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccccccc} + \sample{e`rik} & \sample{p`/d} & \sample{omni`[bus]} & \sample{[ei]} & + \sample{[eo]} & \sample{[mi]} &\sample{[pi]} & \sample{[qui]} & \sample{[quo]}\\ + e`rik & p`/d & omni`[bus] & [ei] & [eo] & [mi] & [pi] & [qui] & [quo] + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\subsection{Names} + +It was very common in the 15th century to write common names in an +abbreviated form. Table \ref{tab_names} shows the short forms of some +of the Swedish male names. Women's names were written down with less +frequency so there weren't corresponding standard abbreviations for +them. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llll} + Name & Abbreviation &Name & Abbreviation \\ + \hline + Anders & \sample{an~d} & Marten & + \sample{mar~th} \\ + Bertil & \sample{be`rl} & Nicolaus & \sample{nicõ} \\ + Eric & \sample{ei`rc} & Nils & \sample{ni~l} \\ + Henric & \sample{he~n} & Olof & \sample{o~l} \\ + Jacob & \sample{ja~c} & Peder & \sample{pe[der]} \\ + Johan & \sample{jo~h} & Per & + \sample{[per]} \\ + Laurentius (Lars) & \sample{la~u} & Thomas & \sample{thõ} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Common ways to abbreviate Swedish names} + \label{tab_names} +\end{table} + +\section{The LaTeX style}\label{sec_latex_style} + +This section gives a functional overview of most of the commands in +the \package{aboensis.sty} style file. The full command reference is +in section \ref{reference}. + +All user-visible commands in the style file start with the prefix +\ltxncmd{ab}. They can be roughly divided into five classes: + +\begin{itemize} +\item selecting the font; +\item color handling; +\item typesetting capitals and initials; +\item typesetting an even page with cursive; and +\item typesetting symbols and abbreviations. +\end{itemize} + +The style file is designed to be used together with XeLaTeX, +\package{fontspec} and \package{xcolor}. It hasn't been tested on +other systems and may or may not work on them. + +\subsection{Package options} + +The only selectable option in the style file is \feature{Fibonacci}. +Turning it on changes the Arabic numbers to have the shape taken from +the Fibonacci manuscript C.Vari 529.52. + +\subsection{Selecting the font} + +There are two basic commands to turn on \Aboensis{}: + +\begin{itemize} +\item \ltxncmd{abcursivefamily}: this changes the font to Aboensis and + color to the specified text color. In addition, it makes the tilde + (\emph{~}) and underscore (\emph{_}) to be normal letters so that + they can be used in text. + +\item \ltxcmd{aboensis}{text}: typesets \package{text} in Aboensis + using the specified text color. Note that this does not make tilde + and underscore normal letters. +\end{itemize} + +Because the tilde \emph{~} and underscore \emph{_} are special +characters in TeX, there is a command \ltxncmd{abtildes} that makes +them letters so that they can be used for ligature substitutions and +as line fillers. The \ltxncmd{abcursivefamily} calls it automatically +but the rules for TeX catcode handling prevents \ltxncmd{aboensis} +from doing the same. + +\subsection{The Color Model}\label{ssec_color_model} + +The rubrics and highlighting macros work on the assumption that a +three have been defined: text, primary rubrics and secondary rubrics. +The text color defaults to black, primary rubrics to red, and +secondary rubrics to green. + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lllll} + \multicolumn{3}{l}{Text color} \\ + & Use: & \ltxcmd{abtext}{text} \\ + & Set: & \ltxcmd{absettextcolor}{color} \\ + & Default: & black 000000 \fcolorbox{black}{black}{\phantom{test}} \package{black}\\ + \multicolumn{3}{l}{Primary rubrics color} \\ + & Use: & \ltxcmd{abrubric}{text} \\ + & Set: & \ltxcmd{absetrubriccolor}{color} \\ + & Default & red B1523E \fcolorbox{black}{abred}{\phantom{test}} \package{abred}\\ + \multicolumn{3}{l}{Secondary rubrics color} \\ + & Use: & \ltxcmd{abotherrubric}{text} \\ + & Set: & \ltxcmd{absetotherrubriccolor}{color} \\ + & Default: & green 62876E \fcolorbox{black}{abgreen}{\phantom{test}} \package{abgreen}\\ + \multicolumn{3}{l}{\package{xcolor} color mixing percentages} \\ + & Set: & \ltxcmd{absetcolormixpercentage}{value} \\ + & & \ltxcmd{absetothercolormixpercentage}{value} \\ + & Default: & 45 \\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Colors and how they are defined} + \label{fig:color_commands} +\end{figure} + +The \package{xcolor} is used to create darker versions of highlight +colors to simulate the effect of text color showing through the +highlight strike. This is done by mixing the highlight color with the +text color using a user-settable mixing percentage to do it. The +commands that are used to define and use colors are shown in figure +\ref{fig:color_commands}. There are shortcut commands for using the +three predefined rubrics color. They have the forms: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ll} + \ltxncmd{abrubricCOLOR} & use COLOR for primary rubrics \\ + \ltxncmd{abotherrubricCOLOR} & use COLOR for secondary rubrics \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +The complete set of these commands is in figure +\ref{fig:using_predefined_colors}. + +The \package{xcolor} color mixing combines two colors according to a +mixing percentage that tells how much of the first color is taken into +the mix: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \fcolorbox{black}{abred}{\phantom{test}} & + & + \fcolorbox{black}{black}{\phantom{test}} & = & + \fcolorbox{black}{abred!45!black}{\phantom{test}} \\ + \package{abred} & 45\% & \package{black} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +The color mixing percentage is set with the command +\ltxncmd{absetcolormixpercentage}. Figure \ref{fig:xcolor_capitals} +shows how the mixing percentage affects the predefined colors against +black and dark brown text colors. + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{l@{$\qquad$}ll} + \hline + \multicolumn{3}{l}{Set primary rubrics color} \\ +& \ltxncmd{abrubricred} \\ +& \ltxncmd{abrubricgreen} \\ +& \ltxncmd{abrubricblue} \\ + + \multicolumn{3}{l}{Set secondary rubrics color} \\ +& \ltxncmd{abotherrubricred} \\ +& \ltxncmd{abtherrubricgreen} \\ +& \ltxncmd{abtherrubricblue} \\ + + \end{tabular} + \caption{Commands to use predefined colors}\label{fig:using_predefined_colors} +\end{figure} + + +\definecolor{brown}{HTML}{40311b}%43010A} + +\begin{figure} + \centering + + \begin{tabular}{ccccccc} + \multicolumn{6}{l}{Text black, highlight red} \\ + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{30} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{35} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{40} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{45} + \fbox{\largesample{\abcapital{A}}} + } +& + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{50} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + }& + + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{55} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + +& + { + \absetcolormixpercentage{60} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + + + \\ + \multicolumn{6}{l}{Text black, highlight green} \\ + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{30} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + & + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{35} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + & + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{40} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + & + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{45} + \fbox{\largesample{\abcapitalother{A}}} + } +& + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{50} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } +& + + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{55} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + +& + + { + \absetothercolormixpercentage{60} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + + + + \\ + + \multicolumn{6}{l}{Text black, highlight blue} \\ + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{30} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{35} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{40} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{45} + \fbox{\largesample{\abcapital{A}}} + } +& + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{50} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + }& + + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{55} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + +& + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absetcolormixpercentage{60} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + + + \\ + + + \multicolumn{6}{l}{Text brown (40311B), highlight red} \\ + { + \absetrubriccolor{abred} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{30} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{35} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{40} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{45} + \fbox{\largesample{\abcapital{A}}} + } +& + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{50} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + }& + + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{55} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + +& + + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{60} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + + \\ + \multicolumn{6}{l}{Text brown (40311B), highlight green} \\ + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{30} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + & + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{35} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + & + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{40} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + & + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{45} + \fbox{\largesample{\abcapitalother{A}}} + } +& + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{50} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + }& + + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{55} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + + +& + + { + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetothercolormixpercentage{60} + \largesample{\abcapitalother{A}} + } + + + + \\ + + \multicolumn{6}{l}{Text brown (40311B), highlight blue} \\ + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{30} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{35} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{40} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + & + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{45} + \fbox{\largesample{\abcapital{A}}} + } +& + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{50} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + }& + + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{55} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } + +& + + { + \absetrubriccolor{abblue} + \absettextcolor{brown} + \absetcolormixpercentage{60} + \largesample{\abcapital{A}} + } \\ + + + + + \%=30 & + \%=35 & + \%=40 & + \%=45 & + \%=50 & + \%=55 & + \%=60 + \end{tabular} + + \caption{\package{xcolor} highlighted capitals with different color + mix percentages} + \label{fig:xcolor_capitals} +\end{figure} + + + + +\subsection{Line spacing} + +One feature in cursive text is that the descenders of letters on a +line often overlap the ascenders of the next line. XeLaTeX really does +not want to do that, which causes uneven line spacing unless the line +spacing is large. To combat this \package{aboensis.sty} has a command +\ltxncmd{abl}{line} that sets one line of text. It sets its argument +in a horizontal box and then smashes it to remove its vertical +metrics. This forces the line spacing to be completely even. + + +\begin{center} +\begin{tabular}{ccccc} +\fbox{\begin{minipage}{5cm} + \raggedright + \fontsize{16}{17}\fontspec{Aboensis} \abcapital{Q}uo usque tandem + abutere, catilina, patientia nostra. \abcapital{Q}uam diu etiam + furor jste tuus nos eludet. +\end{minipage}} & +\fbox{\begin{minipage}{5cm} + \raggedright + \fontsize{16}{17}\fontspec{Aboensis}\abl{\abcapital{Q}uo usque tandem} + \abl{abutere, catilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra. } + \abl{\abcapital{Q}uam diu etiam} + \abl{furor jste tuus nos} + \abl{eludet.} +\end{minipage} }\\ +Default spacing & with \ltxcmd{abl}{line} \\ +\end{tabular} +\end{center} +The right hand side is created using: +\begin{verbatim} + \raggedright + \fontsize{16}{17}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abl{\abcapital{Q}uo usque tandem} + \abl{abutere, catilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra. } + \abl{\abcapital{Q}uam diu etiam} + \abl{furor jste tuus nos} + \abl{eludet.} +\end{verbatim} + + + + +\subsection{Capitals and Initials} + +There are two commands to set highlighted capitals, one for both +rubrics color: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{\abcapital{A}} & \sample{\abcapitalother{A}} \\ + \ltxcmd{abcapital}{A} & \ltxcmd{abcapitalother}{A} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\paragraph{Lombardic initials} Adding a Lombardic initial is a bit +more complex as there are two different shapes for all letters and the +swash shape can have two colors. The swash initials are entered using +ligature substitutions \feature{S:}. + +To add two-line high initials in rubric colors you use: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{\abinitial{A}} & \sample{\abinitial{A:}} & + \sample{\abinitialtwo{A}} \\ + \hbox to 1pt{\vbox to 1.75cm{\hbox{}}}\ltxcmd{abinitial}{A} & \ltxcmd{abinitial}{A:} & + \ltxcmd{abinitialtwo}{A} \\ + \hbox to 1pt{\vbox to .75cm{\hbox{}}} \sample{\abinitialother{A}} & \sample{\abinitialother{A:}} & + \sample{\abinitialothertwo{A}} \\ + \hbox to 1pt{\vbox to 1.5cm{\hbox{}}}\ltxcmd{abinitialother}{A} & \ltxcmd{abinitialother}{A:} & + \ltxcmd{abinitialothertwo}{A} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +However, there are also additional commands that can be used to add +small variety to initial size and position.\footnote{You can add more + variety by using initials from the font Missaali + (\texttt{https://ctan.org/pkg/missaali}). Most of its Lombardic + intials are suitable for use in.} This is useful when there are many +copies of the same initial on the same spread and you do not want them +to be exactly the same. The commands are listed in figure \ref{fig:lombardic_with_pos} +They have the form: +\begin{center} + \ltxcmdfour{abinitwpos}{letter}{scale}{x}{y} +\end{center} +Here the argument \texttt{scale} adds an additional scaling factor to +the letter so that the final size is $2.2\times\texttt{scale}$, +\texttt{x} is the amount of horizontal space that the letter is moved +and \texttt{y} is the same for vertical space. Note that LaTeX's rules +for adding space are occasionally arcane so you may need to do a lot +manual tweaking to get the letters positioned right. For example: + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \fbox{\begin{minipage}{5.3cm} + \raggedright + \fontsize{16}{17}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abinitial{N}\abl{*yt tule kuningan} + \abl{\abindent{}walans wa~no kiri} + \abl{an ja pyhydhen päälle} + \end{minipage}} & + \fbox{\begin{minipage}{5.3cm} + \raggedright + \fontsize{16}{17}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abinitwpos{N}{1.2}{-3mm}{-1mm}\abl{*yt tule kuningan} + \abl{\abindent{}walans wa~no kiri} + \abl{an ja pyhydhen päälle} + \end{minipage} }\\ + \ltxcmd{abinitial}{N} & \ltxcmdfour{abinitwpos}{N}{1.2}{-3mm}{-1mm} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +The Lombardic initials are set hanging down from the baseline, so you +need to reserve space for them from the next line. To help do that +there is a command \ltxncmd{abindent} that inserts space that is as +wide as the previously set initial. The \ltxncmd{abstartchapter} +macros use it automate setting the space. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{\abinitwpos{A}{1.1}{-2pt}{2pt}} & + \sample{\abinittwowpos{A}{1.25}{0pt}{2pt}} \\ + + \hbox to 1pt{\vbox to 1.5cm{\hbox{}}} + + \ltxcmdfour{abinitwpos}{A}{1.1}{-2pt}{2pt} & + \ltxcmdfour{abinitwowpos}{A}{1.25}{0pt}{2pt} \\ + \hbox to 1pt{\vbox to 1.7cm{\hbox{}}} + + \sample{\abinitowpos{A}{1.1}{3mm}{-1mm}} & + \sample{\abinitotwowpos{A}{1.25}{-1cm}{0pt}} \\ + + \hbox to 1pt{\vbox to 1.5cm{\hbox{}}} + \ltxcmdfour{abinitowpos}{A}{1.1}{3mm}{-1mm} & + \ltxcmdfour{abinitotwowpos}{A}{1.25}{-3pt}{0pt} \\ + + \end{tabular} + \caption{Commands to scale and kern Lombardic initials}\label{fig:lombardic_with_pos} +\end{figure} + + +\paragraph{Cursive initials} + +There are two commands for using cursive initials. One sets the +initial in the default position scaled 5.5 times the text size, and +the other lets you to adjust scaling and positioning. Some letters set +out nicely without adjustment, but others need to have space added on +the following row or rows. + +\vspace{7mm} +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{\abcursiveinitial{S}} & + \sample{\abcursiveinitialwithpos{S}{1.2}{-5mm}{2mm}} \\ + \mbox{} \\ + \ltxcmd{abcursiveinitial}{S} & + \ltxcmdfour{abcursiveinitialwithpos}{S}{1.2}{-5mm}{2mm} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +The arguments of the second command are: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \ltxcmdfour{abcursiveinitialwithpos}{letter}{scale}{horizontal + pos}{vertical pos} + \end{tabular} +\end{center} +They are the same as with the positioned Lombardic initial commands. + + +\paragraph{Chapter start macros} + +For every Lombardic initial command there is a corresponding command +that sets the initial as a chapter start initial. There are no +corresponding commands for cursive initials because they have so +varied shapes. + +The commands for the primary rubrics color are shown in figure +\ref{fig:chapter_start}. The commands for the secondary rubrics color +have the same form but they add the string \ltxncmd{other} after +\ltxncmd{chapter} in the command name. For example, +\begin{center} + \ltxncmd{abstartchapter} becomes \ltxncmd{abstartchapterother} +\end{center} + +In the basic form the commands set the initial and two first lines of +the text. For example, the Cicero quote from the beginning of the +document is set as: + +\begin{center} + \begin{minipage}{10.5cm} + {{\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{16}{19}\selectfont + \abstartchapter{Q}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, + \abcapital{C}atilina, pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a diu + etiam furor jste}}} +\end{minipage} +\mbox{}\kern-1cm\begin{minipage}{10.5cm} +\begin{verbatim} +\abstartchapter{Q}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, +\abcapital{C}atilina, pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a + diu etiam furor jste} +\end{verbatim} + \end{minipage} +\end{center} + +As with the case of commands for Lombardic initials + + +\begin{center} + \begin{minipage}{10.5cm} + {{\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{16}{19}\selectfont + \abstartchapterwithpos{Q}{0.85}{0pt}{2mm}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, + \abcapital{C}atilina, pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a diu + etiam furor jste}}} +\end{minipage} +\mbox{}\kern-1cm\begin{minipage}{10.5cm} +\begin{verbatim} +\abstartchapterwithpos{Q}{0.85}{0pt}{2mm}{ + \abcapital{U}o usque tandem abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina, + pati-}{entia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a diu etiam furor jste} +\end{verbatim} + \end{minipage} +\end{center} + + + + + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \fontsize{16}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abstartchapter{Q}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem}{ + abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a} + \end{minipage} + & + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \fontsize{16}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abstartchapter{Q:}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem}{ + abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a} + \end{minipage} + \\ + \ltxcmdthree{abstartchapter}{Q}{\textellipsis}{\textellipsis} & + \ltxcmdthree{abstartchapter}{Q:}{\textellipsis}{\textellipsis} \\ + \mbox{}\\ + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \fontsize{16}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abstartchaptertwo{Q}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem}{ + abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a} + \end{minipage} +& + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \fontsize{16}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abstartchapterwithpos{Q}{1.1}{-3pt}{-1pt}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem}{ + abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a} + \end{minipage} + +\\ + \ltxcmdthree{abstartchaptertwo}{Q}{\textellipsis}{\textellipsis} & + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \ltxcmd{abstartchapterwithpos}{Q}\\ + \mbox{}$\quad$\texttt{\{1.1\}\{-3pt\}\{-1pt\}\{\textellipsis\}\{\textellipsis\}} \\ + \end{minipage} \\ + + \mbox{}\\ + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \fontsize{16}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abstartchapterwithpos{Q:}{0.9}{-1mm}{1mm}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem}{ + abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a} + \end{minipage} +& + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \fontsize{16}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abstartchaptertwowithpos{Q}{1.25}{-2mm}{0mm}{\abcapital{U}o usque tandem}{ + abutere, \abcapital{C}atilina,} + \abl{patientia nostra? \abcapital{Q}u~a} + \end{minipage} +\\ + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \ltxcmd{abstartchapterwithpos}{Q:}\\ + \mbox{}$\quad$\texttt{\{0.9\}\{-1m\}\{1mm\}\{\textellipsis\}\{\textellipsis\}} + \end{minipage} +& + \begin{minipage}{6cm} + \ltxcmd{abstartchaptetwowithpos}{Q}\\ + \mbox{}$\quad$\texttt{\{1.25\}\{-2mm\}\{0mm\}\{\textellipsis\}\{\textellipsis\}} \\ + \end{minipage} \\ + + + + + \end{tabular} + \caption{Chapter start macros with primary rubrics color} + \label{fig:chapter_start} +\end{figure} + +\subsection{Numbers} + +There are two commands that help writing Roman numerals. The command +\ltxncmd{abroman} takes as its argument a number that is either an +integer or an integer and a half, and formats it as a Roman numeral +using the subtractive method. This works for numbers between one half +and a million. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{\abroman{9.5}} & \sample{\abroman{24}} & + \sample{\abroman{10245.5}} \\ + \ltxcmd{abroman}{9.5} & \ltxcmd{abroman}{24} & + \ltxcmd{abroman}{10245.5} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The second number command uses the positional numbering: +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{\abromanother{12}{5}{39}} \\ + 12539 \\ + \ltxcmdthree{abromanother}{12}{5}{39} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +The command \ltxcmd{abothernum}{number} changes the number glyphs to +the alterate number shapes: + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cccc} + \sample{\abothernum{1234567890}} \\ + \ltxcmd{abothernum}{1234567890} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\section{Medieval Swedish Units}\label{sec_units} + +The Aboensis font contains many abbreviations for measurement units +that were used in texts written in medieval Sweden. There was no one +coherent system but instead many different ones that in some cases +used completely different units altogther. To make the confusion +worse, the different measuring systems used the same names for units +of different sizes and the reader must know from the context what is +the intended value. For example, the symbol +{\fontspec{Aboensis}\ablibra} (coming from Latin \emph{libra}) was +used both for a \emph{skålpund} of approximately 350 grams and for +\emph{besmanspund} of 6–12 kg. This section is not an in-depth +explanation of the different systems, but it shows some systems that +were used somewhere in the realm. + +Establishing exact modern equivalents to medieval units has proven to +be very difficult. Systematic conversion tables between units are +practically nonexistent until the mid 16th century so they postdate +the medieval period. Sources are conflicting and different researchers +have gotten very different results when examining them. The figures +given here mostly correspond to the situation in the early 16th +century. My two main sources for them are Sam Jansson's \emph{Mått, + mål och vikt i Sverige till 1500-talets mitt} \cite{jansson36} and +Kurt Melander's \emph{Muistiinpanoja Suomen mitta- ja painosuhteista + 15-sataluvun loppupuolella ja seuraavan vuosisadan alulla} +\cite{melander1892}, both very old sources. I have augmented them with +some newer sources and by examining Finnish 16th century bailiff's +records \cite{voudintilit} myself. It is very likely that there are +errors and misunderstandings in the figures. + + +\subsection{Measuring silver and money} + +Money and precious metals were measured using same units. However, the +sizes of the units were different as silver coins were significantly +lighter than the weight units that bore the same names. So medieval +sources tend to be quite clear on whether they mean coins or weight +when speaking about valuable metals. + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{mark} & \emph{öre} & \emph{örtug} & \emph{penning} & Metric & + Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{mark}, \emph{markka} & 1 & 8 & 24 & 192 & 207.2 g & + \sample{\abmark}, \sample{\abmarc}, \sample{\abmk} \\ + \emph{öre}, \emph{äyri} & & 1 & 3 & 24 & 25.9 g& \sample{\abore} \\ + \emph{örtug}, \emph{äyrityinen} & & & 1 & 8 & 8.6 g & \sample{\abortug}, \sample{\absolidus} \\ + \emph{penning}, \emph{penni} & & & & 1 & 1.07 g & \sample{\abpenning}, \sample{\abdenarius} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{Stockholm 14th century silver weights} + \label{tab:old_precious_metals} +\end{table} + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lccc|cl} + & \emph{mark} & \emph{lod} & \emph{quintin} & Metric & + Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{mark}, \emph{markka} & 1 & 16 & 64 & 207.2 g & \sample{\abmark}, \sample{\abmarc} \\ + \emph{lod}, \emph{luoti} & & 1 & 4 & 12.95 g & \sample{\ablod} \\ + \emph{quintin}, \emph{kvintiini} & & & 1 & 3.23 g & \sample{\abquintin} \\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{\emph{Lod} division for Stockholm silver weights.} + \label{tab:new_preciousmetals} +\end{table} + + +\begin{description} +\item[\sample{\abmark} \sample{\abmarc} \sample{\abmk} \emph{Mark}, \emph{markka}] \mbox{}\\ + The \emph{mark} was a unit that was used to measure precious metals, + silver and gold. Its weight in Sweden was typically a bit over 200 + grams. For example, in the 1320s the \emph{mark} of Stockholm was + 207 g while the \emph{mark} of Skara was 213 g. Both were smaller + than the Avignose \emph{mark} from France that was 234 g. + Traditionally a \emph{mark} was divided into \emph{öres} and + \emph{örtugs} but in the late medieval times division into + \emph{lods} and \emph{quintins} came also to use. In some areas the + weights of gold and silver \emph{marks} were different. + + Up to the beginning of the 16th century \emph{mark} was usually + written so that the \emph{a} was written over the \emph{m} in an + open-topped form. The symbol often ended with a loop. This font + contains three versions of the \emph{mark} sign. + + \emph{Mark} was a pure weight measure until 1522 when first coins of + that denomination were struck. A silver \emph{mark} coin of Gustav I + weighed only 11 grams, or about 1/20 of the nominal weight. Around + that time a new symbol was introduced that was a simplified letter + \emph{m} followed with a double-loop. Aboensis does not have that + symbol because all the contemporary examples that I have found have + used significantly different hands. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[mark] & \sample{\abmark} & \ltxncmd{abmark} \\ + {}[mark:] & \sample{\abmarc} & \ltxncmd{abmarc} \\ + {}[mark::] & \sample{\abmk} & \ltxncmd{abmk} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item[\sample{\abore} \emph{Öre}, \emph{äyri}] \mbox{}\\ + The \emph{öre} was an eight of a \emph{mark} or a bit over 25 grams. + Like \emph{mark} it too was used purely as a weight measure during + the Middle Ages. First \emph{öre} coins were struck in 1522 and they + weighed 3.3 grams, or slighly over 13\% of the nominal weight. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[ore] & \sample{\abore} & \ltxncmd{abore} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item[\sample{\abortug}, + \emph{Örtug}, \emph{äyrityinen}] \mbox{}\\ + The \emph{örtug} as a unit goes back to the Viking times and there + were three \emph{örtugs} in each \emph{öre}, meaning that it weighed + a bit over 8 grams. During the medieval times \emph{örtug} was the + largest coin that was minted. The oldest \emph{örtug} coins were + struck by king Albrecht von Mecklenburg in the 1360s and they + weighed between 1.1 – 1.5 grams. Texts written in Latin could use + \emph{solidus} to denote \emph{örtugs} but \emph{solidus} had also + other meanings. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[ortug] & \sample{\abortug} & \ltxncmd{abortug} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item[\sample{\abpenning} + \emph{Penning}, \emph{penni}] \mbox{}\\ + The \emph{penning} was the smallest weight unit used for precious + metals. There were eight \emph{penning} in an \emph{örtug} and 24 in + an \emph{öre}, which puts the weight in a bit over a + gram.\footnote{However, in some regions there were 36 or 48 + \emph{pennings} in an \emph{öre}.} \emph{Penning} coins had a + quite large variety in their weighs, going from 0.4 – 0.7 grams + depending on the issuer. Text written in Latin often used + \emph{denarius} to denote \emph{pennings}. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}pe~n & \sample{\abpenning} & \ltxncmd{abpenning} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item[\sample{\absolidus} + Solidus ] \mbox{}\\ + Latin texts written in Sweden used often old \emph{solidus} as a + translation for \emph{örtug}. However, the same word could also be + used for \emph{schilling} coins struck in cities in Northern + Germany. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}so~l & \sample{\absolidus} & \ltxncmd{absolidus} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item[\sample{\abdenarius} Denarius] \mbox{}\\ + Latin texts used commonly \emph{Denarius} as a translation for + \emph{penning}. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}/d & \sample{\abdenarius} & \ltxncmd{abdenarius} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item[\sample{lodh} \emph{Lod}, \emph{luoti}] \mbox{} \\ + In later medieval times lighter units of scale weights started to be + used also for silver and gold. However, the scale and mint units + were usually not exactly the same size even though were close. + + The \emph{lod} divided \emph{marks} into 16 parts, so a \emph{lod} + weighed a bit over 13 grams. There was no special abbreviation for + it, but it was written with different spelling than noaways. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}lodh & \sample{\ablod} & \ltxncmd{ablod} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item[\sample{\abquintin} \emph{Quintin}, + \emph{kvintiini}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{quintin} was a fourth of a \emph{lod} weighing about 3.25 + grams. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[quintin] & \sample{\abquintin} & \ltxncmd{abquintin} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\end{description} + +\subsection{Scale weights} + +Expensive commodities such as spices and silk thread was measured +using scales and the scale weight system. Cheap commodities were +measured with counterweight balance beams and they used different +units. The basic unit for scale weights was \emph{lispund} that could +be divided either into \emph{skålpunds} or \emph{markpunds}. + + + + +\begin{table} + +\begin{tabular}{lccc|cl} + \def\arraystretch{1.5} + & \emph{skeppund} & \emph{lispund} & \emph{skålpund} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{skeppund} & 1 & 20 & 400 & 137 kg & \sample{\abskeppund}, \sample{\abskeppundtwo} \\ + \emph{lispund} & & 1 & 20 & 7.2 kg & \sample{\ablispund}, \sample{\ablispundtwo}, \\ + \emph{(skål)pund} & & & 1 & 360 g & \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\ablibra}, \sample{p~ud}, \sample{~p} \\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Stockholm large scale weights in early 16th century} +\label{tab:stockholm_weight_large} +\end{table} + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{skålpund} & \emph{lod} & \emph{quintin} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{(skål)pund} & 1 & 32 & 128 & 450 g & \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\ablibra} \sample{p~ud} \\ + \emph{lod} & & 1 & 4 & 14 g& \sample{\ablod} \\ + \emph{quintin} & & & 1 & 3.5 g& \sample{\abquintin} \\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Stockholm small scale weights in early 16th century } + \label{tab:stockholm_weight_small} +\end{table} + + + + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{\ablispund}, \sample{\ablispundtwo}, + \sample{\ablispundthree}, \sample{\ablispundfour}\emph{Lispund}, + \emph{leiviskä}, \emph{talentum livonicum}] \mbox{} \\ + The name \emph{lispund} comes from \emph{Livonian pound} which + betrays the Baltic origins of the unit. Latin texts commonly used + \emph{talentum livonicum} for it. The \emph{lispund} proper weighed + 8.2 kg, but the same name was used for units of wildly different + sizes, ranging from about 6.5 kg to 12 kg. + + A \emph{lispund} was divided into either 16 or 20 \emph{punds} where + 20 was the more common one. + + The Stockholm \emph{lispund} was perhaps the most important weight + measurement unit in Sweden. It changed size at least once, in 1557, + and it may have changed also in the first decade of the 16th + century. Before 1557 it was about 7.2 kg in modern units. Figures + \ref{tab:stockholm_weight_large} and + \ref{tab:stockholm_weight_small} show how Stockholm scale weights + are split into smaller units. + + Perhaps the most common way of abbreviating \emph{lispund} in the + medieval times was: \sample{\ablispund} but many others were used. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}lis[pund] & \sample{\ablispund} & \ltxncmd{ablispund} \\ + {}[lispund] & \sample{\ablispundtwo} & \ltxncmd{ablispundtwo} \\ + {}l[pund] & \sample{\ablispundthree} & \ltxncmd{ablispundthree} \\ + {}[lispund:] & \sample{\ablispundfour} & \ltxncmd{ablispundfour} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abskeppund}, \sample{\abskeppundtwo}, \emph{Skeppund}, + \emph{kippunta}] \mbox{}\\ + A \emph{skeppund} was the largest weight unit for most commodities. + It was not used much with scale weights as most of the things + measured with scales were so expensive that it was rare to have a + full \emph{skeppund} at one place. In some areas there was only one + \emph{skeppund} that was divided either to scale or to besmar units. + + A scale \emph{skeppund} had 20 \emph{lispund}. In Stockholm weight + that was about 137 kg during the first half of the 16th century. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}skep[pund] & \sample{\abskeppund} & \ltxncmd{abskeppund} \\ + {}[skeppund] & \sample{\abskeppundtwo} & \ltxncmd{abskeppundtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{p~ud}, \sample{skaal[pund]}, \sample{\abpund}, + \sample{\ablibra} \emph{Skålpund}, + \emph{pund}, \emph{naula}, \emph{libra}] \mbox{} \\ + When \emph{pund} is used as a weight measure without any other + specifier, it likely denotes a \emph{skålpund}. There were 16 or 20 + \emph{skålpund} to a \emph{lispund} and it itself was divided into + 32 \emph{lods}. In some areas a \emph{skålpund} was equal to two + \emph{marks} of silver weight and in the 17th century this division + became universal over the realm. In Latin sources the unit is + usually called \emph{libra}. + + A \emph{skålpund} of Stockholm weight was approximately 450 grams + before 1557. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[pund] & \sample{\abpund} & \ltxncmd{pund} \\ + {}p~ud & \sample{p~ud} & \ltxncmd{abpundtwo} \\ + {}~p & \sample{\abpundthree} & \ltxncmd{abpundthree} \\ + {}[libra] & \sample{\ablibra} & \ltxncmd{ablibra} \\ + {}skaal[pund] & \sample{\abskaalpund} & \ltxncmd{abskaalpund} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\ablod} \emph{Lod}, \emph{luoti}] \mbox{} \\ + There were 32 \emph{lods} in a \emph{skålpund}. Typically, a scale + weight \emph{lod} was slightly heavier than the precious metal + \emph{lod}. In early 16th century Stockholm weight a \emph{lod} was + about 14 grams. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}lodh & \sample{\ablod} & \ltxncmd{ablod} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abquintin} \emph{Quintin}, \emph{kvintiini}] + \mbox{} \\ + There were 4 \emph{quintins} in a \emph{lod}. In the earlt 16th + century Stockholm weight a \emph{quintin} weighed about 3.5 g. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[quintin] & \sample{\abquintin} & \ltxncmd{abquintin} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abmarkpund}, \sample{\abmarkpundtwo}, \emph{Markpund}, + \emph{vaakamarkka}] \mbox{} \\ + A medieval \emph{markpund} was a division of \emph{lispund}. This + contrasts to post-medieval use where a \emph{markpund} was the + equivalent of \emph{lispund} when weighing iron or copper. + + In the areas where \emph{markpund} was used, it was 1/20 + \emph{lispund}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}m[pund] & \sample{\abmarkpund} & \ltxncmd{abmarkpund} \\ + {}[ma][pund] & \sample{\abmarkpundtwo} & \ltxncmd{abmarkpundtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\end{description} + + +\subsection{Besman weights} + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=12cm]{pics/puupuntari.png} + \caption{A wooden \emph{besman} from 1818. The wooden bulb hides a lead weight} + \label{fig:besman} +\end{figure} + + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{läst} & \emph{skeppund} & \emph{pund} & \emph{mark} & Metric & + Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{läst} & 1 & 12 & 240 & 4800 & 1560 kg & \sample{läst} \\ + \emph{skeppund} & & 1 & 20 & 400 & 130 kg & + \sample{\abskeppund}, \sample{\abskeppundtwo} \\ + \emph{besmanspund}, \emph{pund} & & & 1 & 20 & 6.54 kg & + \sample{\abbesmanspund}, \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\abpundtwo} \\ + \emph{besmansmark}, \emph{mark} & & & & 1 & 327 g & \sample{\abmark}, + \sample{\abmarc} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{Stockholm \emph{besman} weights of early 16th century} + \label{tab:besman_weights} +\end{table} + + +A \emph{besman} (\emph{puntari} in Finnish) is a beam lever scale with +a fixed counterweight. In medieval times they were usually made from +wood with a lead weight in the end. When weighing things with them one +finds the balance point on the lever and reads the mark at that point. +Besmans are less precise than scales so it usually wasn't possible to +measure smaller units than half a \emph{mark} and the heavier the +measured thing was, the less precision was available for the results. + + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{läst} \emph{Läst}, \emph{lästi}] + \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{läst} was a large unit that was used to measure ship loads. + Because of the cargo aspect, it was used as a weight measure only + for heavy commodities such as metals. For other products a + \emph{läst} was usually measured in barrels (\emph{tunna}). + + With metals a \emph{läst} was typically 12 \emph{skeppunds}, or + around two metric tons depending on which particular \emph{skeppund} + was used. + + The word \emph{läst} was usually not abbreviated in texts. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}läst & \sample{\abkolmannes} & \ltxncmd{ablast} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abskeppund}, \sample{\abskeppundtwo} \emph{Skeppund}, + \emph{kippunta}, \emph{talentum navale}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{skeppund} was the largest Swedish weight unit (around + 130–180 kg). Beacause of the large size it is typically used only + for metals and when describing large stockpiles of commodities such + as salted fish. In Latin sources it was often written as + \emph{talentum navale}. + + A \emph{skeppund} was usually divided into 20 \emph{punds}, but + there are some 14th century references for having 24 \emph{pund} + \emph{skeppunds}. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}skep[pund] & \sample{\abskeppund} & \ltxncmd{abskeppund} \\ + {}[skeppund] & \sample{\abskeppundtwo} & \ltxncmd{abskeppundtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abbesmanspund}, \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\abpundtwo}, + \sample{\abpundthree}, \sample{\abpundfour} \emph{Besmanspund}, \emph{pund}, \emph{leiviskä}] \mbox{} \\ +The \emph{besmanspund} (or shorter \emph{pund}) was the besman weight +equivalent of \emph{lispund} but in some regions the name +\emph{lispund} was used for both. In many areas, for example in +Stockholm, a \emph{lispund} was reckoned to be a \emph{besmanspund} +and two \emph{besmansmarks}. + +In most areas \emph{besmanspund} was lighter than the proper +\emph{lispund}. For example, in Stockholm it was about 6.5 kg. +However, on the other end of the scales was the Porvoo \emph{pund} +that was about 13 kg for a while. The most common besman weight around +Northern Baltic was Tallinn \emph{lispund} that was used for trading +and taxation in many areas, for example, in most of Finland. Most +contemporary conversion tables state that the Tallinn \emph{lispund} +was equal to 25 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark}, but some use more exact +figure of $24\frac{27}{40}$ \emph{besmansmark}. + +Confusingly many writers used the Latin abbreviation \emph{libra} +(\sample{\abbesmanspund}) for \emph{besmanspunds} even though it was +used also the much lighter \emph{skålpund}. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[libra] & \sample{\abbesmanspund} & \ltxncmd{abbesmanspund} \\ + {}[pund] & \sample{\abpund} & \ltxncmd{abpund} \\ + {}[p~ud] & \sample{\abpundtwo} & \ltxncmd{abpundtwo} \\ + {}[~p] & \sample{\abpundthree} & \ltxncmd{abpundthree} \\ + {}[~pp] & \sample{\abpundfour} & \ltxncmd{abpundfour} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lc} + Year & Scale / Besman \\ + \hline + 1490 & $8/7$ \\ + 1540 & $22/20$ \\ + 1557 & $21/20$ \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Weight ratios between Stockholm scale and besman on some years} + \label{tab:stockholm_weight_ratio} +\end{table} + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llll} + Stockholm & 6.5 kg \\ + Tallinn \emph{lispund} & 8.2 kg & 25 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark} \\ + Turku town \emph{leiviskä} & 9.8 kg & 30 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark} \\ + Turku castle tax \emph{leiviskä} & 8.2 kg & Tallinn \emph{lispund} \\ + Hollola \emph{leiviskä} & 9.2 kg & 28 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark} \\ + Pohjanmaa \emph{leiviskä} & 9.5 kg & 29 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark} \\ + Porvoo \emph{leiviskä} & 13 kg & 2 Stockholm \emph{besmanspund} \\ + Raasepori \emph{leiviskä} & 9.8 kg & 30 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark} \\ + Satakunta \emph{leiviskä} & 9.8 kg & 30 Stockholm \emph{besmansmark} \\ + Turku castle \emph{leiviskä} & 6.8 or 6.5 kg & Four marks lighter + than tax \emph{leiviskä} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Some different besman weights. Conversion rations from + various times of the 16th century, using contemporary rounding. + } + \label{tab:lispunds} +\end{table} + + + +\item [\sample{\abmark}, \sample{\abmarc} \emph{Besmansmark}, + \emph{mark}, \emph{naula}] \mbox{} \\ + The basic unit for besman weights was \emph{besmansmark} that was + usually called simply \emph{mark}. A \emph{besmansmark} was + typically about 50\% heavier than the precious metal \emph{mark} or + approximately 330 g, but the size range goes around 300–400g. + + The \emph{besmansamark} was written the same way as the precious + metal \emph{mark}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[mark] & \sample{\abmark} & \ltxncmd{abmark} \\ + {}[mark:] & \sample{\abmarc} & \ltxncmd{abmarc} \\ + {}[mark::] & \sample{\abmk} & \ltxncmd{abmk} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} +\end{description} + + + +\subsection{Dry Volume} + + +Old Swedish weight measurement systems are simple compared with the +systems for measuring dry capacity by volume. The basic unit was +\emph{spann} in most parts of the whole realm, but its size and how it +divided and combined into other units varied greatly. + +Modern estimates on sizes of different units in different places at +different times vary greatly so the figures given in tables should be +taken with a large grain of salt. The figures are generally obtained +by using conversion ratios that occur in old texts (typically tax +accounts) from some known base. Sam Jansson gives the size of +Stockholm's \emph{spann} as 47 liters that he calculated from the size +of a surviving Lübeck \emph{schepel} (40.5 liters) measure from early +15th century and conversion rates Lübeck and Stockholm units given in a +letter written in 1405.\footnote{Number 16524 in \emph{Svenskt + Diplomaratiums huvudkartor över medeltidsbreven} (SDHK).} + +In the tables I've generally used Jansson's figures. For those that +I've calculated myself, I used Jansson's Stockholm \emph{spann} as the +fixed point. These results are different from many published values. +For example, the size of a Häme \emph{spann} is usually given as +"about 90 liters", but my computation has it at only 66 liters. +However, I am using a conversion rate that comes from over hundred +years later than Jansson's figures for Stockholm's unit, so it is +possible that something had changed in the mean time. The sizes of at +least Pohjanmaa and Viipuri \emph{spann} changed during the 16th +century. + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lccccc|cl} + & \emph{pund} & \emph{tunna} & \emph{spann} & \emph{fjärding} & \emph{fat} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{pund} & 1 & $3 \frac{1}{5}$ & 8 & 32 & 160 & 376 l & \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\abpundthree} \\ + \emph{tunna} & & 1 & $2 \frac{1}{2}$ & 10 & 50 & 117.5 l & \sample{\abtunna} \\ + \emph{spann} & & & 1 & 4 & 20 & 47 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{fjärding} & & & & 1 & 5 & 11.75 l & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ + \emph{fat} & & & & & 1 & 2.35 l & \sample{fat} \\ + \emph{skäppa} & & & $\frac{5}{12}$ & & & 19.6 l & \sample{\abskappa} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{Stockholm dry capacity units} + \label{tab:stockholm_volume} +\end{table} + + +This section contains quite few tables for dry volume units from all +over Sweden, with a heavy emphasis on the Finnish side. The ratios +between units are probably mostly correct, but the modern equivalences +may well not be. + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{pund} & \emph{spann} & \emph{fjärding} & \emph{skåle} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + + \emph{pund} & 1 & 5 & 20 & 120 & 450 l & \sample{\abpund} \\ + \emph{spann} & & 1 & 4 & 24 & 90 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{fjärding} & & & 1 & 6 & 22.5 l & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ + \emph{skåle} & & & & 1 & 3.l5 l & \sample{\abskole} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{Närke dry capacity units} + \label{tab:narke_volume} +\end{table} + + + + + +\begin{description} + + + + + + + + + +\item [\sample{fat} \emph{fat}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{fat} (bowl) was a Swedish measure that was used in the + middle ages. Its size had a large variance, and it ranged from 20 + \emph{fat} in a Stockholm \emph{spann} (2.35 liters) to a fifth of a + \emph{spann}. The Finnish crown accounts often used 'Stockholm + \emph{kappa}' in unit conversions when they meant Stockholm + \emph{fat}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}fat & \sample{\abfat} & \ltxncmd{abfat} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abfjarding}, \sample{\abfjardingtwo} \emph{fjärding}, + \emph{nelikko}, \emph{neljännes}, \emph{quartale modii}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{fjärding} was a fourth of a \emph{spann}. In Finland the + unit was usually called \emph{nelikko} or \emph{neljännes} but some + areas used different names for it. For example, \emph{vakka} was + commonly used for $\frac{1}{4}$ \emph{spann} around Turku. + + After the \emph{tunna} replaced \emph{pund} as the main large unit + for dry capacity, both \emph{fjärding} and \emph{nelikko} switched + to mean a quarter \emph{tunna} instead of a quarter \emph{spann}. + But that didn't happen until mid-16th century. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}~ffi & \sample{\abfjarding} & \ltxncmd{abfjarding} \\ + {}fjard~ug & \sample{\abfjardingtwo} & \ltxncmd{abfjardingtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abkappa}, \sample{\abkappatwo}, \emph{kappe}, \emph{kappa}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{kappa} was a Finnish unit that was used in large parts of + the country as the smallest unit of dry volume and it still + survives: it is used to measure potatoes in marketplaces. The + \emph{kappa} was typically in the range of 3–5 liters in modern + units and there were 16 to 24 of them in a \emph{spann}. + + The \emph{kappa} is one of the oldests units attested in Finland, it + first occurs in a letter written in 1334. In the 16th century + \emph{kappa} was written with either intial \emph{k} or \emph{c}. + When the Finnish spelling got standardized in the early 17th + century, the form \emph{cappa} took over and was used for about 150 + years until \emph{kappa} returned around the end of the 19th + century. + + After the middle ages the name \emph{kappa} was taken to Swedish as + a loan word \emph{kappe}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}cap[per] & \sample{\abkappa} & \ltxncmd{abkappa} \\ + {}kap[per] & \sample{\abkappatwo} & \ltxncmd{abkappatwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lccc|cl} + & \emph{pund} & \emph{spann} & \emph{fjärding} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{pund} & 1 & 12 & 48 & 360 l & \sample{\abpund} \\ + \emph{spann} & & 1 & 4 & 30 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{fjärding} & & & 1 & 7.5 l & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{Hälsingaland dry capacity units} + \label{tab:halsingaland_volume} +\end{table} +\begin{table} + \begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{pund} & \emph{tön} & \emph{spann} & \emph{sättung} & Metric + & Symbols\\ + \hline + \emph{pund} & 1 & $1\frac{1}{3} $ & 8 & 48 & 380 l & + \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\abpundthree} \\ + \emph{tön} & & 1 & 6 & 36 & 360 l & \sample{\abthyn} \\ + \emph{spann} & & & 1 & 6 & 60 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{sättung} & & & & 1 & 10 l & \sample{\absixth}\\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Uppland dry capacity units} + \label{tab:uppland_volume} +\end{table} + + + + + +\item [\sample{\abkarpio} \emph{karp}, \emph{karpio}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{karpio} was another specifically Finnish unit that occurs + also in Swedish texts under the name \emph{karp}. It was a half of a + \emph{spann} in size or approximately 30 liters. + + Some Latin texts written in Finland use \emph{modius} to mean a + \emph{karpio} instead of a \emph{spann}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}*k[per] & \sample{\abkarpio} & \ltxncmd{abkarpio} \\ + {}k & \sample{\abkarpiotwo} & \ltxncmd{abkarpiotwo} \\ + {}mo~d & \sample{\abmodius} & \ltxncmd{abmodius} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item [\sample{\abkolmannes} \sample{\abkylmitta} \emph{kolmannes}, + \emph{kylmitta}, \emph{oravainen}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{kolmannes}, \emph{kylmitta} and \emph{oravainen} were + names for similar units that were used in Finland. As the name + \emph{kolmannes} tells, they all were thirds of something. The names + \emph{kolmannes} and \emph{oravainen} were used in Savo to denote a + third of a \emph{karpio} so the size was somewhat over 10 liters. At + Viipuri \emph{kolmannes} and \emph{kylmitta} were used for a third + of a \emph{spann}, making them about 18 liters in size. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}kol~m & \sample{\abkolmannes} & \ltxncmd{abkolmannes} \\ + {}kyl~m & \sample{\abkylmitta} & \ltxncmd{abkylmitta} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccccc|cl} + & \emph{lästi} & \emph{punta} & \emph{panni} & \emph{karpio} & + \emph{nelikko} & \emph{vakka} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{lästi} & 1 & 12 & 60 & 120 & 240 & 1440 & 3.96 m$^2$ & \sample{\ablast} \\ + \emph{punta} & & 1 & 5 & 10 & 20 & 120 & 330 l & \sample{\abpund} \\ + \emph{panni} & & & 1 & 2 & 4 & 24 & 66 l & \sample{\abspann}\\ + \emph{karpio} & & & & 1 & 2 & 12 & 33 l & \sample{\abkarpio}\\ + \emph{nelikko} & & & & & 1 & 6 & 16.5 l & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ + \emph{vakka} & & & & & & 1 & 2.75 l & \sample{\abvakka}\\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Hämeo dry capacity units. The size of \emph{spann} is computed + from 1540 accounts of Häme castle that gives a conversion rate of 5 Häme + \emph{spann} to 7 Stockholm \emph{spann}.} + \label{tab:hame_volume} +\end{table} + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{pund} & \emph{spann} & \emph{vakka} & \emph{kappa} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{punta} & 1 & 6 & 24 & 120 & 432 l & \sample{\abpund} \\ + \emph{panni} & & 1 & 4 & 20 & 72 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{vakka/nelikko} & & & 1 & 5 & 18 l & \sample{\abvakka}, \sample{\abfjarding} \\ + \emph{kappa} & & & & 1 & 3.6 l & \sample{\abkappa} \\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Varsinais-Suomi dry capacity computed using the conversion + rate of 30 Turku \emph{kappa} = 46 Stockholm \emph{fat}. } + \label{tab:turku_volume} +\end{table} + + +\item [\sample{\ablast} \emph{läst}, \emph{lästi}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{läst} was the largest unit for volume measurements as it + was also for weight measurements. The läst could be counted in two + different ways: + + \begin{itemize} + \item \emph{pundeläst}: a \emph{läst} containing a specific number + of \emph{punds}, typically 12. + \item \emph{tunnaläst}: a \emph{läst} containing a specific number + of \emph{tunnas}, usually 12 or 18. + \end{itemize} + + As a \emph{pund} was usually much greater unit than \emph{tunna}, a + \emph{pundeläst} could be well over 10 times greater in volume than + a \emph{tunnaläst}. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}läst & \sample{\abkolmannes} & \ltxncmd{ablast} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abskole} \emph{skåle}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{skåle} was the smallest unit of dry capacity measure in Närke + and Västmanland. There 24 \emph{skåle} in a \emph{spann}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}skaale & \sample{\abskole} & \ltxncmd{abskole} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abpund}, \sample{\abpundthree} + \emph{pund}, \emph{punta}] \mbox{} \\ + In most parts of Sweden the principal large unit for dry volume was + the \emph{pund}. The most typical \emph{pund} contained eight + \emph{spann} but that too varied. Around \emph{Närke} and + \emph{Häme} there were only five \emph{spann} in a pund, and in most + parts of Finland there were six. The areas with smallest + \emph{spanns} had 12 to a \emph{pund}. + + The Stockholm \emph{pund} was about 380 liters in modern units. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[pund] & \sample{\abpund} & \ltxncmd{pund} \\ + {}p~ud & \sample{p~ud} & \ltxncmd{abpundtwo} \\ + {}~p & \sample{\abpundthree} & \ltxncmd{abpundthree} \\ + {}~pp & \sample{\abpundfour} & \ltxncmd{abpundfour} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abspann}, \sample{\abmodius} + \emph{spann}, \emph{panni}, \emph{modius}] \mbox{} \\ + The size of the base unit \emph{spann} varied greatly. In + Hälsingaland it was only 30 liters while Närke used \emph{spann} of + over 90 liters. Perhaps the most common sizes were around 60 liters, + but the capital Stockholm used only 47 liter ones. + + Latin texts often used the term \emph{modius} to denote the + \emph{spann}, but \emph{modius} was used also for many different + units in different parts. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}~sp & \sample{\abspann} & \ltxncmd{abspann} \\ + {}mo~d & \sample{\abmodius} & \ltxncmd{abmodius} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lccccc|cl} + & \emph{punta} & \emph{panni} & \emph{karpio} & \emph{kolmannes} & \emph{kappa} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{punta} & 1 & 6 & 12 & 36 & 108 & 396 l & \sample{\abpundthree}\\ + \emph{panni} & & 1 & 2 & 6 & 18 & 66 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{karpio} & & & 1 & 3 & 9 & 33 l & \sample{\abkarpio}\\ + \emph{kolmannes} & & & & 1 & 3 & 11 l & \sample{\abkolmannes} \\ + \emph{kappa} & & & & & 1 & 3.7 l & \sample{\abkappa}\\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Savo dry capacity units. Computed from equivalence where 1 + Savo \emph{kolmannes} = $4\frac{2}{3}$ Stockholm \emph{fat}.} + \label{tab:savo_volume} +\end{table} + + + +\item [\sample{\absoll} \emph{såll}, \emph{cribrum}] \mbox{} \\ + Västergotaland and Värmland used \emph{såll} as the the larger unit + than \emph{skäppa} or \emph{spann}. Later the unit fell out of use + and was replaced by \emph{tunna} that had the same size as + \emph{såll} in those areas. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}saaldh & \sample{\absoll} & \ltxncmd{absoll} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccccc|lc} + & \emph{punta} & \emph{panni} & \emph{karpio} & \emph{kylmitta} & \emph{vakka} & \emph{kappa} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{punta} & 1 & 6 & 12 & 18 & 108 & 138 & 324 l & \sample{\abpund} \\ + \emph{panni} & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 18 & 23 & 54 l & \sample{\abspann}\\ + \emph{karpio} & & & 1 & $1 \frac{1}{2}$ & 9 & & 27 l & \sample{\abkarpio} \\ + \emph{kylmitta} & & & & 1 & 6 & & 18 l & \sample{\abkylmitta} \\ + \emph{vakka} & & & & & 1 & & 3 l & \sample{\abvakka} \\ + \emph{kappa} & & & & & & 1 & 2.35 l & \sample{\abkappa} \\ +\end{tabular} +\caption{Viipuri dry capacity. Computed from equivalence: Viipuri + \emph{spann} = 23 Stockholm \emph{fat}. In the late 16th century + the size of Viipuri \emph{spann} changed several times, ranging from + 23 \emph{fat} to 26.} + \label{tab:viipuri_volume} +\end{table} + + + + +\begin{table} +\begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{läst} & \emph{såll} & \emph{skäppa} & \emph{fjärding} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{läst} & 1 & 12 & 72 & 288 & 1.728 m$^3$ & \sample{läst} \\ + \emph{såll/tunna} & & 1 & 6 & 24 & 144 l & \sample{\absoll}, \sample{\abtunna} \\ + \emph{skäppa} & & & 1 & 4 & 24 l & \sample{\abskappa} \\ + \emph{fjärding} & & & & 1 & 6 l & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ +\end{tabular} + \caption{Västergötaland dry capacity units} + \label{tab:vastgotaland_volume} +\end{table} + + +\item [\sample{\abskappa}, \sample{\abmodius} \emph{skäppa}, \emph{modius}] \mbox{} \\ + In Västergötaland and Småland the base volume unit was not the + \emph{spann} but the \emph{skäppa}. In these areas the Latin + \emph{modius} usually ment the \emph{skäppa} instead of the + \emph{spann}. In size the \emph{skäppa} was somewhat smaller than + the \emph{spann} with its size ranging from 18 to 23 liters. + + The Stockholm \emph{skäppa} was unusual in that it was not + fully integrated in the complete system of measurements. It was + reckoned to be 5/12 \emph{spann} (aobut 19.6 liters) which meant + that it did not divide any of the units exactly. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}skäppa & \sample{\abskappa} & \ltxncmd{abskappa} \\ + {}mo~d & \sample{\abmodius} & \ltxncmd{abmodius} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + \begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{Lästi} & \emph{Punta} & \emph{Panni} & + \emph{Vakka} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{Lästi} & 1 & 12 & 96 & 960 & 4 $m^3$ & \sample{\ablast}\\ + \emph{Punta} & & 1 & 8 & 80 & 336 l & \sample{\abpund}, \sample{\abpundthree} \\ + \emph{Panni} & & & 1 & 10 & 42 l & \sample{\abspann} \\ + \emph{Vakka} & & & & 1 & 4.2 l & \sample{\abvakka} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Pohjanmaa dry capacity units. Computed from ratio 1 + \emph{panni} = 18 Stockholm \emph{fat}} + \label{tab:pohjanmaa_volume} + \end{table} + + + +\item [\sample{\absattung} \emph{sättung} ] \mbox{} \\ + Dalsland and Uppland areas divided their \emph{spanns} into sixths + \emph{sättung} instead of fourths (\emph{fjärding}). The size of a + \emph{sättung} was approximately 10 liters in modern units. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}s* & \sample{\absattung} & \ltxncmd{absattung} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abtunna}, \sample{\abtunnor}] \emph{tunna}, \emph{tynnyri} \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{tunna} (barrel) was a rare unit in that it had a separate + abbreviation for the plural \emph{tunnor}: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{cc} + \sample{\abtunna} & \sample{\abtunnor} \\ + tunna (s) & tunnor (pl) \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + In the oldest times it was primarily a measure for wet goods but + slowly over the time it became used also for dry capacity. Mentions + of dry \emph{tunnas} are quite rare before the 15th century, then + they became more common until by mid-16th century it is in very + common use for grain. + + With dry capacity a \emph{tunna} ranged from 1.5 \emph{spann} to 4 + \emph{spann}. In modern units its size was typically in the range + 110–150 l. The size of \emph{tunna} tended to increase over time and + a late 16th century \emph{tunna} is typically larger than a 15th + century one. The \emph{tunna} of the Stockholm castle was 2.5 + Stockholm \emph{spanns} or about 120 liters. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[tunna] & \sample{\abtunna} & \ltxncmd{abtunna} \\ + {}[tunna] & \sample{\abtunnor} & \ltxncmd{abtunnor} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abthyn} \emph{tön} ] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{tön} or \emph{thyn} was a large unit that was used instead + of \emph{pund} in early times in Uppland and neighbouring areas. It + was later replaced by \emph{pund}, but the last mentions of + \emph{tön} go to the late 16th century. + + There were six \emph{spann} in a \emph{tön} so it was slightly + smaller than a \emph{pund}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}þyn & \sample{\abthyn} & \ltxncmd{abthyn} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abvakka} \emph{vakka}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{vakka} was a Finnish unit that had very large variance in + size. In some areas (for example, Häme and Viipuri) it was the + smallest unit of dry volume at about three liters in size. However, + in other areas it contained some multiples of \emph{kappas}, + typically four or five. For example, at Turku a \emph{vakka} was + used as a synonym for \emph{nelikko} and it contained five + \emph{kappas}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}vacka & \sample{\abvakka} & \ltxncmd{abvakka} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} +\end{description} + + +\subsubsection{Hay and straw} + + + + + + + \begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lcccc|cl} + & \emph{Kesä} & \emph{Talvi- } \\ + & \emph{kuorma} & \emph{kuorma} & \emph{Dragu} & \emph{Parmas} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{Talvikuorma} & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 & 4.4 m$^3$ & \sample{lass} \\ + \emph{Kesäkuorma} & & 1 & 2 & 4 & 2.2 m$^3$ & \sample{\absommarlass} \\ + \emph{Dragu} & & & & 1 & 1.1 m$^3$ & \sample{\abdragu} \\ + \emph{Parmas} & & & & 1 & 0.55 m$^3$ & \sample{\abparmas} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Larger Häme straw measurements. Metric sizes are very + rough approximations computed by assuming a \emph{parmas} of 120 + cm long straws with a 2.4 meter circumference. } + \label{tab_hay} + \end{table} + +Measuring the volume of hay and straw stores was usually done using +special units\footnote{However, there are occasional mentions of + \emph{punds} of hay in account books.} The units and the ratios +between them here are taken mostly from Finnish sources. + +Translating the hay units to modern terms is almost impossible as they +were vague already at the time and the way they were used varied a lot +even in a small geographical area. + +\begin{description} + +\item [\sample{lass} \emph{lass}, \emph{kuorma}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{lass} is the unit of hay and straw volume that occurs most + often in medieval and early modern accounts. Its size is very + difficult to determine exactly but generally it was as much hay that + could be transported with one cart or sleigh. In many areas two + different \emph{lasses} were used at the same time: the larger + winter \emph{lass} (\emph{vinterlass}, \emph{talvikuorma}) and the + smaller summer \emph{lass} (\emph{sommarlass}, \emph{kesäkuorma}). + Some sources also use the term tax \emph{lass}, which probably meant + the larger \emph{vinterlass} + + A winter \emph{lass} might be about 3–5 m$^3$ in size. In Finland a + summer \emph{lass} was often half of the size of a winter + \emph{lass}. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}lass & \sample{\ablass} & \ltxncmd{ablass} \\ + {}vin[ter]lass & \sample{\abvinterlass} & \ltxncmd{abvinterlass} \\ + {}so~marlass & \sample{\absommarlass} & \ltxncmd{absommarlass} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item [\sample{\abparmas}, \emph{parmas}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{parmas} was a Finnish united defined to be the amount of + hay or straw that can be tied for transport using a cord of a given + length. For example, at Viipuri it was a cord of 4 \emph{famn} (a + bit over 7 m) that is tied crosswise, while at Sääksmäki the cord + was 8 \emph{aln} (about 4 m) but it is not mentioned if the rope was + crosswise or not. + + In Finland a \emph{talvikuorma} usually contained 8 \emph{parmas} + but some areas used 12 \emph{parmas} per \emph{kuorma}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[par]mas & \sample{\abparmas} & \ltxncmd{abparmas} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{faangh} \emph{fångh}, \emph{ruko}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{fångh} contained as much hay that a person could carry + without tying the bundle up. A common computational ratio was that + there would be four \emph{ruko} in a \emph{parmas}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}faangh & \sample{\abfangh} & \ltxncmd{abfangh} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{kärffue} \emph{kärve}, \emph{kupo}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{kärve} was reckoned to be as much hay that a person could + carry under their arm. A common computation in Finland was that + there was four \emph{kupo} in a \emph{ruko}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}kärffue & \sample{\abkarve} & \ltxncmd{abkarve} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{dragu} \emph{dragu}] \mbox{} \\ + The origins of the unit \emph{dragu} are obscure. The word is + originally Swedish but it is attested only in Finnish accounts + before the 17th century. + + The \emph{dragu} had a large variation in size. For example, the + accounts of the Korsholma royal manor have it to be roughly the size + of common \emph{parmas} but around Viipuri a \emph{dragu} was a + synonym for \emph{kesäkuorma}, or about four times the amount. + + Some parts of Finland used two different \emph{dragu}: winter and + summer where a winter \emph{dragu} was twice the size of the summer + \emph{dragu}. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}dragu & \sample{\abdragu} & \ltxncmd{abdragu} \\ + {}v~iterdragu & \sample{\abvinterdragu} & \ltxncmd{abvinterdragu} \\ + {}so~mardragu & \sample{\absommardragu} & \ltxncmd{absommardragu} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abaam} \emph{åm}, \emph{aami} ] \mbox{} \\ + Several areas in Finland used the \emph{aami} to measure hay in + addition of its use as a wet capacity measurement. It was generally + used as a synonym to \emph{parmas}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}aam & \sample{\abaam} & \ltxncmd{abaam} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\end{description} + + + +\subsection{Wet capacity} + +The units that were used to measure wet capacity were simpler than the +dry capacity ones. Their sizes varied on different parts of the +country, but the units themselves tended to be the same. + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lcccccc|cl} + & \emph{Läst} & \emph{Tunna} & \emph{Fjärding} & \emph{Ämbar} & \emph{Kanna} & + \emph{Stop} & Metric & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{Läst} & 1 & 12 & 48 & 144 & 576 & 1152 & 1410 l & \sample{\ablast} \\ + \emph{Tunna} & & 1 & 4 & 8 & 48 & 96 & 117.5 l & \sample{\abtunna}\\ + \emph{Fjärding} & & & 1 & 2 & 12 & 24 & 29.4 l & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ + \emph{Ämbar} & & & & 1 & 6 & 12 & 14.7 l & \sample{\abambar} \\ + \emph{Kanna} & & & & & 1 & 2 & 2.4 l & \sample{\abkanna} \\ + \emph{Stop} & & & & & & 1 & 1.2 l & \sample{\abstop} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Wet capacity units based on the Rostock barrel} + \label{tab_large_wet_a} +\end{table} + + + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{\abstop} \emph{stop}, \emph{tuoppi} ]\mbox{} \\ + During the high middle ages the base unit for measuring wet goods in + the Baltic areas was the \emph{stop}. The name translates to a + \emph{tankard}. The size of a \emph{stop} varied in different areas, + in modern units it varied from somewhat under liter to over. The + most common size of \emph{stop} in the later middle ages was + probably 1.2 liters that was one 1/96 of the Rostock \emph{barrel}. + In the 17th century it got standardized to 1.3 liters. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}stope & \sample{\abstop} & \ltxncmd{abstop} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item [\sample{\abquarter}, \emph{kvarter}, \emph{kortteli}] \mbox{} \\ + Later sources divide a \emph{stop} into four \emph{kvarters} but it + is not certain if the unit was used already during the middle ages. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}q~t & \sample{\abquarter} & \ltxncmd{abquarter} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abkanna}, \sample{\abkannatwo} \emph{kanna}, \emph{kannu} ]\mbox{} \\ + During the 15th century the \emph{kanna} ("jug") replaced the + \emph{stop} as the base unit. There were two \emph{stops} in a + \emph{kanna}, meaning that it ranged from a bit under two liters to + almost three liters. The \emph{kanna} that corresponded to the size + of the Rostock barrel was 2.45 liters in size. The later + standardization fixed \emph{kanna} to 2.6 liters. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[kanna] & \sample{\abkanna} & \ltxncmd{abkanna} \\ + {}ka~na & \sample{\abkannatwo} & \ltxncmd{abkannatwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abtunna}, \sample{\abtunnor} \emph{tunna}, \emph{tynnyri}] \mbox{} \\ + The primary large wet capacity measure was a \emph{tunna} (barrel) + from the earliest times. The most common barrel size in use around + the Baltic sea was the Rostock barrel of 117.5 liters, but others + were also in use. + + In the middle ages a typical \emph{tunna} contained 48 \emph{kanna}, + but during the 16th century it became common to use larger barrels + and there are mentions of 50 or 52 \emph{kanna} \emph{tunnas}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[tunna] & \sample{\abtunna} & \ltxncmd{abtunna} \\ + {}[tunna] & \sample{\abtunnor} & \ltxncmd{abtunnor} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abfjarding}, \sample{\abfjardingtwo} \emph{fjärding}, \emph{nelikko}, \emph{neljännes}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{fjärding} was the fourth of a \emph{tunna} for wet capacity + measurements so its size was about 30 liters. Note that while both + \emph{fjärding} and \emph{kvarter} mean a \emph{fourth}, they are + units of very different sizes. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}~ffi & \sample{\abfjarding} & \ltxncmd{abfjarding} \\ + {}fiärd~ug & \sample{\abfjardingtwo} & \ltxncmd{abfjardingtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abambar}, \sample{\abotting} \emph{ämbar}, + \emph{åtting}, \emph{ämpäri} ] \mbox{} \\ + A half of a \emph{fjärding} was either \emph{åtting} (en eighth) or + \emph{ämbar} (a bucket) in different parts of the country. Its size + was approximately 15 liters. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}ämbar & \sample{\abambar} & \ltxncmd{ämbar} \\ + {}attu~g & \sample{\abotting} & \ltxncmd{abotting} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lccc|cl} + & \emph{Båt} & \emph{Åm} & \emph{Kanna} & Metric & + Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{Båt} & 1 & 3 & 180 & 440 l & \sample{\abbaat} \\ + \emph{Åm}, \emph{fat} & & 1 & 60 & 147 l & \sample{\abaam}, \sample{fat} \\ + \emph{Kanna} & & & 1 & 2.4 l & \sample{\abkanna} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Wet capacity units for blubber and wine} + \label{tab_large_wet_b} +\end{table} + + +\item [\sample{\abaam}, \sample{fat} \emph{åm}, \emph{aami}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{åm} was used to measure seal blubber. Later it became also + a measure for wine. In that role it was a synonym for \emph{fat}. + The an \emph{åm} was reckoned to be equal to 60 \emph{kanna} (about + 150 liters) in volume and for blubber 20 \emph{lispund} in weight. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}aam & \sample{\abaam} & \ltxncmd{abaam} \\ + {}fat & \sample{\abfat} & \ltxncmd{abfat} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item [\sample{\abbaat} \emph{båt}] \mbox{} \\ + Wine and seal blubber trade used \emph{båt} to measure large + quantities. A \emph{båt} contained three \emph{åm}, or approximately + 450 liters in volume. For blubber it was 60 \emph{lispund} in + weight. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}baat & \sample{\abbaat} & \ltxncmd{abbaat} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\end{description} + + +\subsection{Length measures} + +The units of length were mostly same with same rations in the whole +Sweden, but their exact sizes were different in different areas. It is +possible to establish a few of them exactly as they were marked on the +walls or doors of stone churches. For example, the door of Vadsbo +church had marks for the \emph{halvaln} of about 32 cm, which gives +the length of Västergötland \emph{aln} to be 64 cm. Three churches +(Stånga, Havdhem and Hemse) all have markings for the Gotland +\emph{aln}. They are not exactly equal, 55.4 cm at Stånga and Hemse +while 55.1 cm at Hemse, but they are close enough that we can reckon +that the Gotland \emph{aln} was a bit over 55 cm. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{ll} + Area & Modern \\ + \hline + Gotland & 55.4 cm \\ + Götlunda & 62.8 cm \\ + Lund & 55.7 cm \\ + Stockholm "new"& 52.5 cm \\ + Stockholm "old "& 55.5 cm \\ + Vadstena & 53.9 cm \\ + Västergötland & 64 cm \\ + Öland & 47 cm \\ + Östergotland & 59.4 cm \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{\emph{Aln} lengths that are known with some certainty.} + \label{tab_aln_lengths} +\end{table} + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lcccccc|ll} + & \emph{Stång} & \emph{Famn} & \emph{Aln} & \emph{Fot} & + \emph{Quarter} & \emph{Tum} & Metric & Symbol \\ + Stång & 1 & 2 & 6 & 12 & 24 & 144 & 3.15 m & \sample{\abstang} \\ + Famn & & 1 & 3 & 6 & 12 & 72 & 1.58 m & \sample{\abfamn} \\ + Aln & & & 1 & 2 & 4 & 24 & 52.5 cm & \sample{aln} \\ + Fot & & & & 1 & 2 & 12 & 26.3 cm & \sample{fot}\\ + Quarter & & & & & 1 & 6 & 13.1 cm & \sample{\abquarter}\\ + Tum & & & & & & 1 & 2.2 cm & \sample{tum} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Stockholm length measures } + \label{tab_length} +\end{table} + + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{aln} \emph{aln}, \emph{kyynärä}] \mbox{} \\ + The basic length unit was \emph{aln} (\emph{kyynärä}) that + corresponds to cubit. Its length varied between 47–65 cm in + different areas. The Stockholm \emph{aln} was one of the shortest + with its 52.5 cm length. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}aln & \sample{\abaln} & \ltxncmd{abaln} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abquarter} \emph{kvarter}, \emph{kortteli}] \mbox{} + \\ + The principal division of an \emph{aln} was to divide it into four + quarters of 12–16 cm. The Stockholm \emph{kvarter} was 13.1 cm long. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}q~t & \sample{\abquarter} & \ltxncmd{abquarter} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{fot} \emph{fot}, \emph{jalka}] \mbox {} \\ + The foot (\emph{fot}, \emph{jalka}) was also used in Sweden, but was + secondary compared with \emph{aln} and \emph{quarter} and some + places used a \emph{halvaln} instead. There were two \emph{quarters} + in a \emph{fot} and two \emph{fot} in an \emph{aln}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}fot & \sample{\abfot} & \ltxncmd{abfot} \\ + {}halvaln & \sample{\abhalvaln} & \ltxncmd{abhalvaln} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{tum} \emph{tum}, \emph{tuuma}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{tum} was the equivalent of inch and there were six + \emph{tum} in a \emph{quarter} and 24 \emph{tum} in an \emph{aln}. + The Stockholm \emph{tum} was 2.2 cm long. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}tum & \sample{\abtum} & \ltxncmd{abtum} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{ffa~pn} \emph{famn}, \emph{syli}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{famn} was the equivalent of a fathom. In most parts of + Sweden there were three \emph{aln} per \emph{famn} but in Norrland + each \emph{famn} contained 3 1/2 \emph{aln}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}ffa~pn & \sample{\abfamn} & \ltxncmd{abfamn} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abstang} \emph{stång}, \emph{tanko}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{stång} corresponded to a rod. It was typically six + \emph{aln} long, but in parts of Östergötland and Småland also five + \emph{aln} \emph{stång} was used and there are occasional records + for eight \emph{aln} lengths. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[stång] & \sample{\abstang} & \ltxncmd{abstang} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{mil}, \sample{rast} \emph{mil}, \emph{rast}, \emph{peninkulma}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{mil} was a length measure with a vague length that varied + a lot in different parts of Sweden. The old name for the unit was + \emph{rast} but that got superseded by \emph{mil} during the middle + ages. The \emph{mil} in Finland corresponded to about 6 modern + kilometers while the \emph{mil} in Dalarland was almost three times + that length with its 15 km distance. Before the country was surveyed + it was not possible to measure long distances exactly so all + measurements that are given in \emph{mils} are approximations. Later + \emph{mil} was standardized to 18000 \emph{aln} but that didn't + happen until the 17th century. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}mil & \sample{\abmil} & \ltxncmd{abmil} \\ + {}rast & \sample{\abrast} & \ltxncmd{abrast} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{vika}, \sample{vecka} \emph{vecka}, \emph{sjömil}] + \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{vika} or \emph{vecka} was the marine equivalent of + \emph{mil} (hence, \emph{sjömil} or sea \emph{mil}). It too was + vaguely defined, but it seems to have been approximately 7.5 km in + modern terms. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}vika & \sample{\abvika} & \ltxncmd{abvika} \\ + {}vecka & \sample{\abvecka} & \ltxncmd{abvecka} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\end{description} + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{ll} + Unit & Modern \\ + \hline + Västgötaland \emph{mil} & ~13 km \\ + Småland \emph{mil} & ~7.5 km \\ + Dalarland \emph{mil} & ~15 km \\ + Finland \emph{mil} & ~6 km \\ + \emph{Vecka} (\emph{sjömil}) & ~7.5 km \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Long distance measurements} + \label{tab_long_distance} +\end{table} + + + +\subsection{Area} + +During the medieval times there were two main reasons for measuring +land: taxation and economical. The crown wanted to assess how much +taxes a farm could or should pay, and a landowner (especially a noble +one with many estates) wanted to know how much a farm could produce. +Determining the exact land area in the modern sense was not necessary +for either purpose. + +The capacity to pay taxes was not completely determined by its size +but also the land quality and opportunities for non-farming income +such as fishing affected it. For this reason the medieval units for +area are extremely vague and using them was highly subjective. There +were some rough guidelines but they were not used as binding rules. +For example, in the 16th century Hälsingaland a \emph{spannland} was +reckoned to be a square of field with eight \emph{stång} sides or +about 830 m$^2$, but this assumed "good land". + +In general, only fields and meadows were measured and the units can be +roughly divided into three classes: + +\begin{itemize} +\item units directly tied to the amount of taxes that should be paid + (e.g. \emph{marksland}, \emph{öresland}). +\item units describing how much grain is sown in the field + (\emph{tunnland}, \emph{spannland}) +\item units tied to units of length (e.g. \emph{stång}, \emph{aln}) +\end{itemize} + +Some units, like \emph{pundsland} were used in two senses: they were +both units for measuring seed grain and also abstract units for +taxation. + +\subsubsection{Tax units} + +In the areas that used taxation based on land area, the basic +principle was that each village had some amount of taxes assigned to +it, and that tax was then allocated to individual farms by counting +what proportion of the fields it owned. + +For example, suppose that there was a village that had been assessed +to be two \emph{rök} in size. The crown assigned the taxed so that +each \emph{rök} had to pay a specific amount of taxes, so in this +example the village would need to pay two tax units. + + +\definecolor{lgray}{HTML}{A09B9B} +\definecolor{dgray}{HTML}{6A6767} + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{ll} + \includegraphics[width=4cm]{pics/fields.png} & + \raise3cm\hbox{\smash{\begin{minipage}{6cm} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + A & 2 \emph{stång} & 3 \emph{öre} & \fcolorbox{black}{white}{\phantom{TEST}} \\ + B & 1 \emph{stång} & $1\frac{1}{2}$ \emph{öre} &\fcolorbox{black}{lgray}{\phantom{TEST}} + \\ + C & 1 \emph{stång} & $1\frac{1}{2}$ \emph{öre} & \fcolorbox{black}{dgray}{\phantom{TEST}} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{minipage}}} + \end{tabular} + \caption{The \emph{stång} division of a field in a village of 6 \emph{öresland} and 4 \emph{stång}.} + \label{fig:stong} +\end{figure} + +The \emph{rök} would then be divided into smaller parts. In Upper +Satakunta each \emph{rök} had 12 \emph{öresland}. Each village was +allocated some number of \emph{öres} out of the \emph{rök}. Each farm +of the village was allocated a number of \emph{stångs}. The communal +fields of the village were divided into thin strips and allocated to +the farms in proportion to the \emph{stångs} of the farms. The farm +also had to pay taxes in proportion to its \emph{stång} count. This is +illustrated in figure \ref{fig:stong}. Typically each \emph{stång} +corresponded to 1–2 \emph{öres}. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lll} + Area & Unit & Divides into \\ + \hline + Varsinais-Suomi & \emph{rök}, \emph{savu} & 32 \emph{öresland} \\ + Ala-Satakunta & \emph{rök}, \emph{savu} & 12 \emph{öresland} \\ + Ylä-Satakunta & \emph{krok}, \emph{koukku} & 12 \emph{öresland} \\ + Häme & \emph{krok}, \emph{koukku} & 12 \emph{öresland} + \\ + Länsi-Uusimaa & \emph{skattemark}, \emph{veromarkka} & 18 \emph{aln} \\ + Itä-Uusimaa & \emph{full skatte}, \emph{täysvero} & 18 \emph{aln} \\ + Kymenkartano & \emph{full skatte}, \emph{täysvero} & 18 \emph{aln} \\ + Viipurin lääni & \emph{full skatte}, \emph{täysvero} & \\ + Savo & \emph{skatteskin}, \emph{veronahka} & \\ + Pohjanmaa & \emph{pundsland}, \emph{punnanala} & 10 \emph{spannland} \\ + Åland & \emph{marksland} \\ + & \emph{rök} \\ + & \emph{full skatte} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Land-area based taxation units in Finland according to \cite{seppala09}} + \label{tab_taxation_units} +\end{table} + + + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{\abmarksland}, \emph{marksland}, \emph{markanmaa}] \mbox{} \\ + \emph{Marksland} was perhaps the oldest taxation unit in Sweden for + agricultural areas. Originally it denoted an area that was supposed + to pay one \emph{mark} in taxes, but over time it became a + computational unit. In Finnish side it was used only at Åland. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[mark]aland & \sample{\abmarksland} & \ltxncmd{abmarksland} \\ + {}[mark::]al~ad & \sample{\abmarkslandtwo} & \ltxncmd{abmarkslandtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\aboresland}, \emph{öresland}, \emph{äyrinmaa}] \mbox{} \\ + Originally \emph{aboresland} was the amount of land suposed to pay + an \emph{öre} in taxes. Later it was used as a computational + division for other units, such as \emph{rök}, \emph{krok}, + \emph{skattemark}, and \emph{marksland}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[ore]sl~ad & \sample{\aboresland} & \ltxncmd{aboresland} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abortugsland}, \emph{örtugsland}, \emph{aurtuanmaa}] \mbox{} \\ + An \emph{ortugsland} was a further subdivision of an \emph{öresland}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[ortug]al~ad & \sample{\abortugsland} & \ltxncmd{abortugsland} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abpenningsland}, \emph{penningsland}, + \emph{penninmaa}] + \mbox{} \\ + The smallest subdivision of a \emph{marksland} was + \emph{penningsland}. It was already so small that there are not that + many mentions of it in sources. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}pe~nal~ad & \sample{\abpenningsland} & \ltxncmd{abpenningsland} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + +\item [\sample{rök}, \emph{rök}, \emph{savu}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{rök} (\emph{smoke}) originally meant a single inhabited farm + but it evolved into a general land measure for taxation. It kept the + original meaning in most of Finland for the whole middle ages, but + got the general meaning in Åland and Varsinais-Suomi. + + +\item [\sample{krok}, \emph{krok}, \emph{aura}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{krok} was also a specific unit that evolved into general + land measure. It means \emph{a plough} and it is not certain whether + it originally meant a single physical plough or the area that could + be plowed with one team. + + +\item [\sample{skatheskin}, \emph{skatteskin}, \emph{veronahka}, \emph{oravainen}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{skatteskin} (\emph{tax skin}) was a taxation unit for areas + without strong agriculture. Originally it denoted an area that was + responsible for paying a set amount of fur skins as taxes, but as + agriculture improved it became another general land area measure. A + \emph{skatteskin} was also called \emph{oravainen} (\emph{little + squirrel}) in Finnish, because the tax was usually assessed in + winter squirrel skins. + + +\item [\sample{\abskattemark} \emph{skattemark}, + \emph{veromarkka},] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{skattemark} was a unit that was used in two different + senses. In some areas it was used like \emph{marksland} but it was + divided into \emph{alns} instead of \emph{öreslands}. In Pohjanmaa + where agriculture was poorly developed it was a property assessment: + for each \emph{skattemark} of property there were in an area, the + inhabitants had to collectively pay one silver mark of taxes. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}skathe[mark] & \sample{\abskattemark} & \ltxncmd{abskattemark} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + + + +\item [\sample{full skathe}, \emph{full skatte}, \emph{täysvero}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{full skatte} was a similar unit as \emph{markland} but it + was introduced later and to different parts of the country. In areas + with established agriculture it was divided into \emph{stångs} and + \emph{alns}, while in Savo it was divided into halves, quarters, and + eighths. + + \begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{lcccc|l} + & \emph{bol} & \emph{halvbol} & \emph{fjärding} & \emph{åtting} & Symbol \\ + \hline + \emph{bol} & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 & \sample{\abbol} \\ + \emph{halvbol} & & 1 & 2 & 4 & \sample{\abhalvbol} \\ + \emph{fjärding} & & & 1 & 2 & \sample{\abfjarding} \\ + \emph{åtting} & & & & 1 & \sample{\abotting} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{The \emph{bol} division of land} + \label{tab:bol} + \end{table} + +\item [\sample{halffskatte}, \emph{halv skatte}, \emph{puolivero}] + \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{halv skatte} was a half of a \emph{full skatte}. + +\item [\sample{\abbol}, \emph{bol}] \mbox{} \\ + Like a \emph{rök}, a \emph{bol} originally meant one inhabited farm + but it later became a general land measure. As a measure it was + first divided into halves and quarters, but later it grew bigger and + contained 20 \emph{skattemark}. In Finland \emph{bol} was used only + in areas where the population was Swedish-speaking. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}booll & \sample{\abbol} & \ltxncmd{abbol} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abhalvbol}, \emph{halvbol} ]\mbox{} \\ + A half of a bol was a \emph{halvbol}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}halffbooll & \sample{\abhalvbol} & \ltxncmd{abhalvbol} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abfjarding}, \sample{\abfjardingtwo}, \emph{fjärding}] \mbox{} \\ + During the middle ages a \emph{fjärding} was a fourth of a + \emph{bol} or a \emph{full skatte}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}~ffi & \sample{\abfjarding} & \ltxncmd{abfjarding} \\ + {}fjard~ug & \sample{\abfjardingtwo} & \ltxncmd{abfjardingtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abotting}, \emph{otting}] \mbox{} \\ + An \emph{otting} was a eighth of a \emph{bol} or \emph{full skatte}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}attu~g & \sample{\abotting} & \ltxncmd{abotting} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\end{description} + + + +\subsection{Seed grain based units} + +Measuring the size of a field by the amount of seed grain that was +sown to it was a common practice. However, the values were approximate +because the amount depended on the grain. For example, rye was sown in +a sparser pattern than barley and a farmer would use 30–50\% more +barley seeds than rye seeds on the same field. + +The most common crop rotation schema in Finland for normal fields was +that a half of farms fields were left fallow each year so a farmer +with 20 \emph{spannland} of land would sow 10 \emph{spanns} each year. + + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{\abspannland} \emph{spannland}, + \emph{panninala}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{spannland} corresponded to the size of a field that was sown + with a \emph{spann} of grain. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}~spl~ad & \sample{\abspannland} & \ltxncmd{abspannland} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abpundland} \emph{pundland}, + \emph{punnanala}] \mbox {} \\ + A \emph{pundland} corresponded to the size of a field that was sown + with a \emph{pund} of grain. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[pund]al~ad & \sample{\abpundland} & \ltxncmd{abpundland} \\ + {}p~udal~ad & \sample{\abpundlandtwo} & \ltxncmd{abpundlandtwo} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abtunnland} \emph{tunnland}, + \emph{tynnyrinala} ] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{tunnland} corresponded to the size of a field that was + sown with a \emph{tunna} of grain. The unit came to use when the + \emph{tunna} was introduced as a dry measure so it was rare before + the 16th century. + + +\item [\sample{thynia}, \emph{thynia}] \mbox{} \\ + The unit \emph{thynia} occurs in some 14th century Swedish + documents. It denoted the amount of land that could be sown with a + \emph{thyn} of grain. + +\end{description} + + +\subsection{Length based units} + +\begin{description} +\item [\sample{\abstang} \emph{stång}, \emph{tanko}] \mbox{} \\ + When \emph{stång} was used as a unit of area, it measured the width + of a strip of field. It was also used as a computational unit of + taxation as a measure of the general size of a farm without being + tied to the actual area of the fields. As a computational unit there + were usually 3 or 12–18 \emph{stång} in a taxation unit in Finland. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}[stång] & \sample{\abstang} & \ltxncmd{abstang} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{aln} \emph{aln}, \emph{kyynärä}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{aln} was used as an area measure in the same way as + \emph{stång}. It was both a real measurement of strip width and a + computational unit for taxation. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}aln & \sample{\abaln} & \ltxncmd{abaln} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} +\end{description} + + + + +\subsection{Counting units} + + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llll} + Name & Amount & Symbol & Usage \\ + \hline + \emph{ask} & 1 & \sample{ask} & butter, honey \\ + \emph{boge} & 1 & \sample{boge} & men \\ + \emph{bok} & 24 & \sample{bok} & sheets of paper \\ + \emph{centener} & 12 & \sample{sintenre} & windowpanes \\ + \emph{dussin} & 12 & \sample{dussin} & merchandise \\ + \emph{gång} & 4 & \sample{gaang} & horseshoes \\ + \emph{göpen} & inexact & \sample{göpen} & small things held in a hand \\ + \emph{hundra} & 100 & \sample{hundra} & anything \\ + \emph{kast} & 4 & \sample{kast} & things held in hands (two in each) \\ + \emph{knippa} & various & \sample{knippa} & things bound together \\ + \emph{krok} & 1 & \sample{krok} & taxation unit (literal meaning \emph{plough}) \\ + \emph{par} & 2 & \sample{par} & anything \\ + \emph{mantal} & various & \sample{mantal} & men \\ + \emph{näbbe} & 1 & \sample{nebbe} & adults \\ + \emph{näveful} & inexact & \sample{näuefull} & small things held in a hand \\ + \emph{rök} & 1 & \sample{rök} & farms (for taxation) \\ + \emph{skock} & 60 & \sample{skock} & merchandise \\ + \emph{släpp} & 2–10 & \sample{släpp} & dogs \\ + \emph{storhundra} & 120 & \sample{storhundra} & anything \\ + \emph{stycke} & 1 & \sample{\abstycke} & anything \\ + \emph{tolft} & 12 & \sample{tolft} & lumber \\ + \emph{tiogh} & 10 or 20 & \sample{tiogh} & eggs, planks \\ + \emph{däcker} & 10 & \sample{\abdacker} & furs, skins, sheets of parchment \\ + \emph{timber} & 40 & \sample{\abtimmer} & furs \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Names for quantitites} + \label{tab_quantities} +\end{table} + + +Some goods had separate units that were used for counting them. + +\begin{description} + +\item [\sample{ask} \emph{ask}, \emph{aski}] \mbox{} \\ + An \emph{ask} was a small box made from wood or birch bark that was + used when buying or selling small amounts of butter, honey, or + similar substances. + +\item [\sample{boge}, \sample{b} \emph{boge}, \emph{jousi}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{boge} (a bow) was used to count men who were old enough to + take part in hunting and it was perhaps the oldest unit of taxation + in Finland. It is probable that it was originally used in a literal + sense and every man who could draw a full-strength bow was counted. + Later it was expanded to mean every men over a set age, often 14 or + 15. + + +\item [\sample{sintener} \emph{centener} ] \mbox{} \\ + The name \emph{centener} comes from Latin meaning 100, but for some + obscure reason it was adopted to mean a group of 12 windowpanes in + Sweden when glass windows started to be used. + +\item [\sample{dussin} \emph{dussin}, \emph{tusina}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{dussin} (a dozen) as a counting term (12) came to Sweden from + Germany and it was quite rare during the middle ages and did not + gain widspread use until the early modern times. It was usually used + when buying or selling individual goods. + +\item [\sample{gaang} \emph{gång}, \emph{kerta}] \mbox{} \\ + Horseshoes were counted in \emph{gångs}. A \emph{gång} had four + shoes, enough to shoe one horse. + +\item [\sample{hundra} \emph{hundra}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{hundra} means literally 'a hundred' and it was used as a + unit meaning 100. This was also called \emph{lilla hundret}, meaning + 'a small hundred'. + +\item [\sample{kast} \emph{kast}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{kast} was a unit that was used to count small things that + could be carried in hand such as coins and nails. It usually denoted + four items (two in both hands) but there were some exceptions. For + example, in Jämntland a \emph{kast} of nails was 5 nails: three in + one hand and two in another. + +\item [\sample{knippo} \emph{knippa}, \emph{nippu} ] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{knippa} is a bundle where many things have been tied + together somehow. How many things there were in a \emph{knippa} + depended on what was being counted. For example, a \emph{knippa} of + brooms was 10 pieces, and a \emph{knippa} of shingles was 100. + +\item [\sample{mantal}, \emph{mantal}, \emph{manttaali} ] \mbox{} \\ + Under the old \emph{mantal} system a number of men were grouped + together and they were collectively responsible for some obligation. + For example, equipping a ship for the fleet. The number of men in a + \emph{mantal} depended on area and the nature of obligation. In the + 16th century a new \emph{mantal} count was introduced that acted as + an area measurement for taxation. + +\item [\sample{nebbe}, \emph{näbbe}, \emph{nokka}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{näbbe} (\emph{beak}) was a person who was considered adult + for the purpose of certain taxes. In some areas all adults were + included in the \emph{näbbe} count, in other areas service folk were + excluded. + +\item [\sample{näuefull}, \sample{göpen} \emph{näveful},\emph{göpen}, \emph{koura} ] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{näveful} was used when handling small things. It contained + as much material that could be held in one closed hand. For example, + in Finland it was common that a person who helped shearing sheep + would receive as a salary a set number of \emph{koura} of wool. + +\item [\sample{par} \emph{par}, \emph{pari} ] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{par} is two of something. It was usually used to count + things that come in pairs. + +\item [\sample{skock} \emph{skock}, \emph{parvi}] \mbox{} \\ + Like a \emph{dussin}, a \emph{skock} was a unit that was imported + from Germany in late middle ages. It denoted 60 pieces and it too + was mostly used for merchandise. + +\item [\sample{släpp} \emph{släpp}, \emph{ajue}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{släpp} is a team of hunting dogs. You needed at least two + dogs to have a \emph{släpp} but there might be several. + +\item [\sample{storhundra} \emph{storhundra} ] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{storhundra} translates literally to "a big hundred" and it + meant 120 pieces. + +\item [\sample{stycke}, \sample{\abstycke} \emph{stycke}, + \emph{kappale}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{stycke} simply means a piece. It was used in account books + as a unit in cases where there was no special unit to use. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}s~t & \sample{\abstycke} & \ltxncmd{abstycke} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\sample{\abtimmer}, \sample{\abtimber} \emph{timmer}, \emph{timber}, \emph{kiihtelys}] \mbox{} \\ + In Finland furs were divided into two basic classes by their value: + \emph{harmaanahka} (\emph{greyskin}) and \emph{valkonahka} + (\emph{whiteskin}). The cheaper greyskins, most imortant of whom was + the squirrel, were counted using a 40 piece \emph{kiihtelys} as the + basic unit. In Swedish texts this is usually written either as + \emph{timber} or \emph{timmer}. However, Swedish texts written in + Finland often use \emph{timber} also when counting whiteskins, and + then it means 10 of them. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{llll} + {}ti~m & \sample{\abtimmer} & \ltxncmd{abtimmer} \\ + {}[timber] & \sample{\abtimber} & \ltxncmd{abtimber} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\sample{\abdacker} \emph{däcker}, \emph{tikkuri}] \mbox{} \\ + The more valuable whiteskins (such as winter ermine and black fox) + were counted using a 10 piece \emph{tikkuri} as the unit in Finland. + The word is a loan word from Swedish \emph{däcker} and it was used + for also large skins and sheets of parchment. As mentioned above, + Swedish texts written in Finland often use \emph{timber} for + \emph{tikkuri} instead of \emph{däcker} when speaking about + whiteskins. + +\item [\sample{tiogh} \emph{tiogh}, \emph{tiu}] \mbox{} \\ + Originally a \emph{tiogh} computed in units of 10 and it was + primarily used of planks. By the mid 16th century its meaning had + changed to 20 pieces and it was most commonly used of eggs. + +\item [\sample{tolft} \emph{tolft}, \emph{toltti} ] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{tolft} (\emph{toltti} in Finnish) meant 12 pieces and it was + most often used of lumber: beams and planks. + +\end{description} + +\subsubsection{Counting fish} + + +There were particularly many different words for counting different +kinds of fish. Large amounts of fish were usually counted in barrels, +but for small amounts individual counts were used. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llll} + Name & Amount & Symbol & Usage \\ + \hline + \emph{bast} & 24 & \sample{bast} & eels and lampreys \\ + \emph{klove} & 100–240 & \sample{kloffue} & dried fish \\ + \emph{kärve} & 12–16 & \sample{kärue} & salmon \\ + \emph{rynkie} & 300 & \sample{rynkie} & whitefish \\ + \emph{snesa} & 20 & \sample{snes} & eels \\ + \emph{spide} & 24 & \sample{spidh} & fish \\ + \emph{stig} & 20 & \sample{stig} & fish \\ + \emph{stock} & 30 & \sample{stig} & fish \\ + \emph{val} & 80 & \sample{val} & herring \\ + \emph{vårda} & 10 & \sample{vaardh} & dried fish \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Units for counting fish} + \label{tab_fish} +\end{table} + +\begin{description} + +\item [\sample{bast} \emph{bast}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{bast} was used to count eels and lampreys and there were 24 + fish per \emph{bast}. + +\item [\sample{kloffue} \emph{klove}, \emph{pihti} ] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{klove} was perhaps the most important unit for counting + fish. It was used exclusively of dried fish and its size varied in + different areas ranging from 100 to 240. It seems that in Stockholm + there were 200 fish in a \emph{klove}. + + In Finland \emph{klove} was called \emph{pihti} and it was used also + for counting sheets of birch bark. When counting small fish like + vendance a \emph{pihti} may have had up to 1000 fish. + +\item [\sample{kärffue} \emph{kärve}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{kärve} was either 12 or 16 salmons. + +\item [\sample{rynkie} \emph{rynkie} ] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{rynkie} was a unit that was used in Satakunta to count + whitefish. A \emph{rynkie} had 300 fish. + +\item [\sample{snesa} \emph{snesa} ] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{snesa} was another unit for counting eels. There were 20 + eels in a \emph{snesa}. + +\item [\sample{spidh} \emph{spide}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{spide} was used in Gotland to count all kinds of fish. + There were 24 fish in a \emph{spide}. + +\item [\sample{stig} \emph{stig}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{stig} was also used to count all kinds of fish. There were + 20 fish in a \emph{stig}. + + +\item [\sample{stock} \emph{stock}, \emph{joukko}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{stock} was a group of 30 fish. + +\item [\sample{val} \emph{val}, \emph{vaali}] \mbox{} \\ + The \emph{val} was a unit of counting herrings. Each \emph{val} + had 80 herrings. + +\item [\sample{vaardh} \emph{vårda}, \emph{nippu}] \mbox{} \\ + A \emph{vårda} was a unit for dried fish (most often cods). A + \emph{vårda} usually had 10 or 12 fish. A \emph{vårda} of lampreys + typically had one more than other fish because one of them was used + to tie the others. + +\end{description} + +%\fi + +\section{LaTeX Command Reference }\label{reference} + +\subsection{General commands} +\begin{description} +\item [\ltxncmd{abcursivefamily}] \mbox{} \\ + Switch to \Aboensis{} with the current size and set text color. This + also makes \emph{~} and \emph{_} be normal letters. + +\item [\ltxcmd{aboensis}{text}] \mbox{} \\ + Sets \package{text} in Aboensis with set text color. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abtildes}] \mbox{} \\ + Change \emph{~} and \emph{_} to normal letters. + +\end{description} + +\subsection{Color handling} + + +\begin{description} + +\item [\ltxcmd{abtext}{text}] \mbox{} \\ + Set \package{text} using the text color. + +\item[\ltxcmd{abrubric}{text}] \mbox{} \\ + Set \package{text} using the primary rubrics color. + + +\item [\ltxcmd{abotherrubric}{text}] \mbox{} \\ + Set \package{text} using the secondary rubrics color. + +\item[\ltxncmd{abtorubric}] \mbox{} \\ + Change the color to the primary rubrics color. + +\item[\ltxncmd{abtootherrubric}] \mbox{} \\ + Change the color to the secondary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{absettextcolor}{color}] \mbox{} \\ + Set the text color to \package{color}. + +\item[\ltxcmd{absetrubriccolor}{color}] \mbox{} \\ + Set the primary rubric color to \package{color}. + +\item[\ltxcmd{absetotherrubriccolor}{color}] \mbox{} \\ + Set the secondary rubric color to \package{color}. + +\item [\ltxcmd{absetcolormixpercentage}{percentage}] \mbox{} \\ + Set the primary rubrics color mix percentage to + \package{percentage}. + +\item [\ltxcmd{absetothercolormixpercentage}{percentage}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the secondary rubrics color mix percentage to + \package{percentage}. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abrubricred}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the primary rubrics color to red (default). + +\item [\ltxncmd{abrubricgreen}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the primary rubrics color to green. + + +\item [\ltxncmd{abrubricblue}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the primary rubrics color to blue. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abotherrubricred}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the secondary rubrics color to red. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abotherrubricgreen}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the secondary rubrics color to green (default). + +\item [\ltxncmd{abotherrubricblue}]\mbox{} \\ + Set the secondary rubrics color to blue. + +\end{description} + +\subsection{Capitals and initials} + + +\begin{description} + +\item [\ltxcmd{abcapital}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-colored capital letter with the primary rubrics color for + highlighting. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abcapitalother}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-colored capital letter with the secondary rubrics color for + highlighting. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abinitial}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Lombardic initial letter in the primary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abinitialother}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Lombardic initial letter in the secondary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abinitialtwo}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-colored Lombardic inititial letter where main color is the + primary rubrics color and the other color is the secondary rubrics + color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abinitialothertwo}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-colored Lombardic inititial letter where main color is the + secondary rubrics color and the other color is the primary rubrics + color. + +\item [\ltxcmdfour{abinitwpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Lombardic initial letter that is scaled by \feature{scale} and + moved by \feature{xpos} and \feature{ypos}. The letter is in the + primary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmdfour{abinitowpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Lombardic initial letter that is scaled by \feature{scale} and + moved by \feature{xpos} and \feature{ypos}. The letter is in the + secondary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmdfour{abinittwowpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-colored Lombardic initial scaled by \feature{scale} and + moved by \feature{xpos} and \feature{ypos}. The main color is the + primary rubrics color and the other color is the secondary rubrics + color. + +\item [\ltxcmdfour{abinitotwowpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-colored Lombardic initial scaled by \feature{scale} and + moved by \feature{xpos} and \feature{ypos}. The main color is the + secondary rubrics color and the other color is the primary rubrics + color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abcursiveinitial}{letter}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a cursive initial \feature{letter} using the text color. + +\item [\ltxcmdfour{abcursiveinitialwithpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a cursive initial letter scaled by \feature{scale} and moved by + \feature{xpos} and \feature{ypos}. + + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchapter}{letter}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-line chapter start Lombardic initial and fhe first two + lines of text. The initial is in the primary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchapterother}{letter}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-line chapter start Lombardic initial and fhe first two + lines of text. The initial is in the secondary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchaptertwo}{letter}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-line chapter start with a two-colored Lombardic initial + where main color is the primary rubrics color and the other is the + secondary rubrics color. + + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchapterothertwo}{letter}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-line chapter start with a two-colored Lombardic initial + where main color is the secondary rubrics color and the other is the + primary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchapterwithpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-line chapter start with a scaled and positioned Lombardic + initial in the primary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchapterotherwithpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}{line}{line}] + \mbox{} \\ + Add a two-line chapter start with a scaled and positioned Lombardic + initial in the secondary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchaptertwowithpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a chapter start with a two-line two-color scaled and positioned + Lombardic initial where the main color is the primary rubrics color + and other color is the secondary rubrics color. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abstartchapterothertwowithpos}{letter}{scale}{xpos}{ypos}{line}{line}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a chapter start with a two-line two-color scaled and positioned + Lombardic initial where the main color is the secondary rubrics color + and other color is the primary rubrics color. + +\end{description} + +\subsection{Other} + +\paragraph{Numbers} + + + +\begin{description} + +\item [\ltxcmd{abothernum}{number}] \mbox{} \\ + Change the number glyphs in \feature{number} to the alternate Arabic + numbers. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abroman}{number}] \mbox{} \\ + Format \feature{number} as a Roman numeral using the standard + subtractive numerals. This works for numbers from one to million and + halves are also supported. + +\item [\ltxcmdthree{abromanother}{thousands}{hundreds}{number}] + \mbox{} \\ + Format a number as a Roman numeral using the alternative shema where + thousands and hundreds are shown separately. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abthousand}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a thousands marker for the alternative Roman numeral encoding. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abhundred}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a hundreds marker for the alternative Roman numeral encoding. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abthird}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Swedish symbol for one third. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abfourth}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Swedish symbol for one fourth. + +\item [\ltxncmd{absixth}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a Swedish symbol for one sixth. + +\end{description} + +\paragraph{Line handling} + +\begin{description} + +\item [\ltxcmd{abl}{text}] \mbox{} \\ + Typeset \feature{text} in one line while removing the height of + letters. This is used to enforce even spacing between lines. + +\item [\ltxcmd{abb}{text}] \mbox{} \\ + Typeset \feature{text} in one line while removing the height of + letters. The difference between this and the previous one is that + \ltxncmd{abl} automatically adds a newline after the line while + \ltxncmd{abb} does not. This means that \ltxncmd{abb} is safe to use + insida the \feature{tabular} environment. + + +\item[\ltxncmd{abindent}] \mbox{} \\ + Add space equal to the width of the last lombardic initial. + +\end{description} + + +\begin{table} + \begin{tabular}{llllll} +\ltxncmd{abaam} & \sample{\abaam} & \ltxncmd{abkarpiotwo} & \sample{\abkarpiotwo} \\ +\ltxncmd{abaln} & \sample{\abaln} & \ltxncmd{abkarve} & \sample{\abkarve} \\ +\ltxncmd{abambar} & \sample{\abambar} & \ltxncmd{abkolmannes} & \sample{\abkolmannes} \\ +\ltxncmd{abbaat} & \sample{\abbaat} & \ltxncmd{abkylmitta} & \sample{\abkylmitta} \\ +\ltxncmd{abbesmanspund} & \sample{\abbesmanspund} & \ltxncmd{ablass} & \sample{\ablass} \\ +\ltxncmd{abbol} & \sample{\abbol} & \ltxncmd{ablast} & \sample{\ablast} \\ +\ltxncmd{abdacker} & \sample{\abdacker} & \ltxncmd{ablibra} & \sample{\ablibra} \\ +\ltxncmd{abdenarius} & \sample{\abdenarius} & \ltxncmd{ablispund} & \sample{\ablispund} \\ +\ltxncmd{abdragu} & \sample{\abdragu} & \ltxncmd{ablispundtwo} & \sample{\ablispundtwo} \\ +\ltxncmd{abfamn} & \sample{\abfamn} & \ltxncmd{ablispundthree} & \sample{\ablispundthree} \\ +\ltxncmd{abfangh} & \sample{\abfangh} & \ltxncmd{ablispundfour} & \sample{\ablispundfour} \\ +\ltxncmd{abfat} & \sample{\abfat} & \ltxncmd{ablod} & \sample{\ablod} \\ +\ltxncmd{abfjarding} & \sample{\abfjarding} & \ltxncmd{abmarc} & \sample{\abmarc} \\ +\ltxncmd{abfjardingtwo} & \sample{\abfjardingtwo} & \ltxncmd{abmark} & \sample{\abmark} \\ +\ltxncmd{abfot} & \sample{\abfot} & \ltxncmd{abmarkpund} & \sample{\abmarkpund} \\ +\ltxncmd{abhalvaln} & \sample{\abhalvaln} & \ltxncmd{abmarkpundtwo} & \sample{\abmarkpundtwo} \\ +\ltxncmd{abhalvbol} & \sample{\abhalvbol} & \ltxncmd{abmarksland} & \sample{\abmarksland} \\ +\ltxncmd{abkanna} & \sample{\abkanna} & \ltxncmd{abmarkslandtwo} & \sample{\abmarkslandtwo} \\ +\ltxncmd{abkannatwo} & \sample{\abkannatwo} & \ltxncmd{abmil} & \sample{\abmil} \\ +\ltxncmd{abkappa} & \sample{\abkappa} & \ltxncmd{abmk} & \sample{\abmk} \\ +\ltxncmd{abkappatwo} & \sample{\abkappatwo} & \ltxncmd{abmodius} & \sample{\abmodius} \\ +\ltxncmd{abkarpio} & \sample{\abkarpio} & \ltxncmd{aboresland} & \sample{\aboresland} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Medieval unit commands 1/2} + \label{tab:abbreviation_commands_1} +\end{table} + + +\begin{table} + \begin{tabular}{llllll} +\ltxncmd{abore} & \sample{\abore} & \ltxncmd{abskole} & \sample{\abskole} \\ +\ltxncmd{abortugsland} & \sample{\abortugsland} & \ltxncmd{absolidus} & \sample{\absolidus} \\ +\ltxncmd{abortug} & \sample{\abortug} & \ltxncmd{absoll} & \sample{\absoll} \\ +\ltxncmd{abotting} & \sample{\abotting} & \ltxncmd{absommardragu} & \sample{\absommardragu} \\ +\ltxncmd{abparmas} & \sample{\abparmas} & \ltxncmd{absommarlass} & \sample{\absommarlass} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpenningsland} & \sample{\abpenningsland} & \ltxncmd{abspannland} & \sample{\abspannland} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpenning} & \sample{\abpenning} & \ltxncmd{abspann} & \sample{\abspann} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpundfour} & \sample{\abpundfour} & \ltxncmd{abstang} & \sample{\abstang} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpundland} & \sample{\abpundland} & \ltxncmd{abstop} & \sample{\abstop} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpundlandtwo} & \sample{\abpundlandtwo} & \ltxncmd{abstycke} & \sample{\abstycke} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpund} & \sample{\abpund} & \ltxncmd{abthyn} & \sample{\abthyn} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpundtwo} & \sample{\abpundtwo} & \ltxncmd{abtimber} & \sample{\abtimber} \\ +\ltxncmd{abpundthree} & \sample{\abpundthree} & \ltxncmd{abtimmer} & \sample{\abtimmer} \\ +\ltxncmd{abquarter} & \sample{\abquarter} & \ltxncmd{abtum} & \sample{\abtum} \\ +\ltxncmd{abquintin} & \sample{\abquintin} & \ltxncmd{abtunna} & \sample{\abtunna} \\ +\ltxncmd{abrast} & \sample{\abrast} & \ltxncmd{abtunnland} & \sample{\abtunnland} \\ +\ltxncmd{absattung} & \sample{\absattung} & \ltxncmd{abtunnor} & \sample{\abtunnor} \\ +\ltxncmd{abskaalpund} & \sample{\abskaalpund} & \ltxncmd{abvakka} & \sample{\abvakka} \\ +\ltxncmd{abskappa} & \sample{\abskappa} & \ltxncmd{abvecka} & \sample{\abvecka} \\ +\ltxncmd{abskattemark} & \sample{\abskattemark} & \ltxncmd{abvika} & \sample{\abvika} \\ +\ltxncmd{abskeppund} & \sample{\abskeppund} & \ltxncmd{abvinterdragu} & \sample{\abvinterdragu} \\ +\ltxncmd{abskeppundtwo} & \sample{\abskeppundtwo} & \ltxncmd{abvinterlass} & \sample{\abvinterlass} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{Medieval unit commands 2/2} + \label{tab:abbreviation_commands_2} +\end{table} + + +\subsection{Symbols} + +The commands for setting medieval swedish measurement units are shown +in tables \ref{tab:abbreviation_commands_1} and +\ref{tab:abbreviation_commands_2}. Other symbol commands are listed +below. + +\begin{description} +\item[\ltxncmd{abpara}] \mbox{} \\ + Add the paragraph start pillcrow symbol ¶ in the primary rubrics + color. + +\item[\ltxncmd{abparaother}] \mbox{} \\ + Add the paragraph start pillcrow symbol ¶ in the secondary rubrics + color. + +\item[\ltxncmd{abitem}] \mbox{} \\ + Add the 'item' symbol with text color. + +\item [\ltxncmd{ableftindex}] \mbox{} \\ + Add a finger pointing left. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abrightindex}]\mbox{} \\ + Add a finger pointing right. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abupindex}]\mbox{} \\ + Add a finger pointing up. + +\item [\ltxncmd{abdownindex}]\mbox{} \\ + Add a finger pointing down. + +\end{description} + + + + + +\section{OpenType Features}\label{sec_opentype} + +The features in \Aboensis{} are divided into two classes: those that +should be always on and those that should be turned on only when +necessary. The two features that are necessary for the proper function +of the font are \feature{calt} and \feature{liga}. Most modern +programs turn both of them on by default. + +\begin{table} + \centering + \begin{tabular}{llll} + Function & Feature & Always on & \\ + \hline + List of all alternaties & \feature{aalt} \\ + Contextual alternate forms & \feature{calt} & $\times$ \\ + Abbreviation ligatures & \feature{dlig} \\ + Fractions & \feature{frac} \\ + Initial forms & \feature{init} \\ + Isolated forms & \feature{isol} \\ + Standard ligatures & \feature{liga} & $\times$\\ + Roman numbers & \feature{onum} \\ + Capital letter highlight & \feature{ss01} & \\ + Capital letter highlight overlap & \feature{ss02} &\\ + Initial substitution & \feature{ss03} & & \\ + Lombardic initial second color & \feature{ss04} & \\ + Swash Lombardic initial & \feature{ss05} \\ + Superscript letters & \feature{sups} & \\ + Swash letters & \feature{swsh} &\\ + Alternate Arabic numbers & \feature{tnum} \\ + \end{tabular} + \caption{OpenType features} + \label{tab:opentype_features} +\end{table} + +\begin{description} +\item [\feature{aalt}] \mbox{} \\ + Access all alternates. This feature is used by some software to + provide access to all letters to the user. + +\item [\feature{calt}] \mbox{} \\ + The contextual alternate substitution. This changes the letter forms + based on the surrounding context. In particular, this substitutes + the correct forms of \emph{r} and \emph{s} as well as makes the + letters tie together better. This feature should always be turned + on. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \largesample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=-calt;}manor} & + \largesample{manor} \\ + \feature{-calt} & \feature{+calt} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{dlig}] \mbox{} \\ + Abbreviation ligature substitution. This feature substitutes + parts of words by their abbreviations. In most cases you want to use + the bracketed substitutions that are defined in \feature{liga} and + shown in table \ref{tab:abbreviation_ligatures}. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{copper} & + \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+dlig;}copper} \\ + \feature{-dlig} & \feature{+dlig} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{frac}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes vulgar fractions into ordinals with the \emph{le}-syntax: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{1/4} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+frac;}1/4} \\ + \feature{-frac} & \feature{+frac} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{init}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes letters to their initial forms. This is done automatically + by feature \feature{calt}. + +\item [\feature{isol}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes letters to their isolated forms. This is done automatically by feature \feature{calt}. + +\item [\feature{liga}] \mbox{} \\ + Enables the standard ligature substitution. This should be In this font it is used for two things: + \begin{itemize} + \item add ligatures in the the normal manner + \item add special symbols as ligature substitutions in the way + described in section \ref{sec_abbrs}. + \end{itemize} + +\item [\feature{onum}] \mbox{} \\ + Converts numbers into Roman numerals. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{123} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+onum;}123} \\ + \feature{-onum} & \feature{+onum} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{ss01}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes a capital letter into a highlight strike through the letter. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{A} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ss01;}A} \\ + \feature{-ss01} & \feature{+ss01} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{ss02}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes a capital letter into the intersection of the letter and the highlight strike through it: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{A} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ss02;}A} \\ + \feature{-ss02} & \feature{+ss02} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{ss03}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes a capital letter into a Lombardic initial and a lower case + letter into a cursive initial. You may want to use the ligature + substitutions \feature{+A+} and \feature{++A++}, instead. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{A} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ss03;}A} & + & \sample{a} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ss03;}a} \\ + \feature{-ss03} & \feature{+ss03} & & \feature{-ss03} & \feature{+ss03} \\ \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{ss04}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes a capital letter into the second color of a Lombard initial. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{A} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ss04;}A} \\ + \feature{-ss04} & \feature{+ss04} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{ss05}] \mbox{} \\ + Changes a capital letter into a swash Lombardic initial. + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{A} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+ss05;}A} \\ + \feature{-ss05} & \feature{+ss05} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\item [\feature{sups}] \mbox{} \\ +Switches letters to superscripts: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{sample} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+sups;}sample} \\ + \feature{-sups} & \feature{+sups} \\ + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + + +\item [\feature{swsh}] \mbox{} \\ + Switches some letters to alternate forms. + +\begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \feature{-swsh} & \feature{+swsh} & & \feature{-swsh} & \feature{+swsh} \\ + \sample{*g} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+swsh;}g} & & + \sample{*x} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+swsh;}x} \\ + \sample{*y} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+swsh;}y} & & + \sample{*z} & \sample{\addfontfeature{RawFeature=+swsh;}z} \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{center} + +\item [\feature{tnum}] \mbox{} \\ + Change Arabic numbers to the form used in the Fibonacci manuscript: + \begin{center} + \begin{tabular}{ccccc} + \sample{1234567890} & \sample{\abothernum{1234567890}} \\ + \feature{-tnum} & \feature{+tnum} + \end{tabular} + \end{center} + +\end{description} + + + + + + +\section{Examples} + +\subsection{The accounts of Kalliala parish} + +In 1851 vicar Antero Warelius found the account book of the Church of +St Olaf from a small niche in the church. The book is the only +medieval account book of a parish that has survived in Finland and it +contains entries from the period 1469–1524. The figure +\ref{fig_kalliala} is from a list of loans taken from the parish +granary in 1480. + +\begin{figure} + + \begin{center} + \includegraphics{pics/kalliala_fol16r.jpg} + \end{center} + + + \vspace{5mm} + +{\raggedright {\fontsize{15}{18}\fontspec{Aboensis}Annodnĩ \abroman{1480} Cõcessa de [ger]*nario ec + \\ + \abl{\abitem{} jacõ leyko \hspace{0.7cm} i k,} + \abl{\abitem{} laũ lukkari \hspace{0.3cm} i span, } + \abl{\abitem{} kawpi gästin läski i span i karp, } + \abl{\abitem{} joan kokkopoyka \hspace{2mm} i k, {\color{brown!75}\abitem{} knuth liwha i k} } + \abl{\abitem{} nicõ swenilast \hspace{0.3cm} i k, } + \abl{\abitem{} he~n an~d tyrwest i k, } + \abl{\abitem{} pe[der] michlss meskalast i k, } + \abl{\abitem{} olã kawpamies ibi/d i k, } + \abl{\abitem{} ma~th wiliakalast i k, } + \abl{\abitem{} nicõ marthensz kykas i k, } +}} +\caption{Year 1480 in Kalliala parish granary accounts. + \emph{Kallialan kirkontilit, Valtionarkisto, folio 16r.}} + \label{fig_kalliala} +\end{figure} + +\begin{quote} +{ + \raggedright + Anno domini MCDLXXX Concessa de + granario ec \emph{kalliala}\\ + Item Jaco\emph{b} Leyko \hspace{0.7cm} i k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Lau\emph{ri} Lukkari \hspace{0.3cm} 1 span \\ + Item Kauppi-Kestin leski 1 span 1 karp \\ + Item Johan Kokkopoika \hspace{2mm} 1 k\emph{arp}, Item Knuth Liuha i + k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Niko\emph{laus} Sveniläst \hspace{0.3cm} 1 k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Hen\emph{rik} And\emph{ersson} Tyrvääst 1 k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Ped\emph{er} Mich\emph{e}lss\emph{on} 1 k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Ola\emph{us} Kauppamies ibid\emph{em} 1 k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Ma\emph{theus} Viljakalast 1 k\emph{arp} \\ + Item Niko\emph{laus} Marthensson Kykas 1 k\emph{arp} \\ +} + +\end{quote} + + + +\subsection{The account book of Olaf Nilsson Tawast}\label{sec_tavast} + +Olaf Nilsson (Tawast) (c. 1400–1460) belonged to the Finnish nobility +and the base of his power was in Tavastia where he was first a judge +from c. 1433 and the castellan of Häme Castle from 1455. He was the +nephew of Bishop Magnus Olai (Tawast) of Åbo Diacose and a supporter +of King Karl Knutsson (Bonde). Their patronage helped Olaf to greatly +enlarge his holdings in Tavastia. His book of household accounts has +survived. + +Figure \ref{fig_olaf_nilsson} has a snippet gives details of a land +sale circa 1455. + +\begin{figure} + + \includegraphics{pics/DF3001_fol2r.jpg} + + \vspace{5mm} + + {\raggedright {\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{16}{20}\selectfont + \abl{\noindent \abitem{} fik iak aff willoyn i sayriala ii lass + engh t*hz pa haffure jak} + \abl{betalad t*hz pa haffure jak betalad j \abkarpio{} miöl for v \abortug, i \abkarpio{} korn} + \abl{for iiii \abortug{} och i \abpund{} salch for v \abortug. + \abitem{} xii \abore{} \abpenning{} for eth stykke } + \abl{jordh vidher wäghen. \abitem{} i stykke jord for vi + \abore{}, öster nor wed } + \abl{aker gardhen som vedh byen ligghre \abitem{} \abroman{0.5} + \abmark{}, \abitem{} v \abortug{}, \abitem{}} + \abl{v \abmarc{} fläsk for i \abore}}} + + + \caption{Snippet from accounts of Olaf Nilsson Tawast, c. 1455. \emph{DF + 3001, SDHK 43935, Riksarkivet codices C 38, folio r2r}} + \label{fig_olaf_nilsson} +\end{figure} + +\begin{quote} +Jtem fik iak aff Willoyn j Sayriala ij las engh; ther pa hafwer iak +betalat j karp miøl for v ortuger, j karp korn for iiij ortuger ok j +pund salt for v ortuger, jtem xij öre peninga for j stykke jordh +widher wæghen, jtem j stykke jordh for vj øre østher nor wedh aker +gardhen, som wedh byen liggher, jtem 1/2 mark, jtem v ørtuger, jtem +v mark flæsk for j øre. +\end{quote} + +\begin{quote} + Item I received a 2 lass meadow from Willoyn of Sairiala; for which I + paid 1 karp flour valued at 5 ortuger, 1 karp barley at 4 örtuger + and 1 pund salt at 5 örtuger. Item 12 öre in coins for one piece of + land next to road, item 1 piece of land for 6 öre to East of field + that is next to the village, item 1/2 mark in coins, item 5 örtuger, + item 5 marks of pork at 1 öre. +\end{quote} + + +\subsection{Table of contents of \emph{Konunx balker}} + +Each chapter of \emph{Codex Aboensis} starts with a table of contents +of that chapter. Figure \ref{fig_kunnunx_contents} shows the beginning +of the \emph{Konunx balker}. + +\begin{quote} + Här byrias konungx balker ok tälias y honom flokkar fyra ok trätigh + item \\ + + \begin{tabular}{lp{10cm}l} + ¶ & Wm suerikis konungx rike kuilket i sik haffue siw biscops döme + och nio lagmanz döme & 1 \\ + ¶ & Offuer akth suerike ager ey konunglixlik krona och ei knongher + wtan een wara & 2 \\ + ¶ & Ey ma konungher minsca kronunnan räth firi androm konunghe & 3 + \\ + ¶ & Yn är til koningxrikit i suerike konungr wäliandhe och ey + ärffuandhe & 4 \\ + ¶ & Tesse ärä nonungx edha först ath han scal elsca gud och the + helghä kirkio och agher edh syn suäria aa book och helgho doma & 5 \\ + \end{tabular} +\end{quote} + + + +\begin{quote} + Here begings the Kings Beam that contains four and thirty items \\ + + \begin{tabular}{lp{10cm}l} + ¶ & On the King's realm of Sweden that has seven diacoses and nine + judicical districts & 1 \\ + ¶ & There is only one king's crown and one king over the Sweden & 2\\ + ¶ & The king may not diminish the crown's income from later + kings & 3 \\ + ¶ & The kingship in Sweden is by election and not inherited & 4 \\ + ¶ & This is the king's oath: to love God and the Holy Church and + to swear by the Bible and holy relics & 5 \\ + \end{tabular} + +\end{quote} + +\begin{figure} + + + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[width=10cm]{pics/kununx_balk.jpg} + \end{center} + + +% Codex aboensis, folio 22 r. +\newcommand{\gc}{\abgreen{·}} +{{\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{18}{18}\selectfont\raggedright + \abstartchaptertwowithpos{H}{1.1}{-2mm}{-2mm}{\abrubric{är\gc{}byrias\gc{}kon~ugx\gc{}balker\gc{}ok \gc{} tälias\gc{}y\gc{}}}% + {\abrubric{honom\gc{}flokkar{}\gc{}fyra \gc{} ok \gc{} trätigh \gc{}\abitem\gc}} + + \fontsize{15}{17}\selectfont + + \begin{tabular}{l@{ }l@{ }l} + \abb{\abparaother} & + \abb{\abcapital{W}*m suerikis kon~ugx rike huilket i sik haffue} + & \abb{\abrubric{I}} \\ + & \abb{siw biscops döme och nio lagmanz döme \abred{!} \abgreen{**<}} \\ + \abb{\abpara} + & \abb{\abcapitalother{O}ffuer akth suerike ager ey kon~ugxlik + krona och } + & \abb{\abred{ii}} \\ + & \abb{ei kon~ugher wtan een wara \abred{!} \abgreen{******<}} & \\ + \abb{\abparaother} & \abb{\abcapital{E}y ma kon~ugher minsca + kronuñä räth firi} & \abb{\abred{iii}} \\ + & \abb{andrõ kon~ughe \abred{!} \abgreen{!****<}} \\ + \abb{\abpara} + & \abb{\abcapitalother{Y}n är til kon~igxrikit i suerike. + kon~ug~r wälia} + & \abb{\abred{iiii}} \\ + & \abb{ndhe och ey ärffuandhe \abred{!} \abgreen{!*****<}} \\ + \abb{\abparaother} & + \abb{\abcapital{T}esse ära kon~ugx edha försth ath han scal} + &\abred{v} \\ + & \abb{elsca gud och the helghä kir:kio. och agher edh} & \\ + & \abb{syn suäria aa book och helgho doma. \abred{!} \abgreen{\_***<} } \\ + \end{tabular} + +}} + +\caption{The beginning of table of contents of \emph{Konungx balker}, + \emph{Codex Aboensis folio 22 r.}} +\label{fig_kunnunx_contents} +\end{figure} + + + +\subsection{The rules of noble service}\label{sec_noble_service} + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=12cm]{pics/aboensis-27r.jpg} + + \includegraphics[width=12cm]{pics/aboensis-27v.jpg} + + \caption{The rules of noble service in \emph{Konungx balker} in + \emph{Codex aboensis}. Note how the initial of \emph{aff} occurs + in the middle of sentence.}\label{fig_konungx_service} +\end{figure} + +During the middle ages the borders of Swedish noble class were fluid. +Being a noble was not yet officially hereditary but instead it was +tied to service as a man-at-arms. In practice, powerful families had +noble status from generation to generation but but the door was still +open for a common peasant to rise to the ranks of nobles. + +The core concept was that of \emph{frälse} – freedom from paying +taxes. This could be obtained by equipping a man-at-arms to serve in +the king's army. The men-at-arms were divided into \emph{riddare} and +\emph{sven}, knights and squires. + +The \emph{Konunx balker} lists the required equipment and establishes +the dates of annual inspections of the nobles in the section 11. + +\begin{figure} +% Codex aboensis, folio 27 r. +{{\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{15}{18}\selectfont\raggedright + \abstartchapterother{H}{wilikin man som frelsth wil haffua. sith + godhz}{ + huat heldlsz han är riddarä eller swen änghnin } + \abl{wiidhan taknom. skal haffua swa godgan hesth ath h~a } + \abl{see wel werdhs fyrethige \abmark{} päni~gha. bäthre och ey } + \abl{weier och thz til örsäsadul wpgiörran hielm och fulwa~p} + \abl{badhe til been och liiff, engho wudhan takno thz som } + \abl{e~e gadher mã ma sik niedh wäria. \abcapital{H}war att~uda dagh} + \abl{epther \abcapital{S}ancte peders dagh. scal wapnäsyn haff wäs i } + \abl{wpsala. aff upsala biscops döme. \abcapital{I} westraros. aff wes} + \abl{tra ros biskops döme \abcapital{I} strengänes aff sudh~rmanna } + \abl{lande \abcapital{I} örabroo aff närikke \abcapital{I} lynköpinghe aff öster-} + \abl{göth landha \abcapital{K}*yndh. \abcapital{T}hiwsth. widhboo. Ydhre. \abcapital{T}wä-} + \abl{thä. wistho grännä. \abcapital{W}isixö. \abcapital{I} kalmrarun aff kal-} + \abl{mar~na foghate. och ölaidh i rydaholm. aff tyhäradh } + \abl{i falk~ibergh. aff badhom hallandh~u norrä och sudhrä. } + \abl{y skarum. \abcapital{A}ff werstergöth landhe oh dall y tiugwall~u. } + \abl{aff wermalandhe. \abcapital{K}an thet swa wara ath nokor aff,} + \abl{bondhum wil frelsis man wardha. tha skal han sik } + \abl{redha innã then daghen badhe medh hästh och wapn~u. } + \abl{swa ath the som wapnasynna skuld skudha a konu~gx } + \abl{wegna. \abcapital{S}kundhe badhe mandõ hans. fräght hans} + \abl{hesth. ok wipen swa och än han ma thz frelse wppe hal} + \abl{dhä. medh godz som förra ez saght. \abgreen{!>>>***>>>!} }}} +\caption{The requirements of noble service in \emph{Konungx balker}, + \emph{Codex Aboensis folio 27 r.}} + +\end{figure} + + +\begin{quote} + Hwilikin man som frelsth wil haffua. sith godhz huat heldlsz han är + riddarä eller swen änghnin wiidhan taknom. skal haffua swa godgan + hesth ath hã see wel werdhs fyrethige markea päningha. bäthre och ey + weier och thz til örsäsadul wpgiörran hielm och fulwapn badhe til + been och liiff, engho wudhan takno thz som een gadher man ma sik + niedh wäria. Hwar attunda dagh epther Sancte peders dagh scal + wapnäsyn haff wäs i wpsala aff upsala biscops döme. I westraros. aff + westraros biskops döme. I strengänes aff sudhermanna lande. I + örabroo aff närikke. I lynköpinghe aff östergöthlandha, Kyndh, + Thiwsth, widhboo, Ydhre. Twäthä. wistho grännä. Wisixö. I kalmrarum + aff kalmarnna foghate. och ölaidh i rydaholm. aff tyhäradh i + falkinbergh. aff badhom hallandhum norrä och sudhrä. y skarum. Aff + werstergöthlandhe oh dall y tiugwallun. aff wermalandhe. Kan thet + swa wara ath nokor aff, bondhum wil frelsis man wardha. tha skal han + sik redha innan then daghen badhe medh hästh och wapnum. swa ath the + som wapnasynna skuld skudha a konungx wegna. Skundhe + badhe mandõ hans. fräght hans hesth. ok wipen swa och än han ma + thz frelse wppe haldhä. medh godz som förra ez saght. +\end{quote} + + +\begin{quote} + He who wants to have noble privileges for his properties, be he a + knight or a squire, without forgetting anyone, should have a horse + worth 40 marks in coins or more, but not less, and a war saddle, + good helmet, armor for limbs and body and weapons with which a good + man can defend himself. + + Each year on the eight day after the Saint Peter's day there is an + inspection of arms in Uppsala for the whole diacose of Uppsala, in + Västerås for the Västerås diacose, in Strängnäs for Södermanland, in + Örebro för Närke, in Linköping for Östergötaland, Kinda, Tjust, + Vedbo, Ydre, Gränna, Tveta, Vista and Visingö, in Chalmers for the + Chalmers bailiff county and Öland, in Rydaholm for Tiohäräd, in + Falkenberg for North and South Halland, in Skara for Västergötaland + and Dal, in Tingvalla for Vermland. + + If a peasant wants to become a noble man he much obtain a horse and + weapons before that day so that those who inspect the arms for the + king can check his manliness and fitness, his horse and weapons, and + whether he can support his armed service with his properies. + +\end{quote} + +The King Kristofer's \emph{The Laws of the Realm} from the 15th +century have the same rules expressed in almost the same form. The +enigmatic \emph{Herra Martti}\footnote{Probably Martinus Olai, the + priest of Stockholm's Finnish concegration but that is not certain.} +translated Kirstofer's laws to Finnish in 1540s. His translation is +typeset to \Aboensis{} in figure \ref{fig_martti}. + +\begin{figure} + \begin{minipage}{14cm} + {\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{15}{19}\selectfont\raggedright + \noindent\abstartchapter{I}{Oca mies wapautta tacto hänen hyfuydhens, mikä hän on }{% + \abcapital{R}iddari taicka \abcapital{S}wenni, ei yctäken eroittadhen, hänen pitä } + \abl{hyfuydhens crvnvn palueluxen tekemen, ia idze pitämen nijn} + \abl{hyfwen hewoisen, että hän maxa 40 \abmark{} \abcapital{R}uotzin pe~ngeitä,} + \abl{pareman ia ei paheman, sihen mös täydhet odhatt se rwmin } +\abl{että jalkain pällä, ei mitän eroittadhen, sen iälkin, quin hyfwä } +\abl{mies machta idzens wariella. \abcapital{J}oca wuosi wijkon peräst \abcapital{S}ant } +\abl{petarin päiven, pitä kilpein katzelmuxen olemen. \abcapital{W}*psalos cai- } +\abl{kest \abcapital{W}*psalon \abcapital{P}ispan hijppacu~nast; wästeråxes, wästråxen hijppa } +\abl{cu~nast; \abcapital{S}tregnäisis \abcapital{S}ödermannin maalda, \abcapital{Ö}*r:ebros, \abcapital{N}ärikäst, } +\abl{\abcapital{J}äneköpungis, \abcapital{Ö}stergöthin maalda, \abcapital{K}ijnd, \abcapital{T}iust, widbro, \abcapital{I}dra, } +\abl{\abcapital{T}veta, wistgräna, \abcapital{W}isingzöö, \abcapital{K}almarisa, fogdi ia \abcapital{Ö}landimaa, } +\abl{\abcapital{R}idbåholmis, \abcapital{T}ijhan kihlac~uda, falckenbäris, molemist \abcapital{H}ållan} +\abl{deist, sekä pohia että \abcapital{E}telä, \abcapital{S}kara wästergöthin maalda ia } +\abl{\abcapital{D}alast, \abcapital{T}ingwallist, wärmlandis; \abcapital{T}urgusa caickelda \abcapital{S}uomen* } +\abl{malda. \abcapital{J}os nijn taita tapachtu että ioku talonpoijst tacto tulla } +\abl{wapadex nijn tule hän itzens walmista ennen tätä päiwä sekä } +\abl{hewoisen että odhain cansa. \abcapital{N}*ijn että ne quin kilpen cadzelmust } +\abl{pitä pitämen kuningan puolest, että he näkevet sekä henen } +\abl{miehudens woiman että hewoisen ia odhat ia ios hän woipi sen } +\abl{wapaudhen ylöspitä hyfwydellä. \abcapital{C}aicki pitä wapadhet miehet} +\abl{kilpein \abcapital{C}adzelmuxella tuleman, ia ioka mies nijn \abcapital{R}iddarit quin } +\abl{\abcapital{S}wennitkin heidhen harniskans pälle~s wetämen, ia idze cukin } +\abl{oman hewoisens pälle istuman, walmistettun hewoisen ia kilpein } +\abl{cansa quin io edhellä on sanottu.} +} + + \end{minipage} + + \caption{The same paragraph from the \emph{Kunungx balker} of the + King Kristofer's \emph{Laws of the Realm} in a 1540s Finnish + translation of the law by Herra Martti (B 96, f.2r)} + \label{fig_martti} +\end{figure} + + +\begin{quote} + Ioca mies wapautta tacto hänen hyfuydhens, mikä hän on Riddari + taicka Swenni, ei yctäken eroittadhen, hänen pitä hyfwydhestens + crvnvn palueluxen tekemen, ia idze pitämen nijn hyfwen hewoisen, + että hän maxa 40 ma\emph{rca} Ruotzin penningeitä, pareman ia ei + paheman, sihen mös täydhet odhatt se rwmin että jalkain pällä, ei + mitän eroittadhen, sen iälkin, quin hyfwä mies machta idzens + wariella. Joca wuosi wijkon peräst Sant petarin päiven, pitä kilpein + katzelmuxen olemen. Wpsalos caikest Wpsalon Pispan hijppacunnast; + wästeråxes, wästråxen hijppacunnast; Stregnäisis Södermannin maal\-da, + Örebros, Närikäst, Jäneköpungis, Östergöthin maalda, Kijnd, Tiust, + widbro, Idra, Tveta, wistgräna, Wisingzöö, Kalmarisa, fogdi ia + Ölandimaa, Ridbåholmis, Tijhan kihlacunda, falckenbäris, molemist + Hållandeist, sekä pohia että Etelä, Skara wästergöthin maalda ia + Dalast, Tingwallist, wärmlandis; Turgusa caickelda Suomenmalda. Jos + nijn taita tapachtu että ioku talonpoijst tacto tulla wapadex nijn + tule hän itzens walmista ennen tätä päiwä sekä hewoisen että odhain + cansa. Nijn että ne quin kilpen cadzelmust pitä pitämen kuningan + puolest, että he näkevet sekä henen miehudens woiman että hewoisen + ia odhat ia ios hän woipi sen wapaudhen ylöspitä hyfwydellä. Caicki + pitä wapadhet miehet kilpein Cadzelmuxella tuleman, ia ioka mies + nijn Riddarit quin Swennitkin heidhen harniskans pälle\emph{n}s + wetämen, ia idze cukin oman hewoisens pälle istuman, walmistettun + hewoisen ia kilpein cansa quin io edhellä on sanottu. +\end{quote} + + +\subsection{Excommunication of Sääksmäki peasants} + +In late 1330s there was some sort of unrest in the Sääksmäki parish +where a number of peasants refused to pay their tithes to their vicar +Henrik Harmansson. The exact cause of the issue is not known, but the +issue was important enough that Henrik himself traveled to Avignon in +Spring 1340 and obtained a bull from Pope Benedictus XII that +excommunicated the 25 peasants until they paid the tithes and a fine +of three marks for each week that they refused to pay them. + +This bull is the first document in the \emph{Black Book} and it is one +of the most famous medieval documents in Finland. In particular +interest is the list of peasants that have caused a lot of speculation +about their backgrounds and roles in the society. The scribe made an +error when copying the document to the cartulary and accidentally left +two lines out of it just after the list of names, jumping from +\emph{eiusdem ecclesie} to \emph{eidem ecclesie}. Hausen filled the +missing lines for his transcription from another cartulary. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=10cm]{pics/REA-001r.jpg} + \caption{The beginning of an excommunication letter (DF 467, REA + 99, \emph{Registrum ecclesia Aboensis f.1r.)}}\label{fig_excommunication_rea} +\end{figure} + + +\begin{landscape} + \begin{figure} + {\fontsize{15}{15}\fontspec{Aboensis}\raggedright + + \begin{tabular}{l@{\hspace{4cm}}p{10.3cm}} + Pr~ileg~m Benedicti pp~e & \abcapital{S}u[per] decimis + soluen/d [quod] si* infra cert`m ´tmi num n~o + soluerint moniti ab ecci~a excludan´t \& exclusi [pro] + [qua]ß ´tum donc~a[rum] soluant 3`s marchas + \end{tabular} + + \vspace{1cm} + + %initialc{b}{78}{5mm}{1pt}{} + {\abcursiveinitial{B}Enedictus ep~us ßruus ßruorum dei + \abcapital{D}ilecto filio decano ecci~e vp~n + \abcapital{S}alut~e et aplicam \\ bened~nem \abcapital{S}ua + nobis dilectus filius henricus hartmani retor + [par]rochialis ecci~e De sexamäki \\ aboe~n dyoc~e + peticione monstrauit qd de anti[qua] et + a[prop]bata et hactenus pacifice obßruata \\ + consue`n`e in ciui`t`e et dyo[cis] ac + [pro]uincia vp~n de qua quidem [pro]uincia + ciuitas et dyo[cis] aboe~n fore \\ noscu´n exstitit + [quod] recto[re]s [par]rochialium + eccia[rum] ciuitat[is] et dyo[cis] ac + [pro]uincie [pre]dicta[rum] + [par]rochianos \\ ecc~e[rum] sua[rum] . + decimas sibi et [pre]dictis + ecc~is debitas n~o soluentes monere possunt vt decimas \\ + ipsas a se debitas rectori[bus] [per]soluant + eisdem et si* iidem [par]rochiani [per] eos/d + rectores cononice \\ moniti vt decimas [per]soluant + easdem [pre]fatas decimas non [per]soluerint + infra [con]petentem ´tmi\\ num ad hoc + [pre]fixum eis/d [pre]fati rectores + [par]rochianis ipsis possunt ingressum ecci~e + inter- \\ dicere et deinde eo[rum] contumacia excrescente, + eos a suscepc~one sa´camento[rum] ecc~etico[rum] + suspe\\ }} + \mbox{}\vspace{5mm}\mbox{} + \caption{The beginning of an excommunication letter (DF 467, REA + 99, \emph{Registrum ecclesia Aboensis f.1r.})} + \label{fig_excommunication_1} + \end{figure} +\end{landscape} + + +\begin{quote} + Benedictus episcopus, seruus seruorum Dej, dilecto filio decano + ecclesie Vpsalensis salutem et apostolicam benediccionem. Sua nobis + dilectus filius Henricus Hartmanj, rector parrochialis ecclesie de + Sexamæki, Aboensis dyocesis, peticione monstrauit, quod de antiqua + et approbata et hactenus pacifice obseruata consuetudine in ciuitate + et dyocesi ac prouincia Vpsalensi, de qua quidem prouincia ciuitas + et dyocesis Aboensis fore noscuntur, exstitit, quod rectores + parrochialium ecclesiarum ciuitatis et dyocesis ac prouincie + predictarum parrochianos, ecclesiarum suarum decimas sibi et + predictis ecclesiis debitas non soluentes, monere possunt, vt + decimas ipsas a se debitas rectoribus persoluant eisdem; et, si + iidem parrochiani per eosdem rectores canonice moniti, vt decimas + persoluant, easdem prefatas decimas non persoluerint infra + competentem terminum ad hoc prefixum, eisdem prefati rectores + parrochianis ipsis possunt ingressum ecclesie interdicere et deinde, + eorum contumacia excrescente, eos a suscepcione sacramentorum + ecclesiasticorum suspendere; +\end{quote} + +\begin{quote} + Bishop Benedictus, servant of God's servants, presents the Dean of + Uppsala church, his beloved son, with greetings and apostolic + blessing. Or beloved son Henrik Hartmansson, vicar of Sääksmäki in + Abo diacose has shown us with his petition that old, accepted and + thus far peacefully followed custom of Uppsala province that was the + origin of Abo province, district, and diocese, has been that the + vicars of parish churches in the said province, district, and + diocese, can urge their parishioners who do not pay their tithes to + the their churches, to pay their said tithes to the said vicars. And + if the said parishioners do not after the vicars remind them to pay + the tithes according to the canon law, still do not pay the said + tithes in due time, the said vicars can prohibit the said + parishioners from entering the church and thus prevent them, when + their defiance increases, form participating from ecclesiastical + sacraments. +\end{quote} + + +\begin{landscape} + \begin{figure} + \includegraphics{pics/REA-001r2.jpg} + + {\fontspec{Aboensis}\fontsize{15}{19}\selectfont\raggedright + \abl{a t[por]e, cuius [con]~rij memoria n~o existit, et + qd cum mathias de Rapalum, Cuningas } + \abl{de rapalum ollj neuari de rapalum lazo de vendentaka Menracas de vendetaka pauo} + \abl{de vendentaka olli de salu olla dysa de voypala Nykkivargh de voypala Callas de voypala, } + \abl{meilanpeti de voypala, an~udi de voypala, marci \strut{}de voypala, Handupoter de hiccala memo} + \abl{de ryduala Somalayni de riduala, henric de hactissanpoyca Azico de hactissänpoyca} + \abl{Juddi de hactissänpoyca, melico de iudicala meluncta de cartala, melita \strut{} de hyrfala,} + \abl{ye de oncala Satato de Laynamässe et Somalayna de harala laici [pre]fata aboens[is] dyo[cis]} + \abl{ [pro]uincie su[per]dicte, [par]ia`n`i eius/d ecci~e, debitas [pre]fato henrico retori soluere nõ}} + + \caption{The list of excommunicated peasants (DF 467, REA + 99, \emph{Registrum ecclesia Aboensis f.1r.})} + \label{fig_excommunication_2} + \end{figure} +\end{landscape} + + + +\begin{quote} + a tempore, cuius contrarij memoria non existit, et quod, cum Mathias + de Rapalum, Cuningas de Rapalum, Ollj Neuari de Rapalum, Lazo de + Vendentaka, Menracas de Vende[n]taka, Pauo de Vendentaka, Olli de + Salu, Olla Dysa de Voypala, Nykki Vargh de Voypala, Callas de + Voypala, Meilanpeti de Voypala, Anundi de Voypala, Marci de Voypala, + Handupoter de Hiccala, Memo de Ryduala, Somalayni de Riduala, + Henric de Hactissanpoyca, Azico de Hactissænpoyca, Juddi de + Hactissænpoyca, Melico de Iudicala, Meluncta de Cartala, Melita de + Hyrfala, Ye de Oncala, Satato de Laynamæsse et Somalayna de + Harala, laici prefata Aboensis dyocesis prouincie supradicte, + parrochiani eiusdem ecclesie [ \textellipsis ] debitas prefato + henrico retori soluere non +\end{quote} + + + + +\subsection{The charter of the Viborg town} + +The Viborg Castle was built at the site of an old Karelian trading +center starting from 1293. It is possible that there was an older +wooden fortification in the site. During the next century the +settlement to the South East of the castle grew up to be a town. King +Eric Pomeranian (1381–1459, reigned in Sweden 1396–1434, 1434–1439) +issued a charter of privileges to the town in 1403. + + +\begin{quote} + +Wy Eric, meth Gudz nadh Swerikes, Danmarks, Norghes, Wendes oc Godes +konung oc hertugh i Pomeren, kunnogt gyørom thet meth thætte wart opne +breff allom mannom swa the nu ære som the hær æpter komme scule, at wy +hafwom ont oc gifuet ware borgher, som bygge oc bo i war kyøpstadh +Wyborgh, stadz ræt æpter thy som stadz boghene i Upsalom utwyser. Thy +forbyuthom wy allom warom foghedom oc æmbetzmannom oc allom androm e +ho the hælzt æren, at hindre thom i naghre made hær amot, swa frampt +the wyliu wart hylle hafue oc war hefnd fly. In euidenciam premissorum +secretum nostrum presentibus duximus appendendum. Datum in castro +nostro Wyborgh, anno Domini m°cd°tertio, dominica infra octauam +assumpcionis virginis gloriose. + +\end{quote} + + +\begin{quote} + We Eric, by God's Grace the King of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Wends + and Goths and Duke of Pomerania, proclaim with this open letter to + all people, both those who are no alive and those who will come + later, that we have granted and bestowed those of our burghers who + live in the town of Viborg the same town rights as the charter of + the Uppsala town decrees. Thus we forbid all our bailifs and + officials and everyone else, whoever they may be, from preventing + them in any way against this letter if they want to enjoy our favor + and avoid our punishments. Dated in our castle Viborg AD 1403 on the + Sunday following the Assumption of the Glorious Virgin. +\end{quote} + +\begin{landscape} + \begin{figure} + \begin{center} + \includegraphics[width=12cm]{pics/viipuri.jpg} + \end{center} + + \vspace{1cm} + + { \raggedright\fontsize{16}{16}\fontspec{Aboensis} + \abcursiveinitial{W}*y eric mz gudz nadh + Swerikes danmarks norges wendes oc godes konug oc htugh i pomeren + kunokt györöm thz mz thätte wart opne breff allõ ma~nom swa the nu + äre som the här äpter kome scule at wy hafvon vnt oc gifuet ware + borgher som bygge oc bo war kyöpstadh wyborgh, stadz rät äpter + thy som stadz boghene i upsalom wtwyser, Thy forbythom wy allom. + warõ foghedom oc änetzma~nom oc allõ androm ä ho the hälzt ären at + hindre thom i naghre made, här amot, swa frampt the wyliu wart + hylle hafue oc war hefnd fly In Euidenciã premisso[rum] + Secret~u nr~m presenti[bus] duxim[us] appended~u + Datre in castro nrõ wyborgh Anno dm + m`o cd`o 'ttia, dmca infra octauã + Ass~upcionis virginis + glõse ( \ ( } + \caption{Charter of the town of Vyborg, \emph{DF 1173, SDHK 16161, + Kansallisarkisto, Pergamentti-kokoelma, Viipuri 1403-1403}.} + \label{fig_vyborg} + \end{figure} +\end{landscape} + +%{w}{96}{10mm}{0pt}}\kern-3mm + + + + +\subsection{Privilege letter of Olof Nilsson Tawast} + + +In addition to the account book of Olof Nilsson Tawast +(example \ref{sec_tavast} also one privilege letter of his has +survived. + +A rebellion against King Karl Knutsson broke out in 1457 and he was +forced to take exile in Danzig. Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson +(Oxenstierna) and Erik Axelsson (Tott) were named regents. At that +point Olof Nilsson swapped sides and pledged support to Erik Axelsson. +As a reward Erik extended Olof's noble privileges to several +properties that he had bought from peasants of Tavastia. + + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=10cm]{pics/SDHK27022.jpg} + \caption{Privilege letter of Olof Tawast 1457. \emph{DF3038, SDHK 27022}} + \label{fig_tavast_image} +\end{figure} + + +\begin{quote} + For alle the thettæ breff höræ eller see kænnes och kvndgör jak Eric + Akselsson, riddare och Sverges rikes forstondare pa thennæ tid, at + for throskap och wilioghe thyænæsth ærlighen och wælboren man thennæ + breffuisare hær Olaff Tawasth, riddare, hafuer longelige och + throlighe beuisth Swerges rike och æn fframdelis beuisa skal oc vil + saa lenghe Gudi tekkis at han maa liffue, tha hafuer jak pa + wærdogaste fadhers och herres her Jönis, erkebiscops j Vpsala, och + mene rikesens raadz wægnæ vnth oc giffuid honom och hans rætthom + ærffuingom ffriheth oc frælse pa nogor godz, som konungh Karl vnthe + honom at köpæ aff skatta bönder, som ær ved viij kroka j + Tawastaland, och saa mygyn jord, som görs j halff mark aff j + skatten, liggændis j Pemar sokn j Mariaworeby. Pa thennæ forscriffnæ + godz giffuer oc wnder jak fornempdom her Olaff oc hans rættho + ærffuingo saa dana ffrihet oc frælsse, som andra goda friborna oc + frælssis mæn her j biscops dömed och ower alt riked nivta oc aff + aldher nvtid hafua, och vil jak throlige ther til hiælpæ, ath for:da + hær Olaff skal faa stadfæstilse pa thennæ frihet oc frælse aff then + högborna herren och försten, som mene rikesens raad och jnbyggære j + Swerge vordda endræktelige væliænde och stadfæstænde sik til konungh + och fvldmæktoghan herræ over Sverigis rike. Til meræ visso lather + jak witherligd hengæ mith jncigle vid thetta breff, som ær scriffuid + oc vtgiffuid aarom epter Gudz börd mcdlvij jn profesto beate + Margarete. +\end{quote} + + +\begin{quote} + To all who hear or see this letter I, Eric Akselsson, knight and at + the time regent of the Swedish Realm, tell and make known that for + loyalty and willing service that the beloved and high-born man, the + recipient of this letter, Sir Olaff Tawast, knight, has long shown + to the Swedish realm and will continue to show for so long as God + wills him live, have I with the worthy Father and Lord, Sir Jöns, + Archbishop of Uppsala, and the advice of the Council of the Realm + given him and his lawful heirs freedom and privileges for several + farmsteads that King Karl let him to buy from tax farmers that make + 8 ploughs in Tavastia and to so much land that pays a half mark in + taxes that is in Mariavuori village in the Paimio parish. For these + named farmsteads I give the named Sir Olaff and his lawful heirs + those freedoms and privileges that other good freeborn and + privileged men here in bishop's diocese and all over the realm have + and have always enjoyed, and I will truthfully help to ensure that + Sir Olaf shall recive these freedoms and privileges when the + high-born men and lords as the Council of the Realm and the + inhabitants of Sweden elect and set the King and allmigthy Lord of + the Swedish Realm. For further proof I will attach my seal to + this letter that is written and given in Year of the Lord mcdlvii on + the Feast of St Margarete. + + +\end{quote} + + + + +\begin{landscape} + \begin{figure} + + {\fontsize{15}{19}\fontspec{Aboensis}\raggedright + \abl{\abcursiveinitial{F}or alle the [thet]tä breff hörä + eller see käñes och kvndgör jak Ei`rc akselss riddare och + sver[ges] rikes} + \abl{forstondare pa theñä tid, at for throskap och + wilioghe thyänästh Ärlighẽ och wälborẽ mã theñä } + \abl{breffuisare här Olaff Tawasth, riddare, hafuer longelige och throlighe beuisth + swer[ges] rike, och} + \abl{än fframdel[is] beuisa skal oc vil saa + lenghe gudi täkkis att hã maa liffue, tha hafuer jak pa + } + \abl{wärdogaste fadhers och herres, h~r: Jönis, erkebiscops j vpsala + och mene rikesens raadz wägnä, } + \abl{ vnth oc giffuid ho`m och hans rätthõ ärffuingõ ffriheth oc frälse pa nogor godz, som konũgh + } + \abl{karl vnthe ho`m at köpä aff skatta bönder som är ved viii kroka + j Tawastalãd, Och saa mygyn } + \abl{jord, som görs j halff \abmark{} aff + j skattẽ, liggändis j Pemar sokn j mariaworeby, pa + theñä for} + \abl{scriffnä godz, giffuer oc wnder jak, ffornẽpdom h~r Olaff oc hans rättho ärffuingo saa dana} + \abl{ffrihet oc frälsse, som andra goda friborna oc frälss m~ä, h~r: j biscops dömed och ower + alt riked} + \abl{nivta oc aff aldh~r: nvtid hafua, Och vil jak throlige + th~r: til hiälpä, ath forda här Olaff skal faa } + \abl{stadfästilse pa + theñä frihet oc frälse aff thñ högborna herrẽ och förstẽ, sõ + mene rikesens raad} + \abl{och jnbyggäre j swerge vordda endräktelige väliände, och stadfäst~äde sik til konũgh + och fvldmäk-} + \abl{toghã h~r:ä over sveri[ges] rike. Til merä visso lath~r: jak witherligd hengä mith jncigle + vid thetta } + \abl{breff, sõ är scriffuid oc vtgiffuid aarõ epter gudzbörd mcdlvii jn [pro]festo btẽ margarete. }} + \caption{Privilege letter of Olof Tawast 1457. \emph{DF3080, SDHK 27022}} + \label{fig_tavast_privileges} + \end{figure} +\end{landscape} + + +\subsection{Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast's admonition} + +The copy book of Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast (c. 1370-1452) has +survived. Sometime circa 1430 he reissued an order that a previous +Bishop of Abo, Blessed Hemming had issued 80 years earlier that +prohibited priests to keep their children in their households or to +permit them reside on vicarages. This order was later copied into the +personal copy book of Bishop Magnus Nicolai Särkilahti. + +\begin{figure} + \centering + \includegraphics[width=10cm]{pics/DF1423.jpg} + \caption{Bishop Magnus Olai Tawast's admonition \emph{DF1423}}\label{fig_admonition} +\end{figure} + + +\begin{figure} + {\fontsize{15}{20}\fontspec{Aboensis}\raggedright + + \abl{Quia in jure caut`m ẽ [quod] ille + solus [re]cognoscẽedus} + \abl{ẽ filius quẽ nupcie + demõstrant, Et in statutis} + \abl{Sabinensi[bus] + [pro]hibe`t sub pena exco~unicacio~n late} + \abl{vni[uer] \& sing~lis sac[re]do[bus] filios + [~prop]as secum tenere} + \abl{vel eos + [re]cognoscere esse suos, [pre]cipimus ~i + [ver]tute st~e} + \abl{ob~e~e vni[ver]ss \& singulis + sac[er]do`[bus] diocss aboe~s Quat~e} + \abl{stat~i viss + p~rtibus \& [per]lect~i, filios suos \& filias, a fam} + \abl{mili~r`t`e sua \& [quo]tdnã + [con][ver]sacione [pro]cul abicia~t, eciã extra} + \abl{[par]rochias, ne occasione~m habea~t c`m + eis ite[rum] [con]~usandi}} + \caption{Beginning of Blessed Hemming's order to priest as given in + Magnus Nicolai's copybook (DF 1423, DF 563)} + \label{fig_hemming} +\end{figure} + + +\begin{quote} + Quia jn iure cautum est, quod ille solus recognoscendus est filius, + quem nupcie demonstrant, et in statutis Sabinensibus prohibetur sub + pena excommunicacionis late vniuersis et singulis sacerdotibus + filios proprios secum tenere uel eos recognoscere esse suos, + precipimus in virtute sancte obediencie vniuersis et singulis + sacerdotibus dyocesis Aboensis, quatenus statim, visis presentibus + et perlectis, filios suos et filias a familiaritate sua et cotidiana + conuersacione procul abiciant, eciam extra parrochias, ne occasionem + habeant cum eis iterum conuersandj. +\end{quote} + + + +\newpage + + +\subsection{Cursive initials in The Black Book}\label{ssec_black_book} + +This section shows a bit of the context for the cursive initials that +were taken from \emph{The Black Book of Åbo Cathedral} to show how +they were positioned among the text. The \emph{Y} is not actually a +initial, but it was the only capital \emph{Y} that I could find from +the book. + +\label{cursive_start} +\begin{longtable}{ccc} + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-A.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-B.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-C.jpg} \\ + +A & B & C \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-D.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-E.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-F.jpg} \\ + +D & E & F \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-G.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-H.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-I.jpg} \\ + +G & H & I \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-J.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-K.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-L.jpg} \\ + +J & K & L \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-M.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-N.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-O.jpg} \\ + +M & N & O \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-P.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-Q.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-R.jpg} \\ + +P & Q & R \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-S.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-T.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-U.jpg} \\ + +S & T & U \\ + +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-V.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-W.jpg} & +\includegraphics[width=3.5cm]{pics/rea-Y.jpg} \\ + +W & W & Y \\ + +\end{longtable} +\label{cursive_end} + + +\section{List of Symbols} + +\label{pg:symbols_start} +\input{ab_symbols} +\label{pg:symbols_end} + + +\section{License} + +This font is licensed under the SIL Open Font License. The text of the +license has been written by Summer Institute of Linguistics +International (\texttt{http://www.sil.org}). I am not affiliated with +SIL and this font is not endorsed by SIL, so please don't bug them +about it. + +This user's manual as a whole and the XeLaTeX style file are licensed +under the LaTeX Project Public License. + +The image files of showing original medieval documents are either in +Public Domain or licensed by their producing organizatons +\emph{Kansallisarkisto} and \emph{Riksarkivet} under Creative Commons +Attribution 4.0 International License. All images have been cropped +from larger original images. + +The following section lists licenses of individual images. + +\subsection*{Licences of medieval document images} +\label{image_license_start} + +\begin{description} +\item [Figures \ref{fig_master}, \ref{fig_samples}, + \ref{fig_astrology}, \ref{fig_kunnunx_contents}, + \ref{fig_konungx_service}] \mbox{} \\ + + \begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + License: & Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. + \\ + Reproduction: & Andrea Davis Kronlund, Kungliga biblioteket \\ + Source: & + Stockholm, National Library, B 172 (Codex Aboensis; Codex f.d. + Kalmar). Magnus Eriksson’s Landslag \\ + URL: & https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/53 \\ + & Full document as PDF available at \emph{Kungliga biblioteket} + \end{tabular} + + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_alamarestak}] \mbox{} \\ + +\begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + + License: & Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International + License. \\ + Reproduction: & Riksarkivet \\ + Source: & Stockholm, Riksarkivet, Stora + pergamentsbrevsamlingen, SE/RA/0101. SDHK 20000\\ + URL: & https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sdhk?SDHK=20000 \\ + \end{tabular} + + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_jons_budde}] \mbox{} \\ + + \begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + License: & Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. + \\ + Reproduction: & Andrea Davis Kronlund, Kungliga biblioteket \\ + Source: & Stockholm, National Library, A 58. Jöns Buddes bok \\ + URL: & https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/110 \\ + & Full document as PDF available at \emph{Kungliga biblioteket} + \end{tabular} + + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_kalliala}] \mbox{} \\ + +\begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + + License: & Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International + License. \\ + Reproduction: & Finnish Literature Society (SKS), Codices + Fennici \\ + Source: & Helsinki, National Archives, Kallialan kirkontilit. Tyrvää church accounts, 1469–1524 \\ + URL: & https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/31 + \end{tabular} + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_olaf_nilsson} ] \mbox{} \\ + + \begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + License: & Public Domain \\ + Source: & Stockholm, National Archives, C 38. Olof Nilsson Tawast’s accounts \\ + URL: & https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/93 + \end{tabular} + + + + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_excommunication_rea}, + \ref{fig_excommunication_2}, \ref{fig_admonition}, cursive samples + on pages + \pageref{cursive_start}–\pageref{cursive_end}] \mbox{} \\ + + \begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + + License: & Public Domain \\ + Source: & Stockholm, National Archives, A10. Registrum Ecclesie + Aboensis \\ + URL: & https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/196 + \end{tabular} + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_vyborg}] \mbox{} \\ + + \begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + + License: & Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International + License. \\ + Reproduction: & Kansallisarkisto \\ + Source: & Helsinki, Kansallisarkisto, Pergamentti-kokoelma, 6. Diplomatarium Fennicum DF 1173 \\ + URL: & https://http://df.narc.fi/document/1173 + \end{tabular} + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_tavast_image}] \mbox{} \\ + +\begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + + License: & Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International + License. \\ + Reproduction: & Riksarkivet \\ + Source: & Stockholm, Riksarkivet, Stora + pergamentsbrevsamlingen, SE/RA/0101. SDHK 27022 \\ + URL: & https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sdhk?SDHK=27022 \\ + \end{tabular} + + + + + \item [Figure \ref{fig_hemming}] \mbox{} \\ + + \begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{10cm}} + License: & Public Domain \\ + Source: & Stockholm, National Archives, A 3. Biskop Magnus + kopiebok (Register of Bishop Magnus) \\ + URL: & https://www.codicesfennici.fi/items/show/195 + \end{tabular} + + + +\end{description} +\label{image_license_end} + + + + + + +\subsection*{SIL OPEN FONT LICENSE Version 1.1}\index{Open Font License} + +\label{pg_license} + +\subsubsection*{PREAMBLE} + +The goals of the Open Font License (OFL) are to stimulate worldwide +development of collaborative font projects, to support the font +creation efforts of academic and linguistic communities, and to +provide a free and open framework in which fonts may be shared and +improved in partnership with others. + +The OFL allows the licensed fonts to be used, studied, modified and +redistributed freely as long as they are not sold by themselves. The +fonts, including any derivative works, can be bundled, embedded, +redistributed and/or sold with any software provided that any reserved +names are not used by derivative works. The fonts and derivatives, +however, cannot be released under any other type of license. The +requirement for fonts to remain under this license does not apply +to any document created using the fonts or their derivatives. + +\subsubsection*{DEFINITIONS} + +"Font Software" refers to the set of files released by the Copyright +Holder(s) under this license and clearly marked as such. This may +include source files, build scripts and documentation. + +"Reserved Font Name" refers to any names specified as such after the +copyright statement(s). + +"Original Version" refers to the collection of Font Software components as +distributed by the Copyright Holder(s). + +"Modified Version" refers to any derivative made by adding to, deleting, +or substituting -- in part or in whole -- any of the components of the +Original Version, by changing formats or by porting the Font Software to a +new environment. + +"Author" refers to any designer, engineer, programmer, technical +writer or other person who contributed to the Font Software. + +\subsubsection*{PERMISSION \& CONDITIONS} + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining +a copy of the Font Software, to use, study, copy, merge, embed, modify, +redistribute, and sell modified and unmodified copies of the Font +Software, subject to the following conditions: + +\begin{enumerate} +\item Neither the Font Software nor any of its individual components, +in Original or Modified Versions, may be sold by itself. + +\item Original or Modified Versions of the Font Software may be bundled, +redistributed and/or sold with any software, provided that each copy +contains the above copyright notice and this license. These can be +included either as stand-alone text files, human-readable headers or +in the appropriate machine-readable metadata fields within text or +binary files as long as those fields can be easily viewed by the user. + +\item No Modified Version of the Font Software may use the Reserved Font +Name(s) unless explicit written permission is granted by the corresponding +Copyright Holder. This restriction only applies to the primary font name as +presented to the users. + +\item The name(s) of the Copyright Holder(s) or the Author(s) of the Font +Software shall not be used to promote, endorse or advertise any +Modified Version, except to acknowledge the contribution(s) of the +Copyright Holder(s) and the Author(s) or with their explicit written +permission. + +\item The Font Software, modified or unmodified, in part or in whole, +must be distributed entirely under this license, and must not be +distributed under any other license. The requirement for fonts to +remain under this license does not apply to any document created +using the Font Software. + + +\end{enumerate} + + +\subsubsection*{TERMINATION} + +This license becomes null and void if any of the above conditions are +not met. + +\subsubsection*{DISCLAIMER} + +THE FONT SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, +EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTIES OF +MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT +OF COPYRIGHT, PATENT, TRADEMARK, OR OTHER RIGHT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE +COPYRIGHT HOLDER BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, +INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL +DAMAGES, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING +FROM, OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE FONT SOFTWARE OR FROM +OTHER DEALINGS IN THE FONT SOFTWARE. + + +\bibliography{./aboensis} + +\end{document} + |