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authorNorbert Preining <norbert@preining.info>2019-09-02 13:46:59 +0900
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+\title{\LaTeX{} and tables}
+\author[R. Allan Reese]{R. Allan Reese\\ Computer Centre\\Hull
+ University\\
+\texttt{r.a.reese@ucc.hull.ac.uk}}
+
+\begin{Article}
+
+\section{Tables}
+
+Kroonenberg's article on tables (\cite{Kroo}) made some useful
+suggestions on \LaTeX{} coding but the examples left much to be
+desired as patterns to follow. I fully agree that the \LaTeX{} User
+Guide (\cite{lamport}), \cite{kopka} and virtually every book
+on word processing place far too much stress on rules as boxes.
+\cite{chapman} gives better guidance on the presentation of
+tables; I particularly enjoy commending this book, as it challenges one
+of the Great Lies of Life.\footnote{I'm from the Government and I'm here
+to help you.} Ehrenberg's short article (\cite{ehrena}) should be studied
+by anyone putting figures into a table. \cite{reynolds} is a
+more general book and discusses presentations of all types.
+
+Chapman gives clear, straightforward guidance with many examples of
+good and bad practice. Here, for example, is a point almost
+always overlooked by people who believe `a picture is worth a thousand
+words':
+\begin{quote}
+``Since neither charts nor tables ever `speak for
+themselves', in order to communicate a message effectively either must
+be accompanied by a verbal summary.''
+\end{quote}
+
+Tabular material tends to be complex. For a recent workshop on table
+construction in \LaTeX{}, I selected what seemed to me the simplest
+tables from journals to hand. The criteria for simplicity were small
+size and not appearing to need a wide variety of \LaTeX{} commands. In
+serious use, you would expect to use more commands than when teaching,
+so this restriction would be relaxed. More complex tables were often
+`tables within tables', for which \LaTeX's analytical approach of
+defining logical units is well suited. However, another of Chapman's
+truths that is easily swept aside by an author's enthusiasm is:
+\begin{quote} ``Tables should be
+small. It is better to include three or four compact tables, each
+illustrating one or two points succinctly, rather than construct a
+single large table which is then referred to in text covering a large
+number of paragraphs or pages.''
+\end{quote}
+
+Her next sentence will strike a chord with any \LaTeX{} user:
+\begin{quote}
+``Small tables are easier to position close to their verbal summary, and
+are easier to include in the main report.''
+\end{quote}
+
+Several problems arose in recreating the examples using \LaTeX. Some
+were due to the desire to reproduce the table exactly as seen, rather
+than re-present the information in a natural way. On the other hand,
+the exercise did bring out the flexibility of \LaTeX's standard
+tabulation tools.
+
+The short workshop was successful, in that most of my (Computer Centre)
+colleagues were able to add further lines into a part-built table
+despite having no previous experience of \LaTeX. They followed the
+layout by copying the commands that they saw; this contrasts greatly
+with WYSIWYG word processors where you may see a table but have no
+idea of how it was constructed.
+
+\LaTeX{} is an excellent program for formatting tables. It is not,
+however, realistic to expect tables to be laid out optimally first
+time and automatically. This is one area where the author must be
+prepared to make judgements and manual adjustments.
+
+\section{Rules of thumb}
+
+Rules for constructing tables can be divided into those dealing with the
+content and those dealing with the layout. The typesetter will generally
+have little say in the content or ordering of the information, but an
+editor might (should) make suggestions. The evidence of most journals
+suggests their editors are not as critical of tables or graphics as of
+text.
+
+Chapman distinguishes between demonstration tables and reference
+tables. The reader uses the former to perceive a pattern and the
+latter to look up a value. Tables that try to do both are rarely
+successful. Ehrenberg's examples would come under the demonstration
+category, for which he suggests:
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item give marginal averages to provide a visual focus
+\item order the rows or columns by the marginal averages or some
+relevant measure of size
+\item put figures to be compared in columns rather than in
+rows (i.e., to aid mental arithmetic)
+\item round all numbers to two effective digits, unless the exact
+value is for reference
+\end{enumerate}
+See \cite{ehrena} and 1978 for further explanation and discussion.
+
+Layout can make a table easier to read\Dash or can destroy its
+meaning.
+
+Sweep away the black boxes and apply two principles. A table is a
+discontinuity in reading. The reader is not to scan it linearly, as if
+reading text. You must therefore guide their eyes:
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item use white space to separate objects
+\item use lines (rules) to join or point connections.
+\end{enumerate}
+
+As when setting text, beginners tend to add too much space, though
+Chapman complains that even professional compositors like to widen
+tables to fill the text width. Physically compact tables are easier
+to scan. \cite{visdis} makes this point about graphics; make them
+smaller so the reader can see the pattern not the dots. This applies
+also to tables. White space is used to set off the table from the body
+text, usually by centering. Spaces within the table are used to indent
+hierarchical headings and to break the table into sections. In another
+article (\cite{reesettn}) I discuss \LaTeX{} constructs for interposing
+space after a set number of lines or when the initial letter changes.
+
+Horizontal rules are standard at top and bottom to further demarcate
+the table. There is usually a thick rule under the table heading, a
+thin rule under the banner (column) headings and a thin rule between
+the table body and any explanatory notes. Incidentally, one of
+Chapman's warning examples shows how disastrous it is to rely on the reader
+reading the footnotes to understand the table. They must be strictly
+to expand or qualify a detail.
+
+Kroonenberg mentions the problem of text coming too close to rules.
+This can be adjusted with struts or non-aligned \verb|\vspace|; I like to
+insert a small extra space above the first row and after the last, to
+unify the body of the table and distinguish it from the headings.
+Vertical rules are used sparingly, if at all. It is better to put
+a little space between stubs (row labels) and the `data' columns, and
+between the columns and the marginal `averages', than to add rules
+crossing the direction of scanning. You can help the reader scan
+across gaps by adding leaders, or by centering rather than justifying
+short items.
+
+Use a smaller font inside tables. Kroonenberg implies this by
+discussing sans serif fonts ``to set off the table.'' It is another
+way to make the table more compact and visually distinguished.
+
+Telephone directories are large reference tables which demonstrate
+these principles. They are set in the smallest readable font size,
+have leaders to bridge the gap between name and number, and are
+usually multi-column with white space separators.
+
+\section{Implementation}
+
+The layout principles are easily implemented in standard \LaTeX. The
+table itself uses the \verb|tabular| environment. The number of
+columns will often be greater than at first apparent, with many
+multicolumn items. For example, this is a natural way to handle
+hierarchical stubs, where the primary labels span two columns and the
+secondary labels start in column two (indented). \LaTeX{} will
+calculate column widths but it is often desirable to force several
+columns to have the same width. Headings will often require either
+\verb|\multicolumn| or \verb|\noalign| to position them aesthetically.
+
+\LaTeX{} 2.09 had only \verb|\hline| and \verb|\cline|. The
+\verb|hhline| package is worth fetching from CTAN\@. Line spacing for
+the whole table can be adjusted with \verb|\arraystretch| and made
+different from \verb|\baselinestretch|. Bear in mind that the table
+can be compressed as well as extended, and \verb|\arraystretch|$=0.9$
+may make the pattern more obvious and the table \emph{more} readable.
+
+The table is then embedded in an environment to set it off from the
+text. You can choose from \verb|quote|, \verb|center|, display maths or
+\verb|table|. Set the font size smaller within that environment, sans
+serif for the table and body text style for the captions. (The examples
+in this article follow their originals as closely as possible and don't
+do this. I think they would be improved if they did.) The table
+environment makes the object into a float, hence not to be broken
+between pages and with a cross-referencing label. The \verb|longtable|
+package caters for tables that are too large for a single page.
+
+Some mechanism should be used to create a left and right indent, the
+most obvious being to define the table width explicitly and center it.
+\verb|minipage| puts the footnotes to the table at the bottom of the table,
+using different marks from those in the body text. Putting the
+\verb|minipage| round the \verb|table| rather than just the
+\verb|tabular| also makes the caption narrower. I prefer the table
+reference to stand out, and often use the \verb|hangcapt| package.
+
+When there are several tables or a house style, it is better to
+define a new environment to ensure consistency in their presentation.
+I also commonly define new length constants for use in tables rather
+than copy the values.
+
+\section{A \LaTeX{} gap}
+
+One common format for tables has rows of short data values but a final
+column containing texts. The description parameter may therefore tell
+\LaTeX{} to calculate the widths of data columns from the values, but
+the final column will be a \verb|parbox| and should sensibly use the
+remainder of the \verb|linewidth|. This is one need that \LaTeX{} (2.09)
+blatantly fails to meet. You have to set the width of a \verb|parbox| or
+\texttt{p}(aragraph) column. Kroonenberg implies this problem when discussing
+\verb|\raggedright|; as she points out, to choose unjustified text you
+have to enclose each text in a \verb|parbox|. This is less work if the width
+is set as a name (to be calculated) and not the numeric length. My
+pragmatic solution is to set the value for the final column initially
+to the \verb|\linewidth|, run \LaTeX{}, note (from the log) the
+overfill, and subtract that from \verb|\linewidth|.
+
+\section{Kroonenberg's `after' table}
+
+The `after' table of Economic Forecasts is still poor. This is partly
+due to the content. It lacks a text explanation (possibly the primary
+source had one), but I \emph{guess} that the intention is to compare
+forecasts from two sources. Numbers going \emph{down} the columns are
+not related (in this sense), so flipping (transposing) the table would
+make logical sense. This might be the best solution on a wider page,
+as having the table span two columns is yet another way of
+distinguishing it from the body. If we insist on keeping it within one
+(text) column, there is room for another column of values as a
+`margin'.
+
+Without a rubric, I cannot decide if the table is trying to show
+disagreement between the two sets of forecasts, or similarity.
+Dependent on the message, the best margin might be the difference
+between each pair of forecasts, a $+$/$-$ sign for higher or lower,
+the ratio, or the average. The forecasts themselves should all be
+rounded to two significant digits.
+
+We seem to have lost between the `before' and `after' the detail that
+the figures are percentages; and \emph{was} government income really a
+`percentage change of a percentage'? The labels that include ($\times$
+1000 persons) are misleading; I take that notation to mean that the
+numbers shown \emph{have been} multiplied by 1000 (like \TeX{}
+magnifications). The correct notation would be (000s of persons).
+
+Making the rules extend to the linewidth was presumably not thought
+out. They unbalance the design, and all the white space implies an
+omission. The spaces between the columns are too wide. If ``mutations
+w.r.t.~1991'' and ``absolute quantities'' are to be used as primary
+divisions, then the secondary stubs (``real consumption'' etc) should
+be indented. If you think too deeply about the title, are these
+forecast changes or changes to (earlier) forecasts? Follow Chapman's
+advice and split the table into two, with headings of the form
+``Forecast percentage changes 1991/92 in National Economy'' and
+``Forecast quantities\ldots''. I leave
+this redrafting as an exercise for the reader.
+
+A parenthetic remark for those preparing tables of accounts comes from
+\cite{townsend}. He suggests that ``statements comparing budgets
+to actual should be written not in the usual terms of higher (lower)
+but in plain English of better (or worse) than predicted by the
+budget. This eliminates the mental gear changes between income items
+(where parentheses are bad) and expense items (where parentheses are good).''
+Typography helping the reader.
+
+
+\section{New examples}
+
+The following examples are shown as output, in the expectation that
+the interested reader will obtain the `input' from the
+the author or the editor. If there is sufficient interest, the \LaTeX\
+source for the tables can be placed on the CTAN archives.
+
+\subsection{Example 1\Dash Cohabitation}
+
+This is taken from \textit{Key Data 88} (\cite{key}) which had itself
+extracted it from \textit{Social Trends}. \textit{Key Data} is a sample of
+UK government statistics published annually as an educational resource
+and a guide to the more extensive sources. The table as printed had
+inconsistencies in the use of italic and upright fonts, and in its
+indentation.
+\begin{table*}
+\begin{center}
+\caption{Cohabitation}
+\label{cohab}
+% The table in the book is sans-serif with the heading bold.
+{\sffamily
+\setlength{\doublerulesep}{0pt}
+\begin{tabular}{llrrrrr}
+\multicolumn{7}{p{.5\textwidth}}%
+{\begin{tabbing}
+\bf 2.12\quad \= Percentage of women aged 18--49 cohabiting:\\
+ \> by age
+\end{tabbing}}\\
+\multicolumn{2}{c}\textit{Great Britain}&
+ \multicolumn{5}{r}{Percentage and numbers}\\
+\hline
+\hline
+ & & 1979 & 1981 & 1983 & 1984 & 1985 \\
+\hline
+\multicolumn{2}{l}{Age group \textit{(percentages)}} \\
+\hspace*{1em} & \textit{18--24} & 4.5 & 5.6 & 5.2 & 7.3 & 9.1 \\
+ & \textit{25--49} & 2.2 & 2.6 & 3.2 & 3.3 & 3.9 \\
+\multicolumn{2}{c}\textit{All aged 18--49}
+ & 2.7 & 3.3 & 3.6 & 4.2 & 5.0 \\
+\\
+\multicolumn{2}{l}{Women in sample \textit{(numbers)}} \\
+ & (=100\% above)\\
+ & 18--24 & 1,353 & 1,517 & 1,191 & 1,174 & 1,182 \\
+ & 25--49 & 4,651 & 5,007 & 4,094 & 4,070 & 4,182 \\
+ \cline{3-7}
+\multicolumn{2}{c}\textit{All aged 18--49}
+ & 6,004 & 6,524 & 5,285 & 5,244 & 5,364\\
+\hline
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+}
+\end{center}
+\end{table*}
+
+Table~\ref{cohab} could be further improved by a distinct split and
+putting the two halves the other way round: ``Numbers of women surveyed
+in each year, in two age groups'' and ``Of the samples, percentage
+cohabiting''. Note that the first half is essentially for reference and
+the second half for demonstration.
+
+\subsection{Example 2\Dash Vulture meat}
+
+Table~\ref{meat} is taken from Ibis (\cite{thibault}), journal of the British
+Ornithologists' Union. It is a simple table, but appears in a two-column
+layout and has footnotes. The original used numbers as the footnote
+markers. I found this disconcerting, as \textit{G${}^\mathrm{2}$} looks
+like a numeric power; so I'll use the \LaTeX{} default in a minipage,
+which also sets the table to the width of an Ibis column.
+
+This table is adequate for reference, and is discussed in an adjacent
+text. ``Comparison of food availability among territories showed
+significant differences.\ \ldots'' The rows are not in an obvious order,
+and if the primary aim is to compare the number of, say, sheep in each
+territory, it might have been better flipped. A marginal total of the
+number of prey animals, or their biomass, in each territory would have
+been helpful. It is debatable whether the figures should be rounded,
+since they are taken from previous studies which are themselves recorded
+or reported with different precisions.
+\begin{table}[H]
+\begin{center}
+\begin{minipage}{81mm}
+\caption{\em Numbers of ungulates in Lammergeier territories
+(except for wild boar, differences among territories are statistically
+significant, $\chi^2_{16}=16.825, \mbox{P} < 0.001$).}\label{meat}
+\vspace{1ex}\ \\
+\renewcommand{\footnoterule}{\rule{0pt}{0pt}}
+\begin{tabular*}{81mm}{l@{\quad\extracolsep{\fill}}rrrrr}
+\hline\vspace{.4ex}\\
+& \multicolumn{5}{c}{Territory}\vspace{.2ex}\\
+\cline{2-6}\vspace{.2ex}\\
+Species & \textit{B}\footnote{Dubray \& Roux(1990)}
+& \textit{G}\footnote{Anonymous (1989).}
+& \textit{R}\footnote{Direction \dots}
+& \textit{T}${}^\alph{mpfootnote}$ % Gash way of repeating superscript.
+& \textit{V}${}^\alph{mpfootnote}$
+\\
+\hline\vspace{.2ex}\\
+Sheep & 2000 & 1400 & 5240 & 3165 & 3480 \\
+Mouflon & $<200$ & $-$ & $-$ & $<400$ & $<5$ \\
+Goat & 570 & 4142 & 1880 & 1510 & 820 \\
+Cattle & 2300 & 6402 & 7204 & 6774 & 965 \\
+Pig & 3400 & 7188 & 1900 & 400 & 522 \\
+Boar & $+$\footnote{$+ =$ present. $- =$ absent.}
+ & $+$ & $+$ & $+$ & $+$\\[.5ex]
+\vspace{.2ex}\\
+\hline
+\end{tabular*}
+\end{minipage}
+\end{center}
+\end{table}
+
+
+\subsection{Example 3\Dash YOPs}
+
+The problem with this table from \cite[p11 and, slightly changed,
+p35]{chapman} is that one column has an entry spreading over several
+lines (the brace linking them). The hint for doing this is in
+\cite[p79]{kopka}, but they show only one optional argument to
+\verb|\raisebox|. Using both optional arguments (setting height and
+depth to zero) and putting the `brace array' on the line opposite its
+middle, is the easiest way to centralize it vertically. A convenient
+feature is that you can reset the \verb|\arraystretch| and the brace is
+still the right size to cover three rows. This example is also set in
+a minipage but the footnote markers have been reset as numeric. Follow
+DEK's advice: \emph{don't use footnotes in text.}
+
+% The table in the book is column-width, sans-serif with the heading bold.
+\begin{center}
+\begin{minipage}{85mm}
+\small
+\sffamily % choose font
+\renewcommand{\footnoterule}{\rule{0pt}{0pt} \vspace{0pt}}
+\renewcommand{\thempfootnote}{\arabic{mpfootnote}}
+\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.1}
+\begin{tabular*}{85mm}{@{}l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}r@{\extracolsep{2em}}r@{}}
+\noalign{\bf % bold font for whole heading
+\begin{tabbing}
+Table 3\quad \= Entrants to Youth Opportunities\\
+ \> Programme in Wales: by type of\\
+ \> scheme
+\end{tabbing}}\\
+\multicolumn{3}{l}\textit{Wales 1978 to 1980\hfill Percentages}\\
+\hline
+ & 1978/79 & 1979/80\\
+\cline{2-2} \cline{3-3}
+\noalign{\vspace{3pt}}
+WEEP\footnote{Work Experience on Employers' Premises}
+ & 89 & 73\\
+Short Training Course & 10 & 10\\
+Community Service & & 9\\
+Project based work experience & & 7\\
+Training Workshops &\raisebox{0pt}[0pt][0pt]{% Centre brace
+\(\begin{array}{lr}
+\left. % null delimiter to match brace
+\begin{array}{@{\extracolsep{0pt}}l}\strut \\ \strut \\ \strut \end{array}
+\right\} % the big brace
+\end{array}\)} 1 & 1\\
+Induction and other\footnote{Employment induction courses and
+other remedial and preparatory courses}
+ & & 1\\
+\noalign{\vspace{3pt}}
+\hline
+\noalign{\vspace{3pt}}
+Total (100\%) & 15,000 & 22,000\\
+\noalign{\vspace{3pt}}
+\hline
+\end{tabular*}
+\end{minipage}%end of \sf default
+\end{center}
+
+The table has a large gap between columns 1 and 2, making it difficult
+to see at a glance whether the brace includes `Community Service'. The
+original rubric (\cite{msc}) was:
+\begin{quote}
+``One of the major aims in 1979/80 was to increase the range of provision
+available to meet the varying needs of unemployed young people. In the
+early days of the Programme, there was heavy reliance on the Work
+Experience on Employers' Premises (WEEP) element, but the table reflects
+the increasing provision that has now been made in the other elements of
+YOP.''
+\end{quote}
+As presented, the first impression is that the number of schemes
+apparently grew, but each scheme attracted only a small percentage. `1'
+as a rounded value is very uninformative, especially as the compared
+figures are about 10 and 80\%. There is also a wide gap between the
+caption `(100\%)' and the figures it refers to. A quick sum shows that
+the numbers entering WEEP went \textit{up} by 20\% between the two periods.
+It's a classic political table; you can fiddle it to either praise or
+condemn.
+
+
+\begin{thebibliography}{99}
+\frenchspacing
+\bibitem[Chapman 1986]{chapman}{Chapman M. \& B. Mahon (1986)\textit{Plain Figures}.
+HMSO}
+\bibitem[Ehrenberg 1981]{ehrena}{Ehrenberg A.S.C. (1981) \textit{The Problem of Numeracy}.
+The American Statistician, Vol 35, No 2}
+\bibitem[Ehrenberg 1978]{ehrenb}{Ehrenberg A.S.C. (1978) \textit{Data Reduction: Analysing
+and Interpreting Statistical Data}. John Wiley}
+\bibitem[CSO 1988]{key}{Central Statistical Office (1988) \textit{Key Data 88}. HMSO London}
+\bibitem[Kopka \& Daly 1993]{kopka}{Kopka H. \& P.W. Daly (1993) \textit{A Guide to \LaTeX}.
+Addison-Wesley}
+\bibitem[Kroonenberg 1994]{Kroo}{Kroonenberg S. (1994) \textit{Table Design}. Baskerville
+Vol.\ ~4 No.\ ~4 (reprint of article from NTG journal)}
+\bibitem[Lamport 1986]{lamport}{Lamport L. (1986,1994) \textit{\LaTeX: User's Guide}.
+Addison-Wesley}
+\bibitem[MSC 1979/80]{msc}{Manpower Services Commission \textit{Annual Report 1979/80},
+para~8.34 and Table~35. HMSO}
+\bibitem[Reese forthcoming]{reesettn}{Reese R.A. \textit{Dividing a Table Alphabetically},
+submitted to TTN}
+\bibitem[Reynolds 1983]{reynolds}{Reynolds, L. (1983) \textit{Presentation of Data in
+Science}. Nijhoff, The Hague}
+\bibitem[Thibault et al. 1993]{thibault}{Thibault J.-C., Vigne J.-D. \& J. Torre (1993) {\it
+The Diet of young Lammergeiers in Corsica}. Ibis Vol.~135 No.~1}
+\bibitem[Townsend 1970]{townsend}{Townsend R. (1970) \textit{Up the Organization}.
+Michael Joseph, London (Coronet edition 1971)}
+\bibitem[Tufte 1983]{visdis}{Tufte, E. (1983) \textit{The Visual Display of
+Quantitative Information}. Graphic Press, Conn}
+
+\end{thebibliography}
+
+\end{Article}