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+% Essential LaTeX - Jon Warbrick 02/88
+% - Edited May, July 2000 -E. Benedict
+
+
+% Copyright (C) Jon Warbrick and Plymouth Polytechnic 1989
+% Permission is granted to reproduce the document in any way providing
+% that it is distributed for free, except for any reasonable charges for
+% printing, distribution, staff time, etc. Direct commercial
+% exploitation is not permitted. Extracts may be made from this
+% document providing an acknowledgment of the original source is
+% maintained.
+
+% NOTICE: This document has been edited for use in the UW-Madison
+% Example Thesis file.
+
+
+% counters used for the sample file example
+\newcounter{savesection}
+\newcounter{savesubsection}
+
+
+% commands to do 'LaTeX Manual-like' examples
+
+\newlength{\egwidth}\setlength{\egwidth}{0.42\textwidth}
+
+\newenvironment{eg}{\begin{list}{}{\setlength{\leftmargin}%
+{0.05\textwidth}\setlength{\rightmargin}{\leftmargin}}%
+\item[]\footnotesize}{\end{list}}
+
+\newenvironment{egbox}{\begin{minipage}[t]{\egwidth}}{\end{minipage}}
+
+\newcommand{\egstart}{\begin{eg}\begin{egbox}}
+\newcommand{\egmid}{\end{egbox}\hfill\begin{egbox}}
+\newcommand{\egend}{\end{egbox}\end{eg}}
+
+% one or two other commands
+\newcommand{\fn}[1]{\hbox{\tt #1}}
+\newcommand{\llo}[1]{(see line #1)}
+\newcommand{\lls}[1]{(see lines #1)}
+\newcommand{\bs}{$\backslash$}
+
+
+\chapter{Essential \LaTeX{}}
+
+This chapter introduces some key ideas behind \LaTeX{} and give you the ``essential''
+items of information. This chapter is an edited form of the paper
+``Essential \LaTeX{}'' by Jon Warbrick, Plymouth Polytechnic.
+
+\section{Introduction}
+This document is an attempt to give you all the essential
+information that you will need in order to use the \LaTeX{} Document
+Preparation System. Only very basic features are covered, and a
+vast amount of detail has been omitted. In a document of this size
+it is not possible to include everything that you might need to know,
+and if you intend to make extensive use of the program you should
+refer to a more complete reference. Attempting to produce complex
+documents using only the information found below will require
+much more work than it should, and will probably produce a less
+than satisfactory result.
+
+The main reference for \LaTeX{} is {\em The \LaTeX{} User's guide and
+Reference Manual\/} by Leslie Lamport. This contains most of the
+information that you will ever need to know about the program, and
+you will need access to a copy if you are to use \LaTeX{} seriously.
+You should also consider getting a copy of {\em The \LaTeX{}
+Companion\/}
+
+\section{How does \LaTeX{} work?}
+
+In order to use \LaTeX{} you generate a file containing
+both the text that you wish to print and instructions to tell \LaTeX{}
+how you want it to appear. You will normally create
+this file using your system's text editor. You can give the file any name you
+like, but it should end ``\fn{.TEX}'' to identify the file's contents.
+You then get \LaTeX{} to process the file, and it creates a
+new file of typesetting commands; this has the same name as your file but
+the ``\fn{.TEX}'' ending is replaced by ``\fn{.DVI}''. This stands for
+`{\it D\/}e{\it v\/}ice {\it I\/}ndependent' and, as the name implies, this file
+can be used to create output on a range of printing devices.
+Your {\em local guide\/} will go into more detail.
+
+Rather than encourage you to dictate exactly how your document
+should be laid out, \LaTeX{} instructions allow you describe its
+{\em logical structure\/}. For example, you can think of a quotation
+embedded within your text as an element of this logical structure: you would
+normally expect a quotation to be displayed in a recognisable style to set it
+off from the rest of the text.
+A human typesetter would recognise the quotation and handle
+it accordingly, but since \LaTeX{} is only a computer program it requires
+your help. There are therefore \LaTeX{} commands that allow you to
+identify quotations and as a result allow \LaTeX{} to typeset them correctly.
+
+Fundamental to \LaTeX{} is the idea of a {\em document style\/} that
+determines exactly how a document will be formatted. \LaTeX{} provides
+standard document styles that describe how standard logical structures
+(such as quotations) should be formatted. You may have to supplement
+these styles by specifying the formatting of logical structures
+peculiar to your document, such as mathematical formulae. You can
+also modify the standard document styles or even create an entirely
+new one, though you should know the basic principles of typographical
+design before creating a radically new style.
+
+There are a number of good reasons for concentrating on the logical
+structure rather than on the appearance of a document. It prevents
+you from making elementary typographical errors in the mistaken
+idea that they improve the aesthetics of a document---you should
+remember that the primary function of document design is to make
+documents easier to read, not prettier. It is more flexible, since
+you only need to alter the definition of the quotation style
+to change the appearance of all the quotations in a document. Most
+important of all, logical design encourages better writing.
+A visual system makes it easier to create visual effects rather than
+a coherent structure; logical design encourages you to concentrate on
+your writing and makes it harder to use formatting as a substitute
+for good writing.
+
+\section{A Sample \LaTeX{} file}
+
+
+\begin{figure} %---------------------------------------------------------------
+{\singlespace\tt\footnotesize\begin{verbatim}
+ 1: % SMALL.TEX -- Released 5 July 1985
+ 2: % USE THIS FILE AS A MODEL FOR MAKING YOUR OWN LaTeX INPUT FILE.
+ 3: % EVERYTHING TO THE RIGHT OF A % IS A REMARK TO YOU AND IS IGNORED
+ 4: % BY LaTeX.
+ 5: %
+ 6: % WARNING! DO NOT TYPE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING 10 CHARACTERS EXCEPT AS
+ 7: % DIRECTED: & $ # % _ { } ^ ~ \
+ 8:
+ 9: \documentclass[11pt,a4]{article} % YOUR INPUT FILE MUST CONTAIN THESE
+10: \begin{document} % TWO LINES PLUS THE \end COMMAND AT
+11: % THE END
+12:
+13: \section{Simple Text} % THIS COMMAND MAKES A SECTION TITLE.
+14:
+15: Words are separated by one or more spaces. Paragraphs are
+16: separated by one or more blank lines. The output is not affected
+17: by adding extra spaces or extra blank lines to the input file.
+18:
+19:
+20: Double quotes are typed like this: ``quoted text''.
+21: Single quotes are typed like this: `single-quoted text'.
+22:
+23: Long dashes are typed as three dash characters---like this.
+24:
+25: Italic text is typed like this: {\em this is italic text}.
+26: Bold text is typed like this: {\bf this is bold text}.
+27:
+28: \subsection{A Warning or Two} % THIS MAKES A SUBSECTION TITLE.
+29:
+30: If you get too much space after a mid-sentence period---abbreviations
+31: like etc.\ are the common culprits)---then type a backslash followed by
+32: a space after the period, as in this sentence.
+33:
+34: Remember, don't type the 10 special characters (such as dollar sign and
+35: backslash) except as directed! The following seven are printed by
+36: typing a backslash in front of them: \$ \& \# \% \_ \{ and \}.
+37: The manual tells how to make other symbols.
+38:
+39: \end{document} % THE INPUT FILE ENDS LIKE THIS
+\end{verbatim} }
+
+\caption{A Sample \LaTeX{} File}\label{fig:sample}
+
+\end{figure} %-----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+Have a look at the example \LaTeX{} file in Figure~\ref{fig:sample}. It
+is a slightly modified copy of the standard \LaTeX{} example file
+\fn{SMALL.TEX}. The line numbers down the left-hand side
+are not part of the file, but have been added to make it easier to
+identify various portions.
+
+Try entering this file (without the line numbers), save the text as \fn{small.tex},
+next run \LaTeX{} on it, and then view the output:
+
+{\tt \singlespace\begin{verbatim}
+% latex small
+% xdvi small # displays the output on the screen
+% dvips -o small.ps small # to create a PostScript file, small.ps
+% lp -d<printer> small.ps # to print
+\end{verbatim}}
+
+\subsection{Running Text}
+
+Most documents consist almost entirely of running text---words formed
+into sentences, which are in turn formed into paragraphs---and the example file
+is no exception. Describing running text poses no problems, you just type
+it in naturally. In the output that it produces, \LaTeX{} will fill
+lines and adjust the
+spacing between words to give tidy left and right margins.
+The spacing and distribution of the words in your input
+file will have no effect at all on the eventual output.
+Any number of spaces in your input file
+are treated as a single space by \LaTeX{}, it also regards the
+end of each line as a space between words \lls{15--17}.
+A new paragraph is
+indicated by a blank line in your input file, so don't leave
+any blank lines unless you really wish to start a paragraph.
+
+\LaTeX{} reserves a number of the less common keyboard characters for its
+own use. The ten characters
+\begin{quote}\begin{verbatim}
+# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
+\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
+should not appear as part of your text, because if they do
+\LaTeX{} will get confused.
+
+\subsection{\LaTeX{} Commands}
+
+There are a number of words in the file that start `\verb|\|' \lls{9,
+10 and 13}. These are \LaTeX{} {\em commands\/} and they describe
+the structure of your document. There are a number of things that you
+should realize about these commands:
+\begin{itemize}
+
+\item All \LaTeX{} commands consist of a `\verb|\|' followed by one or more
+characters.
+
+\item \LaTeX{} commands should be typed using the correct mixture of upper- and
+lower-case letters. \verb|\BEGIN| is {\em not\/} the same as \verb|\begin|.
+
+\item Some commands are placed within your text. These are used to
+switch things, like different typestyles, on and off. The \verb|\em|
+command is used like this to emphasize text, normally by changing to
+an {\it italic\/} typestyle \llo{25}. The command and the text are
+always enclosed between `\verb|{|' and `\verb|}|'---the `\verb|{\em|'
+turns the effect on and and the `\verb|}|' turns it off.
+
+\item There are other commands that look like
+\begin{quote}\begin{verbatim}
+\command{text}
+\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
+In this case the text is called the ``argument'' of the command. The
+\verb|\section| command is like this \llo{13}.
+Sometimes you have to use curly brackets `\verb|{}|' to enclose the argument,
+sometimes square brackets `\verb|[]|', and sometimes both at once.
+There is method behind this apparent madness, but for the
+time being you should be sure to copy the commands exactly as given.
+
+\item When a command's name is made up entirely of letters, you must make sure
+that the end of the command is marked by something that isn't a letter.
+This is usually either the opening bracket around the command's argument, or
+it's a space. When it's a space, that space is always ignored by \LaTeX. We
+will see later that this can sometimes be a problem.
+
+\end{itemize}
+
+\subsection{Overall structure}
+
+There are some \LaTeX{} commands that must appear in every document.
+The actual text of the document always starts with a
+\verb|\begin{document}| command and ends with an \verb|\end{document}|
+command \lls{10 and 39}. Anything that comes after the \break
+\verb|\end{document}| command is ignored. Everything that comes
+before the \break\verb|\begin{document}| command is called the
+{\em preamble\/}. The preamble can only contain \LaTeX{} commands
+to describe the document's style.
+
+One command that must appear in the preamble is the
+\verb|\documentclass| command \llo{9}. This command specifies the
+overall style for the document. Our example file is a simple
+technical document, and uses the {\tt article\/} class. The document
+you are reading was produced with the {\tt withesis\/} class. There
+are other classes that you can use, as you will find out later on in
+this document.
+
+\subsection{Other Things to Look At}
+
+\LaTeX{} can print both opening and closing quote characters, and can manage
+either of these either single or double. To do this it uses the two quote
+characters from your keyboard: {\tt `} and {\tt '}. You will probably think of
+{\tt '} as the ordinary single quote character which probably looks like
+{\tt\symbol{'23}} or {\tt\symbol{'15}} on your keyboard,
+
+and {\tt `} as a ``funny'' character that probably appears as
+{\tt\symbol{'22}}. You type these characters once for single quote
+\llo{21}, and twice for double quotes \llo{20}. The double quote
+character {\tt "} itself is almost never used and should not be used
+unless you want your text to look "funny" (compare the quote in the
+previous sentence).
+
+\LaTeX{} can produce three different kinds of dashes.
+A long dash, for use as a punctuation symbol, as is typed as three dash
+characters in a row, like this `\verb|---|' \llo{23}. A shorter dash,
+used between numbers as in `10--20', is typed as two dash
+characters in a row, while a single dash character is used as a hyphen.
+
+From time to time you will need to include one or more of the \LaTeX{}
+special symbols in your text. Seven of them can be printed by
+making them into commands by proceeding them by backslash
+\llo{36}. The remaining three symbols can be produced by more
+advanced commands, as can symbols that do not appear on your keyboard
+such as \dag, \ddag, \S, \pounds, \copyright, $\sharp$ and $\clubsuit$.
+
+It is sometimes useful to include comments in a \LaTeX{} file, to remind
+you of what you have done or why you did it. Everything to the
+right of a \verb|%| sign is ignored by \LaTeX{}, and so it can
+be used to introduce a comment.
+
+\section{Document Classes and Class Options}\label{sec:styles}
+
+There are four standard document classes available in \LaTeX:
+\nobreak
+
+\begin{description}
+
+\item[{\tt article}] intended for short documents and articles for publication.
+Articles do not have chapters, and when \verb|\maketitle| is used to generate
+
+a title (see Section~\ref{sec:title}) it appears at the top of the first page
+
+rather than on a page of its own.
+
+\item[{\tt report}] intended for longer technical documents.
+It is similar to
+{\tt article}, except that it contains chapters and the title appears on a page
+of its own.
+
+\item[{\tt book}] intended as a basis for book publication. Page layout is
+adjusted assuming that the output will eventually be used to print on
+both sides of the paper.
+
+\item[{\tt letter}] intended for producing personal letters. This style
+will allow you to produce all the elements of a well laid out letter:
+addresses, date, signature, etc.
+\end{description}
+
+An additional document class, the one used for this document and for
+University of Wisconsin--Madison theses, is \fn{withesis}.
+
+
+These standard classes can be modified by a number of {\em class
+options\/}. They appear in square brackets after the
+\verb|\documentclass| command. Only one class can ever be used but
+you can have more than one class option, in which case their names
+should be separated by commas. The standard style options are:
+\begin{description}
+
+\item[{\tt 11pt}] prints the document using eleven-point type for the running
+ text
+rather that the ten-point type normally used. Eleven-point type is about
+ten percent larger than ten-point.
+
+\item[{\tt 12pt}] prints the document using twelve-point type for the running
+ text
+rather than the ten-point type normally used. Twelve-point type is about
+twenty percent larger than ten-point.
+
+\item[{\tt twoside}] causes documents in the article or report styles to be
+formatted for printing on both sides of the paper. This is the default for the
+book style.
+
+\item[{\tt twocolumn}] produces two column on each page.
+
+\item[{\tt titlepage}] causes the \verb|\maketitle| command to generate a
+title on a separate page for documents in the \fn{article} style.
+A separate page is always used in both the \fn{report} and \fn{book} styles.
+
+\end{description}
+
+The University of Wisconsin--Madison thesis style, \fn{withesis} also
+has some class options defined. These class options are for
+ten-point type (\fn{10pt}), tweleve-point type (\fn{12pt}), two-sided
+printing (\fn{twoside}), Master Thesis margins (\fn{msthesis}) and an
+option to print a small black box on lines which exceed the margins
+(\fn{margincheck}).
+
+\section{Environments}
+
+We mentioned earlier the idea of identifying a quotation to \LaTeX{} so that
+it could arrange to typeset it correctly. To do this you enclose the
+quotation between the commands \verb|\begin{quotation}| and
+\verb|\end{quotation}|.
+This is an example of a \LaTeX{} construction called an {\em environment\/}.
+A number of
+special effects are obtained by putting text into particular environments.
+
+\subsection{Quotations}
+
+There are two environments for quotations: \fn{quote} and \fn{quotation}.
+\fn{quote} is used either for a short quotation or for a sequence of
+short quotations separated by blank lines:
+\egstart\singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+US presidents ... remarks:
+\begin{quote}
+The buck stops here.
+
+I am not a crook.
+\end{quote}
+\end{verbatim}
+\egmid%
+US presidents have been known for their pithy remarks:
+\begin{quote}
+The buck stops here.
+
+I am not a crook.
+\end{quote}
+\egend
+
+Use the \fn{quotation} environment for quotations that consist of more
+than one paragraph. Paragraphs in the input are separated by blank
+lines as usual:
+\egstart\singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+
+Here is some advice to remember:
+\begin{quotation}
+Environments for making
+...other things as well.
+
+Many problems
+...environments.
+\end{quotation}
+\end{verbatim}
+\egmid%
+Here is some advice to remember:
+\begin{quotation}
+Environments for making quotations
+can be used for other things as well.
+
+Many problems can be solved by
+novel applications of existing
+environments.
+\end{quotation}
+\egend
+
+\subsection{Centering and Flushing}
+
+Text can be centered on the page by putting it within the \fn{center}
+environment, and it will appear flush against the left or right margins if it
+is placed within the \fn{flushleft} or \fn{flushright} environments.
+
+Text within these environments will be formatted in the normal way, in
+{\samepage
+particular the ends of the lines that you type are just regarded as spaces. To
+indicate a ``newline'' you need to type the \verb|\\| command. For example:
+\egstart\singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+\begin{center}
+one
+two
+three \\
+four \\
+five
+\end{center}
+
+\end{verbatim}
+\egmid%
+\begin{center}
+
+one
+two
+three \\
+four \\
+
+five
+\end{center}
+\egend
+}
+
+\subsection{Lists}
+
+There are three environments for constructing lists. In each one each new
+item is begun with an \verb|\item| command. In the \fn{itemize} environment
+the start of each item is given a marker, in the \fn{enumerate}
+environment each item is marked by a number. These environments can be nested
+within each other in which case the amount of indentation used
+is adjusted accordingly:
+\egstart\singlespace
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+\begin{itemize}
+\item Itemized lists are handy.
+\item However, don't forget
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item The `item' command.
+ \item The `end' command.
+ \end{enumerate}
+\end{itemize}
+\end{verbatim}
+\egmid%
+\begin{itemize}
+\item Itemized lists are handy.
+\item However, don't forget
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item The `item' command.
+ \item The `end' command.
+ \end{enumerate}
+\end{itemize}
+\egend
+
+
+The third list making environment is \fn{description}. In a description you
+specify the item labels inside square brackets after the \verb|\item| command.
+For example:
+\egstart\singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+Three animals that you should
+know about are:
+\begin{description}
+ \item[gnat] A small
+ animal...
+ \item[gnu] A large
+ animal...
+ \item[armadillo] A ...
+\end{description}
+\end{verbatim}
+\egmid%
+Three animals that you should
+know about are:
+\begin{description}
+ \item[gnat] A small animal that causes no end of trouble.
+ \item[gnu] A large animal that causes no end of trouble.
+ \item[armadillo] A medium-sized animal.
+\end{description}
+\egend
+
+\subsection{Tables}
+
+Because \LaTeX{} will almost always convert a sequence of spaces
+into a single space, it can be rather difficult to lay out tables.
+See what happens in this example
+ \nolinebreak
+\begin{eg}
+\begin{minipage}[t]{0.55\textwidth} \singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+\begin{flushleft}
+Income Expenditure Result \\
+20s 0d 19s 11d happiness \\
+20s 0d 20s 1d misery \\
+\end{flushleft}
+\end{verbatim}
+\end{minipage}
+\begin{minipage}[t]{0.3\textwidth}
+\begin{flushleft}
+Income Expenditure Result \\
+20s 0d 19s 11d happiness \\
+20s 0d 20s 1d misery \\
+\end{flushleft}
+\end{minipage}
+\end{eg}
+
+The \fn{tabbing} environment overcomes this problem. Within it you
+set tabstops and tab to them much like you do on a typewriter.
+Tabstops are set with the \verb|\=| command, and the \verb|\>|
+command moves to the next stop. The \verb|\\| command is used to
+separate each line. A line that ends \verb|\kill| produces no
+output, and can be used to set tabstops:
+\nolinebreak
+\begin{eg}
+\begin{minipage}[t]{0.6\textwidth}
+\singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+\begin{tabbing}
+Income \=Expenditure \= \kill
+Income \>Expenditure \>Result \\
+20s 0d \>19s 11d \>Happiness \\
+20s 0d \>20s 1d \>Misery \\
+\end{tabbing}
+\end{verbatim}
+\end{minipage}
+\vspace{1ex}
+\begin{minipage}[t]{0.35\textwidth}
+\begin{tabbing}
+\singlespace
+Income \=Expenditure \= \kill
+Income \>Expenditure \>Result \\
+20s 0d \>19s 11d \>Happiness \\
+20s 0d \>20s 1d \>Misery \\
+\end{tabbing}
+\end{minipage}
+\end{eg}
+
+Unlike a typewriter's tab key, the \verb|\>| command always moves to the next
+tabstop in sequence, even if this means moving to the left. This can cause
+text to be overwritten if the gap between two tabstops is too small.
+
+\subsection{Verbatim Output}
+
+Sometimes you will want to include text exactly as it appears on a terminal
+screen. For example, you might want to include part of a computer program.
+Not only do you want \LaTeX{} to stop playing around with the layout of your
+text, you also want to be able to type all the characters on your keyboard
+without confusing \LaTeX. The \fn{verbatim} environment has this effect:
+
+\egstart
+
+\begin{flushleft}\singlespace
+\verb|The section of program in| \\
+ \verb|question is :|\\
+ \verb|\begin{verbatim}| \\
+\verb|{ this finds %a & %b }| \\[2ex]
+
+\verb|for i := 1 to 27 do| \\
+\ \ \ \verb|begin| \\
+\ \ \ \verb|table[i] := fn(i);| \\
+
+\ \ \ \verb|process(i)| \\
+\ \ \ \verb|end;| \\
+\verb|\end{verbatim}|
+\end{flushleft}
+\egmid%
+The section of program in
+question is:
+\begin{verbatim}
+{ this finds %a & %b }
+
+for i := 1 to 27 do
+ begin
+ table[i] := fn(i);
+ process(i)
+ end;
+
+\end{verbatim}
+\egend
+
+The \fn{withesis} document style also provides the command {\tt \verb|\verbatimfile{foo.fe}|}
+which will read in the file {\tt foo.fe} into the document in \fn{verbatim} format with
+the font \verb|\tt|. See Appendix~\ref{matlab} for an example.
+
+\section{Type Styles}
+
+We have already come across the \verb|\em| command for changing
+typeface. Here is a full list of the available typefaces:
+\begin{quote}\singlespace\begin{tabbing}
+\verb|\sc|~~ \= \sc Small Caps~~~ \= \verb|\sc|~~ \= \sc Small Caps~~~
+ \= \verb|\sc|~~ \= \kill
+\verb|\rm| \> \rm Roman \> \verb|\it| \> \it Italic
+ \> \verb|\sc| \> \sc Small Caps \\
+\verb|\em| \> \em Emphatic \> \verb|\sl| \> \sl Slanted
+ \> \verb|\tt| \> \tt Typewriter \\
+\verb|\bf| \> \bf Boldface \> \verb|\sf| \> \sf Sans Serif
+\end{tabbing}\end{quote}
+
+Remember that these commands are used {\em inside\/} a pair of braces to limit
+the amount of text that they effect. In addition to the eight typeface
+commands, there are a set of commands that alter the size of the type. These
+commands are:
+\begin{quotation}\singlespace\begin{tabbing}
+\verb|\footnotesize|~~ \= \verb|\footnotesize|~~ \= \verb|\footnotesize| \=
+ \kill
+\verb|\tiny| \> \verb|\small| \> \verb|\large| \>
+\verb|\huge| \\
+\verb|\scriptsize| \> \verb|\normalsize| \> \verb|\Large| \>
+\verb|\Huge| \\
+\verb|\footnotesize| \> \> \verb|\LARGE|
+\end{tabbing}\end{quotation}
+
+\section{Sectioning Commands and Tables of Contents}
+\label{ess:sectioning}
+
+Technical documents, like this one, are often divided into sections.
+Each section has a heading containing a title and a number for easy
+reference. \LaTeX{} has a series of commands that will allow you to identify
+different sorts of sections. Once you have done this \LaTeX{} takes on the
+responsibility of laying out the title and of providing the numbers.
+
+The commands that you can use are:
+\begin{quote}\singlespace\begin{tabbing}
+\verb|\subsubsection| \= \verb|\subsubsection|~~~~~~~~~~ \= \kill
+\verb|\chapter| \> \verb|\subsection| \> \verb|\paragraph| \\
+\verb|\section| \> \verb|\subsubsection| \> \verb|\subparagraph| \\
+\end{tabbing}\end{quote}
+The naming of these last two is unfortunate, since they do not really have
+anything to do with `paragraphs' in the normal sense of the word; they are just
+lower levels of section. In most document styles, headings made with
+\verb|\paragraph| and \verb|\subparagraph| are not numbered. \verb|\chapter|
+is not available in document style \fn{article}. The commands should be used
+in the order given, since sections are numbered within chapters, subsections
+within sections, etc.
+
+A seventh sectioning command, \verb|\part|, is also available. Its use is
+always optional, and it is used to divide a large document into series of
+parts. It does not alter the numbering used for any of the other commands.
+
+Including the command \verb|\tableofcontents| in you document will cause a
+contents list to be included, containing information collected from the various
+sectioning commands. You will notice that each time your document is run
+through \LaTeX{} the table of contents is always made up of the headings from
+the previous version of the document. This is because \LaTeX{} collects
+information for the table as it processes the document, and then includes it
+the next time it is run. This can sometimes mean that the document has to be
+processed through \LaTeX{} twice to get a correct table of contents.
+
+\section{Producing Special Symbols}
+
+You can include in you \LaTeX{} document a wide range of symbols that do not
+appear on you your keyboard. For a start, you can add an accent to any letter:
+\begin{quote}\singlespace\begin{tabbing}
+
+\t{oo} \= \verb|\t{oo}|~~~ \=
+\t{oo} \= \verb|\t{oo}|~~~ \=
+\t{oo} \= \verb|\t{oo}|~~~ \=
+\t{oo} \= \verb|\t{oo}|~~~ \=
+\t{oo} \= \verb|\t{oo}|~~~ \=
+\t{oo} \= \kill
+
+\a`{o} \> \verb|\`{o}| \> \~{o} \> \verb|\~{o}| \> \v{o} \> \verb|\v{o}| \>
+\c{o} \> \verb|\c{o}| \> \a'{o} \> \verb|\'{o}| \\
+\a={o} \> \verb|\={o}| \> \H{o} \> \verb|\H{o}| \> \d{o} \> \verb|\d{o}| \>
+\^{o} \> \verb|\^{o}| \> \.{o} \> \verb|\.{o}| \\
+\t{oo} \> \verb|\t{oo}| \> \b{o} \> \verb|\b{o}| \\ \"{o} \> \verb|\"{o}| \>
+\u{o} \> \verb|\u{o}| \\
+\end{tabbing}\end{quote}
+
+A number of other symbols are available, and can be used by including the
+following commands:
+\begin{quote}\singlespace\begin{tabbing}
+
+\LaTeX~\= \verb|\copyright|~~~~ \= \LaTeX~\= \verb|\copyright|~~~~ \=
+\LaTeX~\= \kill
+
+\dag \> \verb|\dag| \> \S \> \verb|\S| \>
+\copyright \> \verb|\copyright| \\
+\ddag \> \verb|\ddag| \> \P \> \verb|\P| \>
+\pounds \> \verb|\pounds| \\
+\oe \> \verb|\oe| \> \OE \> \verb|\OE| \>
+\ae \> \verb|\AE| \\
+\AE \> \verb|\AE| \> \aa \> \verb|\aa| \>
+\AA \> \verb|\AA| \\
+\o \> \verb|\o| \> \O \> \verb|\O| \>
+\l \> \verb|\l| \\
+\L \> \verb|\E| \> \ss \> \verb|\ss| \>
+?` \> \verb|?`| \\
+!` \> \verb|!`| \> \ldots \> \verb|\ldots| \>
+\LaTeX \> \verb|\LaTeX| \\
+\end{tabbing}\end{quote}
+There is also a \verb|\today| command that prints the current date. When you
+use these commands remember that \LaTeX{} will ignore any spaces that
+follow them, so that you can type `\verb|\pounds 20|' to get `\pounds 20'.
+However, if you type `\verb|LaTeX is wonderful|' you will get `\LaTeX is
+wonderful'---notice the lack of space after \LaTeX.
+To overcome this problem you can follow any of these commands by a
+pair of empty brackets and then any spaces that you wish to include,
+and you will see that
+\verb|\LaTeX{} really is wonderful!| (\LaTeX{} really is wonderful!).
+
+\section{Titles}\label{sec:title}
+
+Most documents have a title. To title a \LaTeX{} document, you include the
+following commands in your document, usually just after
+\verb|begin{document}|.
+\begin{quote}\singlespace\begin{verbatim}
+\title{required title}
+\author{required author}
+\date{required date}
+\maketitle
+\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
+If there are several authors, then their names should be separated by
+\verb|\and|; they can also be separated by \verb|\\| if you want them to be
+centred on different lines. If the \verb|\date| command is left out, then the
+current date will be printed.
+\egstart
+\singlespace
+\begin{verbatim}
+\title{Essential \LaTeX}
+\author{J Warbrick \and An Other}
+\date{14th February 1988}
+\maketitle
+\end{verbatim}
+\egmid
+\begin{center}
+{\normalsize Essential \LaTeX}\\[4ex]
+J Warbrick\hspace{1em}A N Other\\[2ex]
+14th February 1988
+\end{center}
+\egend
+
+The exact appearance of the title varies depending on
+the document style. In styles \fn{report} and \fn{book} the title appears on a
+page of its own. In the \fn{article} style it normally appears at the top
+of the first page, the style option \fn{titlepage} will alter this (see
+Section~\ref{sec:styles}). In the \fn{withesis} style, the title is created on a
+seperate page in the format appropriate to a UW-Madison thesis or dissertation.
+
+\section{Errors}
+
+When you create a new input file for \LaTeX{} you will probably make mistakes.
+Everybody does, and it's nothing to be worried about. As with most computer
+programs, there are two sorts of mistake that you can make: those that \LaTeX{}
+notices and those that it doesn't. To take a rather silly example, since
+\LaTeX{} doesn't understand what you are saying it isn't going to be worried if
+you mis-spell some of the words in your text. You will just have to accurately
+proof-read your printed output. On the other hand, if you mis-spell one of
+the environment names in your file then \LaTeX won't know what you want it
+to do.
+
+When this sort of thing happens, \LaTeX{} prints an error message on your
+terminal screen and then stops and waits for you to take some action.
+Unfortunately, the error messages that it produces are rather user-unfriendly
+and a little frightening. Nevertheless, if you know where to look they
+will probably tell you where the error is and went wrong.
+
+Consider what would happen if you mistyped \verb|\begin{itemize}| so that it
+became \break\verb|\begin{itemie}|. When \LaTeX{} processes this instruction, it
+displays the following on your terminal:
+\begin{quote}\singlespace\begin{verbatim}
+LaTeX error. See LaTeX manual for explanation.
+ Type H <return> for immediate help.
+! Environment itemie undefined.
+\@latexerr ...for immediate help.}\errmessage {#1}
+ \endgroup
+l.140 \begin{itemie}
+
+?
+\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
+After typing the `?' \LaTeX{} stops and waits for you to tell it what to do.
+
+The first two lines of the message just tell you that the error was detected by
+\LaTeX{}. The third line, the one that starts `!' is the {\em error indicator}.
+ It
+tells you what the problem is, though until you have had some experience of
+\LaTeX{} this may not mean a lot to you. In this case it is just telling you
+that it doesn't recognise an environment called \fn{itemie}.
+The next two lines tell you what
+\LaTeX{} was doing when it found the error, they are irrelevant at the moment
+and can be ignored. The final line is called the {\em error locator}, and is
+a copy of the line from your file that caused the problem.
+It start with a line number to help you to find it in your file, and
+if the error was in the middle of a line it will be shown
+broken at the point where \LaTeX{} realised that there was an error. \LaTeX{}
+can sometimes pass the point where the real error is before discovering that
+something is wrong, but it doesn't usually get very far.
+
+At this point you could do several things. If you knew enough about \LaTeX{}
+you might be able to fix the problem, or you could type `X' and press the
+return key to stop \LaTeX{} running while you go and correct the error. The
+best thing to do, however, is just to press the return key. This will allow
+\LaTeX{} to go on running as if nothing had happened. If you have made one
+mistake, then you have probably made several and you may as well try to find
+them all in one go. It's much more efficient to do it this way than to run
+\LaTeX{} over and over again fixing one error at a time. Don't worry about
+remembering what the errors were---a copy of all the error messages is being
+saved in a {\em log\/} file so that you can look at them afterwards.
+
+If you look at the line that caused the error it's normally obvious what the
+problem was. If you can't work out what you problem is look at the hints
+below, and if they don't help consult Chapter~6 of the manual~\cite{lamport}.
+ It contains a
+list of all of the error messages that you are likely to encounter together with
+some hints as to what may have caused them.
+
+Some of the most common mistakes that cause errors are
+\begin{itemize}
+\item A mispelled command or environment name.
+\item Improperly matched `\verb|{|' and `\verb|}|'---remember that they should
+ always
+come in pairs.
+\item Trying to use one of the ten special characters \verb|# $ % & _ { } ~ ^|
+and \verb|\| as an ordinary printing symbol.
+\item A missing \verb|\end| command.
+\item A missing command argument (that's the bit enclosed in '\verb|{|' and
+`\verb|}|').
+\end{itemize}
+
+One error can get \LaTeX{} so confused that it reports a series of spurious
+errors as a result. If you have an error that you understand, followed by a
+series that you don't, then try correcting the first error---the rest
+may vanish as if by magic.
+Sometimes \LaTeX{} may write a {\tt *} and stop without an error message. This
+is normally caused by a missing \verb|\end{document}| command, but other errors
+can cause it. If this happens type \verb|\stop| and press the return key.
+
+Finally, \LaTeX{} will sometimes print {\em warning\/} messages. They report
+problems that were not bad enough to cause \LaTeX{} to stop processing, but
+nevertheless may require investigation. The most common problems are
+`overfull' and `underfull' lines of text. A message like:
+\begin{quote}\footnotesize\begin{verbatim}
+Overfull \hbox (10.58649pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 172--175
+[]\tenrm Mathematical for-mu-las may be dis-played. A dis-played
+\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
+indicates that \LaTeX{} could not find a good place to break a line when laying
+out a paragraph. As a result, it was forced to let the line stick out into the
+right-hand margin, in this case by 10.6 points. Since a point is about 1/72nd
+of an inch this may be rather hard to see, but it will be there none the less.
+
+This particular problem happens because \LaTeX{} is rather fussy about line
+breaking, and it would rather generate a line that is too long than generate a
+paragraph that doesn't meet its high standards. The simplest way around the
+problem is to enclose the entire offending paragraph between
+\verb|\begin{sloppypar}| and \verb|\end{sloppypar}| commands. This tells
+\LaTeX{} that you are happy for it to break its own rules while it is working on
+that particular bit of text.
+
+Alternatively, messages about ``Underfull \verb|\hbox'es''| may appear.
+These are lines that had to have more space inserted between
+words than \LaTeX{} would have liked. In general there is not much that you
+can do about these. Your output will look fine, even if the line looks a bit
+stretched. About the only thing you could do is to re-write the offending
+paragraph!
+
+\section{A Final Reminder}
+
+You now know enough \LaTeX{} to produce a wide range of documents. But this
+document has only scratched the surface of the
+things that \LaTeX{} can do. This entire document was itself produced with
+\LaTeX{} (with no sticking things in or clever use of a photocopier) and even
+it hasn't used all the features that it could. From this you may get some
+feeling for the power that \LaTeX{} puts at your disposal.
+
+Please remember what was said in the introduction: if you {\bf do} have a
+complex document to produce then {\bf go and read the manual}. You will be
+wasting your time if you rely only on what you have read here.