summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info
diff options
context:
space:
mode:
authorNorbert Preining <norbert@preining.info>2019-09-02 13:46:59 +0900
committerNorbert Preining <norbert@preining.info>2019-09-02 13:46:59 +0900
commite0c6872cf40896c7be36b11dcc744620f10adf1d (patch)
tree60335e10d2f4354b0674ec22d7b53f0f8abee672 /info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info
Initial commit
Diffstat (limited to 'info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info')
-rw-r--r--info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info18241
1 files changed, 18241 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info b/info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..c2e873d558
--- /dev/null
+++ b/info/latex2e-help-texinfo/latex2e.info
@@ -0,0 +1,18241 @@
+This is latex2e.info, produced by makeinfo version 6.5 from
+latex2e.texi.
+
+This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document
+preparation system, version of October 2018.
+
+ This manual was originally translated from 'LATEX.HLP' v1.0a in the
+VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D.
+Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The LaTeX 2.09 version was
+written by Stephen Gilmore. The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this
+by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions,
+and gratefully acknowledges using 'Hypertext Help with LaTeX', by
+Sheldon Green, and 'LaTeX Command Summary' (for LaTeX 2.09) by L. Botway
+and C. Biemesderfer (published by the TeX Users Group as 'TeXniques'
+number 10), as reference material. We also gratefully acknowledge
+additional material appearing in latex2e-reference by Martin Herbert
+Dietze. (From these references no text was directly copied.)
+
+ Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016,
+2017, 2018 Karl Berry.
+Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.
+Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.
+
+ Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
+manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
+preserved on all copies.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
+this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
+entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
+permission notice identical to this one.
+
+ Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
+manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
+versions.
+INFO-DIR-SECTION TeX
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* LaTeX2e: (latex2e). Unofficial LaTeX reference manual.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Top, Next: About this document, Up: (dir)
+
+LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual
+***************************************
+
+This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October
+2018) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* About this document:: Bug reporting, etc.
+* Overview:: What is LaTeX?
+* Document classes:: Some of the various classes available.
+* Fonts:: Italic, bold, typewriter, etc.
+* Layout:: Controlling the page layout.
+* Sectioning:: Parts, Chapters, Sections, etc.
+* Cross references:: Automatic referencing.
+* Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize.
+* Line breaking:: Influencing line breaks.
+* Page breaking:: Influencing page breaks.
+* Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes.
+* Definitions:: Define your own commands, etc.
+* Counters:: Internal counters used by LaTeX.
+* Lengths:: The length commands.
+* Making paragraphs:: Paragraph commands.
+* Math formulas:: How to create mathematical formulas.
+* Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
+* Page styles:: Various styles of page layout.
+* Spaces:: Horizontal and vertical space.
+* Boxes:: Making boxes.
+* Color:: Defining and using colors.
+* Graphics:: Importing graphics from outside LaTeX.
+* Special insertions:: Inserting reserved and special characters.
+* Splitting the input:: Dealing with big files by splitting.
+* Front/back matter:: Tables of contents, glossaries, indexes.
+* Letters:: The 'letter' class.
+* Terminal input/output:: User interaction.
+* Command line:: System-independent command-line behavior.
+* Document templates:: Starter templates for various document classes.
+* Index:: General index.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: About this document, Next: Overview, Prev: Top, Up: Top
+
+1 About this document
+*********************
+
+This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document
+preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting
+program (*note Overview::).
+
+ This document's home page is
+<https://puszcza.gnu.org.ua/software/latexrefman>. There you can get
+the sources, subscribe to the mailing list or read its archives, see
+other infrastructure, and get the current output in various formats. In
+particular, the output comes in two web formats. Probably the most
+convenient one, shown at <http://latexref.xyz/>, has pages for each
+topic and so is good for a quick lookup; see also the note there about
+easy-to-remember links. The other, shown at
+<http://svn.gnu.org.ua/viewvc/latexrefman/trunk/latex2e.html?view=co>,
+has all the information on single page.
+
+ In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than
+'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was frozen decades
+ago.
+
+ LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers
+(<http://latex-project.org>). The official documentation written by the
+LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is
+completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX
+maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this
+document to them. Instead, please send all comments to
+<latexrefman@tug.org>.
+
+ This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources
+of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few
+introductions.
+
+<http://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr>
+ Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.
+
+<http://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc>
+ Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.
+
+<http://ctan.org/pkg/usrguide>
+ The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX.
+ Many other guides by many other people are also available,
+ independent of LaTeX itself; one such is the next item:
+
+<http://ctan.org/pkg/lshort>
+ A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages.
+
+<http://tug.org/begin.html>
+ Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further
+ references.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Overview, Next: Document classes, Prev: About this document, Up: Top
+
+2 Overview of LaTeX
+*******************
+
+LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created
+by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers
+(<http://latex-project.org>). It is widely used, particularly for
+complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics.
+
+ A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with
+interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text
+should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands
+that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the
+technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine).
+The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the
+TeX engine.
+
+ The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which
+the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands
+available to a LaTeX user.
+
+ The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX". It is pronounced LAH-teck
+or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the
+logo with '\LaTeX'. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in
+plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Starting and ending:: The standard beginning and end of a document.
+* Output files:: Files produced.
+* TeX engines:: Programs that can compile TeX and LaTeX.
+* LaTeX command syntax:: General syntax of LaTeX commands.
+* Environment:: Area of the source giving distinct behavior.
+* CTAN:: Our repository.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Starting and ending, Next: Output files, Up: Overview
+
+2.1 Starting and ending
+=======================
+
+LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning
+and ending. This is a small example.
+
+ \documentclass{article}
+ \begin{document}
+ Hello, \LaTeX\ world.
+ \end{document}
+
+Every LaTeX document has a '\begin{document}' line and an
+'\end{document}' line.
+
+Here, the 'article' is the "document class". It is implemented in a
+file 'article.cls'. You can use any document class on your system. A
+few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of
+others are widely available. *Note Document classes::.
+
+ You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and
+the '\begin{document}' commands. This area is called the "preamble".
+
+ The '\begin{document}', '\end{document}' pair defines an
+"environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in
+all LaTeX documents (*note document::). LaTeX make available to you
+many environments that are documented here (*note Environments::). Many
+more are available to you from external packages, most importantly those
+available at CTAN (*note CTAN::).
+
+ The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output
+from a LaTeX input file.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Output files, Next: TeX engines, Prev: Starting and ending, Up: Overview
+
+2.2 Output files
+================
+
+LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two auxiliary files. The
+main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'.
+
+'.dvi'
+ If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it
+ produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'. You can
+ view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a
+ PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format
+ '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'. The contents of the file can be
+ dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'. A vast array of
+ other DVI utility programs are available
+ (<http://mirror.ctan.org/dviware>).
+
+'.pdf'
+ If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other
+ commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable
+ Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained
+ file, with all fonts and images included.
+
+ LaTeX also produces at least two additional files.
+
+'.log'
+ This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of
+ loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps
+ additional information for any errors.
+
+'.aux'
+ Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross
+ references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward
+ reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared
+ in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question
+ mark '??'. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the
+ source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux'
+ file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information
+ from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the
+ double question mark with the remembered location.
+
+ LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename
+ending. These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of
+figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file
+used to make a table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). A
+particular class may create others; the list is open-ended.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: TeX engines, Next: LaTeX command syntax, Prev: Output files, Up: Overview
+
+2.3 TeX engines
+===============
+
+LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX
+implementation (*note Overview::). This section gives a terse overview
+of the main programs (see also *note Command line::).
+
+'latex'
+'pdflatex'
+ In TeX Live (<http://tug.org/texlive>), if LaTeX is invoked via
+ either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX
+ engine is run (<http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex>). When invoked as
+ 'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main
+ output is a '.pdf' file.
+
+ pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original
+ program (<http://ctan.org/pkg/etex>), including additional
+ programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty
+ of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the
+ system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi').
+
+ In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than
+ pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be
+ available in LaTeX.
+
+'lualatex'
+ If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX
+ engine is run (<http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex>). This program allows
+ code written in the scripting language Lua (<http://luatex.org>) to
+ interact with TeX's typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode
+ input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and
+ produces a '.pdf' file by default. There is also 'dvilualatex' to
+ produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used.
+
+'xelatex'
+ If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX
+ engine is run (<http://tug.org/xetex>). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX
+ natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts,
+ though the implementation is completely different, mainly using
+ external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a
+ '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output.
+
+ Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and
+ translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this
+ process is automatic. The '.xdv' file is only useful for
+ debugging.
+
+ Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional
+support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX,
+<http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex>, <http://ctan.org/pkg/uptex>).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: LaTeX command syntax, Next: Environment, Prev: TeX engines, Up: Overview
+
+2.4 LaTeX command syntax
+========================
+
+In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash
+character, '\'. The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of
+letters or (b) a single non-letter.
+
+ LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs
+from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command). Most commands
+are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same
+case as they are defined.
+
+ A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These
+arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are
+contained in curly braces, '{...}'. Optional arguments are contained in
+square brackets, '[...]'. Generally, but not universally, if the
+command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any
+required arguments.
+
+ Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square
+bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket
+{]}]'. Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required
+argument after it, then to make the first character of the following
+text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces.
+
+ Some of LaTeX's commands are a "declaration". Such a command changes
+the value the meaning of some other command or parameter. For instance,
+the '\mainmatter' declaration changes the typesetting of page numbers
+from roman numerals to arabic (*note \frontmatter & \mainmatter &
+\backmatter::).
+
+ LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is
+related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'.
+The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command.
+
+ This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the
+commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Environment, Next: CTAN, Prev: LaTeX command syntax, Up: Overview
+
+2.5 Environment
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{ENVIRONMENT NAME}
+ ...
+ \end{ENVIRONMENT NAME}
+
+ An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct
+behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between
+'\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'.
+
+ \begin{verse}
+ There once was a man from Nantucket \\
+ ...
+ \end{verse}
+
+ *Note Environments:: for a list of environments. Particularly
+notable is that every LaTeX document must have a 'document' environment,
+a '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' pair.
+
+ The ENVIRONMENT NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the
+end. This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT NAME ends in a
+star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star.
+
+ Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This
+example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes
+the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is
+required (it specifies the formatting of columns).
+
+ \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l}
+ ... rows of table ...
+ \end{tabular}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: CTAN, Prev: Environment, Up: Overview
+
+2.6 CTAN: the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network
+===============================================
+
+The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network, CTAN, is the TeX and LaTeX
+community's repository of free material. It is a set of Internet sites
+around the world that offer material related to LaTeX for download.
+Visit CTAN on the web at <https://ctan.org>.
+
+ This material is organized into packages, discrete bundles that
+typically offer some coherent functionality and are maintained by one
+person or a small number of people. For instance, many publishers have
+a package that allows authors to format papers to that publisher's
+specifications.
+
+ In addition to the massive holdings, the web site offers features
+such as search by name or by functionality.
+
+ CTAN is not a single site, but instead is a set of sites. One of the
+sites is the core. This site actively manages the material, for
+instance, by accepting uploads of new or updated packages. It is hosted
+by the German TeX group DANTE e.V. Other sites around the world help out
+by mirroring, that is, automatically syncing their collections with the
+core site and then in turn making their copies publicly available. This
+gives users close to their location better access and relieves the load
+on the core site. The list of mirrors is at <https://ctan.org/mirrors>.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Document classes, Next: Fonts, Prev: Overview, Up: Top
+
+3 Document classes
+******************
+
+The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is
+normally the first command in a LaTeX source file.
+
+ \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS}
+
+ The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX. (Many other
+document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.)
+
+'article'
+ For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general
+ use.
+
+'book'
+ Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front
+ matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix
+ (*note Front/back matter::).
+
+'letter'
+ Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::).
+
+'report'
+ For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as
+ technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters.
+
+'slides'
+ For slide presentations--rarely used today. In its place the
+ 'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer
+ template::).
+
+ Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Document class options:: Global options.
+* Additional packages:: Bring in packages.
+* Class and package construction:: Create new classes and packages.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Document class options, Next: Additional packages, Up: Document classes
+
+3.1 Document class options
+==========================
+
+You can specify "global options" or "class options" to the
+'\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets. To
+specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma.
+
+ \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS}
+
+ Here is the list of the standard class options.
+
+ All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following
+options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'):
+
+ 10pt 11pt 12pt
+
+ All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the
+paper size (these show height by width):
+
+'a4paper'
+ 210 by 297mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches)
+
+'a5paper'
+ 148 by 210mm (about 5.8 by 8.3 inches)
+
+'b5paper'
+ 176 by 250mm (about 6.9 by 9.8 inches)
+
+'executivepaper'
+ 7.25 by 10.5 inches
+
+'legalpaper'
+ 8.5 by 14 inches
+
+'letterpaper'
+ 8.5 by 11 inches (the default)
+
+ When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note
+TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but
+you must also set the physical paper size. One way to do that is to put
+'\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your
+document's preamble.
+
+ The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of setting the print
+area and physical page size.
+
+ Miscellaneous other options:
+
+'draft'
+'final'
+ Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black
+ box in the margin; default is 'final'.
+
+'fleqn'
+ Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
+
+'landscape'
+ Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
+
+'leqno'
+ Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the
+ right side.
+
+'openbib'
+ Use "open" bibliography format.
+
+'titlepage'
+'notitlepage'
+ Specifies whether there is a separate page for the title
+ information and for the abstract also, if there is one. The
+ default for the 'report' class is 'titlepage', for the other
+ classes it is 'notitlepage'.
+
+ The following options are not available with the 'slides' class.
+
+'onecolumn'
+'twocolumn'
+ Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'.
+
+'oneside'
+'twoside'
+ Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that
+ in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'.
+
+ For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For
+ two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin')
+ parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages
+ between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with
+ '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth'
+ and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder.
+
+'openright'
+'openany'
+ Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default
+ is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'.
+
+ The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at
+the bottom of each note.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Additional packages, Next: Class and package construction, Prev: Document class options, Up: Document classes
+
+3.2 Additional packages
+=======================
+
+Load a package PKG, with the package options given in the
+comma-separated list OPTIONS, as here.
+
+ \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}.
+
+ To specify more than one package you can separate them with a comma,
+as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage'
+commands.
+
+ Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown to
+the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
+'\usepackage'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package construction, Prev: Additional packages, Up: Document classes
+
+3.3 Class and package construction
+==================================
+
+You can create new document classes and new packages. For instance, if
+your memos must satisfy some local requirements, such as a standard
+header for each page, then you could create a new class 'smcmemo.cls'
+and begin your documents with '\documentclass{smcmemo}'.
+
+ What separates a package from a document class is that the commands
+in a package are useful across classes while those in a document class
+are specific to that class. Thus, a command to set page headers is for
+a package while a command to make the page headers say 'Memo from the
+SMC Math Department' is for a class.
+
+ Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign '@' as a
+character in command names without having to surround the code
+containing that command with '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother'. *Note
+\makeatletter & \makeatother::. This allow you to create commands that
+users will not accidentally redefine. Another technique is to preface
+class- or package-specific commands with some string to prevent your
+class or package from interfering with others. For instance, the class
+'smcmemo' might have commands '\smc@tolist', '\smc@fromlist', etc.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Class and package structure:: Layout of the file.
+* Class and package commands:: List of commands.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package structure, Next: Class and package commands, Up: Class and package construction
+
+3.3.1 Class and package structure
+---------------------------------
+
+A class file or package file typically has four parts.
+ 1. In the "identification part", the file says that it is a LaTeX
+ package or class and describes itself, using the '\NeedsTeXFormat'
+ and '\ProvidesClass' or '\ProvidesPackage' commands.
+
+ 2. The "preliminary declarations part" declares some commands and can
+ also load other files. Usually these commands will be those needed
+ for the code used in the next part. For example, an 'smcmemo'
+ class might be called with an option to read in a file with a list
+ of people for the to-head, as '\documentclass[mathto]{smcmemo}',
+ and therefore needs to define a command
+ '\newcommand{\setto}[1]{\def\@tolist{#1}}' used in that file.
+
+ 3. In the "handle options part" the class or package declares and
+ processes its options. Class options allow a user to start their
+ document as '\documentclass[OPTION LIST]{CLASS NAME}', to modify
+ the behavior of the class. An example is when you declare
+ '\documentclass[11pt]{article}' to set the default document font
+ size.
+
+ 4. Finally, in the "more declarations part" the class or package
+ usually does most of its work: declaring new variables, commands
+ and fonts, and loading other files.
+
+ Here is a starting class file, which should be saved as 'stub.cls'
+where LaTeX can find it, for example in the same directory as the '.tex'
+file.
+
+ \NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
+ \ProvidesClass{stub}[2017/07/06 stub to start building classes from]
+ \DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}
+ \ProcessOptions\relax
+ \LoadClass{article}
+
+It identifies itself, handles the class options via the default of
+passing them all to the 'article' class, and then loads the 'article'
+class to provide the basis for this class's code.
+
+ For more, see the official guide for class and package writers, the
+Class Guide, at
+<http://www.latex-project.org/help/documentation/clsguide.pdf> (much of
+the descriptions here derive from this document), or the tutorial
+<https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/tb26-3/tb84heff.pdf>.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Class and package commands, Prev: Class and package structure, Up: Class and package construction
+
+3.3.2 Class and package commands
+--------------------------------
+
+These are the commands designed to help writers of classes or packages.
+
+'\AtBeginDvi{specials}'
+ Save in a box register things that are written to the '.dvi' file
+ at the beginning of the shipout of the first page of the document.
+
+'\AtEndOfClass{CODE}'
+'\AtEndOfPackage{CODE}'
+ Hook to insert CODE to be executed when LaTeX finishes processing
+ the current class or package. You can use these hooks multiple
+ times; the 'code' will be executed in the order that you called it.
+ See also *note \AtBeginDocument::.
+
+'\CheckCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}'
+'\CheckCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}'
+ Like '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::) but does
+ not define CMD; instead it checks that the current definition of
+ CMD is exactly as given by DEFINITION and is or is not "long" as
+ expected. A long command is a command that accepts '\par' within
+ an argument. The CMD command is expected to be long with the
+ unstarred version of '\CheckCommand'. Raises an error when the
+ check fails. This allows you to check before you start redefining
+ 'cmd' yourself that no other package has already redefined this
+ command.
+
+'\ClassError{CLASS NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}'
+'\PackageError{PACKAGE NAME}{ERROR TEXT}{HELP TEXT}'
+'\ClassWarning{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}'
+'\PackageWarning{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}'
+'\ClassWarningNoLine{CLASS NAME}{WARNING TEXT}'
+'\PackageWarningNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{WARNING TEXT}'
+'\ClassInfo{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}'
+'\PackageInfo{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}'
+'\ClassInfoNoLine{CLASS NAME}{INFO TEXT}'
+'\PackageInfoNoLine{PACKAGE NAME}{INFO TEXT}'
+ Produce an error message, or warning or informational messages.
+
+ For '\ClassError' and '\PackageError' the message is ERROR TEXT,
+ followed by TeX's '?' error prompt. If the user then asks for help
+ by typing 'h', they see the HELP TEXT.
+
+ The four warning commands are similar except that they write
+ WARNING TEXT on the screen with no error prompt. The four info
+ commands write INFO TEXT only in the transcript file. The 'NoLine'
+ versions do not show the number of the line generating the message,
+ while the other versions do show that number.
+
+ To format the messages, including the HELP TEXT: use '\protect' to
+ stop a command from expanding, get a line break with
+ '\MessageBreak', and get a space with '\space' when a space
+ character does not allow it, like after a command. Note that LaTeX
+ appends a period to the messages.
+
+'\CurrentOption'
+ Expands to the name of the currently-being-processed option. Can
+ only be used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or
+ '\DeclareOption*'.
+
+'\DeclareOption{OPTION}{CODE}'
+'\DeclareOption*{CODE}'
+ Make an option available to a user to invoke in their
+ '\documentclass' command. For example, the 'smcmemo' class could
+ have an option '\documentclass[logo]{smcmemo}' allowing users to
+ put the institutional logo on the first page. The class file must
+ contain '\DeclareOption{logo}{CODE}' (and later,
+ '\ProcessOptions').
+
+ If you request an option that has not been declared, by default
+ this will produce a warning like 'Unused global option(s):
+ [badoption].' Change this behaviour with the starred version
+ '\DeclareOption*{CODE}'. For example, many classes extend an
+ existing class, using a declaration such as '\LoadClass{article}',
+ and for passing extra options to the underlying class use code such
+ as this.
+
+ \DeclareOption*{%
+ \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}%
+ }
+
+ Another example is that the class 'smcmemo' may allow users to keep
+ lists of memo recipients in external files. Then the user could
+ invoke '\documentclass[math]{smcmemo}' and it will read the file
+ 'math.memo'. This code handles the file if it exists and otherwise
+ passes the option to the 'article' class.
+
+ \DeclareOption*{\InputIfFileExists{\CurrentOption.memo}{}{%
+ \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}}
+
+'\DeclareRobustCommand{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}'
+'\DeclareRobustCommand*{CMD}[NUM][DEFAULT]{DEFINITION}'
+ Like '\newcommand' and '\newcommand*' (*note \newcommand &
+ \renewcommand::) but these declare a robust command, even if some
+ code within the DEFINITION is fragile. (For a discussion of robust
+ and fragile commands *note \protect::.) Use this command to define
+ new robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make them
+ robust. Unlike '\newcommand' these do not give an error if macro
+ CMD already exists; instead, a log message is put into the
+ transcript file if a command is redefined.
+
+ Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those
+ defined using '\newcommand' so unless the command's data is fragile
+ and the command is used within a moving argument, use
+ '\newcommand'.
+
+ The 'etoolbox' package offers the commands '\newrobustcmd',
+ '\newrobustcmd*', as well as the commands '\renewrobustcmd',
+ '\renewrobustcmd*', and the commands '\providerobustcmd', and
+ '\providerobustcmd*'. These are similar to '\newcommand',
+ '\newcommand*', '\renewcommand', '\renewcommand*',
+ '\providecommand', and '\providecommand*', but define a robust CMD
+ with two advantages as compared to '\DeclareRobustCommand':
+ 1. They use the low-level e-TeX protection mechanism rather than
+ the higher level LaTeX '\protect' mechanism, so they do not
+ incur the slight loss of performance mentioned above, and
+ 2. They make the same distinction between '\new...', '\renew...',
+ and '\provide...', as the standard commands, so they do not
+ just make a log message when you redefine CMD that already
+ exists, in that case you need to use either '\renew...' or
+ '\provide...' or you get an error.
+
+'\IfFileExists{FILE NAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}'
+'\InputIfFileExists{FILE NAME}{TRUE CODE}{FALSE CODE}'
+ Execute TRUE CODE if LaTeX finds the file 'FILE NAME' or FALSE CODE
+ otherwise. In the first case it executing TRUE CODE and then
+ inputs the file. Thus the command
+
+ \IfFileExists{img.pdf}{%
+ \includegraphics{img.pdf}}{\typeout{!! img.pdf not found}
+
+ will include the graphic 'img.pdf' if it is found and otherwise
+ give a warning.
+
+ This command looks for the file in all search paths that LaTeX
+ uses, not only in the current directory. To look only in the
+ current directory do something like '\IfFileExists{./filename}{TRUE
+ CODE}{FALSE CODE}'. If you ask for a filename without a '.tex'
+ extension then LaTeX will first look for the file by appending the
+ '.tex'; for more on how LaTeX handles file extensions see *note
+ \input::.
+
+'\LoadClass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]'
+'\LoadClassWithOptions{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]'
+ Load a class, as with '\documentclass[OPTIONS LIST]{CLASS
+ NAME}[RELEASE INFO]'. An example is
+ '\LoadClass[twoside]{article}'.
+
+ The OPTIONS LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The
+ RELEASE DATE is optional. If present it must have the form
+ YYYY/MM/DD.
+
+ If you request a RELEASE DATE and the date of the package installed
+ on your system is earlier, then you get a warning on the screen and
+ in the log like this.
+
+ You have requested, on input line 4, version `2038/01/19' of
+ document class article, but only version `2014/09/29 v1.4h
+ Standard LaTeX document class' is available.
+
+ The command version '\LoadClassWithOptions' uses the list of
+ options for the current class. This means it ignores any options
+ passed to it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience
+ command that lets you build classes on existing ones, such as the
+ standard 'article' class, without having to track which options
+ were passed.
+
+'\ExecuteOptions{OPTIONS-LIST}'
+ For each option OPTION in the OPTIONS-LIST, in order, this command
+ executes the command '\ds@OPTION'. If this command is not defined
+ then that option is silently ignored.
+
+ It can be used to provide a default option list before
+ '\ProcessOptions'. For example, if in a class file you want the
+ default to be 11pt fonts then you could specify
+ '\ExecuteOptions{11pt}\ProcessOptions\relax'.
+
+'\NeedsTeXFormat{FORMAT}[FORMAT DATE]'
+ Specifies the format that this class must be run under. Often
+ issued as the first line of a class file, and most often used as:
+ '\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}'. When a document using that class is
+ processed, the format name given here must match the format that is
+ actually being run (including that the FORMAT string is case
+ sensitive). If it does not match then execution stops with an
+ error like 'This file needs format `LaTeX2e' but this is `xxx'.'
+
+ To specify a version of the format that you know to have certain
+ features, include the optional FORMAT DATE on which those features
+ were implemented. If present it must be in the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'.
+ If the format version installed on your system is earlier than
+ FORMAT DATE then you get a warning like this.
+
+ You have requested release `2038/01/20' of LaTeX, but only
+ release `2016/02/01' is available.
+
+'\OptionNotUsed'
+ Adds the current option to the list of unused options. Can only be
+ used within the CODE argument of either '\DeclareOption' or
+ '\DeclareOption*'.
+
+'\PassOptionsToClass{OPTION LIST}{CLASS NAME}'
+'\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTION LIST}{PACKAGE NAME}'
+ Adds the options in the comma-separated list OPTION LIST to the
+ options used by any future '\RequirePackage' or '\usepackage'
+ command for package PACKAGE NAME or the class CLASS NAME.
+
+ The reason for these commands is: you may load a package any number
+ of times with no options but if you want options then you may only
+ supply them when you first load the package. Loading a package
+ with options more than once will get you an error like 'Option
+ clash for package foo.' (LaTeX throws an error even if there is no
+ conflict between the options.)
+
+ If your own code is bringing in a package twice then you can
+ collapse that to once, for example replacing the two
+ '\RequirePackage[landscape]{geometry}' and
+ '\RequirePackage[margins=1in]{geometry}' with the single command
+ '\RequirePackage[landscape,margins=1in]{geometry}'.
+
+ However, imagine that you are loading 'firstpkg' and inside that
+ package it loads 'secondpkg', and you need the second package to be
+ loaded with option 'draft'. Then before doing the first package
+ you must queue up the options for the second package, like this.
+
+ \PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{secondpkg}
+ \RequirePackage{firstpkg}
+
+ (If 'firstpkg.sty' loads an option in conflict with what you want
+ then you may have to alter its source.)
+
+ These commands are useful for general users as well as class and
+ package writers. For instance, suppose a user wants to load the
+ 'graphicx' package with the option 'draft' and also wants to use a
+ class 'foo' that loads the 'graphicx' package, but without that
+ option. The user could start their LaTeX file with
+ '\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\documentclass{foo}'.
+
+'\ProcessOptions'
+'\ProcessOptions*\@OPTIONS'
+ Execute the code for each option that the user has invoked.
+ Include it in the class file as '\ProcessOptions\relax' (because of
+ the existence of the starred command).
+
+ Options come in two types. "Local options" have been specified for
+ this particular package in the OPTIONS argument of
+ '\PassOptionsToPackage{OPTIONS}', '\usepackage[OPTIONS]', or
+ '\RequirePackage[OPTIONS]'. "Global options" are those given by
+ the class user in '\documentclass[OPTIONS]' (If an option is
+ specified both locally and globally then it is local.)
+
+ When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a package 'pkg.sty', the
+ following happens:
+ 1. For each option OPTION so far declared with '\DeclareOption',
+ it looks to see if that option is either a global or a local
+ option for 'pkg'. If so then it executes the declared code.
+ This is done in the order in which these options were given in
+ 'pkg.sty'.
+ 2. For each remaining local option, it executes the command
+ '\ds@'OPTION if it has been defined somewhere (other than by a
+ '\DeclareOption'); otherwise, it executes the default option
+ code given in '\DeclareOption*'. If no default option code
+ has been declared then it gives an error message. This is
+ done in the order in which these options were specified.
+
+ When '\ProcessOptions' is called for a class it works in the same
+ way except that all options are local, and the default CODE for
+ '\DeclareOption*' is '\OptionNotUsed' rather than an error.
+
+ The starred version '\ProcessOptions*' executes the options in the
+ order specified in the calling commands, rather than in the order
+ of declaration in the class or package. For a package this means
+ that the global options are processed first.
+
+'\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]'
+'\ProvidesClass{CLASS NAME}[RELEASE DATE]'
+'\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE BRIEF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]'
+'\ProvidesPackage{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]'
+ Identifies the class or package, printing a message to the screen
+ and the log file.
+
+ When you load a class or package, for example with
+ '\documentclass{smcmemo}' or '\usepackage{test}', LaTeX inputs a
+ file. If the name of the file does not match the class or package
+ name declared in it then you get a warning. Thus, if you invoke
+ '\documentclass{smcmemo}', and the file 'smcmemo.cls' has the
+ statement '\ProvidesClass{xxx}' then you get a warning like 'You
+ have requested document class `smcmemo', but the document class
+ provides 'xxx'.' This warning does not prevent LaTeX from
+ processing the rest of the class file normally.
+
+ If you include the optional argument then you must include a date,
+ before any spaces, of the form 'YYYY/MM/DD'. The rest of the
+ optional argument is free-form, although it traditionally
+ identifies the class, and is written to the screen during
+ compilation and to the log file. Thus, if your file 'smcmemo.cls'
+ contains the line '\ProvidesClass{smcmemo}[2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo
+ class]' and your document's first line is '\documentclass{smcmemo}'
+ then you will see 'Document Class: smcmemo 2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo
+ class'.
+
+ The date in the optional argument allows class and package users to
+ ask to be warned if the version of the class or package is earlier
+ than RELEASE DATE. For instance, a user could enter
+ '\documentclass{smcmemo}[2018/10/12]' or
+ '\usepackage{foo}[[2017/07/07]]' to require a class or package with
+ certain features by specifying that it must be released no earlier
+ than the given date. (Although, in practice package users only
+ rarely include a date, and class users almost never do.)
+
+'\ProvidesFile{FILE NAME}[ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]'
+ Declare a file other than the main class and package files, such as
+ configuration files or font definition files. Put this command in
+ that file and you get in the log a string like 'File: test.config
+ 2017/10/12 config file for test.cls' for FILE NAME equal to
+ 'test.config' and ADDITIONAL INFORMATION equal to '2017/10/12
+ config file for test.cls'.
+
+'\RequirePackage[OPTION LIST]{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]'
+'\RequirePackageWithOptions{PACKAGE NAME}[RELEASE DATE]'
+ Load a package, like the command '\usepackage' (*note Additional
+ packages::). The LaTeX development team strongly recommends use of
+ these commands over Plain TeX's '\input'; see the Class Guide. An
+ example is '\RequirePackage[landscape,margin=1in]{geometry}'.
+
+ The OPTION LIST, if present, is a comma-separated list. The
+ RELEASE DATE, if present, must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If the
+ release date of the package as installed on your system is earlier
+ than RELEASE DATE then you get a warning like 'You have requested,
+ on input line 9, version `2017/07/03' of package jhtest, but only
+ version `2000/01/01' is available'.
+
+ The '\RequirePackageWithOptions' version uses the list of options
+ for the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to
+ it via '\PassOptionsToClass'. This is a convenience command to
+ allow easily building classes on existing ones without having to
+ track which options were passed.
+
+ The difference between '\usepackage' and '\RequirePackage' is
+ small. The '\usepackage' command is intended for the document file
+ while '\RequirePackage' is intended for package and class files.
+ Thus, using '\usepackage' before the '\documentclass' command
+ causes LaTeX to give error like '\usepackage before
+ \documentclass', but you can use '\RequirePackage' there.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Fonts, Next: Layout, Prev: Document classes, Up: Top
+
+4 Fonts
+*******
+
+Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a
+style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Font styles:: Select roman, italics, etc.
+* Font sizes:: Select point size.
+* Low-level font commands:: Select encoding, family, series, shape.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Font styles, Next: Font sizes, Up: Fonts
+
+4.1 Font styles
+===============
+
+The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.
+
+ In the table below the listed commands, the '\text...' commands, is
+used with an argument, as in '\textit{TEXT}'. This is the preferred
+form. But shown after it, in parenthesis, is the corresponding
+declaration form, which is sometimes useful. This form takes no
+arguments, as in '{\itshape TEXT}'. The scope of the declaration form
+lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group.
+In addition, each has an environment form such as
+'\begin{itshape}...\end{itshape}'.
+
+ These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form,
+are cumulative; for instance you can get bold sans serif by saying
+either of '\sffamily\bfseries' or '\bfseries\sffamily'.
+
+ One advantage of these commands is that they automatically insert
+italic corrections if needed (*note \/::). Specifically, they insert
+the italic correction unless the following character is in the list
+'\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a period and a comma. To
+suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use '\nocorr' at
+the start or end of the command argument, such as '\textit{\nocorr
+text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'.
+
+'\textrm (\rmfamily)'
+ Roman.
+
+'\textit (\itshape)'
+ Italics.
+
+'\textmd (\mdseries)'
+ Medium weight (default).
+
+'\textbf (\bfseries)'
+ Boldface.
+
+'\textup (\upshape)'
+ Upright (default).
+
+'\textsl (\slshape)'
+ Slanted.
+
+'\textsf (\sffamily)'
+ Sans serif.
+
+'\textsc (\scshape)'
+ Small caps.
+
+'\texttt (\ttfamily)'
+ Typewriter.
+
+'\textnormal (\normalfont)'
+ Main document font.
+
+ Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is
+semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a
+substitute for '\textit'. For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE
+TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics,
+but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman.
+
+ LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally
+switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative. They are used
+as declarations: '{\CMD...}' instead of '\CMD{...}'.
+
+ (The unconditional commands below are an older version of font
+switching. The earlier commands are an improvement in most
+circumstances. But sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely
+what you want.)
+
+'\bf'
+ Switch to bold face.
+
+'\cal'
+ Switch to calligraphic letters for math.
+
+'\it'
+ Italics.
+
+'\rm'
+ Roman.
+
+'\sc'
+ Small caps.
+
+'\sf'
+ Sans serif.
+
+'\sl'
+ Slanted (oblique).
+
+'\tt'
+ Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
+
+ The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'.
+
+ The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not
+cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and
+italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics. This is because
+typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless
+of the surrounding environment.
+
+'\mathrm'
+ Roman, for use in math mode.
+
+'\mathbf'
+ Boldface, for use in math mode.
+
+'\mathsf'
+ Sans serif, for use in math mode.
+
+'\mathtt'
+ Typewriter, for use in math mode.
+
+'\mathit'
+'(\mit)'
+ Italics, for use in math mode.
+
+'\mathnormal'
+ For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.
+
+'\mathcal'
+ Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.
+
+ In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for
+switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas.
+'\mathversion{normal}' restores the default.
+
+ Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called
+"old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and
+sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have
+the same height as uppercase letters. LaTeX's default fonts support
+this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no
+italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have
+old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be
+loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the
+default. FAQ entry:
+<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf>.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Font sizes, Next: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font styles, Up: Fonts
+
+4.2 Font sizes
+==============
+
+The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The
+table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used
+(in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options,
+respectively (*note Document class options::).
+
+Command '10pt' '11pt' '12pt'
+--------------------------------------------------------
+'\tiny' 5 6 6
+'\scriptsize' 7 8 8
+'\footnotesize' 8 9 10
+'\small' 9 10 10.95
+'\normalsize' (default) 10 10.95 12
+'\large' 12 12 14.4
+'\Large' 14.4 14.4 17.28
+'\LARGE' 17.28 17.28 20.74
+'\huge' 20.74 20.74 24.88
+'\Huge' 24.88 24.88 24.88
+
+ The commands are listed here in declaration forms. You use them by
+declaring them, as with this example.
+
+ \begin{quotation} \small
+ The Tao that can be named is not the eternal Tao.
+ \end{quotation}
+
+The scope of the '\small' lasts until the end of the 'quotation'
+environment. It would also end at the next type style command or the
+end of the current group, so you could enclose it in extra curly braces
+'{\small We are here, we are here, we are here!}'. You can instead use
+the environment form of these commands; for instance,
+'\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Low-level font commands, Prev: Font sizes, Up: Fonts
+
+4.3 Low-level font commands
+===========================
+
+These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
+packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
+ones.
+
+'\fontencoding{ENCODING}'
+ Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There
+ are a large number of valid encodings. The most common are 'OT1',
+ Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and
+ 'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the
+ accented characters used by the most widespread European languages
+ (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to
+ hyphenate words containing accented letters. For more, see
+ <https://ctan.org/pkg/encguide>.
+
+'\fontfamily{FAMILY}'
+ Select the font family. The web page
+ <http://www.tug.dk/FontCatalogue/> provides one way to browse
+ through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are
+ examples of some common families.
+
+ 'pag' Avant Garde
+ 'fvs' Bitstream Vera Sans
+ 'pbk' Bookman
+ 'bch' Charter
+ 'ccr' Computer Concrete
+ 'cmr' Computer Modern
+ 'cmss' Computer Modern Sans Serif
+ 'cmtt' Computer Modern Typewriter
+ 'pcr' Courier
+ 'phv' Helvetica
+ 'fi4' Inconsolata
+ 'lmr' Latin Modern
+ 'lmss' Latin Modern Sans
+ 'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter
+ 'pnc' New Century Schoolbook
+ 'ppl' Palatino
+ 'ptm' Times
+ 'uncl' Uncial
+ 'put' Utopia
+ 'pzc' Zapf Chancery
+
+'\fontseries{SERIES}'
+ Select the font series. A "series" combines a "weight" and a
+ "width". Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible
+ combinations. Some common combined series values include:
+
+ 'm' Medium (normal)
+ 'b' Bold
+ 'c' Condensed
+ 'bc' Bold condensed
+ 'bx' Bold extended
+
+ The possible values for weight, individually, are:
+
+ 'ul' Ultra light
+ 'el' Extra light
+ 'l' Light
+ 'sl' Semi light
+ 'm' Medium (normal)
+ 'sb' Semi bold
+ 'b' Bold
+ 'eb' Extra bold
+ 'ub' Ultra bold
+
+ The possible values for width, individually, are (the meaning and
+ relationship of these terms varies with individual typefaces):
+
+ 'uc' Ultra condensed
+ 'ec' Extra condensed
+ 'c' Condensed
+ 'sc' Semi condensed
+ 'm' Medium
+ 'sx' Semi expanded
+ 'x' Expanded
+ 'ex' Extra expanded
+ 'ux' Ultra expanded
+
+ When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the
+ 'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both
+ weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m'').
+
+'\fontshape{SHAPE}'
+ Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
+
+ 'n' Upright (normal)
+ 'it' Italic
+ 'sl' Slanted (oblique)
+ 'sc' Small caps
+ 'ui' Upright italics
+ 'ol' Outline
+
+ The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and
+ small caps are often missing as well.
+
+'\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}'
+ Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both
+ parameters defaults to points ('pt'). The line spacing is the
+ nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is
+ stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'. The default
+ '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the
+ '\fontsize'. Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable
+ since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see
+ '\baselinestretch', next.
+
+'\baselinestretch'
+ LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the
+ '\baselinestretch' parameter; the default factor is 1. A change
+ takes effect when '\selectfont' (see below) is called. You can
+ make a line skip change happen for the entire document, for
+ instance doubling it, by doing
+ '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}' in the preamble.
+
+ However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the
+ 'setspace' package. In addition to offering a number of spacing
+ options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in
+ places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and
+ figure captions. See the package documentation.
+
+'\linespread{FACTOR}'
+ Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and
+ therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect.
+ Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as
+ just described.
+
+'\selectfont'
+ The effects of the font commands described above do not happen
+ until '\selectfont' is called, as in
+ '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'. It is often useful to put
+ this in a macro:
+ '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}'
+ (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::).
+
+'\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}'
+ The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries'
+ and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by
+ '\selectfont'. For example:
+
+ \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Layout, Next: Sectioning, Prev: Fonts, Up: Top
+
+5 Layout
+********
+
+Commands for controlling the general page layout.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout.
+* \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout.
+* \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height.
+* \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height.
+* Page layout parameters:: '\headheight' '\footskip'.
+* Floats:: Figures, tables, etc.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \onecolumn, Next: \twocolumn, Up: Layout
+
+5.1 '\onecolumn'
+================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \onecolumn
+
+ Start a new page and produce single-column output. If the document
+is given the class option 'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior
+(*note Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note
+\protect::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \twocolumn, Next: \flushbottom, Prev: \onecolumn, Up: Layout
+
+5.2 '\twocolumn'
+================
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \twocolumn
+ \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT]
+
+ Start a new page and produce two-column output. If the document is
+given the class option 'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note
+Document class options::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is
+typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.
+
+ These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
+
+'\columnsep'
+ The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with
+ a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}' You must change it
+ before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good
+ place.
+
+'\columnseprule'
+ The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway
+ between the two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is
+ no rule. Change it with a command such as
+ '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column
+ environment starts.
+
+'\columnwidth'
+ The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to
+ '\textwidth'. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width
+ of each of the two columns to be half of '\textwidth' minus
+ '\columnsep'.
+
+ In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and
+'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments
+'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note
+table::). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page. The
+following parameters control float behavior of two-column output.
+
+'\dbltopfraction'
+ The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be
+ occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning
+ that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not
+ exceed '0.7\textheight' . If the height of your starred float
+ environment exceeds this then you can take one of the following
+ actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the
+ document:
+
+ * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put
+ the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of
+ a page.
+
+ * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of
+ '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float.
+
+ * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large
+ number, to avoid going to float pages so soon.
+
+ You can redefine it, as with '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'.
+
+'\dblfloatpagefraction'
+ For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum
+ fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of
+ blank space. LaTeX's default is '0.5'. Change it with
+ '\renewcommand'.
+
+'\dblfloatsep'
+ On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the
+ distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page.
+ The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt'
+ or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at
+ '12pt'.
+
+'\dbltextfloatsep'
+ This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top
+ or bottom of a page and the main text. The default is '20pt
+ plus2pt minus4pt'.
+
+'\dbltopnumber'
+ On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the
+ maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX
+ default is '2'.
+
+ This example uses '\twocolumn''s optional argument of to create a
+title that spans the two-column article:
+
+ \documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
+ \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}}
+ \begin{document}
+ \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text
+ \centering
+ \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em]
+ \large Author One\authormark{1},
+ Author Two\authormark{2},
+ Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em]
+ \normalsize
+ \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}}
+ \authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\
+ School one &School two
+ \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part
+ }]
+
+ Two column text here.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \flushbottom, Next: \raggedbottom, Prev: \twocolumn, Up: Layout
+
+5.3 '\flushbottom'
+==================
+
+Make all pages in the documents after this declaration have the same
+height, by stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the
+page. This is most often used when making two-sided documents since the
+differences in facing pages can be glaring.
+
+ If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page
+then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has
+occurred while \output is active'. If you get that, one option is to
+change to '\raggedbottom' (*note \raggedbottom::). Alternatively, you
+can adjust the 'textheight' to make compatible pages, or you can add
+some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in
+'\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'. Your last option is to, in a
+final editing stage, adjust the height of individual pages (*note
+\enlargethispage::).
+
+ The '\flushbottom' state is the default only if you select the
+'twoside' document class option (*note Document class options::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedbottom, Next: Page layout parameters, Prev: \flushbottom, Up: Layout
+
+5.4 '\raggedbottom'
+===================
+
+Make all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no
+rubber vertical lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided
+document the facing pages may be different heights. This command can go
+at any point in the document body. See *note \flushbottom::.
+
+ This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class
+option (*note Document class options::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Page layout parameters, Next: Floats, Prev: \raggedbottom, Up: Layout
+
+5.5 Page layout parameters
+==========================
+
+'\columnsep'
+'\columnseprule'
+'\columnwidth'
+ The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between
+ the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class
+ option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::).
+ *Note \twocolumn::.
+
+'\headheight'
+ Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in
+ the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type
+ sizes.
+
+'\headsep'
+ Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top
+ of the main text. The default in the 'article' and 'report'
+ classes is '25pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: if the
+ document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt and 12pt
+ it is '0.275in'.
+
+'\footskip'
+ Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline
+ of the page footer. The default in the 'article' and 'report'
+ classes is '30pt'. In the 'book' class the default is: when the
+ type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is
+ '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'.
+
+'\linewidth'
+ Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note
+ list::). That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal
+ '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased
+ by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note
+ itemize::).
+
+'\marginparpush'
+'\marginsep'
+'\marginparwidth'
+ The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the
+ horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and
+ the horizontal width of the notes.
+
+ Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the
+ declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and
+ '\normalmarginpar' changes it back).
+
+ The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article'
+ classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the
+ document is set at 11pt or 10pt.
+
+ For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except
+ if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the
+ default is '11pt'.
+
+ For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in
+ two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode.
+
+ For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in
+ two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth',
+ while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance.
+
+'\oddsidemargin'
+'\evensidemargin'
+ The '\oddsidemargin' is the extra distance between the left side of
+ the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the
+ document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when
+ 'oneside' is in effect. When 'twoside' is in effect, on
+ even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is
+ 'evensidemargin'.
+
+ LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference
+ between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is
+ the remainder.
+
+'\paperheight'
+ The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print
+ area. Normally set with a document class option, as in
+ '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class
+ options::).
+
+'\paperwidth'
+ The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print
+ area. Normally set with a document class option, as in
+ '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class
+ options::).
+
+'\textheight'
+ The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is
+ set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or
+ 'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is
+ '41\baselineskip'. At a type size of 11pt the default is
+ '38\baselineskip' for all document classes. At 12pt it is
+ '36\baselineskip' for all classes.
+
+'\textwidth'
+ The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an
+ 'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the
+ chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is
+ '390pt' at 12pt. For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at
+ a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt.
+
+ In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the
+ entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column
+ (*note \twocolumn::).
+
+ In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the
+ entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire
+ column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists.
+
+ Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note
+ \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the
+ specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of
+ the 'minipage' or '\parbox'.
+
+'\hsize'
+ This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX
+ primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should
+ not be used in normal LaTeX documents.
+
+'\topmargin'
+ Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the
+ paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is
+ computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in -
+ \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided
+ by two.
+
+'\topskip'
+ Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline
+ of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default
+ is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Floats, Prev: Page layout parameters, Up: Layout
+
+5.6 Floats
+==========
+
+Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken
+across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text,
+for instance floating to the top of a later page.
+
+ LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material.
+The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table'
+(*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package
+'float'.
+
+ Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that
+the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second
+figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while
+the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it
+appears in the output after it.
+
+ The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that
+limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the
+bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued that the limits prevent them
+all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the
+rest to the next page. In this way, floats may end up being typeset far
+from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big may
+migrate to the end of the document. In which event, because all floats
+in a class must appear in sequential order, every following float in
+that class also appears at the end.
+
+ In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak
+where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its
+PLACEMENT argument. The possible values are a sequence of the letters
+below. The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and
+'book' classes, is 'tbp'.
+
+'t'
+ (Top)--at the top of a text page.
+
+'b'
+ (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page. (However, 'b' is not
+ allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column
+ output. To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix'
+ package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ:
+ <http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat>.
+
+'h'
+ (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment
+ appears. However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is
+ automatically added.
+
+ To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can
+ '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines.
+ For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
+ <http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere>.
+
+'p'
+ (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page
+ containing no text, only floats.
+
+'!'
+ Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX
+ ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can
+ appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the
+ page. The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see
+ above.
+
+ Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument
+does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for
+instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'. All that PLACEMENT does
+is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that
+location. Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location
+except placing the float where it occurs in the source.
+
+ To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a
+chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and
+insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can
+use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'. This
+will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all
+outstanding floats.
+
+ LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source
+(although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the
+PLACEMENT parameter. If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is
+not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the
+next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package
+or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the
+top position on this page to moved to the next page.
+
+ Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
+non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL
+BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'):
+
+'\bottomfraction'
+ The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats
+ at the bottom; default '.3'.
+
+'\floatpagefraction'
+ The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by
+ floats; default '.5'.
+
+'\textfraction'
+ Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
+ much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
+ different page. The default is '.2'.
+
+'\topfraction'
+ Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
+ floats; default '.7'.
+
+ Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with
+a command of the form '\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'):
+
+'\floatsep'
+ Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt
+ plus2pt minus2pt'.
+
+'\intextsep'
+ Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text;
+ default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point
+ documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents.
+
+'\textfloatsep'
+ Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
+ default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.
+
+ Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with
+a command of the form '\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'):
+
+'bottomnumber'
+ Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text
+ page; default 1.
+
+'dbltopnumber'
+ Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a
+ two-column page; default 2.
+
+'topnumber'
+ Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page;
+ default 2.
+
+'totalnumber'
+ Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.
+
+ The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats
+<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats> contains
+suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the
+problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explanation of the
+float placement algorithm is in Frank Mittelbach's article "How to
+influence the position of float environments like figure and table in
+LaTeX?" (<http://latex-project.org/papers/tb111mitt-float.pdf>).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Sectioning, Next: Cross references, Prev: Layout, Up: Top
+
+6 Sectioning
+************
+
+Structure your text into divisions: parts, chapters, sections, etc. All
+sectioning commands have the same form, one of:
+
+ SECTIONING-COMMAND{TITLE}
+ SECTIONING-COMMAND*{TITLE}
+ SECTIONING-COMMAND[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+For instance, declare the start of a subsection as with
+'\subsection{Motivation}'.
+
+ The table has each SECTIONING-COMMAND in LaTeX. All are available in
+all of LaTeX's standard document classes 'book', 'report',
+and 'article', except that '\chapter' is not available in 'article'.
+
+Sectioning unit Command Level
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+Part '\part' -1 ('book', 'report'), 0
+ ('article')
+Chapter '\chapter' 0
+Section '\section' 1
+Subsection '\subsection' 2
+Subsubsection '\subsubsection' 3
+Paragraph '\paragraph' 4
+Subparagraph '\subparagraph' 5
+
+ All these commands have a '*'-form that prints TITLE as usual but is
+not numbered and does not make an entry in the table of contents. An
+example of using this is for an appendix in an 'article' . The input
+'\appendix\section{Appendix}' gives the output 'A Appendix' (*note
+\appendix::). You can lose the numbering 'A' by instead entering
+'\section*{Appendix}' (articles often omit a table of contents and have
+simple page headers so the other differences from the '\section' command
+may not matter).
+
+ The section title TITLE provides the heading in the main text, but it
+may also appear in the table of contents and in the running head or foot
+(*note Page styles::). You may not want the same text in these places
+as in the main text. All of these commands have an optional argument
+TOC-TITLE for these other places.
+
+ The level number in the table above determines which sectional units
+are numbered, and which appear in the table of contents. If the
+sectioning command's LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the
+counter 'secnumdepth' then the titles for this sectioning command will
+be numbered (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::). And, if LEVEL is less
+than or equal to the value of the counter 'tocdepth' then the table of
+contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit (*note
+Sectioning/tocdepth::).
+
+ LaTeX expects that before you have a '\subsection' you will have a
+'\section' and, in a book, that before a '\section' you will have a
+'\chapter'. Otherwise you can get a something like a subsection
+numbered '3.0.1'.
+
+ Two counters relate to the appearance of sectioning commands.
+
+'secnumdepth'
+ Controls which sectioning commands are numbered. Suppress
+ numbering of sectioning at any depth greater than LEVEL
+ '\setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL}' (*note \setcounter::). See the
+ above table for the level numbers. For instance, if the
+ 'secnumdepth' is 1 in an 'article' then a '\section{Introduction}'
+ command will produce output like '1 Introduction' while
+ '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like 'Discussion',
+ without the number. LaTeX's default 'secnumdepth' is 3 in
+ 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes.
+
+'tocdepth'
+ Controls which sectioning units are listed in the table of
+ contents. The setting '\setcounter{tocdepth}{LEVEL}' makes the
+ sectioning units at LEVEL be the smallest ones listed (*note
+ \setcounter::). See the above table for the level numbers. For
+ instance, if 'tocdepth' is 1 then the table of contents will list
+ sections but not subsections. LaTeX's default 'secnumdepth' is 3
+ in 'article' class and 2 in the 'book' and 'report' classes.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \part:: Start a part.
+* \chapter:: Start a chapter.
+* \section:: Start a section.
+* \subsection:: Start a subsection.
+* \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph:: Lower divisions.
+* \appendix:: Start appendices.
+* \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter:: The three parts of a book.
+* \@startsection:: Layout of sectional units.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \part, Next: \chapter, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.1 '\part'
+===========
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \part{TITLE}
+ \part*{TITLE}
+ \part[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+ Start a document part. The standard LaTeX classes 'book', 'report',
+and 'article', all have this command.
+
+ This produces a document part, in a book.
+
+ \part{VOLUME I \\
+ PERSONAL MEMOIRS OF U.\ S.\ GRANT}
+ \chapter{ANCESTRY--BIRTH--BOYHOOD.}
+ My family is American, and has been for generations,
+ in all its branches, direct and collateral.
+
+ In each standard class the '\part' command outputs a part number such
+as 'Part I', alone on its line, in boldface, and in large type. Then
+LaTeX outputs TITLE, also alone on its line, in bold and in even larger
+type. In class 'book', the LaTeX default puts each part alone on its
+own page. If the book is two-sided then LaTeX will skip a page if
+needed to have the new part on an odd-numbered page. In 'report' it is
+again alone on a page, but LaTeX won't force it onto an odd-numbered
+page. In an 'article' LaTeX does not put it on a fresh page, but
+instead outputs the part number and part title onto the main document
+page.
+
+ The '*' form shows TITLE but it does not show the part number, does
+not increment the 'part' counter, and produces no table of contents
+entry.
+
+ The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the part title in the
+table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running
+headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be
+there. This example puts a line break in TITLE but leaves out the break
+in the table of contents.
+
+ \part[Up from the bottom; my life]{Up from the bottom\\ my life}
+
+ For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear
+in the table of contents, the level number of a part is -1 (*note
+Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::).
+
+ In the class 'article', if a paragraph immediately follows the part
+title then it is not indented. To get an indent you can use the package
+'indentfirst'.
+
+ One package to change the behavior of '\part' is 'titlesec'. See its
+documentation on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \chapter, Next: \section, Prev: \part, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.2 '\chapter'
+==============
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \chapter{TITLE}
+ \chapter*{TITLE}
+ \chapter[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+ Start a chapter. The standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' have
+this command but 'article' does not.
+
+ This produces a chapter.
+
+ \chapter{Loomings}
+ Call me Ishmael.
+ Some years ago---never mind how long precisely---having little or no
+ money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I
+ thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of
+ the world.
+
+ The LaTeX default starts each chapter on a fresh page, an
+odd-numbered page if the document is two-sided. It produces a chapter
+number such as 'Chapter 1' in large boldface type (the size is '\huge').
+It then puts TITLE on a fresh line, in boldface type that is still
+larger (size '\Huge'). It also increments the 'chapter' counter, adds
+an entry to the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::), and
+sets the running header information (*note Page styles::).
+
+ The '*' form shows TITLE on a fresh line, in boldface. But it does
+not show the chapter number, does not increment the 'chapter' counter,
+produces no table of contents entry, and does not affect the running
+header. (If you use the page style 'headings' in a two-sided document
+then the header will be from the prior chapter.) This example
+illustrates.
+
+ \chapter*{Preamble}
+
+ The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the chapter title in
+the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running
+headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be
+there. This shows the full name in the chapter title,
+
+ \chapter[Weyl]{Hermann Klaus Hugo (Peter) Weyl (1885--1955)}
+
+but only 'Weyl' on the contents page. This puts a line break in the
+title but that doesn't work well with running headers so it omits the
+break in the contents
+
+ \chapter[Given it all\\ my story]{Given it all\\ my story}
+
+ For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear
+in the table of contents, the level number of a chapter is 0 (*note
+Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::).
+
+ The paragraph that follows the chapter title is not indented, as is a
+standard typographical practice. To get an indent use the package
+'indentfirst'.
+
+ You can change what is shown for the chapter number. To change it to
+something like 'Lecture 1', put in the preamble either
+'\renewcommand{\chaptername}{Lecture}' or this (*note \makeatletter &
+\makeatother::).
+
+ \makeatletter
+ \renewcommand{\@chapapp}{Lecture}
+ \makeatother
+
+To make this change because of the primary language for the document,
+see the package 'babel'.
+
+ In a two-sided document LaTeX puts a chapter on odd-numbered page, if
+necessary leaving an even-numbered page that is blank except for any
+running headers. To make that page completely blank, see *note
+\clearpage & \cleardoublepage::.
+
+ To change the behavior of the '\chapter' command, you can copy its
+definition from the LaTeX format file and make adjustments. But there
+are also many packages on CTAN that address this. One is 'titlesec'.
+See its documentation, but the example below gives a sense of what it
+can do.
+
+ \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
+ \titleformat{\chapter}
+ {\Huge\bfseries} % format of title
+ {} % label, such as 1.2 for a subsection
+ {0pt} % length of separation between label and title
+ {} % before-code hook
+
+This omits the chapter number 'Chapter 1' from the page but unlike
+'\chapter*' it keeps the chapter in the table of contents and the
+running headers.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \section, Next: \subsection, Prev: \chapter, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.3 '\section'
+==============
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \section{TITLE}
+ \section*{TITLE}
+ \section[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+ Start a section. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and
+'report' all have this command.
+
+ This produces a section.
+
+ In this Part we tend to be more interested in the function,
+ in the input-output behavior,
+ than in the details of implementing that behavior.
+
+ \section{Turing machines}
+ Despite this desire to downplay implementation,
+ we follow the approach of A~Turing that the
+ first step toward defining the set of computable functions
+ is to reflect on the details of what mechanisms can do.
+
+ For the standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' the default output
+is like '1.2 TITLE' (for chapter 1, section 2), alone on its line and
+flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the type size is '\Large').
+The same holds in 'article' except that there are no chapters in that
+class so it looks like '2 TITLE'.
+
+ The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not show the section number,
+does not increment the 'section' counter, produces no table of contents
+entry, and does not affect the running header. (If you use the page
+style 'headings' in a two-sided document then the header will be from
+the prior section.)
+
+ The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the section title in
+the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::) and in running
+headers (*note Page styles::). If it is not present then TITLE will be
+there. This shows the full name in the title of the section,
+
+ \section[Elizabeth~II]{Elizabeth the Second,
+ by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom,
+ Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen,
+ Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.}
+
+but only 'Elizabeth II' on the contents page and in the headers. This
+has a line break in TITLE but that does not work with headers so it is
+omitted from the contents and headers.
+
+ \section[Truth is, I cheated; my life story]{Truth is,
+ I cheated\\my life story}
+
+ For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear
+in the table of contents, the level number of a section is 1 (*note
+Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::).
+
+ The paragraph that follows the section title is not indented, as is a
+standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the
+package 'indentfirst'.
+
+ In general, to change the behavior of the '\section' command, there
+are a number of options. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note
+\@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address
+this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation but the example below
+gives a sense of what they can do.
+
+ \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
+ \titleformat{\section}
+ {\normalfont\Large\bfseries} % format of title
+ {\makebox[1pc][r]{\thesection\hspace{1pc}}} % label
+ {0pt} % length of separation between label and title
+ {} % before-code hook
+ \titlespacing*{\section}
+ {-1pc}{18pt}{10pt}[10pc]
+
+That puts the section number in the margin.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \subsection, Next: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph, Prev: \section, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.4 '\subsection'
+=================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \subsection{TITLE}
+ \subsection*{TITLE}
+ \subsection[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+ Start a subsection. The standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book',
+and 'report' all have this command.
+
+ This produces a subsection.
+
+ We will show that there are more functions than Turing machines and that
+ therefore some functions have no associated machine.
+
+ \subsection{Cardinality} We will begin with two paradoxes that
+ dramatize the challenge to our intuition posed by comparing the sizes of
+ infinite sets.
+
+ For the standard LaTeX classes 'book' and 'report' the default output
+is like '1.2.3 TITLE' (for chapter 1, section 2, subsection 3), alone on
+its line and flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the type size is
+'\large'). The same holds in 'article' except that there are no
+chapters in that class so it looks like '2.3 TITLE'.
+
+ The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not show the section number,
+does not increment the 'section' counter, and produces no table of
+contents entry.
+
+ The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the section title in
+the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). If it is not
+present then TITLE will be there. This shows the full name in the title
+of the section,
+
+ \subsection[$\alpha,\beta,\gamma$ paper]{\textit{The Origin of
+ Chemical Elements} by R.A.~Alpher, H.~Bethe, and G.~Gamow}
+
+but only 'U+03B1,U+03B2,U+03B3 paper' on the contents page.
+
+ For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear
+in the table of contents, the level number of a subsection is 2 (*note
+Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::).
+
+ The paragraph that follows the subsection title is not indented, as
+is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to
+use the package 'indentfirst'.
+
+ There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the
+'\subsection' command. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note
+\@startsection::). There are also many packages on CTAN that address
+this, including 'titlesec'. See the documentation but the example below
+gives a sense of what they can do.
+
+ \usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
+ \titleformat{\subsection}[runin]
+ {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries} % format of the title
+ {\thesubsection} % label
+ {0.6em} % space between label and title
+ {} % before-code hook
+
+That puts the subsection number and TITLE in the first line of text.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph, Next: \appendix, Prev: \subsection, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.5 '\subsubsection', '\paragraph', '\subparagraph'
+===================================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \subsubsection{TITLE}
+ \subsubsection*{TITLE}
+ \subsubsection[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+or one of:
+
+ \paragraph{TITLE}
+ \paragraph*{TITLE}
+ \paragraph[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+or one of:
+
+ \subparagraph{TITLE}
+ \subparagraph*{TITLE}
+ \subparagraph[TOC-TITLE]{TITLE}
+
+ Start a subsubsection, paragraph, or subparagraph. The standard
+LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report' all have these commands,
+although they are not commonly used.
+
+ This produces a subsubsection.
+
+ \subsubsection{Piston ring compressors: structural performance}
+ Provide exterior/interior wall cladding assemblies
+ capable of withstanding the effects of load and stresses from
+ consumer-grade gasoline engine piston rings.
+
+ The default output of each of the three does not change over the
+standard LaTeX classes 'article', 'book', and 'report'. For
+'\subsubsection' the TITLE is alone on its line, in boldface and normal
+size type. For '\paragraph' the TITLE is inline with the text, not
+indented, in boldface and normal size type. For '\subparagraph' the
+TITLE is inline with the text, with a paragraph indent, in boldface and
+normal size type (Because an 'article' has no chapters its
+subsubsections are numbered and so it looks like '1.2.3 TITLE', for
+section 1, subsection 2, and subsubsection 3. The other two divisions
+are not numbered.)
+
+ The '*' form shows TITLE. But it does not increment the associated
+counter and produces no table of contents entry (and does not show the
+number for '\subsubsection').
+
+ The optional argument TOC-TITLE will appear as the division title in
+the table of contents (*note Table of contents etc.::). If it is not
+present then TITLE will be there.
+
+ For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear
+in the table of contents, the level number of a subsubsection is 3, of a
+paragraph is 4, and of a subparagraph is 5 (*note
+Sectioning/secnumdepth:: and *note Sectioning/tocdepth::).
+
+ The paragraph that follows the subsubsection title is not indented,
+as is a standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to
+use the package 'indentfirst'.
+
+ There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the these
+commands. One is the '\@startsection' command (*note \@startsection::).
+There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including
+'titlesec'. See the documentation on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \appendix, Next: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter, Prev: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.6 '\appendix'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \appendix
+
+ This does not directly produce any output. But in a book or report
+it declares that subsequent '\chapter' commands start an appendix. In
+an article it does the same, for '\section' commands. It also resets
+the 'chapter' and 'section' counters to 0 in a book or report, and in an
+article resets the 'section' and 'subsection' counters.
+
+ In this book
+
+ \chapter{One} ...
+ \chapter{Two} ...
+ ...
+ \appendix
+ \chapter{Three} ...
+ \chapter{Four} ...
+
+the first two will generate output numbered 'Chapter 1' and 'Chapter 2'.
+After the '\appendix' the numbering will be 'Appendix A' and 'Appendix
+B'. *Note Larger book template:: for another example.
+
+ The 'appendix' package adds the command '\appendixpage' to put a
+separate 'Appendices' in the document body before the first appendix,
+and the command '\addappheadtotoc' to do the same in the table of
+contents. You can reset the name 'Appendix' with a command like
+'\renewcommand{\appendixname}{Specification}', as well as a number of
+other features. See the documentation on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter, Next: \@startsection, Prev: \appendix, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.7 '\frontmatter', '\mainmatter', '\backmatter'
+================================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \frontmatter
+ \mainmatter
+ \backmatter
+
+ Format a 'book' class document differently according to which part of
+the document is being produced. All three commands are optional.
+
+ Traditionally, a book's front matter contains such things as the
+title page, an abstract, a table of contents, a preface, a list of
+notations, a list of figures, and a list of tables. (Some of these
+front matter pages, such as the title page, are traditionally not
+numbered.) The back matter may contain such things as a glossary,
+notes, a bibliography, and an index.
+
+ The '\frontmatter' declaration makes the pages numbered in lowercase
+roman, and makes chapters not numbered, although each chapter's title
+appears in the table of contents; if you use other sectioning commands
+here, use the '*'-version (*note Sectioning::). The '\mainmatter'
+changes the behavior back to the expected version, and resets the page
+number. The '\backmatter' leaves the page numbering alone but switches
+the chapters back to being not numbered. *Note Larger book template::
+for an example using the three.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \@startsection, Prev: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter, Up: Sectioning
+
+6.8 '\@startsection'
+====================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \@startsection{NAME}{LEVEL}{INDENT}{BEFORESKIP}{AFTERSKIP}{STYLE}
+
+ Used to help redefine the behavior of commands that start sectioning
+divisions such as '\section' or '\subsection'.
+
+ Note that the 'titlesec' package makes manipulation of sectioning
+easier. Further, while most requirements for sectioning commands can be
+satisfied with '\@startsection', some cannot. For instance, in the
+standard LaTeX 'book' and 'report' classes the commands '\chapter' and
+'\report' are not constructed in this way. To make such a command you
+may want to use the '\secdef' command.
+
+ Technically, '\@startsection' has the form
+
+ \@startsection{NAME}
+ {LEVEL}
+ {INDENT}
+ {BEFORESKIP}
+ {AFTERSKIP}
+ {STYLE}*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}
+
+so that issuing
+
+ \renewcommand{\section}{\@startsection{NAME}
+ {LEVEL}
+ {INDENT}
+ {BEFORESKIP}
+ {AFTERSKIP}
+ {STYLE}}
+
+redefines '\section' to have the form '\section*[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}' (here
+too, the star '*' is optional). *Note Sectioning::. This implies that
+when you write a command like '\renewcommand{section}{...}', the
+'\@startsection{...}' must come last in the definition. See the
+examples below.
+
+NAME
+ Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header. This
+ counter must be defined separately. Most commonly this is either
+ 'section', 'subsection', or 'paragraph'. Although in those cases
+ the counter name is the same as the sectioning command itself, you
+ don't have to use the same name.
+
+ Then '\the'NAME displays the title number and '\'NAME'mark' is for
+ the page headers. See the third example below.
+
+LEVEL
+ An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command. *Note
+ Sectioning:: for the list of standard level numbers.
+
+ If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter
+ 'secnumdepth' then titles for this sectioning command will be
+ numbered (*note Sectioning/secnumdepth::). For instance, if
+ 'secnumdepth' is 1 in an 'article' then the command
+ '\section{Introduction}' will produce output like "1 Introduction"
+ while '\subsection{Discussion}' will produce output like
+ "Discussion", without the number prefix.
+
+ If LEVEL is less than or equal to the value of the counter TOCDEPTH
+ then the table of contents will have an entry for this sectioning
+ unit (*note Sectioning/tocdepth::). For instance, in an 'article',
+ if TOCDEPTH is 1 then the table of contents will list sections but
+ not subsections.
+
+INDENT
+ A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with
+ respect to the left margin. To have the title flush with the
+ margin use '0pt'. A negative indentation such as '-\parindent'
+ will move the title into the left margin.
+
+BEFORESKIP
+ The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space
+ that is inserted before this sectioning unit's title. This space
+ will be discarded if the sectioning unit happens to start at the
+ top of a fresh page. If this number is negative then the first
+ paragraph following the header is not indented, if it is
+ non-negative then the first paragraph is indented. (Note that the
+ negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus -2pt minus
+ -3pt'.)
+
+ For example, if BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex' then
+ to start the new sectioning unit, LaTeX will add about 3.5 times
+ the height of a letter x in vertical space, and the first paragraph
+ in the section will not be indented. Using a rubber length, with
+ 'plus' and 'minus', is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more
+ flexibility in making up the page (*note Lengths::).
+
+ The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of
+ the line prior to this sectioning unit's header and the baseline of
+ the header is that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the text
+ font, the '\baselineskip' of the title font, and the absolute value
+ of the BEFORESKIP. This space is typically rubber so it may
+ stretch or shrink. (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page
+ so that the vertical space is discarded then the baseline of the
+ header text will be where LaTeX would put the baseline of the first
+ text line on that page.)
+
+AFTERSKIP
+ This is a length. If AFTERSKIP is non-negative then this is the
+ vertical space inserted after the sectioning unit's title header.
+ If it is negative then the title header becomes a run-in header, so
+ that it becomes part of the next paragraph. In this case the
+ absolute value of the length gives the horizontal space between the
+ end of the title and the beginning of the following paragraph.
+ (Note that the negative of '1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt' is '-1pt plus
+ -2pt minus -3pt'.)
+
+ As with BEFORESKIP, using a rubber length, with 'plus' and 'minus'
+ components, is good practice here since it gives LaTeX more
+ flexibility in putting together the page.
+
+ If 'afterskip' is non-negative then the full accounting of the
+ vertical space between the baseline of the sectioning unit's header
+ and the baseline of the first line of the following paragraph is
+ that it is the sum of the '\parskip' of the title font, the
+ '\baselineskip' of the text font, and the value of AFTER. That
+ space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (Note that
+ because the sign of 'afterskip' changes the sectioning unit
+ header's from standalone to run-in, you cannot use a negative
+ 'afterskip' to cancel part of the '\parskip'.)
+
+STYLE
+ Controls the styling of the title. See the examples below.
+ Typical commands to use here are '\centering', '\raggedright',
+ '\normalfont', '\hrule', or '\newpage'. The last command in STYLE
+ may be one that takes one argument, such as '\MakeUppercase' or
+ '\fbox' that takes one argument. The section title will be
+ supplied as the argument to this command. For instance, setting
+ STYLE to '\bfseries\MakeUppercase' would produce titles that are
+ bold and uppercase.
+
+ These are LaTeX's defaults for the first three sectioning units that
+are defined with '\@startsection', for the 'article', 'book', and
+'report' classes. For section, the LEVEL is 1, the INDENT is 0pt, the
+BEFORESKIP is '-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', the AFTERSKIP is '2.3ex
+plus 0.2ex', and the STYLE is '\normalfont\Large\bfseries'. For
+subsection, the LEVEL is 2, the INDENT is 0pt, the BEFORESKIP is
+'-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex', the AFTERSKIP is '1.5ex plus 0.2ex',
+and the STYLE is '\normalfont\large\bfseries'. For subsubsection, the
+LEVEL is 3, the INDENT is 0pt, the BEFORESKIP is '-3.25ex plus -1ex
+minus -0.2ex', the AFTERSKIP is '1.5ex plus 0.2ex', and the STYLE is
+'\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries'.
+
+ Here are examples. They go either in a package or class file or in
+the preamble of a LaTeX document. If you put them in the preamble they
+must go between a '\makeatletter' command and a '\makeatother'.
+(Probably the error message 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical
+mode.' means that you forgot this.) *Note \makeatletter &
+\makeatother::.
+
+ This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered. It
+says '\renewcommand' because LaTeX's standard classes have already
+defined a '\section'. For the same reason it does not define a
+'section' counter, or the commands '\thesection' and '\l@section'.
+
+ \renewcommand\section{%
+ \@startsection{section}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name.
+ {1}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level.
+ {0pt}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent.
+ {-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -.2ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip.
+ {2.3ex plus.2ex}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip.
+ {\centering\normalfont\Large\bfseries}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style.
+ }
+
+ This will put 'subsection' titles in small caps type, inline with the
+paragraph.
+
+ \renewcommand\subsection{%
+ \@startsection{subsection}% *note NAME: \@startsection/name.
+ {2}% *note LEVEL: \@startsection/level.
+ {0em}% *note INDENT: \@startsection/indent.
+ {-1ex plus 0.1ex minus -0.05ex}% *note BEFORESKIP: \@startsection/beforeskip.
+ {-1em plus 0.2em}% *note AFTERSKIP: \@startsection/afterskip.
+ {\scshape}% *note STYLE: \@startsection/style.
+ }
+
+ The prior examples redefined existing sectional unit title commands.
+This defines a new one, illustrating the needed counter and macros to
+display that counter.
+
+ \setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}% show counters this far down
+ \newcounter{subsubparagraph}[subparagraph]% counter for numbering
+ \renewcommand{\thesubsubparagraph}% how to display
+ {\thesubparagraph.\@arabic\c@subsubparagraph}% numbering
+ \newcommand{\subsubparagraph}{\@startsection
+ {subsubparagraph}%
+ {6}%
+ {0em}%
+ {\baselineskip}%
+ {0.5\baselineskip}%
+ {\normalfont\normalsize}}
+ \newcommand*\l@subsubparagraph{\@dottedtocline{6}{10em}{5em}}% for toc
+ \newcommand{\subsubparagraphmark}[1]{}% for page headers
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Cross references, Next: Environments, Prev: Sectioning, Up: Top
+
+7 Cross references
+******************
+
+We often want something like 'See Theorem~31'. But by-hand typing the
+31 is poor practice. Instead you should write a "label" such as
+'\label{eq:GreensThm}' and then "reference" it, as with 'See
+equation~\ref{eq:GreensThm}'. LaTeX will automatically work out the
+number, put it into the output, and will change that number later if
+needed.
+
+ We will see this with Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm}. % forward reference
+ ...
+ \begin{theorem} \label{th:GreensThm}
+ ...
+ \end{theorem}
+ ...
+ See Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm} on page~\pageref{th:GreensThm}.
+
+ LaTeX tracks cross reference information in a file having the
+extension '.aux' and with the same base name as the file containing the
+'\label'. So if '\label' is in 'calculus.tex' then the information is
+in 'calculus.aux'. LaTeX puts the information in that file every time
+it runs across a '\label'.
+
+ The behavior described in the prior paragraph results in a quirk that
+happens when your document has a "forward reference", a '\ref' that
+appears before the associated '\label'. If this is the first time that
+you are compiling the document then you will get 'LaTeX Warning:
+Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross references right' and in
+the output the forward reference will appear as two question marks '??',
+in boldface. A similar thing happens if you change some things so the
+references changes; you get the same warning and the output contains the
+old reference information. In both cases, resolve this by compiling the
+document a second time.
+
+ The 'cleveref' package enhances LaTeX's cross referencing features.
+You can arrange that if you enter
+'\begin{thm}\label{th:Nerode}...\end{thm}' then '\cref{th:Nerode}' will
+output 'Theorem 3.21', without you having to enter the "Theorem."
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text.
+* \pageref:: Refer to a page number.
+* \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \label, Next: \pageref, Up: Cross references
+
+7.1 '\label'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \label{KEY}
+
+ Assign a reference number to KEY. In ordinary text '\label{KEY}'
+assigns to KEY the number of the current sectional unit. Inside an
+environment with numbering, such as a 'table' or 'theorem' environment,
+'\label{KEY}' assigns to KEY the number of that environment. Retrieve
+the assigned number with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::).
+
+ A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common
+punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished,
+as usual.
+
+ A common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a
+suffix separated by a colon or period. Thus, '\label{fig:Post}' is a
+label for a figure with a portrait of Emil Post. This helps to avoid
+accidentally creating two labels with the same name, and makes your
+source more readable. Some commonly-used prefixes:
+
+'ch'
+ for chapters
+
+'sec'
+'subsec'
+ for lower-level sectioning commands
+
+'fig'
+ for figures
+
+'tab'
+ for tables
+
+'eq'
+ for equations
+
+ In the auxiliary file the reference information is kept as the text
+of a command of the form '\newlabel{LABEL}{{CURRENTLABEL}{PAGENUMBER}}'.
+Here CURRENTLABEL is the current value of the macro '\@currentlabel'
+that is usually updated whenever you call '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'.
+
+ Below, the key 'sec:test' will get the number of the current section
+and the key 'fig:test' will get the number of the figure.
+(Incidentally, put labels after captions in figures and tables.)
+
+ \section{section name}
+ \label{sec:test}
+ This is Section~\ref{sec:test}.
+ \begin{figure}
+ ...
+ \caption{caption text}
+ \label{fig:test}
+ \end{figure}
+ See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \pageref, Next: \ref, Prev: \label, Up: Cross references
+
+7.2 '\pageref'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \pageref{KEY}
+
+ Produce the page number of the place in the text where the
+corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears.
+
+ If there is no '\label{KEY}' then you get something like 'LaTeX
+Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on input line 11.'
+
+ Below, the '\label{eq:main}' is used both for the formula number and
+for the page number. (Note that the two references are forward
+references so this document would need to be compiled twice to resolve
+those.)
+
+ The main result is formula~\ref{eq:main} on page~\pageref{eq:main}.
+ ...
+ \begin{equation} \label{eq:main}
+ \mathbf{P}=\mathbf{NP}
+ \end{equation}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \ref, Prev: \pageref, Up: Cross references
+
+7.3 '\ref'
+==========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \ref{KEY}
+
+ Produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote,
+figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command (*note \label::). It
+does not produce any text, such as the word 'Section' or 'Figure', just
+the bare number itself.
+
+ If there is no '\label{KEY}' then you get something like 'LaTeX
+Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on input line 11.'
+
+ In this example the '\ref{popular}' produces '2'. Note that it is a
+forward reference since it comes before '\label{popular}' so this
+document would have to be compiled twice.
+
+ The most widely-used format is item number~\ref{popular}.
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item Plain \TeX
+ \item \label{popular} \LaTeX
+ \item Con\TeX t
+ \end{enumerate}
+
+ The 'cleveref' package includes text such as 'Theorem' in the
+reference. See the documentation on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Environments, Next: Line breaking, Prev: Cross references, Up: Top
+
+8 Environments
+**************
+
+LaTeX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior. An
+environment begins with '\begin' and ends with '\end', like this:
+
+ \begin{ENVIRONMENT-NAME}
+ ...
+ \end{ENVIRONMENT-NAME}
+
+ The ENVIRONMENT-NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the
+end. For instance, the input '\begin{table*}...\end{table}' will cause
+an error like: '! LaTeX Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by
+\end{table}.'
+
+ Environments are executed within a group.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* abstract:: Produce an abstract.
+* array:: Math arrays.
+* center:: Centered lines.
+* description:: Labelled lists.
+* displaymath:: Formulas that appear on their own line.
+* document:: Enclose the whole document.
+* enumerate:: Numbered lists.
+* eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations.
+* equation:: Displayed equation.
+* figure:: Floating figures.
+* filecontents:: Writing multiple files from the source.
+* flushleft:: Flushed left lines.
+* flushright:: Flushed right lines.
+* itemize:: Bulleted lists.
+* letter:: Letters.
+* list:: Generic list environment.
+* math:: In-line math.
+* minipage:: Miniature page.
+* picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles.
+* quotation & quote:: Include a quotation.
+* tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily.
+* table:: Floating tables.
+* tabular:: Align text in columns.
+* thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list.
+* theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc.
+* titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages.
+* verbatim:: Simulating typed input.
+* verse:: For poetry and other things.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: abstract, Next: array, Up: Environments
+
+8.1 'abstract'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{abstract}
+ ...
+ \end{abstract}
+
+ Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. This
+environment is only defined in the 'article' and 'report' document
+classes (*note Document classes::).
+
+ Using the example below in the 'article' class produces a displayed
+paragraph. Document class option 'titlepage' causes the abstract to be
+on a separate page (*note Document class options::); this is the default
+only in the 'report' class.
+
+ \begin{abstract}
+ We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander
+ to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue
+ in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused.
+ \end{abstract}
+
+ The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column
+document (for a more flexible solution, use the package 'abstract').
+
+ \documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
+ ...
+ \begin{document}
+ \title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach}
+ \author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}}
+ \twocolumn[
+ \begin{@twocolumnfalse}
+ \maketitle
+ \begin{abstract}
+ Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat
+ team.
+ \end{abstract}
+ \end{@twocolumnfalse}
+ ]
+ { % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom
+ \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
+ \footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.}
+ }
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: array, Next: center, Prev: abstract, Up: Environments
+
+8.2 'array'
+===========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{array}{COLS}
+ COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
+ ...
+ \end{array}
+
+or:
+
+ \begin{array}[POS]{COLS}
+ COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
+ ...
+ \end{array}
+
+ Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in
+math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics
+environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::). Inside of each row
+the column entries are separated by an ampersand, ('&'). Rows are
+terminated with double-backslashes (*note \\::).
+
+ This example shows a three by three array.
+
+ \begin{equation*}
+ \chi(x) =
+ \left| % vertical bar fence
+ \begin{array}{ccc}
+ x-a &-b &-c \\
+ -d &x-e &-f \\
+ -g &-h &x-i
+ \end{array}
+ \right|
+ \end{equation*}
+
+ The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their
+alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. For instance,
+'\begin{array}{rcl}...\end{array}' gives three columns: the first flush
+right, the second centered, and the third flush left. See *note
+tabular:: for the complete description of COLS and of the other common
+features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument.
+
+ There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'. The first
+is that 'array' entries are typeset in math mode, in textstyle (*note
+Modes::) except if the COLS definition specifies the column with
+'p{...}', which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode. The second
+is that, instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's
+intercolumn space in an 'array' is governed by '\arraycolsep', which
+gives half the width between columns. The default for this is '5pt' so
+that between two columns comes 10pt of space.
+
+ To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath'
+package. It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded
+by parentheses '(...)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square
+brackets '[...]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly
+braces '{...}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical
+bars '|...|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical
+bars '||...||', along with a number of other array constructs.
+
+ The next example uses the 'amsmath' package.
+
+ \usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ \begin{vmatrix}{cc} % array with vert lines
+ a &b \\
+ c &d
+ \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc
+ \end{equation}
+
+ There are many packages concerning arrays. The 'array' package has
+many useful extensions, including more column types. The 'dcolumn'
+package adds a column type to center on a decimal point. For both see
+the documentation on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: center, Next: description, Prev: array, Up: Environments
+
+8.3 'center'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{center}
+ LINE1 \\
+ LINE2 \\
+ ...
+ \end{center}
+
+ Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are
+centered within the left and right margins. Use double-backslash, '\\',
+to get a line break (*note \\::). If some text is too long to fit on a
+line then LaTeX will insert line breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid
+stretching or shrinking any interword space.
+
+ This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See
+*note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure'
+environment.
+
+ This example produces three centered lines. There is extra vertical
+space between the last two lines.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\
+ of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex]
+ the School of Environmental Engineering
+ \end{center}
+
+ In this example, depending on the page's line width, LaTeX may choose
+a line break for the part before the double backslash. If so, it will
+center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line.
+Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the
+ending.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink
+ alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\
+ I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton
+ \end{center}
+
+ A double backslash after the final line is optional. If present it
+doesn't add any vertical space.
+
+ In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the
+entire page.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \centering:: Declaration form of the 'center' environment.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \centering, Up: center
+
+8.3.1 '\centering'
+------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ {\centering ... }
+
+or
+
+ \begin{group}
+ \centering ...
+ \end{group}
+
+ Center the material in its scope. It is most often used inside an
+environment such as 'figure', or in a 'parbox'.
+
+ This example's '\centering' declaration causes the graphic to be
+horizontally centered.
+
+ \begin{figure}
+ \centering
+ \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
+ \caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion}
+ \end{figure}
+
+The scope of this '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'.
+
+ Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not
+add vertical space above and below the text. That's its advantage in
+the above example; there is not an excess of space.
+
+ It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
+formats paragraph units. If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded
+by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww
+xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'.
+Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a
+blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or
+'table' that ends the paragraph unit. Thus, if '{\centering xx \\
+yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph
+with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with
+'zz' that is formatted as usual.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: description, Next: displaymath, Prev: center, Up: Environments
+
+8.4 'description'
+=================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{description}
+ \item[LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM
+ \item[LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM
+ ...
+ \end{description}
+
+ Environment to make a list of labeled items. Each item's LABEL is
+typeset in bold and is flush left, so that long labels continue into the
+first line of the item text. There must be at least one item; having
+none causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing
+\item'.
+
+ This example shows the environment used for a sequence of
+definitions.
+
+ \begin{definition}
+ \item[lama] A priest.
+ \item[llama] A beast.
+ \end{definition}
+
+The labels 'lama' and 'llama' are output in boldface, with the left edge
+on the left margin.
+
+ Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). Use the
+optional labels, as in '\item[Main point]', because there is no sensible
+default. Following the '\item' is optional text, which may contain
+multiple paragraphs.
+
+ Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a
+font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it
+will come out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for
+typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold
+typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way around this, in this
+example to get non-bold typewriter, is to use declarative style:
+'\item[{\tt label text}]'. Similarly, get the standard roman font with
+'\item[{\rm label text}]'.
+
+ For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize::
+and *note enumerate::. Unlike those environments, nesting 'description'
+environments does not change the default label; it is boldface and flush
+left at all levels.
+
+ For information about list layout parameters, including the default
+values, and for information about customizing list layout, see *note
+list::. The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists.
+
+ This example changes the description labels to small caps.
+
+ \renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{%
+ {\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: displaymath, Next: document, Prev: description, Up: Environments
+
+8.5 'displaymath'
+=================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ MATHEMATICAL TEXT
+ \end{displaymath}
+
+ Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display
+style and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global
+option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::.
+
+ In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the
+math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation'
+environment (*note equation::).
+
+ LaTeX will not break the MATH TEXT across lines.
+
+ Note that the 'amsmath' package has significantly more extensive
+displayed equation facilities. For example, there are a number of ways
+in that package for having math text broken across lines.
+
+ The construct '\[MATH TEXT\]' is essentially a synonym for
+'\begin{displaymath}MATH TEXT\end{displaymath}' but the latter is easier
+to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a square
+bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will likely
+be unique. (The construct '$$MATH TEXT$$' from Plain TeX is sometimes
+mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'. It is not a synonym,
+because the 'displaymath' environment checks that it isn't started in
+math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching
+environment start, because the 'displaymath' environment has different
+vertical spacing, and because the 'displaymath' environment honors the
+'fleqn' option.)
+
+ The output from this example is centered and alone on its line.
+
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
+ \end{displaymath}
+
+Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\( \int_1^2
+x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: document, Next: enumerate, Prev: displaymath, Up: Environments
+
+8.6 'document'
+==============
+
+The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document. It
+is required in every LaTeX document. *Note Starting and ending::.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \AtBeginDocument:: Hook for commands at the start of the document.
+* \AtEndDocument:: Hook for commands at the end of the document.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \AtBeginDocument, Next: \AtEndDocument, Up: document
+
+8.6.1 '\AtBeginDocument'
+------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \AtBeginDocument{CODE}
+
+ Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the
+very end of the preamble. The code is executed after the font selection
+tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the
+current font. However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so
+you cannot do any typesetting with it.
+
+ You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
+will be executed in the order that you gave them.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \AtEndDocument, Prev: \AtBeginDocument, Up: document
+
+8.6.2 '\AtEndDocument'
+----------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \AtEndDocument{CODE}
+
+ Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically,
+it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page
+is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed.
+If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes
+then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE.
+
+ You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
+will be executed in the order that you gave them.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: enumerate, Next: eqnarray, Prev: document, Up: Environments
+
+8.7 'enumerate'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM
+ \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM
+ ...
+ \end{enumerate}
+
+ Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the
+label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see
+below. The default top-level numbering is '1.', '2.', etc. Each
+'enumerate' list environment must have at least one item; having none
+causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'.
+
+ This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic
+marathon. As a top-level list the labels would come out as '1.' and
+'2.'.
+
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
+ \item Charles Hefferon (RSA)
+ \end{enumerate}
+
+ Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you
+give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets,
+as in '\item[Interstitial label]', then the next item will continue the
+interrupted sequence (*note \item::). That is, you will get labels like
+'1.', then 'Interstitial label', then '2.'. Following the '\item' is
+optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs.
+
+ Enumerations may be nested within other 'enumerate' environments, or
+within any paragraph-making environment such as 'itemize' (*note
+itemize::), up to four levels deep. This gives LaTeX's default for the
+format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level, the outermost
+level.
+
+ 1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ...
+ 2. lowercase letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ...
+ 3. lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ...
+ 4. uppercase letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ...
+
+ The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through
+'\enumiv' (*note Counters::).
+
+ For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note
+description:: and *note itemize::. For information about list layout
+parameters, including the default values, and for information about
+customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is
+useful for customizing lists.
+
+ To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note
+\newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through
+'\labelenumiv'. For instance, this first level list will be labelled
+with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period.
+
+ \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item Shows as boldface A
+ \item Shows as boldface B
+ \end{enumerate}
+
+ For a list of counter-labeling commands see *note \alph \Alph \arabic
+\roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: eqnarray, Next: equation, Prev: enumerate, Up: Environments
+
+8.8 'eqnarray'
+==============
+
+The 'eqnarray' environment is obsolete. It has infelicities, including
+spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements. (See
+"Avoid eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen
+<http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf>). New documents should
+include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics
+environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment. We
+include a description only for completeness and for working with old
+documents.
+
+ Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{eqnarray}
+ FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\
+ ...
+ \end{eqnarray}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{eqnarray*}
+ FIRST FORMULA LEFT &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\
+ ...
+ \end{eqnarray*}
+
+ Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right
+sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text
+mode.
+
+ It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items
+within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by
+double backslash '\\'). The starred form of line break ('\\*') can
+also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there
+(*note \\::).
+
+ The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line
+(using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber'
+command. The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while
+otherwise being the same.
+
+ The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across
+lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
+zero width.
+
+ This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an
+inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side.
+
+ \begin{eqnarray*}
+ \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\
+ &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\
+ &= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
+ \end{eqnarray*}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: equation, Next: figure, Prev: eqnarray, Up: Environments
+
+8.9 'equation'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ MATHEMATICAL TEXT
+ \end{equation}
+
+ The same as a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) except
+that LaTeX puts an equation number flush to the right margin. The
+equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter.
+
+ You should have no blank lines between '\begin{equation}' and
+'\begin{equation}', or LaTeX will tell you that there is a missing
+dollar sign.
+
+ The package 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation
+facilities. New documents should include this package.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: figure, Next: filecontents, Prev: equation, Up: Environments
+
+8.10 'figure'
+=============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT]
+ FIGURE BODY
+ \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional
+ \label{LABEL} % optional
+ \end{figure}
+
+or:
+
+ \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT]
+ FIGURE BODY
+ \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional
+ \label{LABEL} % optional
+ \end{figure*}
+
+ Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text. An
+example is material that you cannot have split between two pages, such
+as a graphic. Because of this, LaTeX does not typeset figures in
+sequence with normal text but instead "floats" them to a convenient
+place, such as the top of a following page (*note Floats::).
+
+ The FIGURE BODY can consist of imported graphics (*note Graphics::),
+or text, LaTeX commands, etc. It is typeset in a 'parbox' of width
+'\textwidth'.
+
+ The possible values of PLACEMENT are 'h' for 'here', 't' for 'top',
+'b' for 'bottom', and 'p' for 'on a separate page of floats'. For the
+effect of these options on the float placement algorithm, see *note
+Floats::.
+
+ The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in
+double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::). It produces a figure that
+spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of
+placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note
+Floats::.
+
+ The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross
+references::). The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text
+for the figure. By default it is numbered. If LOFTITLE is present, it
+is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Table of contents
+etc.::).
+
+ This example makes a figure out of a graphic. LaTeX will place that
+graphic and its caption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the
+end of the document, on a page of floats.
+
+ \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{figure}[t]
+ \centering
+ \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
+ \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
+ \end{figure}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: filecontents, Next: flushleft, Prev: figure, Up: Environments
+
+8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file
+===========================================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME}
+ TEXT
+ \end{filecontents}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{filecontents*}{FILENAME}
+ TEXT
+ \end{filecontents*}
+
+ Create a file named FILENAME and fill it with TEXT. The unstarred
+version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the
+created file with a header; see the example below. The starred version
+'filecontents*' does not include the header.
+
+ This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it
+often appears before the '\documentclass' command. It is typically used
+when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file. The
+environment will write that file to the directory containing the source
+and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to include
+'bib' references in the file, again to make it self-contained.
+
+ The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and
+if so, does not do anything. There is a 'filecontents' package that
+redefines the 'filecontents' environment so that instead of doing
+nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.
+
+ For example, this document
+
+ \documentclass{article}
+ \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
+ \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
+ \end{filecontents}
+ \usepackage{JH}
+ \begin{document}
+ Article by \myname.
+ \end{document}
+
+produces this file 'JH.sty'.
+
+ %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty'
+ %% generated by the `filecontents' environment
+ %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12.
+ %%
+ \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: flushleft, Next: flushright, Prev: filecontents, Up: Environments
+
+8.12 'flushleft'
+================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{flushleft}
+ LINE1 \\
+ LINE2 \\
+ ...
+ \end{flushleft}
+
+ An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the
+left-hand margin, and ragged right. If you have lines that are too long
+then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and
+stretching or shrinking spaces. To force a new line use a double
+backslash, '\\'. For the declaration form see *note \raggedright::.
+
+ This creates a box of text that is at most 3 inches wide, with the
+text flush left and ragged right.
+
+ \noindent\begin{minipage}{3in}
+ \begin{flushleft}
+ A long sentence that will be broken by \LaTeX{}
+ at a convenient spot. \\
+ And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash.
+ \end{flushleft}
+ \end{minipage}
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \raggedright:: Declaration form of the 'flushleft' environment.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedright, Up: flushleft
+
+8.12.1 '\raggedright'
+---------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ {\raggedright ... }
+
+or
+
+ \begin{ENVIRONMENT} \raggedright
+ ...
+ \end{ENVIRONMENT}
+
+ A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the left margin and
+ragged right. It can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or
+in a 'parbox'. For the environment form see *note flushleft::.
+
+ Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does
+not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
+units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
+declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
+paragraph unit.
+
+ Here '\raggedright' in each second column keeps LaTeX from doing very
+awkward typesetting to fit the text into the narrow column. Note that
+'\raggedright' is inside the curly braces '{...}' to delimit its effect.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{rp{2in}}
+ Team alpha &{\raggedright This team does all the real work.} \\
+ Team beta &{\raggedright This team ensures that the water
+ cooler is never empty.} \\
+ \end{tabular}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: flushright, Next: itemize, Prev: flushleft, Up: Environments
+
+8.13 'flushright'
+=================
+
+ \begin{flushright}
+ LINE1 \\
+ LINE2 \\
+ ...
+ \end{flushright}
+
+ An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the
+right-hand margin and ragged left. If you have lines that are too long
+to fit the margins then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids
+hyphenation and stretching or shrinking spaces. To force a new line use
+a double backslash, '\\'. For the declaration form see *note
+\raggedleft::.
+
+ For an example related to this environment, see *note flushleft::.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \raggedleft:: Declaration form of the 'flushright' environment.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \raggedleft, Up: flushright
+
+8.13.1 '\raggedleft'
+--------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ {\raggedleft ... }
+
+or
+
+ \begin{ENVIRONMENT} \raggedleft
+ ...
+ \end{ENVIRONMENT}
+
+ A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the right margin and
+ragged left. It can be used inside an environment such as 'quote' or in
+a 'parbox'. For the environment form see *note flushright::.
+
+ Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does
+not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
+units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
+declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
+paragraph unit.
+
+ For an example related to this environment, see *note \raggedright::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: itemize, Next: letter, Prev: flushright, Up: Environments
+
+8.14 'itemize'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{itemize}
+ \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM
+ \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM
+ ...
+ \end{itemize}
+
+ Produce a list that is unordered, sometimes called a bullet list.
+The environment must have at least one '\item'; having none causes the
+LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'.
+
+ This gives a two-item list.
+
+ \begin{itemize}
+ \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra
+ \item Rice portrait
+ \end{itemize}
+
+As a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, *. The
+format of the labeling depends on the nesting level; see below.
+
+ Start list items with the '\item' command (*note \item::). If you
+give '\item' an optional argument by following it with square brackets,
+as in '\item[Optional label]', then by default it will appear in bold
+and be flush right, so it could extend into the left margin. For labels
+that are flush left see the *note description:: environment. Following
+the '\item' is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs.
+
+ Itemized lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels
+deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making
+environments, such as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::). The 'itemize'
+environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through '\labelitemiv' to
+produce the default label (this also uses the convention of lowercase
+roman numerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting
+level). These are the default marks at each level.
+
+ 1. * (bullet, from '\textbullet')
+ 2. -- (bold en-dash, from '\normalfont\bfseries\textendash')
+ 3. * (asterisk, from '\textasteriskcentered')
+ 4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period, from
+ '\textperiodcentered')
+
+ Change the labels with '\renewcommand'. For instance, this makes the
+first level use diamonds.
+
+ \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
+
+ The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
+the left margin of the 'itemize' list is determined by the parameters
+'\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi'. (Note the convention of using
+lowercase roman numerals a the end of the command name to denote the
+nesting level.) The defaults are: '2.5em' in level 1 ('2em' in
+two-column mode), '2.2em' in level 2, '1.87em' in level 3, and '1.7em'
+in level 4, with smaller values for more deeply nested levels.
+
+ For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see *note
+description:: and *note enumerate::. For information about list layout
+parameters, including the default values, and for information about
+customizing list layout, see *note list::. The package 'enumitem' is
+useful for customizing lists.
+
+ This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized
+lists.
+
+ \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
+
+ Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
+space between items. Here is an example defining an 'itemize*'
+environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
+within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note \parindent
+& \parskip::):
+
+ \newenvironment{itemize*}%
+ {\begin{itemize}%
+ \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
+ \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
+ \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
+ {\end{itemize}}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: letter, Next: list, Prev: itemize, Up: Environments
+
+8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters
+==========================================
+
+This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: list, Next: math, Prev: letter, Up: Environments
+
+8.16 'list'
+===========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING}
+ \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF FIRST ITEM] TEXT OF FIRST ITEM
+ \item[OPTIONAL LABEL OF SECOND ITEM] TEXT OF SECOND ITEM
+ ...
+ \end{list}
+
+ An environment for constructing lists.
+
+ Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document
+body. Most lists created by LaTeX authors are the ones that come
+standard: the 'description', 'enumerate', and 'itemize' environments
+(*note description::, *note enumerate::, and *note itemize::).
+
+ Instead, the 'list' environment is most often used in macros. For
+example, many standard LaTeX environments that do not immediately appear
+to be lists are in fact constructed using 'list', including 'quotation',
+'quote', and 'center' (*note quotation & quote::, *note center::).
+
+ This uses the 'list' environment to define a new custom environment.
+
+ \newcounter{namedlistcounter} % number the items
+ \newenvironment{named}
+ {\begin{list}
+ {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling
+ {\usecounter{namedlistcounter} % set counter
+ \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing
+ }
+ {\end{list}}
+
+ \begin{named}
+ \item Shows as ``Item~I.''
+ \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.''
+ \item Shows as ``Item~II.''
+ \end{named}
+
+ The mandatory first argument LABELING specifies the default labeling
+of list items. It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as above where
+it contains both 'Item' and '\Roman{...}'. LaTeX forms the label by
+putting the LABELING argument in a box of width '\labelwidth'. If the
+label is wider than that, the additional material extends to the right.
+When making an instance of a list you can override the default labeling
+by giving '\item' an optional argument by including square braces and
+the text, as in the above '\item[Special label.]'; *note \item::.
+
+ The mandatory second argument SPACING has a list of commands. This
+list can be empty. A command that can go in here is
+'\usecounter{COUNTERNAME}' (*note \usecounter::). Use this to tell
+LaTeX to number the items using the given counter. The counter will be
+reset to zero each time LaTeX enters the environment, and the counter is
+incremented by one each time LaTeX encounters an '\item' that does not
+have an optional argument.
+
+ Another command that can go in SPACING is '\makelabel', which
+constructs the label box. By default it puts the contents flush right.
+Its only argument is the label, which it typesets in LR mode (*note
+Modes::). One example of changing its definition is that to the above
+'named' example, before the definition of the environment add
+'\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}', and between the
+'\setlength' command and the parenthesis that closes the SPACING
+argument also add '\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel'. Then the items will
+be typeset in small caps. Similarly, changing the second code line to
+'\let\makelabel\fbox' puts the labels inside a framed box. Another
+example of the '\makelabel' command is below, in the definition of the
+'redlabel' environment.
+
+ Also often in SPACING are commands to redefine the spacing for the
+list. Below are the spacing parameters with their default values.
+(Default values for derived environments such as 'itemize' can be
+different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows
+the list. Each is a length (*note Lengths::). The vertical spaces are
+normally rubber lengths, with 'plus' and 'minus' components, to give TeX
+flexibility in setting the page. Change each with a command such as
+'\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}'. For some effects these
+lengths should be zero or negative.
+
+'\itemindent'
+ Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond 'leftmargin', of the
+ first line each item. Its default value is '0pt'.
+
+'\itemsep'
+ Vertical space between items, beyond the '\parsep'. The defaults
+ for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and
+ 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt',
+ '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that
+ is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 11 point are: '4.5pt
+ plus2pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'), and
+ 'topsep' (that is, '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12
+ point are: '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '\parsep' (that is, '2.5pt
+ plus1pt minus1pt'), and '\topsep' (that is, '2.5pt plus1pt
+ minus1pt').
+
+'\labelsep'
+ Horizontal space between the label and text of an item. The
+ default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes is
+ '0.5em'.
+
+'\labelwidth'
+ Horizontal width. The box containing the label is nominally this
+ wide. If '\makelabel' returns text that is wider than this then
+ the first line of the item will be indented to make room for this
+ extra material. If '\makelabel' returns text of width less than or
+ equal to '\labelwidth' then LaTeX's default is that the label is
+ typeset flush right in a box of this width.
+
+ The left edge of the label box is
+ '\leftmargin'+'\itemindent'-'\labelsep'-'\labelwidth' from the left
+ margin of the enclosing environment.
+
+ The default for LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at
+ the top level is '\leftmargini'-'\labelsep', (which is '2em' in one
+ column mode and '1.5em' in two column mode). At the second level
+ it is '\leftmarginii'-'\labelsep', and at the third level it is
+ '\leftmarginiii'-'\labelsep'. These definitions make the label's
+ left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing
+ environment.
+
+'\leftmargin'
+ Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing
+ environment (or the left margin of the page if this is a top-level
+ list), and the left margin of this list. It must be non-negative.
+
+ In the standard LaTeX document classes, a top-level list has this
+ set to the value of '\leftmargini', while a list that is nested
+ inside a top-level list has this margin set to '\leftmarginii'.
+ More deeply nested lists get the values of '\leftmarginiii' through
+ '\leftmarginvi'. (Nesting greater than level five generates the
+ error message 'Too deeply nested'.)
+
+ The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article',
+ 'book', and 'report' classes are: '\leftmargini' is '2.5em' (in two
+ column mode, '2em'), '\leftmarginii' is '2.2em', and
+ '\leftmarginiii' is '1.87em'.
+
+'\listparindent'
+ Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond
+ '\leftmargin', for second and subsequent paragraphs within a list
+ item. A negative value makes this an "outdent". Its default value
+ is '0pt'.
+
+'\parsep'
+ Vertical space between paragraphs within an item. In the 'book'
+ and 'article' classes The defaults for the first three levels in
+ LaTeX's 'article', 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size
+ are: '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'.
+ The defaults at 11 point size are: '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt', '2pt
+ plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'. The defaults at 12 point size are:
+ '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', '2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '0pt'.
+
+'\partopsep'
+ Vertical space added, beyond '\topsep'+'\parskip', to the top and
+ bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded
+ by a blank line. (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list
+ changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the
+ line following the list is blank does not matter.)
+
+ The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article',
+ 'book', and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '2pt plus1
+ minus1pt', '2pt plus1pt minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'. The
+ defaults at 11 point are: '3pt plus1pt minus1pt', '3pt plus1pt
+ minus1pt', and '1pt plus0pt minus1pt'). The defaults at 12 point
+ are: '3pt plus2pt minus3pt', '3pt plus2pt minus2pt', and '1pt
+ plus0pt minus1pt'.
+
+'\rightmargin'
+ Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right
+ margin of the enclosing environment. Its default value is '0pt'.
+ It must be non-negative.
+
+'\topsep'
+ Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in
+ addition to '\parskip' (*note \parindent & \parskip::). The
+ defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX's 'article', 'book',
+ and 'report' classes at 10 point size are: '8pt plus2pt minus4pt',
+ '4pt plus2pt minus1pt', and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults
+ at 11 point are: '9pt plus3pt minus5pt', '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt',
+ and '2pt plus1pt minus1pt'. The defaults at 12 point are: '10pt
+ plus4pt minus6pt', '5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt', and '2.5pt plus1pt
+ minus1pt'.
+
+ This shows the horizontal and vertical distances.
+
+
+..............Surrounding environment, preceding material.............. -
+ | v0
+ |---h0--|-h1-| |
+ ..Label.. .....First item..................................... -
+ ............................................................
+ ............................................................ -
+ | v1
+ ........First item, second paragraph .................. -
+ |-h2-| | v2
+ |
+ ..Label.. .....Second item.................................... -
+ ............................................................
+ ............................................................ -
+|-h3--|-h4-| |-h5-| |v3
+ |
+..............Surrounding environment, following material.............. -
+......................................................................."
+
+ The lengths shown are listed below. The key relationship is that the
+right edge of the bracket for H1 equals the right edge of the bracket
+for H4, so that the left edge of the label box is at H3+H4-(H0+H1).
+
+V0
+ '\topsep' + '\parskip' if the list environment does not start a new
+ paragraph, and '\topsep'+'\parskip'+'\partopsep' if it does
+
+V1
+ '\parsep'
+
+V2
+ '\itemsep'+'\parsep'
+
+V3
+ Same as V0. (This space is affected by whether a blank line
+ appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line
+ appears in the source below the environment does not matter.)
+
+H0
+ '\labelwidth'
+
+H1
+ '\labelsep'
+
+H2
+ '\listparindent'
+
+H3
+ '\leftmargin'
+
+H4
+ '\itemindent'
+
+H5
+ '\rightmargin'
+
+ The list's left and right margins, shown above as H3 and H5, are with
+respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or with
+respect to the page margins for a top-level list. The line width used
+for typesetting the list items is '\linewidth' (*note Page layout
+parameters::). For instance, set the list's left margin to be one
+quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the
+enclosing environment with '\setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}'.
+
+ Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three
+parameters below. For each, the LaTeX default is '-\@lowpenalty', that
+is, '-51'. Because it is negative, it somewhat encourages a page break
+at each spot. Change it with, e.g., '\@beginparpenalty=9999'; a value
+of 10000 prohibits a page break.
+
+'\@beginparpenalty'
+ The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default
+ '-51').
+
+'\@itempenalty'
+ The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default
+ '-51').
+
+'\@endparpenalty'
+ The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default
+ '-51').
+
+ The package 'enumitem' is useful for customizing lists.
+
+ This example has the labels in red. They are numbered, and the left
+edge of the label lines up with the left edge of the item text. *Note
+\usecounter::.
+
+ \usepackage{color}
+ \newcounter{cnt}
+ \newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}}
+ \newenvironment{redlabel}
+ {\begin{list}
+ {\arabic{cnt}}
+ {\usecounter{cnt}
+ \setlength{\labelwidth}{0em}
+ \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em}
+ \setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em}
+ \setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep
+ \let\makelabel=\makeredlabel
+ }
+ }
+ {\end{list} }
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \item:: An entry in a list.
+* trivlist:: A restricted form of 'list'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \item, Next: trivlist, Up: list
+
+8.16.1 '\item': An entry in a list
+----------------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \item text of item
+
+or
+
+ \item[OPTIONAL-LABEL] text of item
+
+ An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose
+default depends on the list type.
+
+ Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets '[...]',
+if you have an item whose text starts with '[', you have to hide the
+bracket inside curly braces, as in: '\item {[} is an open square
+bracket'; otherwise, LaTeX will think it marks the start of an optional
+label.
+
+ Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a
+close square bracket inside that label, you must hide it in the same
+way: '\item[Close square bracket, {]}]'. *Note LaTeX command syntax::.
+
+ In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default
+label and one that uses the optional label.
+
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item Moe
+ \item[sometimes] Shemp
+ \item Larry
+ \end{enumerate}
+
+ The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled
+'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.'. Because of the
+optional label in the second item, the third item is not labelled '3.'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: trivlist, Prev: \item, Up: list
+
+8.16.2 'trivlist': A restricted form of 'list'
+----------------------------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{trivlist}
+ ...
+ \end{trivlist}
+
+ A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are
+not indented and an '\item' without an optional argument produces no
+text. It is most often used in macros, to define an environment where
+the '\item' command as part of the environment's definition. For
+instance, the 'center' environment is defined essentially like this:
+
+ \newenvironment{center}
+ {\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax}
+ {\end{trivlist}}
+
+ Using 'trivlist' in this way allows the macro to inherit some common
+code: combining vertical space of two adjacent environments; detecting
+whether the text following the environment should be considered a new
+paragraph or a continuation of the previous one; adjusting the left and
+right margins for possible nested list environments.
+
+ Specifically, 'trivlist' uses the current values of the list
+parameters (*note list::), except that '\parsep' is set to the value of
+'\parskip', and '\leftmargin', '\labelwidth', and '\itemindent' are set
+to zero.
+
+ This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by
+default) they have no paragraph indent and are vertically separated.
+
+ \begin{trivlist}
+ \item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old.
+ \item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines.
+ \end{trivlist}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: math, Next: minipage, Prev: list, Up: Environments
+
+8.17 'math'
+===========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{math}
+ MATH
+ \end{math}
+
+ The 'math' environment inserts given MATH material within the running
+text. '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms. *Note Math formulas::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: minipage, Next: picture, Prev: math, Up: Environments
+
+8.18 'minipage'
+===============
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \begin{minipage}{WIDTH}
+ CONTENTS
+ \end{minipage}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}
+ CONTENTS
+ \end{minipage}
+
+ Put CONTENTS into a box that is WIDTH wide. This is like a small
+version of a page; it can contain its own footnotes, itemized lists,
+etc. (There are some restrictions, including that it cannot have
+floats.) This box will not be broken across pages. So 'minipage' is
+similar to '\parbox' (*note \parbox::) but here you can have paragraphs.
+
+ This example will be 3 inches wide, and has two paragraphs.
+
+ \begin{minipage}{3in}
+ Stephen Kleene was a founder of the Theory of Computation.
+
+ He was a student of Church, wrote three influential texts,
+ was President of the Association for Symbolic Logic,
+ and won the National Medal of Science.
+ \end{minipage}
+
+See below for a discussion of the paragraph indent inside a 'minipage'.
+
+ The required argument WIDTH is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It
+gives the width of the box into which CONTENTS are typeset.
+
+ There are three optional arguments, POSITION, HEIGHT, and INNER-POS.
+You need not include all three. For example, get the default POSITION
+and set the HEIGHT with '\begin{minipage}[c][2.54cm] CONTENTS
+\end{minipage}'. (Get the natural height with an empty argument, '[]'.)
+
+ The optional argument POSITION governs how the 'minipage' vertically
+aligns with the surrounding material.
+
+'c'
+ (synonym 'm') Default. Positions the 'minipage' so its vertical
+ center lines up with the center of the adjacent text line (what
+ Plain TeX calls '\vcenter').
+
+'t'
+ Match the top line in the 'minipage' with the baseline of the
+ surrounding text (Plain TeX's '\vtop'.
+
+'b'
+ Match the bottom line in the 'minipage' with the baseline of the
+ surrounding text (Plain TeX's '\vbox'.
+
+ To see the effects of these, contrast running this
+
+ ---\begin{minipage}[c]{0.25in}
+ first\\ second\\ third
+ \end{minipage}
+
+with the results of changing 'c' to 'b' or 't'.
+
+ The optional argument HEIGHT is a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It
+sets the height of the 'minipage'. You can enter any value larger than,
+or equal to, or smaller than the 'minipage''s natural height and LaTeX
+will not give an error or warning. You can also set it to a height of
+zero or a negative value.
+
+ The final optional argument INNER-POS controls the placement of
+CONTENT inside the box. These are the possible values are (the default
+is the value of POSITION).
+
+'t'
+ Place CONTENT at the top of the box.
+
+'c'
+ Place it in the vertical center.
+
+'b'
+ Place it at the box bottom.
+
+'s'
+ Stretch CONTENTS out vertically; it must contain vertically
+ stretchable space.
+
+ The INNER-POS argument makes sense when the HEIGHT option is set to a
+value larger than the 'minipage''s natural height. To see the effect of
+the options, run this example with the various choices in place of 'b'.
+
+ Text before
+ \begin{center}
+ ---\begin{minipage}[c][3in][b]{0.25\textwidth}
+ first\\ second\\ third
+ \end{minipage}
+ \end{center}
+ Text after
+
+ By default paragraphs are not indented in a 'minipage'. Change that
+with a command such as '\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' at the start of
+CONTENTS.
+
+ Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is
+particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
+'\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom
+of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the
+'\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note
+Counters::).
+
+ This puts the footnote at the bottom of the table, not the bottom of
+the page.
+
+ \begin{center} % center the minipage on the line
+ \begin{minipage}{2.5in}
+ \begin{center} % center the table inside the minipage
+ \begin{tabular}{ll}
+ \textsc{Monarch} &\textsc{Reign} \\ \hline
+ Elizabeth II &63 years\footnote{to date} \\
+ Victoria &63 years \\
+ George III &59 years
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{center}
+ \end{minipage}
+ \end{center}
+
+ If you nest minipages then there is an oddness when using footnotes.
+Footnotes appear at the bottom of the text ended by the next
+'\end{minipage}' which may not be their logical place.
+
+ This puts a table containing data side by side with a map graphic.
+They are vertically centered.
+
+ \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
+ ...
+ \begin{center}
+ \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{nyc.png}}
+ \hspace{0.1\textwidth}
+ \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
+ \begin{tabular}{r|l}
+ \multicolumn{1}{r}{Borough} &Pop (million) \\ \hline
+ The Bronx &$1.5$ \\
+ Brooklyn &$2.6$ \\
+ Manhattan &$1.6$ \\
+ Queens &$2.3$ \\
+ Staten Island &$0.5$
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{minipage}
+ \end{center}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: picture, Next: quotation & quote, Prev: minipage, Up: Environments
+
+8.19 'picture'
+==============
+
+Synopses:
+ \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)
+ PICTURE COMMANDS
+ \end{picture}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET)
+ PICTURE COMMANDS
+ \end{picture}
+
+ An environment to create simple pictures containing lines, arrows,
+boxes, circles, and text. Note that while this environment is not
+obsolete, new documents typically use much more powerful graphics
+creation systems, such as 'TikZ', 'PSTricks', 'MetaPost', or
+'Asymptote'. These are not covered in this document; see CTAN.
+
+ This shows the parallelogram law for adding vectors.
+
+ \setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
+ \begin{picture}(6,6) % picture box will be 6cm wide by 6cm tall
+ \put(0,0){\vector(2,1){4}} % for every 2 over this vector goes 1 up
+ \put(2,1){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ first leg}}
+ \put(4,2){\vector(1,2){2}}
+ \put(5,4){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ second leg}}
+ \put(0,0){\line(1,1){6}}
+ \put(3,3){\makebox(0,0)[r]{sum\ }}
+ \end{picture}
+
+ You can also use this environment to place arbitrary material at an
+exact location.
+
+ \usepackage{color,graphicx} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{center}
+ \setlength{\unitlength}{\textwidth}
+ \begin{picture}(1,1) % leave space, \textwidth wide and tall
+ \put(0,0){\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{desertedisland.jpg}}
+ \put(0.25,0.35){\textcolor{red}{X Treasure here}}
+ \end{picture}
+ \end{center}
+
+The red X will be precisely a quarter of the '\linewidth' from the left
+margin, and '0.35\linewidth' up from the bottom. Another example of
+this usage is to put similar code in the page header to get repeat
+material on each of a document's pages.
+
+ The 'picture' environment has one required argument, a pair of
+numbers (WIDTH,HEIGHT). Multiply these by the value '\unitlength' to
+get the nominal size of the output, the space that LaTeX reserves on the
+output page. This nominal size need not be how large the picture really
+is; LaTeX will draw things from the picture outside the picture's box.
+
+ This environment also has an optional argument (XOFFSET,YOFFSET). It
+is used to shift the origin. Unlike most optional arguments, this one
+is not contained in square brackets. As with the required argument, it
+consists of two real numbers. Multiply these by '\unitlength' to get
+the point at the lower-left corner of the picture.
+
+ For example, if '\unitlength' has been set to '1mm', the command
+
+ \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
+
+produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters. The
+picture's origin is the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner
+is there, and the upper-right corner is at (110mm,220mm). When you
+first draw a picture you typically omit the optional argument, leaving
+the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your
+picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate
+optional argument.
+
+ Each PICTURE COMMAND tells LaTeX where to put something by naming its
+position. A "position" is a pair such as '(2.4,-5)' giving the x- and
+y-coordinates. A "coordinate" is a not a length, it is a real number
+(it may have a decimal point or a minus sign). It specifies a length in
+multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if '\unitlength' has been
+set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54
+centimeters.
+
+ LaTeX's default for '\unitlength' is '1pt'. it is a rigid length
+(*note Lengths::). Change it with the '\setlength' command (*note
+\setlength::). Make this change only outside of a 'picture'
+environment.
+
+ Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is normally at
+the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears
+as an argument, as with '\put(1,2){...}', it is not enclosed in braces
+since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. Also, unlike in
+some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are further up the
+page.
+
+ There are four ways to put things in a picture: '\put', '\multiput',
+'\qbezier', and '\graphpaper'. The most often used is '\put'. This
+
+ \put(11.3,-0.3){...}
+
+places the object with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-0.3).
+The reference points for various objects will be described below. The
+'\put' command creates an "LR box" (*note Modes::). Anything that can
+go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) can go in the text argument
+of the '\put' command. The reference point will be the lower left
+corner of the box. In this picture
+
+ \setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
+ ...\begin{picture}(1,1)
+ \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}}
+ \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}}
+ \end{picture}
+
+the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed
+by the two lines. (Also, '\line(1,1){1}' does not call for a line of
+length one; rather the line has a change in the x coordinate of 1.)
+
+ The '\multiput', 'qbezier', and 'graphpaper' commands are described
+below.
+
+ This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using '\qbezier' for that
+curve.
+
+ \begin{picture}(3,1.5)
+ \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}} % x axis
+ \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}} % y axis
+ \put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}} % left side rectangle
+ \put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}} % right side
+ \qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25)
+ \qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5)
+ \thicklines % below here, lines are twice as thick
+ \put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}}
+ \put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}}
+ \end{picture}
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \put:: Place an object at a specified place.
+* \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object.
+* \qbezier:: Draw a quadratic Bezier curve.
+* \graphpaper:: Draw graph paper.
+* \line:: Draw a straight line.
+* \linethickness:: Set thickness of horizontal and vertical lines.
+* \thinlines:: The default line thickness.
+* \thicklines:: A heavier line thickness.
+* \circle:: Draw a circle.
+* \oval:: Draw an oval.
+* \shortstack:: Make a stack of objects.
+* \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow.
+* \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size.
+* \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it.
+* \frame:: Draw a frame around an object.
+* \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \put, Next: \multiput, Up: picture
+
+8.19.1 '\put'
+-------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){CONTENT}
+
+ Place CONTENT at the coordinate (XCOORD,YCOORD). See the discussion
+of coordinates and '\unitlength' in *note picture::. The CONTENT is
+processed in LR mode (*note Modes::) so it cannot contain line breaks.
+
+ This includes the text into the 'picture'.
+
+ \put(4.5,2.5){Apply the \textit{unpoke} move}
+
+ The reference point, the location (4.5,2.5), is the lower left of the
+text, at the bottom left of the 'A'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \multiput, Next: \qbezier, Prev: \put, Up: picture
+
+8.19.2 '\multiput'
+------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){NUM-COPIES}{OBJ}
+
+ Copy OBJ a total of NUM-COPIES times, with an increment of
+DELTA_X,DELTA_Y. The OBJ first appears at position (x,y), then at
+(x+\delta_x,y+\delta_y), and so on.
+
+ This draws a simple grid with every fifth line in bold (see also
+*note \graphpaper::).
+
+ \begin{picture}(10,10)
+ \linethickness{0.05mm}
+ \multiput(0,0)(1,0){10}{\line(0,1){10}}
+ \multiput(0,0)(0,1){10}{\line(1,0){10}}
+ \linethickness{0.5mm}
+ \multiput(0,0)(5,0){3}{\line(0,1){10}}
+ \multiput(0,0)(0,5){3}{\line(1,0){10}}
+ \end{picture}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \qbezier, Next: \graphpaper, Prev: \multiput, Up: picture
+
+8.19.3 '\qbezier'
+-----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \qbezier(X1,Y1)(X2,Y2)(X3,Y3)
+ \qbezier[NUM](X1,Y1)(X2,Y2)(X3,Y3)
+
+ Draw a quadratic Bezier curve whose control points are given by the
+three required arguments '(X1,Y1)', '(X2,Y2)', and '(X3,Y3)'. That is,
+the curve runs from (X1,Y1) to (X3,Y3), is quadratic, and is such that
+the tangent line at (X1,Y1) passes through (X2,Y2), as does the tangent
+line at (X3,Y3).
+
+ This draws a curve from the coordinate (1,1) to (1,0).
+
+ \qbezier(1,1)(1.25,0.75)(1,0)
+
+The curve's tangent line at (1,1) contains (1.25,0.75), as does the
+curve's tangent line at (1,0).
+
+ The optional argument NUM gives the number of calculated intermediate
+points. The default is to draw a smooth curve whose maximum number of
+points is '\qbeziermax' (change this value with '\renewcommand').
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \graphpaper, Next: \line, Prev: \qbezier, Up: picture
+
+8.19.4 '\graphpaper'
+--------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \graphpaper(X_INIT,Y_INIT)(X_DIMEN,Y_DIMEN)
+ \graphpaper[SPACING](X_INIT,Y_INIT)(X_DIMEN,Y_DIMEN)
+
+ Draw a coordinate grid. Requires the 'graphpap' package. The grid's
+origin is '(X_INIT,Y_INIT)'. Grid lines come every SPACING units (the
+default is 10). The grid extends X_DIMEN units to the right and Y_DIMEN
+units up. All arguments must be positive integers.
+
+ This make a grid with seven vertical lines and eleven horizontal
+lines.
+
+ \usepackage{graphpap} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{picture}(6,20) % in document body
+ \graphpaper[2](0,0)(12,20)
+ \end{picture}
+
+The lines are numbered every ten units.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \line, Next: \linethickness, Prev: \graphpaper, Up: picture
+
+8.19.5 '\line'
+--------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \line(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL}
+
+ Draw a line. It slopes such that it vertically rises Y_RISE for
+every horizontal X_RUN. The TRAVEL is the total horizontal change -- it
+is not the length of the vector, it is the change in x. In the special
+case of vertical lines, where (X_RUN,Y_RISE)=(0,1), the TRAVEL gives the
+change in y.
+
+ This draws a line starting at coordinates (1,3).
+
+ \put(1,3){\line(2,5){4}}
+
+For every over 2, this line will go up 5. Because TRAVEL specifies that
+this goes over 4, it must go up 10. Thus its endpoint is
+(1,3)+(4,10)=(5,13). In particular, note that TRAVEL=4 is not the
+length of the line, it is the change in x.
+
+ The arguments X_RUN and Y_RISE are integers that can be positive,
+negative, or zero. (If both are 0 then LaTeX treats the second as 1.)
+With '\put(X_INIT,Y_INIT){\line(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL}}', if X_RUN is
+negative then the line's ending point has a first coordinate that is
+less than X_INIT. If Y_RISE is negative then the line's ending point
+has a second coordinate that is less than Y_INIT.
+
+ If TRAVEL is negative then you get 'LaTeX Error: Bad \line or \vector
+argument.'
+
+ Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with a limited range of slopes
+because these lines are made by putting together line segments from
+pre-made fonts. The two numbers X_RUN and Y_RISE must have integer
+values from -6 through 6. Also, they must be relatively prime, so that
+(X_RUN,Y_RISE) can be (2,1) but not (4,2) (if you choose the latter then
+instead of lines you get sequences of arrowheads; the solution is to
+switch to the former). To get lines of arbitrary slope and plenty of
+other shapes in a system like 'picture', see the package 'pict2e' on
+CTAN. Another solution is to use a full-featured graphics system such as
+'TikZ', or 'PSTricks', or 'MetaPost', or 'Asymptote'
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \linethickness, Next: \thinlines, Prev: \line, Up: picture
+
+8.19.6 '\linethickness'
+-----------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \linethickness{DIM}
+
+ Declares the thickness of subsequent horizontal and vertical lines in
+a picture to be DIM, which must be a positive length (*note Lengths::).
+It differs from '\thinlines' and '\thicklines' in that it does not
+affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or ovals.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinlines, Next: \thicklines, Prev: \linethickness, Up: picture
+
+8.19.7 '\thinlines'
+-------------------
+
+Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
+in a picture environment to be 0.4pt. This is the default thickness, so
+this command is unnecessary unless the thickness has been changed with
+either *note \linethickness:: or *note \thicklines::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \thicklines, Next: \circle, Prev: \thinlines, Up: picture
+
+8.19.8 '\thicklines'
+--------------------
+
+Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
+in a picture environment to be 0.8pt. See also *note \linethickness::
+and *note \thinlines::. This command is illustrated in the Trapezoidal
+Rule example of *note picture::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \circle, Next: \oval, Prev: \thicklines, Up: picture
+
+8.19.9 '\circle'
+----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \circle{DIAMETER}
+ \circle*{DIAMETER}
+
+ Produces a circle with a diameter as close as possible to the
+specified one. The '*' form produces a filled-in circle.
+
+ This draws a circle of radius 6, centered at '(5,7)'.
+
+ \put(5,7){\circle{6}}
+
+ The available radii for 'circle' are, in points, the even numbers
+from 2 to 20, inclusive. For 'circle*' they are all the integers from 1
+to 15.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \oval, Next: \shortstack, Prev: \circle, Up: picture
+
+8.19.10 '\oval'
+---------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)
+ \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION]
+
+ Produce a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument
+PORTION allows you to produce only half or a quarter of the oval. For
+half an oval take PORTION to be one of these.
+
+'t'
+ top half
+'b'
+ bottom half
+'r'
+ right half
+'l'
+ left half
+
+ Produce only one quarter of the oval by setting PORTION to 'tr',
+'br', 'bl', or 'tl'.
+
+ This draws the top half of an oval that is 3 wide and 7 tall.
+
+ \put(5,7){\oval(3,7)[t]}
+
+The (5,7) is the center of the entire oval, not just the center of the
+top half.
+
+ These shapes are not ellipses. They are rectangles whose corners are
+made with quarter circles. These circles have a maximum radius of 20pt
+(*note \circle:: for the sizes). Thus large ovals are just boxes with a
+small amount of corner rounding.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \shortstack, Next: \vector, Prev: \oval, Up: picture
+
+8.19.11 '\shortstack'
+---------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \shortstack[POSITION]{LINE 1 \\ ... }
+
+ Produce a vertical stack of objects.
+
+ This labels the y axis.
+
+ \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){4}} % x axis
+ \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){2}} % y
+ \put(-0.25,2){\makebox[0][r]{\shortstack[r]{$y$\\ axis}}}
+
+For a short stack, the reference point is the lower left of the stack.
+In the above example the *note \mbox & \makebox:: puts the stack flush
+right in a zero width box so in total the short stack sits slightly to
+the left of the y axis.
+
+ The valid positions are:
+
+'r'
+ Make objects flush right
+'l'
+ Make objects flush left
+'c'
+ Center objects (default)
+
+ Separate objects into lines with '\\'. These stacks are short in
+that, unlike in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, here the rows are
+not spaced out to be of even heights. Thus, in
+'\shortstack{X\\o\\o\\X}' the first and last rows are taller than the
+middle two. You can adjust row heights either by putting in the usual
+interline spacing with '\shortstack{X\\ \strut o\\o\\X}', or by hand,
+via an explicit zero-width box '\shortstack{X \\ \rule{0pt}{12pt}
+o\\o\\X}' or by using '\\''s optional argument '\shortstack{X\\[2pt]
+o\\o\\X}'.
+
+ The '\shortstack' command is also available outside the 'picture'
+environment.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \vector, Next: \makebox (picture), Prev: \shortstack, Up: picture
+
+8.19.12 '\vector'
+-----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \vector(X_RUN,Y_RISE){TRAVEL}
+
+ Draw a line ending in an arrow. The slope of that line is: it
+vertically rises Y_RISE for every horizontal X_RUN. The TRAVEL is the
+total horizontal change -- it is not the length of the vector, it is the
+change in x. In the special case of vertical vectors, if
+(X_RUN,Y_RISE)=(0,1), then TRAVEL gives the change in y.
+
+ For an example see *note picture::.
+
+ For elaboration on X_RUN and Y_RISE see *note \line::. As there, the
+values of X_RUN and Y_RISE are limited. For '\vector' you must chooses
+integers between -4 and 4, inclusive. Also, the two you choose must be
+relatively prime. Thus, '\vector(2,1){4}' is acceptable but
+'\vector(4,2){4}' is not (if you use the latter then you get a sequence
+of arrowheads).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \makebox (picture), Next: \framebox (picture), Prev: \vector, Up: picture
+
+8.19.13 '\makebox' (picture)
+----------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \makebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT){TEXT}
+ \makebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT}
+
+ Make a box to hold TEXT. This command fits with the 'picture'
+environment, although you can use it outside of there, because REC-WIDTH
+and REC-HEIGHT are numbers specifying distances in terms of the
+'\unitlength' (*note picture::). This command is similar to the normal
+'\makebox' command (*note \mbox & \makebox::) except here that you must
+specify the width and height. This command is fragile (*note
+\protect::).
+
+ This makes a box of length 3.5 times '\unitlength' and height 4 times
+'\unitlength'.
+
+ \put(1,2){\makebox(3.5,4){...}}
+
+ The optional argument 'POSITION' specifies where in the box the TEXT
+appears. The default is to center it, both horizontally and vertically.
+To place it somewhere else, use a string with one or two of these
+letters.
+
+'t'
+ Puts TEXT the top of the box.
+
+'b'
+ Put TEXT at the bottom.
+
+'l'
+ Put TEXT on the left.
+
+'r'
+ Put TEXT on the right.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \framebox (picture), Next: \frame, Prev: \makebox (picture), Up: picture
+
+8.19.14 '\framebox' (picture)
+-----------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \framebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT){TEXT}
+ \framebox(REC-WIDTH,REC-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT}
+
+ This is the same as *note \makebox (picture):: except that it puts a
+frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The reference
+point is the bottom left corner of the frame. This command fits with
+the 'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there,
+because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
+'\unitlength' (*note picture::). This command is fragile (*note
+\protect::).
+
+ This example creates a frame 2.5 inches by 3 inches and puts the text
+in the center.
+
+ \setlength{\unitlength}{1in}
+ \framebox(2.5,3){test text}
+
+ The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width
+RECT-WIDTH units and height RECT-HEIGHT units.
+
+ The optional argument POSITION specifies the position of TEXT; see
+*note \makebox (picture):: for the values that it can take.
+
+ The rule has thickness '\fboxrule' and there is a blank space
+'\fboxsep' between the frame and the contents of the box.
+
+ For this command, you must specify the WIDTH and HEIGHT. If you want
+to just put a frame around some contents whose dimension is determined
+in some other way then either use '\fbox' (*note \fbox & \framebox::) or
+'\frame' (*note \frame::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \frame, Next: \dashbox, Prev: \framebox (picture), Up: picture
+
+8.19.15 '\frame'
+----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \frame{CONTENTS}
+
+ Puts a rectangular frame around CONTENTS. The reference point is the
+bottom left corner of the frame. In contrast to '\framebox' (*note
+\framebox (picture)::), this command puts no extra space is put between
+the frame and the object. It is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \dashbox, Prev: \frame, Up: picture
+
+8.19.16 '\dashbox'
+------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \dashbox{DASH-LEN}(RECT-WIDTH,RECT-HEIGHT){TEXT}
+ \dashbox{DASH-LEN}(RECT-WIDTH,RECT-HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT}
+
+ Create a dashed rectangle around TEXT. This command fits with the
+'picture' environment, although you can use it outside of there, because
+lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
+'\unitlength' (*note picture::).
+
+ The required arguments are: dashes are DASH-LEN units long, with the
+same length gap, and the rectangle has overall width RECT-WIDTH units
+and height RECT-HEIGHT units.
+
+ The optional argument POSITION specifies the position of TEXT; see
+*note \makebox (picture):: for the values that it can take.
+
+ This shows that you can use non-integer value for DASH-LEN.
+
+ \put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}}
+
+Each dash will be '0.1\unitlength' long, the box's width is
+'5\unitlength' and its height is '0.5\unitlength'.
+
+ As in that example, a dashed box looks best when RECT-WIDTH and
+RECT-HEIGHT are multiples of the DASH-LEN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: quotation & quote, Next: tabbing, Prev: picture, Up: Environments
+
+8.20 'quotation' & 'quote'
+==========================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{quotation}
+ TEXT
+ \end{quotation}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{quote}
+ TEXT
+ \end{quote}
+
+ Include a quotation. Both environments indent margins on both sides
+by '\leftmargin' and the text is right-justified.
+
+ They differ in how they treat paragraphs. In the 'quotation'
+environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space between
+paragraphs is small, '0pt plus 1pt'. In the 'quote' environment,
+paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between
+paragraphs (it is the rubber length '\parsep').
+
+ \begin{quotation} \small\it
+ Four score and seven years ago
+ ... shall not perish from the earth.
+ \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
+ \end{quotation}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: tabbing, Next: table, Prev: quotation & quote, Up: Environments
+
+8.21 'tabbing'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{tabbing}
+ ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 ... \\
+ ROW2COL1 \> ROW2COL2 ... \\
+ ...
+ \end{tabbing}
+
+ Align text in columns, by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much
+as was done on a typewriter. This is less often used than the
+environments 'tabular' (*note tabular::) or 'array' (*note array::)
+because in those the width of each column need not be constant and need
+not be known in advance.
+
+ This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit
+widths, ended by a '\kill' command (which is described below):
+
+ \begin{tabbing}
+ \hspace{0.75in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \kill
+ Ship \> Guns \> Year \\
+ \textit{Sophie} \> 14 \> 1800 \\
+ \textit{Polychrest} \> 24 \> 1803 \\
+ \textit{Lively} \> 38 \> 1804 \\
+ \textit{Surprise} \> 28 \> 1805 \\
+ \end{tabbing}
+
+ Both the 'tabbing' environment and the more widely-used 'tabular'
+environment put text in columns. The most important distinction is that
+in 'tabular' the width of columns is determined automatically by LaTeX,
+while in 'tabbing' the user sets the tab stops. Another distinction is
+that 'tabular' generates a box, but 'tabbing' can be broken across
+pages. Finally, while 'tabular' can be used in any mode, 'tabbing' can
+be used only in paragraph mode and it starts a new paragraph.
+
+ A 'tabbing' environment always starts a new paragraph, without
+indentation. Moreover, as shown in the example above, there is no need
+to use the starred form of the '\hspace' command at the beginning of a
+tabbed row. The right margin of the 'tabbing' environment is the end of
+line, so that the width of the environment is '\linewidth'.
+
+ The 'tabbing' environment contains a sequence of "tabbed rows". The
+first tabbed row begins immediately after '\begin{tabbing}' and each row
+ends with '\\' or '\kill'. The last row may omit the '\\' and end with
+just '\end{tabbing}'.
+
+ At any point the 'tabbing' environment has a current tab stop
+pattern, a sequence of N > 0 tab stops, numbered 0, 1, etc. These
+create N corresponding columns. Tab stop 0 is always the left margin,
+defined by the enclosing environment. Tab stop number I is set if it is
+assigned a horizontal position on the page. Tab stop number I can only
+be set if all the stops 0, ..., i-1 have already been set; normally
+later stops are to the right of earlier ones.
+
+ By default any text typeset in a 'tabbing' environment is typeset
+ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is
+done in LR mode (*note Modes::).
+
+ The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment.
+They are all fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+'\\ (tabbing)'
+ End a tabbed line and typeset it.
+
+'\= (tabbing)'
+ Sets a tab stop at the current position.
+
+'\> (tabbing)'
+ Advances to the next tab stop.
+
+'\<'
+ Put following text to the left of the local margin (without
+ changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line.
+
+'\+'
+ Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
+ one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
+
+'\-'
+ Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
+ one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
+
+'\' (tabbing)'
+ Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column,
+ i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or
+ '\kill' command, to the previous column and aligned to the right,
+ flush against the current column's tab stop.
+
+'\` (tabbing)'
+ Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including
+ tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last
+ column because there's no tab stop there. The '\`' command moves
+ all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}'
+ command that ends the line, to the right margin of the 'tabbing'
+ environment. There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the
+ '\`' and the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line.
+
+'\a (tabbing)'
+ In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not
+ produce accents as usual (*note Accents::). Instead, use the
+ commands '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`'.
+
+'\kill'
+ Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like '\\' except
+ that it throws away the current line instead of producing output
+ for it. Any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line remain in
+ effect.
+
+'\poptabs'
+ Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'.
+
+'\pushtabs'
+ Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily
+ changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing'
+ environment.
+
+'\tabbingsep'
+ Distance of the text moved by '\'' to left of current tab stop.
+
+ This example typesets a Pascal function:
+
+ \begin{tabbing}
+ function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
+ \> begin \= \+ \\
+ \> if \= n > 1 then \+ \\
+ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
+ else \+ \\
+ fact := 1; \-\- \\
+ end;\\
+ \end{tabbing}
+
+The output looks like this.
+
+ function fact(n : integer) : integer;
+ begin
+ if n > 1 then
+ fact := n * fact(n-1);
+ else
+ fact := 1;
+ end;
+
+This example is just for illustration of the environment. To actually
+typeset computer code in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment
+(*note verbatim::) would normally be best. For pretty-printed code,
+there are quite a few packages, including 'algorithm2e', 'fancyvrb',
+'listings', and 'minted'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: table, Next: tabular, Prev: tabbing, Up: Environments
+
+8.22 'table'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{table}[PLACEMENT]
+ TABLE BODY
+ \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE} % optional
+ \label{LABEL} % also optional
+ \end{table}
+
+ A class of floats (*note Floats::). They cannot be split across
+pages and so they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but
+instead are floated to a convenient place, such as the top of a
+following page.
+
+ This example 'table' environment contains a 'tabular'
+
+ \begin{table}
+ \centering\small
+ \begin{tabular}{ll}
+ \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Author}}
+ &\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Piece}} \\ \hline
+ Bach &Cello Suite Number 1 \\
+ Beethoven &Cello Sonata Number 3 \\
+ Brahms &Cello Sonata Number 1
+ \end{tabular}
+ \caption{Top cello pieces}
+ \label{tab:cello}
+ \end{table}
+
+but you can put many different kinds of content in a 'table', including
+text, LaTeX commands, etc.
+
+ For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float
+placement algorithm, see *note Floats::.
+
+ The table body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth'. It
+can contain text, commands, graphics, etc.
+
+ The label is optional; it is used for cross references (*note Cross
+references::). The '\caption' command is also optional. It specifies
+caption text for the table. By default it is numbered. If its optional
+LOTTITLE is present then that text is used in the list of tables instead
+of TITLE (*note Table of contents etc.::).
+
+ In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a
+page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.
+
+ \begin{table}[b]
+ \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
+ One &The loneliest number \\
+ Two &Can be as sad as one.
+ It's the loneliest number since the number one.
+ \end{tabular}
+ \caption{Cardinal virtues}
+ \label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
+ \end{table}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: tabular, Next: thebibliography, Prev: table, Up: Environments
+
+8.23 'tabular'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS}
+ COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
+ ...
+ \end{tabular}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS}
+ COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
+ ...
+ \end{tabular*}
+
+ Produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows.
+Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This
+illustrates many of the features.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{l|l}
+ \textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\
+ \hline
+ Hank Aaron &755 \\
+ Babe Ruth &714
+ \end{tabular}
+
+The output will have two left-aligned columns with a vertical bar
+between them. This is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'. Put
+the entries into different columns by separating them with an ampersand,
+'&'. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash, '\\'. Put
+a horizontal rule below a row, after a double backslash, with '\hline'.
+After the last row the '\\' is optional, unless an '\hline' command
+follows to put a rule below the table.
+
+ The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of:
+
+POS
+ Optional. Specifies the table's vertical position. The default is
+ to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of
+ the surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: 't'
+ aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the
+ surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row.
+
+ This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case
+ of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no
+ difference.
+
+COLS
+ Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a
+ sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of
+ column and intercolumn material.
+
+ 'l'
+ A column of left-aligned items.
+
+ 'r'
+ A column of right-aligned items.
+
+ 'c'
+ A column of centered items.
+
+ '|'
+ A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
+
+ '@{TEXT OR SPACE}'
+ Insert TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row. The TEXT
+ OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile
+ (*note \protect::).
+
+ If between two columns there is no @-expression then LaTeX's
+ 'book', 'article', and 'report' classes will put on either
+ side of each column a space of length '\tabcolsep', which by
+ default is 6pt. That is, by default adjacent columns are
+ separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is misleadingly named since
+ it is only half of the separation between tabular columns).
+ In addition, a space of 6pt also comes before the first column
+ and after the final column, unless you put a '@{...}' or '|'
+ there.
+
+ If you override the default and use an @-expression then LaTeX
+ does not insert '\tabcolsep' so you must insert any desired
+ space yourself, as in '@{\hspace{1em}}'.
+
+ An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space. In
+ particular, sometimes you want to eliminate the space before
+ the first column or after the last one, as in the example
+ below where the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin.
+
+ \begin{flushleft}
+ \begin{tabular}{@{}l}
+ ...
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{flushleft}
+
+ The next example shows text, a decimal point between the
+ columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on
+ it.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
+ $3$ &$14$ \\
+ $9$ &$80665$
+ \end{tabular}
+
+ An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an
+ extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all
+ subsequent columns, until countermanded by another
+ '\extracolsep'. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra
+ space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An '\extracolsep'
+ command can be used only in an @-expression in the 'cols'
+ argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of
+ intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide.
+
+ \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
+ Seven times down, eight times up \ldots
+ &such is life!
+ \end{tabular*}
+
+ To insert commands that are automatically executed before a
+ given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}'
+ specifier.
+
+ 'p{WD}'
+ Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD, as
+ if it were the argument of a '\parbox[t]{wd}{...}' command.
+
+ A line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in the item,
+ except inside an environment like 'minipage', 'array', or
+ 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in the scope of
+ a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft' declaration
+ (when used in a 'p'-column element these declarations must
+ appear inside braces, as with '{\centering .. \\ ..}').
+ Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as
+ ending the row. Instead, to get a line break in there use
+ '\newline' (*note \newline::).
+
+ '*{NUM}{COLS}'
+ Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive
+ integer and COLS is a list of specifiers. Thus the specifier
+ '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to the specifier
+ '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'. Note that COLS may contain
+ another '*'-expression.
+
+WIDTH
+ Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'. Specifies the
+ width of the 'tabular*' environment. The space between columns
+ should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the
+ table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you
+ are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment
+ ...' warning.
+
+ Parameters that control formatting:
+
+'\arrayrulewidth'
+ A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|',
+ '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments.
+ The default is '.4pt'. Change it as in
+ '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'.
+
+'\arraystretch'
+ A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and
+ 'array' environments is multiplied. The default is '1', for no
+ scaling. Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'.
+
+'\doublerulesep'
+ A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced
+ by the '||' specifier. The default is '2pt'.
+
+'\tabcolsep'
+ A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is
+ '6pt'. Change it with '\setlength'.
+
+ The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular'
+environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between
+lines:
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns.
+* \vline:: Draw a vertical line.
+* \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns.
+* \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \multicolumn, Next: \vline, Up: tabular
+
+8.23.1 '\multicolumn'
+---------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT}
+
+ Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns. The
+first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span. The second
+argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for
+centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right. The third
+argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry.
+
+ In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are
+spanned by the single heading 'Name'.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{lccl}
+ \textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\
+ \hline
+ 978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick &55 \\
+ ...
+ \end{tabular}
+
+ What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the
+'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part
+(except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'. So from
+'\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c',
+and 'p{1.5in}|'.
+
+ The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's
+intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect
+that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the
+placement of vertical rules, and '@{...}' expressions. Thus if COLS is
+'|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule
+will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it. This table
+details the exact behavior.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
+ \multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one
+ &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two
+ &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three
+ &z % entry four
+ \end{tabular}
+
+Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because
+the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial vertical
+bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical rule;
+although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the second
+COLS does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there
+is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the
+surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one
+rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the
+default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn'
+leaves it out, and that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four
+there is a vertical rule because of the default.
+
+ The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1. Besides giving the
+ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to
+override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area
+specification, including the placement of vertical rules.
+
+ In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is
+specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is
+centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'. Also in the first
+row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with
+'\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to
+center those two columns on the page range en-dash.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l}
+ \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}
+ &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
+ Baroque &1600 &1760 \\
+ Classical &1730 &1820 \\
+ Romantic &1780 &1910 \\
+ Impressionistic &1875 &1925
+ \end{tabular}
+
+Although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a vertical rule
+between the first and second columns, no such vertical rule appears in
+the first row here. That's because there is no vertical bar in the COLS
+part of the first row's first '\multicolumn' command.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \vline, Next: \cline, Prev: \multicolumn, Up: tabular
+
+8.23.2 '\vline'
+---------------
+
+Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the
+full height and depth of an entry's row. Can also be used in an
+@-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common.
+This command is rarely used in the body of a table; typically a table's
+vertical lines are specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overridden
+as needed with '\multicolumn' (*note tabular::).
+
+ The example below illustrates some pitfalls. In the first row's
+second entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the
+cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two
+columns, so between the first and second columns there are two vertical
+rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one
+produced by the '\vline\hfill'. In contrast, the first row's third
+entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns. In
+the second row, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the
+'\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that
+entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{c|cc}
+ x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ % row 1
+ abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi % row 2
+ \end{tabular}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \cline, Next: \hline, Prev: \vline, Up: tabular
+
+8.23.3 '\cline'
+---------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \cline{I-J}
+
+ In an 'array' or 'tabular' environment, draw a horizontal rule
+beginning in column I and ending in column J. The dash, '-', must
+appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single column use the
+number twice, as with '\cline{2-2}'.
+
+ This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second
+rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the
+third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same
+height.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{llrr}
+ a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4}
+ e &f &g &h
+ \end{tabular}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \hline, Prev: \cline, Up: tabular
+
+8.23.4 '\hline'
+---------------
+
+Draw a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array'
+environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom,
+and between the rows of a table.
+
+ In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one
+above the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a
+single rule spanning both columns. Because of the '\hline', the
+'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
+ Baseball &Red Sox \\
+ Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline
+ \end{tabular}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: thebibliography, Next: theorem, Prev: tabular, Up: Environments
+
+8.24 'thebibliography'
+======================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL}
+ \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}
+ ...
+ \end{thebibliography}
+
+ Produce a bibliography or reference list. There are two ways to
+produce bibliographic lists. This environment is suitable when you have
+only a few references and can maintain the list by hand. *Note Using
+BibTeX:: for a more sophisticated approach.
+
+ This shows the environment with two entries.
+
+ This work is based on \cite{latexdps}.
+ Together they are \cite{latexdps, texbook}.
+ ...
+ \begin{thebibliography}{9}
+ \bibitem{latexdps}
+ Leslie Lamport.
+ \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}.
+ Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
+ \bibitem{texbook}
+ Donald Ervin Knuth.
+ \textit{The \TeX book}.
+ Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
+ \end{thebibliography}
+
+This styles the first reference as '[1] Leslie ...', and so that
+'\cite{latexdps}' produces the matching '... based on [1]'. The second
+'\cite' produces '[1, 2]'. You must compile the document twice to
+resolve these references.
+
+ The mandatory argument WIDEST-LABEL is text that, when typeset, is as
+wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands. The
+tradition is to use '9' for bibliographies with less than 10 references,
+'99' for ones with less than 100, etc.
+
+ The bibliographic list is headed by a title such as 'Bibliography'.
+To change it there are two cases. In the 'book' and 'report' classes,
+where the top level sectioning is '\chapter' and the default title is
+'Bibliography', that title is in the macro '\bibname'. For 'article',
+where the class's top level sectioning is '\section' and the default is
+'References', the title is in macro '\refname'. Change it by redefining
+the command, as with '\renewcommand{\refname}{Cited references}' after
+'\begin{document}'.
+
+ Language support packages such as 'babel' will automatically redefine
+'\refname' or '\bibname' to fit the selected language.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item.
+* \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item.
+* \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography.
+* Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \bibitem, Next: \cite, Up: thebibliography
+
+8.24.1 '\bibitem'
+-----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \bibitem{CITE_KEY}
+
+or
+
+ \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}
+
+ Generate an entry labeled by LABEL. The default is for LaTeX to
+generates a number using the 'enumi' counter. The "citation key"
+CITE_KEY is a string of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols (but
+not comma).
+
+ *Note thebibliography:: for an example.
+
+ The optional LABEL changes the default label from an integer to the
+given string. With this
+
+ \begin{thebibliography}
+ \bibitem[Lamport 1993]{latexdps}
+ Leslie Lamport.
+ \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}.
+ Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
+ \bibitem{texbook}
+ Donald Ervin Knuth.
+ \textit{The \TeX book}.
+ Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
+ \end{thebibliography}
+
+the first entry will be styled as '[Lamport 1993] Leslie ...' (The
+amount of horizontal space that LaTeX leaves for the label depends on
+the WIDEST-LABEL argument of the 'thebibliography' environment; see
+*note thebibliography::.) Similarly, '... based on \cite{latexdps}'
+will produce '... based on [Lamport 1994]'.
+
+ If you mix '\bibitem' entries having a LABEL with those that do not
+then LaTeX will number the unlabelled ones sequentially. In the example
+above the 'texbook' entry will appear as '[1] Donald ...', despite that
+it is the second entry.
+
+ If you use the same CITE_KEY twice then you get 'LaTeX Warning: There
+were multiply-defined labels'.
+
+ Under the hood, LaTeX remembers the CITE_KEY and LABEL information
+because '\bibitem' writes it to the auxiliary file 'FILENAME.aux'. For
+instance, the above example causes '\bibcite{latexdps}{Lamport, 1993}'
+and '\bibcite{texbook}{1}' to appear in that file. The '.aux' file is
+read by the '\begin{document}' command and then the information is
+available for '\cite' commands. This explains why you need to run LaTeX
+twice to resolve references: once to write it out and once to read it
+in.
+
+ Because of this two-pass algorithm, when you add a '\bibitem' or
+change its CITE_KEY you may get 'LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have
+changed. Rerun to get cross-references right'. Fix it by recompiling.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \cite, Next: \nocite, Prev: \bibitem, Up: thebibliography
+
+8.24.2 '\cite'
+--------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \cite{KEYS}
+
+or
+
+ \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS}
+
+ Generate as output a citation to the references associated with KEYS.
+The mandatory KEYS is a citation key, or a comma-separated list of
+citation keys (*note \bibitem::).
+
+ This
+
+ The ultimate source is \cite{texbook}.
+ ...
+ \begin{thebibliography}
+ \bibitem{texbook}
+ Donald Ervin Knuth.
+ \textit{The \TeX book}.
+ Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
+ \end{thebibliography}
+
+produces output like '... source is [1]'. (You can change the
+appearance of the citation with bibliography styles. More is in *note
+Using BibTeX::.)
+
+ The optional argument SUBCITE is appended to the citation. For
+example, 'See 14.3 in \cite[p.~314]{texbook}' might produce 'See 14.3 in
+[1, p. 314]'.
+
+ In addition to what appears in the output, '\cite' writes information
+to the auxiliary file 'FILENAME.aux'. For instance, '\cite{latexdps}'
+writes '\citation{latexdps}' to that file. This information is used by
+BibTeX to include in your reference list only those works that you have
+actually cited; see *note \nocite:: also.
+
+ If KEYS is not in your bibliography information then you get 'LaTeX
+Warning: There were undefined references', and in the output the
+citation shows as a boldface question mark between square brackets.
+There are two possible causes. If you have mistyped something, as in
+'\cite{texbok}' then you need to correct the spelling. On the other
+hand, if you have just added or modified the bibliographic information
+and so changed the '.aux' file (*note \bibitem::) then the fix may be to
+run LaTeX again.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \nocite, Next: Using BibTeX, Prev: \cite, Up: thebibliography
+
+8.24.3 '\nocite'
+----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \nocite{KEYS}
+
+ Produces no output but writes KEYS to the auxiliary file
+'DOC-FILENAME.aux'.
+
+ The mandatory argument KEYS is a comma-separated list of one or more
+citation keys (*note \bibitem::). This information is used by BibTeX to
+include these works in your reference list even though you have not
+cited them (*note \cite::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Using BibTeX, Prev: \nocite, Up: thebibliography
+
+8.24.4 Using BibTeX
+-------------------
+
+As described in 'thebibliography' (*note thebibliography::), a
+sophisticated approach to managing bibliographies is provided by the
+BibTeX program. This is only an introduction; see the full
+documentation on CTAN.
+
+ With BibTeX, you don't use 'thebibliography' (*note
+thebibliography::). Instead, include these lines.
+
+ \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE}
+ \bibliography{BIBFILE1, BIBFILE2, ...}
+
+The BIBSTYLE refers to a file 'BIBSTYLE.bst', which defines how your
+citations will look. The standard BIBSTYLE's distributed with BibTeX
+are:
+
+'alpha'
+ Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. The
+ bibliographic items are sorted alphabetically.
+'plain'
+ Labels are integers. Sort the bibliographic items alphabetically.
+'unsrt'
+ Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation.
+'abbrv'
+ Like 'plain', but more compact labels.
+
+Many, many other BibTeX style files exist, tailored to the demands of
+various publications. See CTAN's listing
+<http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib>.
+
+ The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the
+bibliography. Its argument is a comma-separated list, referring to
+files named 'BIBFILE1.bib', 'BIBFILE2.bib', ... These contain your
+database in BibTeX format. This shows a typical couple of entries in
+that format.
+
+ @book{texbook,
+ title = {The {{\TeX}}book},
+ author = {D.E. Knuth},
+ isbn = {0201134489},
+ series = {Computers \& typesetting},
+ year = {1983},
+ publisher = {Addison-Wesley}
+ }
+ @book{sexbook,
+ author = {W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson},
+ title = {Human Sexual Response},
+ year = {1966},
+ publisher = {Bantam Books}
+ }
+
+ Only the bibliographic entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite'
+will be listed in the document's bibliography. Thus you can keep all
+your sources together in one file, or a small number of files, and rely
+on BibTeX to include in this document only those that you used.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: theorem, Next: titlepage, Prev: thebibliography, Up: Environments
+
+8.25 'theorem'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{theorem}
+ THEOREM BODY
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ Produces 'Theorem N' in boldface followed by THEOREM BODY in italics.
+The numbering possibilities for N are described under '\newtheorem'
+(*note \newtheorem::).
+
+ \newtheorem{lem}{Lemma} % in preamble
+ \newtheorem{thm}{Theorem}
+ ...
+ \begin{lem} % in document body
+ text of lemma
+ \end{lem}
+
+ The next result follows immediately.
+ \begin{thm}[Gauss] % put `Gauss' in parens after theorem head
+ text of theorem
+ \end{thm}
+
+ Most new documents use the packages 'amsthm' and 'amsmath' from the
+American Mathematical Society. Among other things these packages
+include a large number of options for theorem environments, such as
+styling options.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: titlepage, Next: verbatim, Prev: theorem, Up: Environments
+
+8.26 'titlepage'
+================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{titlepage}
+ ... text and spacing ...
+ \end{titlepage}
+
+ Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading
+and with succeeding pages numbered starting with page one.
+
+ In this example all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left
+to the author.
+
+ \begin{titlepage}
+ \vspace*{\stretch{1}}
+ \begin{center}
+ {\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex]
+ title} \\[6.5ex]
+ {\large\bfseries Author name} \\
+ \vspace{4ex}
+ Thesis submitted to \\[5pt]
+ \textit{University name} \\[2cm]
+ in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm]
+ \textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy} \\[2ex]
+ \textsc{\large Mathematics} \\[12ex]
+ \vfill
+ Department of Mathematics \\
+ Address \\
+ \vfill
+ \today
+ \end{center}
+ \vspace{\stretch{2}}
+ \end{titlepage}
+
+ To instead produce a standard title page without a 'titlepage'
+environment, use '\maketitle' (*note \maketitle::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: verbatim, Next: verse, Prev: titlepage, Up: Environments
+
+8.27 'verbatim'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{verbatim}
+ LITERAL-TEXT
+ \end{verbatim}
+
+ A paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces as output
+exactly what you type as input. For instance inside LITERAL-TEXT the
+backslash '\' character does not start commands, it produces a printed
+'\', and carriage returns and blanks are taken literally. The output
+appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt').
+
+ \begin{verbatim}
+ Symbol swearing: %&$#?!.
+ \end{verbatim}
+
+ The only restriction on 'literal-text' is that it cannot include the
+string '\end{verbatim}'.
+
+ You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros,
+for instance in the argument to a '\section'. This is not the same as
+commands being fragile (*note \protect::), instead it just cannot appear
+there. (But the 'cprotect' package can help with this.)
+
+ One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code. There
+are packages that are an improvement the 'verbatim' environment. For
+instance, one improvement is to allow the verbatim inclusion of external
+files, or parts of those files. Such packages include 'listings', and
+'minted'.
+
+ A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments
+is 'fancyvrb'. Another is 'verbatimbox'.
+
+ For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \verb:: The macro form of the 'verbatim' environment.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \verb, Up: verbatim
+
+8.27.1 '\verb'
+--------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \verb CHAR LITERAL-TEXT CHAR
+ \verb* CHAR LITERAL-TEXT CHAR
+
+ Typeset LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including special characters and
+spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font.
+
+ This example shows two different invocations of '\verb'.
+
+ This is \verb!literally! the biggest pumpkin ever.
+ And this is the best squash, \verb+literally!+
+
+The first '\verb' has its LITERAL-TEXT surrounded with exclamation
+point, '!'. The second instead uses plus, '+', because the exclamation
+point is part of 'literal-text'.
+
+ The single-character delimiter CHAR surrounds LITERAL-TEXT -- it must
+be the same character before and after. No spaces come between '\verb'
+or '\verb*' and CHAR, or between CHAR and LITERAL-TEXT, or between
+LITERAL-TEXT and the second occurrence of CHAR (the synopsis shows a
+space only to distinguish one component from the other). The delimiter
+must not appear in LITERAL-TEXT. The LITERAL-TEXT cannot include a line
+break.
+
+ The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a visible
+space character.
+
+ The output from this will include a character showing the spaces.
+
+ The commands's first argument is \verb*!filename with extension! and ...
+
+ For typesetting Internet addresses, urls, the package 'url' provides
+an option that is better than the '\verb' command, since it allows line
+breaks.
+
+ For computer code there are many packages with advantages over
+'\verb'. One is 'listings', another is 'minted'.
+
+ You cannot use '\verb' in the argument to a macro, for instance in
+the argument to a '\section'. It is not a question of '\verb' being
+fragile (*note \protect::), instead it just cannot appear there. (But
+the 'cprotect' package can help with this.)
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: verse, Prev: verbatim, Up: Environments
+
+8.28 'verse'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{verse}
+ LINE1 \\
+ LINE2 \\
+ ...
+ \end{verse}
+
+ An environment for poetry.
+
+ Here are two lines from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.
+
+ Then plainly know my heart's dear love is set \\
+ On the fair daughter of rich Capulet.
+
+ Separate the lines of each stanza with '\\', and use one or more
+blank lines to separate the stanzas.
+
+ \begin{verse}
+ \makebox[\linewidth][c]{\textit{Shut Not Your Doors} ---Walt Whitman}
+ \\[1\baselineskip]
+ Shut not your doors to me proud libraries, \\
+ For that which was lacking on all your well-fill'd shelves, \\
+ \qquad yet needed most, I bring, \\
+ Forth from the war emerging, a book I have made, \\
+ The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing, \\
+ A book separate, not link'd with the rest nor felt by the intellect, \\
+ But you ye untold latencies will thrill to every page.
+ \end{verse}
+
+The output has margins indented on the left and the right, paragraphs
+are not indented, and the text is not right-justified.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Line breaking, Next: Page breaking, Prev: Environments, Up: Top
+
+9 Line breaking
+***************
+
+The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate
+your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a
+printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these
+lines must be broken into pages).
+
+ LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for
+you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.
+
+ A common workflow is to get a final version of the document content
+before taking a final pass through and considering line breaks (and page
+breaks). This differs from word processing, where you are formatting
+text as you input it. Putting these off until the end prevents a lot of
+fiddling with breaks that will change anyway.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \\:: Start a new line.
+* \obeycr & \restorecr:: Make each input line start a new output line.
+* \newline:: Break the line
+* \- (hyphenation):: Insert explicit hyphenation.
+* \discretionary:: Explicit control of the hyphen character.
+* \fussy & \sloppy:: Be more or less particular with line breaking.
+* \hyphenation:: Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word.
+* \linebreak & \nolinebreak:: Forcing & avoiding line breaks.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \\, Next: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.1 '\\'
+========
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \\
+ \\[MORESPACE]
+
+or one of:
+
+ \\*
+ \\*[MORESPACE]
+
+ End the current line. The optional argument MORESPACE specifies
+extra vertical space to be inserted before the next line. This is a
+rubber length (*note Lengths::) and can be negative. The text before
+the line break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched
+to fill out the line width. This command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ The starred form, '\\*', tells LaTeX not to start a new page between
+the two lines, by issuing a '\nobreak'.
+
+ \title{My story: \\[0.25in]
+ a tale of woe}
+
+ Explicit line breaks in the main text body are unusual in LaTeX. In
+particular, don't start new paragraphs with '\\'. Instead leave a blank
+line between the two paragraphs. And don't put in a sequence of '\\''s
+to make vertical space. Instead use '\vspace{LENGTH}', or
+'\leavevmode\vspace{LENGTH}', or '\vspace*{LENGTH}' if you want the
+space to not be thrown out at the top of a new page (*note \vspace::).
+
+ The '\\' command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such
+as in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment or in an equation environment.
+
+ The '\\' command is a synonym for '\newline' (*note \newline::) under
+ordinary circumstances (an example of an exception is the 'p{...}'
+column in a 'tabular' environment; *note tabular::).
+
+ The '\\' command is a macro, and its definition changes by context so
+that its definition in normal text, a 'center' environment, a
+'flushleft' environment, and a 'tabular' are all different. In normal
+text when it forces a linebreak it is essentially a shorthand for
+'\newline'. It does not end horizontal mode or end the paragraph, it
+just inserts some glue and penalties so that when the paragraph does end
+a linebreak will occur at that point, with the short line padded with
+white space.
+
+ You get 'LaTeX Error: There's no line here to end' if you use '\\' to
+ask for a new line, rather than to end the current line. An example is
+if you have '\begin{document}\\' or, more likely, something like this.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
+ \\
+ In that vertical space put your mark.
+ \end{minipage}
+ \end{center}
+
+Fix it by replacing the double backslash with something like
+'\vspace{\baselineskip}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \obeycr & \restorecr, Next: \newline, Prev: \\, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr'
+============================
+
+The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M',
+internally) the same as '\\', followed by '\relax'. So each new line in
+the input will also be a new line in the output. The '\restorecr'
+command restores normal line-breaking behavior.
+
+ This is not the way to show verbatim text or computer code. *Note
+verbatim:: instead.
+
+ With LaTeX's usual defaults, this
+
+ aaa
+ bbb
+
+ \obeycr
+ ccc
+ ddd
+ eee
+
+ \restorecr
+ fff
+ ggg
+
+ hhh
+ iii
+
+produces output like this.
+
+ aaa bbb
+ ccc
+ ddd
+ eee
+
+ fff ggg
+ hhh iii
+
+The indents are paragraph indents.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newline, Next: \- (hyphenation), Prev: \obeycr & \restorecr, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.3 '\newline'
+==============
+
+In ordinary text, this ends a line in a way that does not right-justify
+the line, so the prior text is not stretched. That is, in paragraph
+mode (*note Modes::), the '\newline' command is equivalent to
+double-backslash (*note \\::). This command is fragile (*note
+\protect::).
+
+ However, the two commands are different inside a 'tabular' or 'array'
+environment. In a column with a specifier producing a paragraph box
+such as typically 'p{...}', '\newline' will insert a line end inside of
+the column; that is, it does not break the entire tabular row. To break
+the entire row use '\\' or its equivalent '\tabularnewline'.
+
+ This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell
+of the table.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}}
+ Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline
+ \end{tabular}
+
+The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \- (hyphenation), Next: \discretionary, Prev: \newline, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen)
+===============================
+
+Tell LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. When you
+insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at
+those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might
+otherwise have chosen. This command is robust (*note \protect::).
+
+ LaTeX is good at hyphenating and usually finds most of the correct
+hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The '\-'
+command is for exceptional cases.
+
+ For example, LaTeX does not ordinarily hyphenate words containing a
+hyphen. Below, the long and hyphenated word means LaTeX has to put in
+unacceptably large spaces to set the narrow column.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{rp{1.75in}}
+ Isaac Asimov &The strain of
+ anti-intellectualism
+ % an\-ti-in\-tel\-lec\-tu\-al\-ism
+ has been a constant thread winding its way through our
+ political and cultural life, nurtured by
+ the false notion that democracy means that
+ `my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge'.
+ \end{tabular}
+
+Commenting out the third line and uncommenting the fourth makes a much
+better fit.
+
+ The '\-' command only allows LaTeX to break there, it does not
+require that it break there. You can insist on a split with something
+like 'Hef-\linebreak feron'. Of course, if you later change the text
+then this forced break may look very odd, so this approach requires
+care.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \discretionary, Next: \fussy & \sloppy, Prev: \- (hyphenation), Up: Line breaking
+
+9.5 '\discretionary' (generalized hyphenation point)
+====================================================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \discretionary{PRE-BREAK}{POST-BREAK}{NO-BREAK}
+
+ Handle word changes around hyphens. This command is not often used
+in LaTeX documents.
+
+ If a line break occurs at the point where '\discretionary' appears
+then TeX puts PRE-BREAK at the end of the current line and puts
+POST-BREAK at the start of the next line. If there is no line break
+here then TeX puts NO-BREAK
+
+ In 'difficult' the three letters 'ffi' form a ligature. But TeX can
+nonetheless break between the two f's with this.
+
+ di\discretionary{f-}{fi}{ffi}cult
+
+ Note that users do not have to do this. It is typically handled
+automatically by TeX's hyphenation algorithm.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \fussy & \sloppy, Next: \hyphenation, Prev: \discretionary, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.6 '\fussy' & '\sloppy'
+========================
+
+Declarations to make TeX more picky or less picky about line breaking.
+Declaring '\fussy' usually avoids too much space between words, at the
+cost of an occasional overfull box. Conversely, '\sloppy' avoids
+overfull boxes while suffering loose interword spacing.
+
+ The default is '\fussy'. Line breaking in a paragraph is controlled
+by whichever declaration is current at the blank line, or '\par', or
+displayed equation ending that paragraph. So to affect the line breaks,
+include that paragraph-ending material in the scope of the command.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* sloppypar:: Environment version of \sloppy command.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: sloppypar, Up: \fussy & \sloppy
+
+9.6.1 'sloppypar'
+-----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{sloppypar}
+ ... paragraphs ...
+ \end{sloppypar}
+
+ Typeset the paragraphs with '\sloppy' in effect (*note \fussy &
+\sloppy::). Use this to locally adjust line breaking, to avoid
+'Overfull box' or 'Underfull box' errors.
+
+ The example is simple.
+
+ \begin{sloppypar}
+ Her plan for the morning thus settled, she sat quietly down to her
+ book after breakfast, resolving to remain in the same place and the
+ same employment till the clock struck one; and from habitude very
+ little incommoded by the remarks and ejaculations of Mrs.\ Allen,
+ whose vacancy of mind and incapacity for thinking were such, that
+ as she never talked a great deal, so she could never be entirely
+ silent; and, therefore, while she sat at her work, if she lost her
+ needle or broke her thread, if she heard a carriage in the street,
+ or saw a speck upon her gown, she must observe it aloud, whether
+ there were anyone at leisure to answer her or not.
+ \end{sloppypar}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \hyphenation, Next: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \fussy & \sloppy, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.7 '\hyphenation'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \hyphenation{WORD1 ...}
+
+ Declares allowed hyphenation points within the words in the list.
+The words in that list are separated by spaces. Show permitted points
+for hyphenation with a dash character, '-'.
+
+ Here is an example:
+
+ \hyphenation{hat-er il-lit-e-ra-ti tru-th-i-ness}
+
+ Use lowercase letters. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches
+exactly. Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \linebreak & \nolinebreak, Prev: \hyphenation, Up: Line breaking
+
+9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak'
+=================================
+
+Synopses, one of:
+
+ \linebreak
+ \linebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR]
+
+or one of these.
+
+ \nolinebreak
+ \nolinebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR]
+
+ Encourage or discourage a line break. The optional ZERO-TO-FOUR is
+an integer that allows you to soften the instruction. The default is 4,
+so that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or
+prevent the break. But for instance, '\nolinebreak[1]' is a suggestion
+that another place may be better. The higher the number, the more
+insistent the request. Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ Here we tell LaTeX that a good place to put a linebreak is after the
+standard legal text.
+
+ \boilerplatelegal{} \linebreak[2]
+ We especially encourage applications from members of traditionally
+ underrepresented groups.
+
+ When you issue '\linebreak', the spaces in the line are stretched out
+so that it extends to the right margin. *Note \\:: and *note \newline::
+to have the spaces not stretched out.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Page breaking, Next: Footnotes, Prev: Line breaking, Up: Top
+
+10 Page breaking
+****************
+
+Ordinarily LaTeX automatically takes care of breaking output into pages
+with its usual aplomb. But if you are writing commands, or tweaking the
+final version of a document, then you may need to understand how to
+influence its actions.
+
+ LaTeX's algorithm for splitting a document into pages is more complex
+than just waiting until there is enough material to fill a page and
+outputting the result. Instead, LaTeX typesets more material than would
+fit on the page and then chooses a break that is optimal in some way (it
+has the smallest badness). An example of the advantage of this approach
+is that if the page has some vertical space that can be stretched or
+shrunk, such as with rubber lengths between paragraphs, then LaTeX can
+use that to avoid widow lines (where a new page starts with the last
+line of a paragraph; LaTeX can squeeze the extra line onto the first
+page) and orphans (where the first line of paragraph is at the end of a
+page; LaTeX can stretch the material of the first page so the extra line
+falls on the second page). Another example is where LaTeX uses
+available vertical shrinkage to fit on a page not just the header for a
+new section but also the first two lines of that section.
+
+ But LaTeX does not optimize over the entire document's set of page
+breaks. So it can happen that the first page break is great but the
+second one is lousy; to break the current page LaTeX doesn't look as far
+ahead as the next page break. So occasionally you may want to influence
+page breaks while preparing a final version of a document.
+
+ *Note Layout:: for more material that is relevant to page breaking.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \clearpage & \cleardoublepage:: Start a new page; eject floats.
+* \newpage:: Start a new page.
+* \enlargethispage:: Enlarge the current page a bit.
+* \pagebreak & \nopagebreak:: Forcing & avoiding page breaks.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage, Next: \newpage, Up: Page breaking
+
+10.1 '\clearpage' & '\cleardoublepage'
+======================================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \clearpage
+
+or
+
+ \cleardoublepage
+
+ End the current page and output all of the pending floating figures
+and tables (*note Floats::). If there are too many floats to fit on the
+page then LaTeX will put in extra pages containing only floats. In
+two-sided printing, '\cleardoublepage' also makes the next page of
+content a right-hand page, an odd-numbered page, if necessary inserting
+a blank page. The '\clearpage' command is robust while
+'\cleardoublepage' is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ LaTeX's page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this
+command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
+commands.
+
+ The '\cleardoublepage' command will put in a blank page, but it will
+have the running headers and footers. To get a really blank page, use
+this command.
+
+ \let\origdoublepage\cleardoublepage
+ \newcommand{\clearemptydoublepage}{%
+ \clearpage
+ {\pagestyle{empty}\origdoublepage}%
+ }
+
+If you want LaTeX's standard '\chapter' command to do this then add the
+line '\let\cleardoublepage\clearemptydoublepage'.
+
+ The command '\newpage' (*note \newpage::) also ends the current page,
+but without clearing pending floats. And, if LaTeX is in two-column
+mode then '\newpage' ends the current column while '\clearpage' and
+'\cleardoublepage' end the current page.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newpage, Next: \enlargethispage, Prev: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage, Up: Page breaking
+
+10.2 '\newpage'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \newpage
+
+ End the current page. This command is robust (*note \protect::).
+
+ LaTeX's page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this
+command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
+commands.
+
+ While the commands '\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' also end the
+current page, in addition they clear pending floats (*note \clearpage &
+\cleardoublepage::). And, if LaTeX is in two-column mode then
+'\clearpage' and '\cleardoublepage' end the current page, possibly
+leaving an empty column, while '\newpage' only ends the current column.
+
+ In contrast with '\pagebreak' (*note \pagebreak & \nopagebreak::),
+the '\newpage' command will cause the new page to start right where
+requested. This
+
+ Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
+ continent,
+ \newpage
+ \noindent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the
+ proposition that all men are created equal.
+
+makes a new page start after 'continent,' and the cut-off line is not
+right justified. In addition, '\newpage' does not vertically stretch
+out the page, as '\pagebreak' does.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \enlargethispage, Next: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \newpage, Up: Page breaking
+
+10.3 '\enlargethispage'
+=======================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \enlargethispage{size}
+ \enlargethispage*{size}
+
+ Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page. The required
+argument SIZE must be a rigid length (*note Lengths::). It may be
+positive or negative. This command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ A common strategy is to wait until you have the final text of a
+document, and then pass through it tweaking line and page breaks. This
+command allows you some page size leeway.
+
+ This will allow one extra line on the current page.
+
+ \enlargethispage{\baselineskip}
+
+ The starred form '\enlargesthispage*' tries to squeeze the material
+together on the page as much as possible, for the common use case of
+getting one more line on the page. This is often used together with an
+explicit '\pagebreak'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak, Prev: \enlargethispage, Up: Page breaking
+
+10.4 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak'
+==================================
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \pagebreak
+ \pagebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR]
+
+or
+
+ \nopagebreak
+ \nopagebreak[ZERO-TO-FOUR]
+
+ Encourage or discourage a page break. The optional ZERO-TO-FOUR is
+an integer that allows you to soften the request. The default is 4, so
+that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or
+prevent the break. But for instance '\nopagebreak[1]' suggests to LaTeX
+that another spot might be preferable. The higher the number, the more
+insistent the request. Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ LaTeX's page endings are optimized so ordinarily you only use this
+command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
+commands.
+
+ If you use these inside a paragraph, they apply to the point
+following the line in which they appear. So this
+
+ Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
+ continent,
+ \pagebreak
+ a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition
+ that all men are created equal.
+
+does not give a page break at 'continent,' but instead at 'nation,'
+since that is where LaTeX breaks that line. In addition, with
+'\pagebreak' the vertical space on the page is stretched out where
+possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. This can look
+strange, and if '\flushbottom' is in effect this can cause you to get
+'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active'.
+*Note \newpage:: for a command that does not have these effects.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes, Next: Definitions, Prev: Page breaking, Up: Top
+
+11 Footnotes
+************
+
+Place a footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.
+
+ Noe"l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having
+ to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making
+ love.\footnote{%
+ I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.}
+
+ You can put multiple footnotes on a page. If the footnote text
+becomes too long then it will flow to the next page.
+
+ You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and
+the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances.
+
+ To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to
+include a bibliographic style with that behavior (*note Using BibTeX::).
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \footnote:: Insert a footnote.
+* \footnotemark:: Insert footnote mark only.
+* \footnotetext:: Insert footnote text only.
+* Footnotes in section headings:: Chapter or section titles.
+* Footnotes in a table:: Table footnotes.
+* Footnotes of footnotes:: Multiple classes of footnotes.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnote, Next: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes
+
+11.1 '\footnote'
+================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \footnote{TEXT}
+ \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT}
+
+ Place a footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page.
+
+ There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's
+ \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{%
+ After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained,
+ ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method
+ of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed
+ at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''}
+
+ The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the number of the
+footnote. If you use this then LaTeX does not increment the 'footnote'
+counter.
+
+ By default, LaTeX uses arabic numbers as footnote markers. Change
+this with something like
+'\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a
+sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman
+\fnsymbol::). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If
+you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with
+'\setcounter{footnote}{0}'.
+
+ LaTeX determines the spacing of footnotes with two parameters.
+
+'\footnoterule'
+ Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the
+ page's footnotes. Default dimensions in the standard document
+ classes (except 'slides', where it does not appear) is: vertical
+ thickness of '0.4pt', and horizontal size of '0.4\columnwidth'
+ long. Change the rule with something like this.
+
+ \renewcommand{\footnoterule}{% Kerns avoid vertical space
+ \kern -3pt % This -3 is negative
+ \hrule width \textwidth height 1pt % of the sum of this 1
+ \kern 2pt} % and this 2
+
+'\footnotesep'
+ The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote
+ (*note \strut::). By default, this is set to the normal strut for
+ '\footnotesize' fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no
+ extra space between footnotes. This is '6.65pt' for '10pt',
+ '7.7pt' for '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'. Change it as with
+ '\setlength{\footnotesep}{11pt}'.
+
+ The '\footnote' command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a
+'\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a
+sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer
+paragraph mode; *note Modes::). There are some workarounds; see
+following sections.
+
+ In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the
+'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are
+numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the
+environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are
+shown alphabetically. *Note minipage:: and *note Footnotes in a
+table::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotemark, Next: \footnotetext, Prev: \footnote, Up: Footnotes
+
+11.2 '\footnotemark'
+====================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \footnotemark
+ \footnotemark[NUMBER]
+
+ Put the current footnote mark in the text. To specify associated
+text for the footnote see *note \footnotetext::. The optional argument
+NUMBER causes the command to use that number to determine the footnote
+mark. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode (*note Modes::).
+
+ If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it
+increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then
+it does not. The next example produces several consecutive footnote
+markers referring to the same footnote.
+
+ The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.}
+ and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
+ and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
+
+ If there are intervening footnotes then you must remember the value
+of the common mark. This example gives the same institutional
+affiliation to both the first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version
+of 'footnote'), by-hand giving the number of the footnote.
+
+ \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem}
+ \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds}
+ \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University}
+ \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]}
+ \begin{document}
+ \maketitle
+
+ This uses a counter to remember the footnote number. The third
+sentence is followed by the same footnote marker as the first.
+
+ \newcounter{footnoteValueSaver}
+ All babies are illogical.\footnote{%
+ Lewis Carroll.}\setcounter{footnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}}
+ Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.\footnote{%
+ Captain Hook.}
+ Illogical persons are despised.\footnotemark[\value{footnoteValueSaver}]
+ Therefore, anyone who can manage a crocodile is not a baby.
+
+ This example accomplishes the same by using the package 'cleveref'.
+
+ \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % in preamble
+ \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
+ ...
+ The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker, Evers, 1994.}
+ The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers, Chance, 1990.}
+ But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE}
+
+ It will work with the package 'hyperref'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \footnotetext, Next: Footnotes in section headings, Prev: \footnotemark, Up: Footnotes
+
+11.3 '\footnotetext'
+====================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \footnotetext{TEXT}
+ \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT}
+
+ Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote. It pairs with
+'\footnotemark' (*note \footnotemark::) and can come anywhere after that
+command, but must appear in outer paragraph mode (*note Modes::). The
+optional argument NUMBER changes the number of the footnote mark.
+
+ *Note \footnotemark:: and *note Footnotes in a table:: for usage
+examples.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes in section headings, Next: Footnotes in a table, Prev: \footnotetext, Up: Footnotes
+
+11.4 Footnotes in section headings
+==================================
+
+Putting a footnote in a section heading, as in:
+
+ \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material due to ...}}
+
+causes the footnote to appear at the bottom of the page where the
+section starts, as usual, but also at the bottom of the table of
+contents, where it is not likely to be desired. The simplest way to
+have it not appear on the table of contents is to use the optional
+argument to '\section'
+
+ \section[Please]{Please\footnote{%
+ Don't footnote in chapter and section headers!}}
+
+No '\protect' is needed in front of '\footnote' here because what gets
+moved to the table of contents is the optional argument.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes in a table, Next: Footnotes of footnotes, Prev: Footnotes in section headings, Up: Footnotes
+
+11.5 Footnotes in a table
+=========================
+
+Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment the '\footnote' command does
+not work; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but the footnote
+text does not appear. The solution is to use a 'minipage' environment
+as here (*note minipage::).
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{l|l}
+ \textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline
+ \textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\
+ \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\
+ \textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\
+ \textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{%
+ Starting with HMS Surprise.}
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{minipage}
+ \end{center}
+
+ Inside a 'minipage', footnote marks are lowercase letters. Change
+that with something like
+'\renewcommand{\thempfootnote}{\arabic{mpfootnote}}' (*note \alph \Alph
+\arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::).
+
+ The footnotes in the prior example appear at the bottom of the
+'minipage'. To have them appear at the bottom of the main page, as part
+of the regular footnote sequence, use the '\footnotemark' and
+'\footnotetext' pair and make a new counter.
+
+ \newcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{minipage}{\textwidth}
+ \setcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{l|l}
+ \textsc{Woman} &\textsc{Relationship} \\ \hline
+ Mona &Attached\footnotemark \\
+ Diana Villiers &Eventual wife \\
+ Christine Hatherleigh Wood &Fiance\footnotemark
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{minipage}% percent sign keeps footnote text close to minipage
+ \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}%
+ \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{%
+ Little is known other than her death.}%
+ \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}%
+ \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{%
+ Relationship is unresolved in XXI.}
+ \end{center}
+
+ For a floating 'table' environment (*note table::), use the
+'tablefootnote' package.
+
+ \usepackage{tablefootnote} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{table}
+ \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{l|l}
+ \textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline
+ 1862 &Fort Donelson \\
+ 1863 &Vicksburg \\
+ 1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\tablefootnote{%
+ Ending the war.}
+ \end{tabular}
+ \caption{Forces captured by US Grant}
+ \end{table}
+
+The footnote appears at the page bottom and is numbered in sequence with
+other footnotes.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Footnotes of footnotes, Prev: Footnotes in a table, Up: Footnotes
+
+11.6 Footnotes of footnotes
+===========================
+
+Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of
+footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package
+'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways,
+including allow these two, as in this example.
+
+ \usepackage{bigfoot} % in preamble
+ \DeclareNewFootnote{Default}
+ \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{}
+ ...
+ The third theorem is a partial converse of the
+ second.\footnotefrom{%
+ First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Definitions, Next: Counters, Prev: Footnotes, Up: Top
+
+12 Definitions
+**************
+
+LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \newcommand & \renewcommand:: (Re)define a new command.
+* \providecommand:: Define a new command, if name not used.
+* \makeatletter & \makeatother:: Change the status of the at-sign character.
+* \@ifstar:: Define your own commands with *-variants.
+* \newcounter:: Define a new counter.
+* \newlength:: Define a new length.
+* \newsavebox:: Define a new box.
+* \newenvironment & \renewenvironment:: Define a new environment.
+* \newtheorem:: Define a new theorem-like environment.
+* \newfont:: Define a new font name.
+* \protect:: Using tricky commands.
+* \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend:: Discard extra spaces.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Next: \providecommand, Up: Definitions
+
+12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand'
+====================================
+
+Synopses, one of:
+
+ \newcommand{\CMD}{DEFN}
+ \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \newcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
+ \newcommand*{\CMD}{DEFN}
+ \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \newcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
+
+or one of these.
+
+ \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \renewcommand{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
+ \renewcommand*{\CMD}{DEFN}
+ \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \renewcommand*{\CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
+
+ Define or redefine a command. See also the discussion of
+'\DeclareRobustCommand' in *note Class and package commands::. The
+starred form of these two requires that the arguments not contain
+multiple paragraphs of text (in plain TeX terms that it not be '\long').
+
+ These are the parameters:
+
+CMD
+
+ Required; the command name. It must begin with a backslash, '\',
+ and must not begin with the four letter string '\end'. For
+ '\newcommand', it must not be already defined. For
+ '\renewcommand', this name must already be defined.
+
+NARGS
+ Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of
+ arguments that the command takes, including any optional argument.
+ Omitting this argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that
+ the command has no arguments. If you redefine a command, the new
+ version can have a different number of arguments than the old
+ version.
+
+OPTARGDEFAULT
+ Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
+ '\CMD' is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be
+ the empty string). If this argument is not present then '\CMD'
+ does not take an optional argument.
+
+ That is, if '\CMD' is used with square brackets, as in
+ '\CMD[OPTVAL]{...}...', then within DEFN the parameter '#1' is set
+ to the value of OPTVAL. On the other hand, if '\CMD' is called
+ without the square brackets then within DEFN the parameter '#1' is
+ set to the value of OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, the required
+ arguments start with '#2'.
+
+ Omitting '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is different from having the square
+ brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former sets '#1' to the
+ value of OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter sets '#1' to the empty string.
+
+DEFN
+ Required; the text to be substituted for every occurrence of
+ '\CMD'. The parameters '#1', '#2', ... '#NARGS' are replaced by
+ the values that you supply when you call the command (or by the
+ default value if there is an optional argument and you don't
+ exercise the option).
+
+ TeX ignores spaces in the source following an alphabetic control
+sequence, as in '\cmd '. If you actually want a space there, one
+solution is to type '{}' after the command ('\cmd{} ', and another
+solution is to use an explicit control space ('\cmd\ ').
+
+ A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\RS}{Robin
+Smith}' results in '\RS' being replaced by the longer text. Redefining
+an existing command is similar: '\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small
+QED}}'.
+
+ If you try to define a command and the name has already been used
+then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined.
+Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. If you try to
+redefine a command and the name has not yet been used then you get
+something like 'LaTeX Error: \hank undefined'.
+
+ Here the first command definition has no arguments, and the second
+has one required argument.
+
+ \newcommand{\student}{Ms~O'Leary}
+ \newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}
+
+Use the first as in 'I highly recommend \student{} to you'. The second
+has a variable, so that '\defref{def:basis}' expands to
+'Definition~\ref{def:basis}', which ultimately expands to something like
+'Definition~3.14'.
+
+ Similarly, but with two required arguments:
+'\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'.
+
+ This example has an optional argument.
+
+ \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}
+
+Then '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]'
+gives 'Dear John:'. And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'.
+
+ This example has an optional argument and two required arguments.
+
+ \newcommand{\lawyers}[3][company]{#2, #3, and~#1}
+ I employ \lawyers[Howe]{Dewey}{Cheatem}.
+
+The output is 'I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and Howe'. The optional
+argument, the 'Howe', is associated with '#1', while 'Dewey' and
+'Cheatem' are associated with '#2' and '#3'. Because of the optional
+argument, '\lawyers{Dewey}{Cheatem}' will give the output 'I employ
+Dewey, Cheatem, and company'.
+
+ The braces around DEFN do not define a group, that is, they do not
+delimit the scope of the result of expanding DEFN. For example, with
+'\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}', in this sentence,
+
+ The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}.
+
+the words 'met the' would incorrectly be in italics. The solution is to
+put another pair of braces inside the definition:
+'\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \providecommand, Next: \makeatletter & \makeatother, Prev: \newcommand & \renewcommand, Up: Definitions
+
+12.2 '\providecommand'
+======================
+
+Synopses, one of:
+
+ \providecommand{CMD}{DEFN}
+ \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
+ \providecommand*{CMD}{DEFN}
+ \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS]{DEFN}
+ \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
+
+ Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists.
+If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect
+as '\newcommand'. If a command of this name already exists then this
+definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a file that may
+be loaded more than once, such as a style file. *Note \newcommand &
+\renewcommand:: for the description of the arguments.
+
+ This example
+
+ \providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College}
+ \providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College}
+ From \myaffiliation.
+
+outputs 'From Saint Michael's College'. Unlike '\newcommand', the
+repeated use of '\providecommand' does not give an error.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \makeatletter & \makeatother, Next: \@ifstar, Prev: \providecommand, Up: Definitions
+
+12.3 '\makeatletter' & '\makeatother'
+=====================================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \makeatletter
+ ... definition of commands with @ in their name ..
+ \makeatother
+
+ Use this pair when you redefine LaTeX commands that are named with an
+at-sign character ''@''. The '\makeatletter' declaration makes the
+at-sign character have the category code of a letter, code 11. The
+'\makeatother' declaration sets the category code of the at-sign to
+code 12, its default value.
+
+ As TeX reads characters, it assigns each one a category code, or
+"catcode". For instance, it assigns the backslash character ''\'' the
+catcode 0. Command names consist of a category 0 character, ordinarily
+backslash, followed by letters, category 11 characters (except that a
+command name can also consist of a category 0 character followed by a
+single non-letter symbol).
+
+ LaTeX's source code has the convention that some commands use '@' in
+their name. These commands are mainly intended for package or class
+writers. The convention prevents authors who are just using a package
+or class from accidentally replacing such a command with one of their
+own, because by default the at-sign has catcode 12.
+
+ The pair '\makeatletter' and '\makeatother' changes the default code
+and then changes it back. Use them inside a '.tex' file, in the
+preamble, when you are defining or redefining commands named with '@',
+by having them surround your definition. Don't use these inside '.sty'
+or '.cls' files since the '\usepackage' and '\documentclass' commands
+already arrange that the at-sign has the character code of a letter,
+catcode 11.
+
+ For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see
+<http://ctan.org/pkg/macros2e>.
+
+ In this example the class file has a command '\thesis@universityname'
+that the user wants to change. These three lines should go in the
+preamble, before the '\begin{document}'.
+
+ \makeatletter
+ \renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael's College}
+ \makeatother
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \@ifstar, Next: \newcounter, Prev: \makeatletter & \makeatother, Up: Definitions
+
+12.4 '\@ifstar'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}}
+ \newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[NOSTAR-NUM-ARGS]{NOSTAR-BODY}
+ \newcommand{\mycmd@star}[STAR-NUM-ARGS]{STAR-BODY}
+
+ Many standard LaTeX environments or commands have a variant with the
+same name but ending with a star character '*', an asterisk. Examples
+are the 'table' and 'table*' environments and the '\section' and
+'\section*' commands.
+
+ When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward
+because '\newenvironment' and '\renewenvironment' allow the environment
+name to contain a star. For commands the situation is more complex. As
+in the synopsis above, there will be a user-called command, given above
+as '\mycmd', which peeks ahead to see if it is followed by a star. For
+instance, LaTeX does not really have a '\section*' command; instead, the
+'\section' command peeks ahead. This command does not accept arguments
+but instead expands to one of two commands that do accept arguments. In
+the synopsis these two are '\mycmd@nostar' and '\mycmd@star'. They
+could take the same number of arguments or a different number, or no
+arguments at all. As always, in a LaTeX document a command using
+at-sign '@' must be enclosed inside a '\makeatletter ... \makeatother'
+block (*note \makeatletter & \makeatother::).
+
+ This example of '\@ifstar' defines the command '\ciel' and a variant
+'\ciel*'. Both have one required argument. A call to '\ciel{night}'
+will return "starry night sky" while '\ciel*{blue}' will return "starry
+not blue sky".
+
+ \newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{starry #1 sky}
+ \newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry not #1 sky}
+ \newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}}
+
+ In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of
+arguments than the unstarred one. With this definition, Agent 007's
+'``My name is \agentsecret*{Bond}, \agentsecret{James}{Bond}.''' is
+equivalent to entering the commands '``My name is \textsc{Bond},
+\textit{James} textsc{Bond}.'''
+
+ \newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}}
+ \newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}}
+ \newcommand*{\agentsecret}{%
+ \@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}}
+
+ There are two sometimes more convenient ways to accomplish the work
+of '\@ifstar'. The 'suffix' package allows the construct
+'\newcommand\mycommand{UNSTARRED VERSION}' followed by
+'\WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{STARRED VERSION}'. And LaTeX3 has
+the 'xparse' package that allows this code.
+
+ \NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1
+ {STARRED VERSION}%
+ {UNSTARRED VERSION}%
+ }
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newcounter, Next: \newlength, Prev: \@ifstar, Up: Definitions
+
+12.5 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter
+========================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}
+ \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER]
+
+ Globally defines a new counter named COUNTERNAME and initialize it to
+zero (*note Counters::).
+
+ The name COUNTERNAME must consist of letters only. It does not begin
+with a backslash. This name must not already be in use by another
+counter.
+
+ When you use the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' then the counter
+COUNTERNAME will be reset to zero whenever SUPERCOUNTER is incremented.
+For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within 'section' so
+that any time you increment SECTION, either with '\stepcounter' (*note
+\stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::), then
+LaTeX will reset SUBSECTION to zero.
+
+ This example
+
+ \newcounter{asuper} \setcounter{asuper}{1}
+ \newcounter{asub}[asuper] \setcounter{asub}{3} % Note `asuper'
+ The value of asuper is \arabic{asuper} and of asub is \arabic{asub}.
+ \stepcounter{asuper}
+ Now asuper is \arabic{asuper} while asub is \arabic{asub}.
+
+ produces 'The value of asuper is 1 and that of asub is 3' and 'Now
+asuper is 2 while asub is 0'.
+
+ If the counter already exists, for instance by entering 'asuper'
+twice, then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \c@asuper
+already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual.'.
+
+ If you use the optional argument then the super counter must already
+exist. Entering '\newcounter{jh}[lh]' when 'lh' is not a defined
+counter will get you 'LaTeX Error: No counter 'lh' defined.'
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newlength, Next: \newsavebox, Prev: \newcounter, Up: Definitions
+
+12.6 '\newlength'
+=================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \newlength{ARG}
+
+ Allocate a new length register (*note Lengths::). The required
+argument ARG must begin with a backslash, '\'. The new register holds
+rubber lengths such as '72.27pt' or '1in plus.2in minus.1in' (a LaTeX
+length register is what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register). The initial
+value is zero. The control sequence '\ARG' must not be already defined.
+
+ An example:
+
+ \newlength{\graphichgt}
+
+ If you forget the backslash then you get 'Missing control sequence
+inserted'. If the command sequence already exists then you get
+something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \graphichgt already defined. Or
+name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newsavebox, Next: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Prev: \newlength, Up: Definitions
+
+12.7 '\newsavebox'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \newsavebox{\CMD}
+
+ Define \CMD, the string consisting of a backslash followed by CMD, to
+refer to a new bin for storing material. These bins hold material that
+has been typeset, to use multiple times or to measure or manipulate
+(*note Boxes::). The bin name \CMD is required, must start with a
+backslash, \, and must not already be a defined command. This command
+is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ This allocates a bin and then puts typeset material into it.
+
+ \newsavebox{\logobox}
+ \savebox{\logobox}{LoGo}
+ Our logo is \usebox{\logobox}.
+
+The output is 'Our logo is LoGo'.
+
+ If there is an already defined bin then you get something like 'LaTeX
+Error: Command \logobox already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see
+p.192 of the manual'.
+
+ The allocation of a box is global.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Next: \newtheorem, Prev: \newsavebox, Up: Definitions
+
+12.8 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment'
+============================================
+
+Synopses, one of:
+
+ \newenvironment{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \newenvironment*{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+
+or one of these.
+
+ \renewenvironment{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \renewenvironment*{ENV}{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+ \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEF}{ENDDEF}
+
+ Define or redefine the environment ENV, that is, create the construct
+'\begin{ENV} ... BODY ... \end{ENV}'.
+
+ The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not
+contain multiple paragraphs of text. However, the body of these
+environments can contain multiple paragraphs.
+
+ENV
+ Required; the environment name. It consists only of letters or the
+ '*' character, and thus does not begin with backslash, '\'. It
+ must not begin with the string 'end'. For '\newenvironment', the
+ name ENV must not be the name of an already existing environment,
+ and also the command '\ENV' must be undefined. For
+ '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an existing
+ environment.
+
+NARGS
+ Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments
+ of that the environment takes. When you use the environment these
+ arguments appear after the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1} ...
+ {ARGN}'. Omitting this is equivalent to setting it to 0; the
+ environment will have no arguments. When redefining an
+ environment, the new version can have a different number of
+ arguments than the old version.
+
+OPTARGDEFAULT
+ Optional; if this is present then the first argument of the defined
+ environment is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT (which
+ may be the empty string). If this is not in the definition then
+ the environment does not take an optional argument.
+
+ That is, when OPTARGDEFAULT is present in the definition of the
+ environment then you can start the environment with square
+ brackets, as in '\begin{ENV}[OPTVAL]{...} ... \end{ENV}'. In this
+ case, within BEGDEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of
+ OPTVAL. If you call '\begin{ENV}' without square brackets, then
+ within BEGDEFN the parameter '#1' is set to the value of the
+ default OPTARGDEFAULT. In either case, any required arguments
+ start with '#2'.
+
+ Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different than having the square
+ brackets with no contents, as in '[]'. The former results in '#1'
+ expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to
+ the empty string.
+
+BEGDEF
+ Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'.
+ Within BEGDEF, the parameters '#1', '#2', ... '#NARGS', are
+ replaced by the values that you supply when you call the
+ environment; see the examples below.
+
+ENDDEF
+ Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'.
+ This may not contain any parameters, that is, you cannot use '#1',
+ '#2', etc., here (but see the final example below).
+
+ All environments, that is to say the BEGDEF code, the environment
+body, and the ENDDEF code, are processed within a group. Thus, in the
+first example below, the effect of the '\small' is limited to the quote
+and does not extend to material following the environment.
+
+ If you try to define an environment and the name has already been
+used then you get something like 'LaTeX Error: Command \fred already
+defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual'. If you try
+to redefine an environment and the name has not yet been used then you
+get something like 'LaTeX Error: Environment hank undefined.'.
+
+ This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except
+that it will be set in smaller type.
+
+ \newenvironment{smallquote}{%
+ \small\begin{quotation}
+ }{%
+ \end{quotation}
+ }
+
+ This has an argument, which is set in boldface at the start of a
+paragraph.
+
+ \newenvironment{point}[1]{%
+ \noindent\textbf{#1}
+ }{%
+ }
+
+ This one shows the use of a optional argument; it gives a quotation
+environment that cites the author.
+
+ \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
+ \begin{quotation}
+ \noindent\textit{#1}:
+ }{%
+ \end{quotation}
+ }
+
+The author's name is optional, and defaults to 'Shakespeare'. In the
+document, use the environment like this.
+
+ \begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
+ ...
+ \end{citequote}
+
+ The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use
+in ENDDEF, in this case in a box (*note \sbox & \savebox::).
+
+ \newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
+ \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
+ \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
+ \begin{quotation}
+ }{%
+ \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
+ \end{quotation}
+ }
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newtheorem, Next: \newfont, Prev: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment, Up: Definitions
+
+12.9 '\newtheorem'
+==================
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}
+ \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]
+ \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}
+
+ Define a new theorem-like environment. You can specify one of
+NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither, but not both.
+
+ The first form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}', creates an environment
+that will be labelled with TITLE; see the first example below.
+
+ The second form, '\newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]', creates
+an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter
+NUMBERED_WITHIN, so this counter will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is
+reset. See the second example below.
+
+ The third form '\newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}', with
+optional argument between the two required arguments, creates an
+environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter
+NUMBERED_LIKE. See the third example.
+
+ This command creates a counter named NAME. In addition, unless the
+optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, inside of the theorem-like
+environment the current '\ref' value will be that of
+'\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::).
+
+ This declaration is global. It is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ Arguments:
+
+NAME
+ The name of the environment. It is a string of letters. It must
+ not begin with a backslash, '\'. It must not be the name of an
+ existing environment, and the command name '\NAME' must not already
+ be defined.
+
+TITLE
+ The text to be printed at the beginning of the environment, before
+ the number. For example, 'Theorem'.
+
+NUMBERED_WITHIN
+ Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a
+ sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'. When the
+ NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's
+ counter will also be reset.
+
+ If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME'
+ is set to '\arabic{NAME}'.
+
+NUMBERED_LIKE
+ Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment.
+ The new environment will be numbered in sequence with
+ NUMBERED_LIKE.
+
+ Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered
+sequentially. The example below has a declaration in the preamble that
+results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output.
+
+ \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
+ \begin{document}
+ \section{...}
+ \begin{defn}
+ First def
+ \end{defn}
+
+ \section{...}
+ \begin{defn}
+ Second def
+ \end{defn}
+
+ This example has the same document body as the prior one. But here
+'\newtheorem''s optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN is given as 'section',
+so the output is like 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'.
+
+ \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
+ \begin{document}
+ \section{...}
+ \begin{defn}
+ First def
+ \end{defn}
+
+ \section{...}
+ \begin{defn}
+ Second def
+ \end{defn}
+
+ In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the
+second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same
+counter as 'defn'. It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1'
+and 'Definition 2.2'.
+
+ \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
+ \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
+ \begin{document}
+ \section{...}
+ \begin{defn}
+ First def
+ \end{defn}
+
+ \section{...}
+ \begin{thm}
+ First thm
+ \end{thm}
+
+ \begin{defn}
+ Second def
+ \end{defn}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newfont, Next: \protect, Prev: \newtheorem, Up: Definitions
+
+12.10 '\newfont'
+================
+
+This command is obsolete. This description is here only to help with
+old documents. New documents should define fonts in families through
+the New Font Selection Scheme which allows you to, for example,
+associate a boldface with a roman (*note Fonts::).
+
+ Synopsis:
+
+ \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION}
+
+ Define a command '\CMD' that will change the current font. The
+control sequence must not already be defined. It must begin with a
+backslash, '\'.
+
+ The FONT DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at
+clause". LaTeX will look on your system for a file named
+'FONTNAME.tfm'. The at clause can have the form either 'at DIMEN' or
+'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of '1000' means no scaling. For LaTeX's
+purposes, all this does is scale all the character and other font
+dimensions relative to the font's design size, which is a value defined
+in the '.tfm' file.
+
+ This defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in
+each.
+
+ \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
+ \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100}
+ \testfontat abc
+ \testfontscaled abc
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \protect, Next: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend, Prev: \newfont, Up: Definitions
+
+12.11 '\protect'
+================
+
+All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust". A fragile command
+can break when it is used in the argument to certain other commands.
+Commands that contain data that LaTeX writes to an auxiliary file and
+re-reads later are fragile. This includes material that goes into a
+table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, etc. Fragile
+commands also include line breaks, any command that has an optional
+argument, and many more. To prevent such commands from breaking, one
+solution is to preceded them with the command '\protect'.
+
+ For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it
+writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it
+there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of
+contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without
+typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument". A
+command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX
+code. Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the
+'\caption{...}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{...}' command
+(*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array'
+environments (*note tabular::).
+
+ If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try
+preceding it with '\protect'. Every fragile commands must be protected
+with their own '\protect'.
+
+ Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands
+are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command. Nor can
+a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or
+'\setcounter' command.
+
+ In this example the '\caption' command gives a mysterious error about
+an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox'
+command with '\protect'.
+
+ \begin{figure}
+ ...
+ \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
+ \end{figure}
+
+ In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error
+because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the
+'.toc' file. You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to
+'\protect\(..\protect\)'.
+
+ \begin{document}
+ \tableofcontents
+ ...
+ \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)}
+ ...
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend, Prev: \protect, Up: Definitions
+
+12.12 '\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend'
+=============================================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \ignorespaces
+
+or
+
+ \ignorespacesafterend
+
+ Both commands cause LaTeX to ignore spaces after the end of the
+command up until the first non-space character. The first is a command
+from Plain TeX, and the second is LaTeX-specific.
+
+ The 'ignorespaces' is often used when defining commands via
+'\newcommand', or '\newenvironment', or '\def'. The example below
+illustrates. It allows a user to show the points values for quiz
+questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as shown in the
+'enumerate' list, users must not put any space between the command and
+the question text.
+
+ \newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item\points{10}no extra space output here
+ \item\points{15} extra space between the number and the `extra'
+ \end{enumerate}
+
+The solution is to change to this.
+
+ \newcommand{\points}[1]{%
+ \makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces}
+
+ A second example shows spaces being removed from the front of text.
+The commands below allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names.
+But, as given, if a title accidentally starts with a space then
+'\fullname' will reproduce that.
+
+ \makeatletter
+ \newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\@honorific{#1}} % remember title
+ \newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\@honorific~#1} % put title before name
+ \makeatother
+ \begin{tabular}{|l|}
+ \honorific{Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} \\ % no extra space here
+ \honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} % extra space before title
+ \end{tabular}
+
+To fix this, change to
+'\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\@honorific~#1}'.
+
+ The '\ignorespaces' is also often used in a '\newenvironment' at the
+end of the BEGIN clause, that is, as part of the second argument, as in
+'\begin{newenvironment}{ENV NAME}{... \ignorespaces}{...}'.
+
+ To strip spaces off the end of an environment use
+'\ignorespacesafterend'. An example is that this will show a much
+larger vertical space between the first and second environments than
+between the second and third.
+
+ \newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}}
+ \begin{eq}
+ e=mc^2
+ \end{eq}
+ \begin{equation}
+ F=ma
+ \end{equation}
+ \begin{equation}
+ E=IR
+ \end{equation}
+
+ Putting a comment character '%' immediately after the '\end{eq}' will
+make the vertical space disappear, but that is inconvenient. The
+solution is to change to
+'\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Counters, Next: Lengths, Prev: Definitions, Up: Top
+
+13 Counters
+***********
+
+Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The
+name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or
+command associated with the number, except that the counter's name has
+no backslash '\'. Thus, associated with the '\chapter' command is the
+'chapter' counter that keeps track of the chapter number.
+
+ Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document
+classes to control numbering.
+
+ part paragraph figure enumi
+ chapter subparagraph table enumii
+ section page footnote enumiii
+ subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
+ subsubsection
+
+ The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of
+a minipage (*note minipage::). The counters 'enumi' through 'enumiv'
+are used in the 'enumerate' environment, for up to four levels of
+nesting (*note enumerate::).
+
+ Counters can have any integer value but they are typically positive.
+
+ New counters are created with '\newcounter'. *Note \newcounter::.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter.
+* \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment.
+* \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression.
+* \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter.
+* \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter.
+* \refstepcounter:: Add to a counter.
+* \stepcounter:: Add to a counter, resetting subsidiary counters.
+* \day & \month & \year:: Numeric date values.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Next: \usecounter, Up: Counters
+
+13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
+=====================================================================
+
+Print the value of a counter, in a specified style. For instance, if
+the counter COUNTER has the value 1 then a '\alph{COUNTER}' in your
+source will result in a lowercase letter a appearing in the output.
+
+ All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
+instance, '\alph{enumi}'. Note that the counter name does not start
+with a backslash.
+
+'\alph{COUNTER}'
+ Print the value of COUNTER in lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ... If
+ the counter's value is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get
+ 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large.'
+
+'\Alph{COUNTER}'
+ Print in uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ... If the counter's value
+ is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter
+ too large.'
+
+'\arabic{COUNTER}'
+ Print in Arabic numbers such as '5' or '-2'.
+
+'\roman{COUNTER}'
+ Print in lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ... If the counter's
+ value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but LaTeX
+ does not print anything in the output.
+
+'\Roman{COUNTER}'
+ Print in uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ... If the counter's
+ value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but LaTeX
+ does not print anything in the output.
+
+'\fnsymbol{COUNTER}'
+ Prints the value of COUNTER using a sequence of nine symbols that
+ are traditionally used for labeling footnotes. The value of
+ COUNTER should be between 1 and 9, inclusive. If the counter's
+ value is less than 0 or more than 9 then you get 'LaTeX Error:
+ Counter too large', while if it is 0 then you get no error or
+ warning but LaTeX does not output anything.
+
+ Here are the symbols:
+
+ Number Name Command Symbol
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1 asterisk '\ast' *
+ 2 dagger '\dagger' U+2020
+ 3 ddagger '\ddagger' U+2021
+ 4 section-sign '\S' U+00A7
+ 5 paragraph-sign '\P' U+00B6
+ 6 double-vert '\parallel' U+2016
+ 7 double-asterisk '\ast\ast' **
+ 8 double-dagger '\dagger\dagger' U+2020U+2020
+ 9 double-ddagger '\ddagger\ddagger' U+2021U+2021
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \usecounter, Next: \value, Prev: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol, Up: Counters
+
+13.2 '\usecounter'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \usecounter{COUNTER}
+
+ Used in the second argument of the 'list' environment (*note list::),
+this declares that list items will be numbered by COUNTER. It
+initializes COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called
+without its optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by
+'\refstepcounter', making its value be the current 'ref' value (*note
+\ref::). This command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ Put in the document preamble, this example makes a new list
+environment enumerated with TESTCOUNTER:
+
+ \newcounter{testcounter}
+ \newenvironment{test}{%
+ \begin{list}{}{%
+ \usecounter{testcounter}
+ }
+ }{%
+ \end{list}
+ }
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \value, Next: \setcounter, Prev: \usecounter, Up: Counters
+
+13.3 '\value'
+=============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \value{COUNTER}
+
+ Expands to the value of the counter COUNTER. (Note that the name of
+a counter does not begin with a backslash.)
+
+ This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'.
+
+ \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5}
+ \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}}
+ \addtocounter{test}{1}
+
+ Test counter is \arabic{test}.
+ Other counter is \arabic{other}.
+
+ The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the
+counter. For that, see *note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman
+\fnsymbol::.
+
+ It is often used in '\setcounter' or '\addtocounter' but '\value' can
+be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number, such as in
+'\hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}'. It must not be preceded by '\protect'
+(*note \protect::).
+
+ This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'.
+
+ \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
+ \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \setcounter, Next: \addtocounter, Prev: \value, Up: Counters
+
+13.4 '\setcounter'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}
+
+ Globally set the counter COUNTER to have the value of the VALUE
+argument, which must be an integer. Thus, you can set a counter's value
+as '\setcounter{section}{5}'. Note that the counter name does not start
+with a backslash.
+
+ In this example if the counter 'theorem' has value 12 then the second
+line will print 'XII'.
+
+ \setcounter{exercise}{\value{theorem}}
+ Here it is in Roman: \Roman{exercise}.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtocounter, Next: \refstepcounter, Prev: \setcounter, Up: Counters
+
+13.5 '\addtocounter'
+====================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE
+
+ Globally increment COUNTER by the amount specified by the VALUE
+argument, which may be negative.
+
+ In this example the section value appears as 'VII'.
+
+ \setcounter{section}{5}
+ \addtocounter{section}{2}
+ Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \refstepcounter, Next: \stepcounter, Prev: \addtocounter, Up: Counters
+
+13.6 '\refstepcounter'
+======================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \refstepcounter{COUNTER}
+
+ Globally increments the value of COUNTER by one, as does
+'\stepcounter' (*note \stepcounter::). The difference is that this
+command resets the value of any counter numbered within it. (For the
+definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.)
+
+ In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be
+the result of '\thecounter'.
+
+ While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set
+locally, i.e., inside the current group.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \stepcounter, Next: \day & \month & \year, Prev: \refstepcounter, Up: Counters
+
+13.7 '\stepcounter'
+===================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \stepcounter{COUNTER}
+
+ Globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all counters numbered within
+it. (For the definition of "counters numbered within", *note
+\newcounter::.)
+
+ This command differs from '\refstepcounter' in that this one does not
+influence references -- it does not define the current '\ref' value to
+be the result of '\thecounter' (*note \refstepcounter::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \day & \month & \year, Prev: \stepcounter, Up: Counters
+
+13.8 '\day' & '\month' & '\year'
+================================
+
+LaTeX defines the counter '\day' for the day of the month (nominally
+with value between 1 and 31), '\month' for the month of the year
+(nominally with value between 1 and 12), and year '\year'. When TeX
+starts up, they are set from the current values on the system. The
+related command '\today' produces a string representing the current day
+(*note \today::).
+
+ They counters are not updated as the job progresses so in principle
+they could be incorrect by the end. In addition, TeX does no sanity
+check:
+
+ \day=-2 \month=13 \year=-4 \today
+
+gives no error or warning and results in the output '-2, -4' (the bogus
+month value produces no output).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Lengths, Next: Making paragraphs, Prev: Counters, Up: Top
+
+14 Lengths
+**********
+
+A "length" is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length
+as an argument.
+
+ Lengths come in two types. A "rigid length" such as '10pt' does not
+contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component. (Plain TeX calls this a
+"dimen".) A "rubber length" (what Plain TeX calls a "skip") such as as
+with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm' can contain either or both of those
+components. In that rubber length, the '1cm' is the "natural length"
+while the other two, the 'plus' and 'minus' components, allow TeX to
+stretch or shrink the length to optimize placement.
+
+ The illustrations below use these two commands.
+
+ % make a black bar 10pt tall and #1 wide
+ \newcommand{\blackbar}[1]{\rule{#1}{10pt}}
+
+ % Make a box around #2 that is #1 wide (excluding the border)
+ \newcommand{\showhbox}[2]{%
+ \fboxsep=0pt\fbox{\hbox to #1{#2}}}
+
+This example uses those commands to show a black bar 100 points long
+between 'XXX' and 'YYY'. This length is rigid.
+
+ XXX\showhbox{100pt}{\blackbar{100pt}}YYY
+
+ As for rubber lengths, shrinking is simpler one: with '1cm minus
+0.05cm', the natural length is 1cm but TeX can shrink it down as far as
+0.95cm. Beyond that, TeX refuses to shrink any more. Thus, below the
+first one works fine, producing a space of 98 points between the two
+bars.
+
+ XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
+ \blackbar{101pt}\hspace{100pt minus 2pt}\blackbar{101pt}}YYY
+
+ XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
+ \blackbar{105pt}\hspace{100pt minus 1pt}\blackbar{105pt}}YYY
+
+But the second one gets a warning like 'Overfull \hbox (1.0pt too wide)
+detected at line 17'. In the output the first 'Y' is overwritten by the
+end of the black bar, because the box's material is wider than the 300pt
+allocated, as TeX has refused to shrink the total to less than
+309 points.
+
+ Stretching is like shrinking except that if TeX is asked to stretch
+beyond the given amount, it will do it. Here the first line is fine,
+producing a space of 110 points between the bars.
+
+ XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
+ \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 10pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY
+
+ XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
+ \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 1pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY
+
+In the second line TeX needs a stretch of 10 points and only 1 point was
+specified. TeX stretches the space to the required length but it gives
+you a warning like 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) detected at line
+22'. (We won't discuss badness.)
+
+ You can put both stretch and shrink in the same length, as in '1ex
+plus 0.05ex minus 0.02ex'.
+
+ If TeX is setting two or more rubber lengths then it allocates the
+stretch or shrink in proportion.
+
+ XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
+ \blackbar{100pt}% left
+ \hspace{0pt plus 50pt}\blackbar{80pt}\hspace{0pt plus 10pt}% middle
+ \blackbar{100pt}}YYY % right
+
+The left and right bars take up 100 points, so the middle needs another
+100. The middle bar is 80 points so the two '\hspace''s must stretch
+20 points. Because the two are 'plus 50pt' and 'plus 10pt', TeX gets
+5/6 of the stretch from the first space and 1/6 from the second.
+
+ The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a
+"fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'. This gives the length infinite
+stretchability or shrinkability so that TeX could set it to any
+distance. Here the two figures will be equal-spaced across the page.
+
+ \begin{minipage}{\linewidth}
+ \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{godel.png}%
+ \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{einstein.png}%
+ \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}
+ \end{minipage}
+
+ TeX actually has three levels of infinity for glue components: 'fil',
+'fill', and 'filll'. The later ones are more infinite than the earlier
+ones. Ordinarily document authors only use the middle one (*note
+\hfill:: and *note \vfill::).
+
+ Multiplying a rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length,
+so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and
+'\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Units of length:: The units that LaTeX knows.
+* \setlength:: Set the value of a length.
+* \addtolength:: Add a quantity to a length.
+* \settodepth:: Set a length to the depth of something.
+* \settoheight:: Set a length to the height of something.
+* \settowidth:: Set a length to the width of something.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Units of length, Next: \setlength, Up: Lengths
+
+14.1 Units of length
+====================
+
+TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math
+mode.
+
+'pt'
+ Point, 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two
+ decimal places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm.
+
+'pc'
+ Pica, 12 pt
+
+'in'
+ Inch, 72.27 pt
+
+'bp'
+ Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in
+ PostScript and many desktop publishing systems.
+
+'cm'
+ Centimeter
+
+'mm'
+ Millimeter
+
+'dd'
+ Didot point, 1.07 pt
+
+'cc'
+ Cicero, 12 dd
+
+'sp'
+ Scaled point, 1/65536 pt
+
+ Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer
+of the font. The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the
+height of the lowercase letter x, is often used for vertical lengths.
+Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is
+often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is
+'0.5em'). Use of these can help make a definition work better across
+font changes. For example, a definition of the vertical space between
+list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}'
+is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a
+definition given in points.
+
+ In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math
+unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current
+math symbols family. *Note Spacing in math mode::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \setlength, Next: \addtolength, Prev: Units of length, Up: Lengths
+
+14.2 '\setlength'
+=================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \setlength{LEN}{AMOUNT}
+
+ Set the length LEN to AMOUNT. The length name LEN must begin with a
+backslash, '\'. The 'amount' can be a rubber length (*note Lengths::).
+It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in any units that LaTeX
+understands (*note Units of length::).
+
+ Below, with LaTeX's defaults the first paragraph will be indented
+while the second will not.
+
+ I told the doctor I broke my leg in two places.
+
+ \setlength{\parindent}{0em}
+ He said stop going to those places.
+
+ If you did not declare LEN with '\newlength', for example if you
+mistype the above as
+'\newlength{\specparindent}\setlength{\sepcparindent}{...}', then you
+get an error like 'Undefined control sequence. <argument> \sepcindent'.
+If you omit the backslash at the start of the length name then you get
+an error like 'Missing number, treated as zero. <to be read again>
+\relax l.19 \setlength{specparindent}{0.6\parindent}'
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtolength, Next: \settodepth, Prev: \setlength, Up: Lengths
+
+14.3 '\addtolength'
+===================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \addtolength{LEN}{AMOUNT}
+
+ Increment the length LEN by AMOUNT. The length name LEN begins with
+a backslash, '\'. The 'amount' is a rubber length (*note Lengths::).
+It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in any units that LaTeX
+understands (*note Units of length::).
+
+ Below, if '\parskip' starts with the value '0pt plus 1pt'
+
+ Doctor: how is the boy who swallowed the silver dollar?
+ \addtolength{\parskip}{1pt}
+
+ Nurse: no change.
+
+then it has the value '1pt plus 1pt' for the second paragraph.
+
+ If you did not declare the length LEN with '\newlength', if for
+example you mistype the above as
+'\addtolength{\specparindent}{0.6\praindent}', then you get something
+like 'Undefined control sequence. <argument> \praindent'. If you leave
+off the backslash at the start of LEN, as in
+'\addtolength{parindent}{1pt}', then you get something like 'You can't
+use `the letter p' after \advance'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \settodepth, Next: \settoheight, Prev: \addtolength, Up: Lengths
+
+14.4 '\settodepth'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \settodepth{LEN}{TEXT}
+
+ Set the length LEN to the depth of box that LaTeX gets on typesetting
+the TEXT argument. The length name LEN must begin with a backslash,
+'\'.
+
+ This will show how low the character descenders go.
+
+ \newlength{\alphabetdepth}
+ \settodepth{\alphabetdepth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
+ \the\alphabetdepth
+
+ If you did not set aside the length LEN, if for example you mistype
+the above as '\settodepth{\aplhabetdepth}{abc...}', then you get
+something like 'Undefined control sequence. <argument> \aplhabetdepth'.
+If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in
+'\settodepth{alphabetdepth}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing
+number, treated as zero. <to be read again> \setbox'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \settoheight, Next: \settowidth, Prev: \settodepth, Up: Lengths
+
+14.5 '\settoheight'
+===================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \settoheight{LEN}{text}
+
+ Sets the length LEN to the height of box that LaTeX gets on
+typesetting the 'text' argument. The length name LEN must begin with a
+backslash, '\'.
+
+ This will show how high the characters go.
+
+ \newlength{\alphabetheight}
+ \settoheight{\alphabetheight}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
+ \the\alphabetheight
+
+ If no such length LEN has been declared with '\newlength', if for
+example you mistype as '\settoheight{\aplhabetheight}{abc...}', then you
+get something like 'Undefined control sequence. <argument>
+\alphabetheight'. If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in
+'\settoheight{alphabetheight}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing
+number, treated as zero. <to be read again> \setbox'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \settowidth, Prev: \settoheight, Up: Lengths
+
+14.6 '\settowidth'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \settowidth{LEN}{TEXT}
+
+ Set the length LEN to the width of the box that LaTeX gets on
+typesetting the TEXT argument. The length name LEN must begin with a
+backslash, '\'.
+
+ This measures the width of the lowercase ASCII alphabet.
+
+ \newlength{\alphabetwidth}
+ \settowidth{\alphabetwidth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
+ \the\alphabetwidth
+
+ If no such length LEN has been set aside, if for example you mistype
+the above as '\settowidth{\aplhabetwidth}{abc...}', then you get
+something like 'Undefined control sequence. <argument> \aplhabetwidth'.
+If you leave the backslash out of LEN, as in
+'\settoheight{alphabetwidth}{...}' then you get something like 'Missing
+number, treated as zero. <to be read again> \setbox'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Making paragraphs, Next: Math formulas, Prev: Lengths, Up: Top
+
+15 Making paragraphs
+********************
+
+To start a paragraph, just type some text. To end the current
+paragraph, put an empty line. This is three paragraphs, separated by
+two empty lines.
+
+ It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession
+ of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.
+
+ However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his
+ first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds
+ of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property
+ of some one or other of their daughters.
+
+ ``My dear Mr. Bennet,'' said his lady to him one day,
+ ``have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?''
+
+ The separator lines must be empty, including not containing a comment
+character, '%'.
+
+ Once LaTeX has gathered all of a paragraph's contents it divides that
+content into lines in a way that is optimized over the entire paragraph
+(*note Line breaking::).
+
+ There are places where a new paragraph is not permitted. Don't put a
+blank line in math mode (*note Modes::); here the line before the
+'\end{equation}'
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ 2^{|S|} > |S|
+
+ \end{equation}
+
+will get you the error 'Missing $ inserted'. Similarly, the blank line
+in this 'section' argument
+
+ \section{aaa
+
+ bbb}
+
+gets 'Runaway argument? {aaa ! Paragraph ended before \@sect was
+complete'.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \par:: End the current paragraph.
+* \indent & \noindent:: Go into horizontal mode, possibly with an indent.
+* \parindent & \parskip:: Space added before paragraphs.
+* Marginal notes:: Put remarks in the margin.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \par, Next: \indent & \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs
+
+15.1 '\par'
+===========
+
+Synopsis (note that while reading the input TeX converts two consecutive
+newlines to a '\par'):
+
+ \par
+
+ End the current paragraph. The usual way to separate paragraphs is
+with a blank line but the '\par' command is entirely equivalent. This
+command is robust (*note \protect::).
+
+ This example uses '\par' rather than a blank line simply for
+readability.
+
+ \newcommand{\syllabusLegalese}{%
+ \whatCheatingIs\par\whatHappensWhenICatchYou}
+
+ In LR mode or a vertical mode the '\par' command does nothing but it
+terminates paragraph mode, switching LaTeX to vertical mode (*note
+Modes::).
+
+ You cannot use the '\par' command in a math mode. You also cannot
+use it in the argument of many commands, such as the '\section' command
+(*note Making paragraphs:: and *note \newcommand & \renewcommand::).
+
+ The '\par' command is not the same as the '\paragraph' command. The
+latter is, like '\section' or '\subsection', a sectioning unit used by
+the standard LaTeX documents (*note \subsubsection & \paragraph &
+\subparagraph::).
+
+ The '\par' command is not the same as '\newline' or the line break
+double backslash, '\\'. The difference is that '\par' ends the
+paragraph, not just the line, and also triggers the addition of the
+between-paragraph vertical space '\parskip' (*note \parindent &
+\parskip::).
+
+ The output from this example
+
+ xyz
+
+ \setlength{\parindent}{3in}
+ \setlength{\parskip}{5in}
+ \noindent test\indent test1\par test2
+
+is: after 'xyz' there is a vertical skip of 5 inches and then 'test'
+appears, aligned with the left margin. On the same line, there is an
+empty horizontal space of 3 inches and then 'test1' appears. Finally.
+there is a vertical space of 5 inches, followed by a fresh paragraph
+with a paragraph indent of 3 inches, and then LaTeX puts the text
+'test2'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \indent & \noindent, Next: \parindent & \parskip, Prev: \par, Up: Making paragraphs
+
+15.2 '\indent' & '\noindent'
+============================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \indent
+
+or
+
+ \noindent
+
+ Go into horizontal mode (*note Modes::). The '\indent' command first
+outputs an empty box whose width is '\parindent'. These commands are
+robust (*note \protect::).
+
+ Ordinarily you create a new paragraph by putting in a blank line.
+*Note \par:: for the difference between this command and '\par'. To
+start a paragraph without an indent, or to continue an interrupted
+paragraph, use '\noindent'.
+
+ In the middle of a paragraph the '\noindent' command has no effect,
+because LaTeX is already in horizontal mode there. The '\indent'
+command's only effect is to output a space.
+
+ This example starts a fresh paragraph.
+
+ ... end of the prior paragraph.
+
+ \noindent This paragraph is not indented.
+
+and this continues an interrupted paragraph.
+
+ The data
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{tabular}{rl} ... \end{tabular}
+ \end{center}
+
+ \noindent shows this clearly.
+
+ To omit indentation in the entire document put
+'\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble. If you do that, you may
+want to also set the length of spaces between paragraphs, '\parskip'
+(*note \parindent & \parskip::).
+
+ Default LaTeX styles have the first paragraph after a section that is
+not indented, as is traditional typesetting in English. To change that,
+look on CTAN for the package 'indentfirst'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \parindent & \parskip, Next: Marginal notes, Prev: \indent & \noindent, Up: Making paragraphs
+
+15.3 '\parindent' & '\parskip'
+==============================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \setlength{\parskip}{HORIZONTAL LEN}
+ \setlength{\parinden}{VERTICAL LEN}
+
+ Both are a rubber lengths (*note Lengths::). They give the
+indentation of ordinary paragraphs, not paragraphs inside minipages
+(*note minipage::), and the vertical space between paragraphs.
+
+ This, put in the preamble,
+
+ \setlength{\parindent}{0em}
+ \setlength{\parskip}{1ex}
+
+arranges that the document will have paragraphs that are not indented,
+but instead are vertically separated by about the height of a lowercase
+'x'.
+
+ In standard LaTeX documents, the default value for '\parindent' in
+one-column documents is '15pt' when the default text size is '10pt' ,
+'17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em' for '12pt'. In two-column documents it
+is '1em'. The default value for '\parskip' in LaTeX's standard document
+styles is '0pt plus1pt'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Marginal notes, Prev: \parindent & \parskip, Up: Making paragraphs
+
+15.4 Marginal notes
+===================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \marginpar{RIGHT}
+ \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT}
+
+ Create a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have
+the same baseline as the line in the text where the '\marginpar' occurs.
+
+ The margin that LaTeX uses for the note depends on the current layout
+(*note Document class options::) and also on '\reversemarginpar' (see
+below). If you are using one-sided layout (document option 'oneside')
+then it goes in the right margin. If you are using two-sided layout
+(document option 'twoside') then it goes in the outside margin. If you
+are in two-column layout (document option 'twocolumn') then it goes in
+the nearest margin.
+
+ If you declare '\reversemarginpar' then LaTeX will place subsequent
+marginal notes in the opposite margin to that given in the prior
+paragraph. Revert that to the default position with '\normalmarginpar'.
+
+ When you specify the optional argument LEFT then it is used for a
+note in the left margin, while the mandatory argument RIGHT is used for
+a note in the right margin.
+
+ Normally, a note's first word will not be hyphenated. You can enable
+hyphenation there by beginning LEFT or RIGHT with '\hspace{0pt}'.
+
+ These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
+
+'\marginparpush'
+ Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt'
+ documents, '5pt' else.
+
+'\marginparsep'
+ Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt'
+ for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else.
+
+'\marginparwidth'
+ Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document
+ is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in
+ each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the
+ default is '48pt'.
+
+ The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes
+from falling off the bottom of the page.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Math formulas, Next: Modes, Prev: Making paragraphs, Up: Top
+
+16 Math formulas
+****************
+
+Produce mathematical text by putting LaTeX into math mode or display
+math mode (*note Modes::). This example shows both.
+
+ The wave equation for \( u \) is
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial t^2} = c^2\nabla^2u
+ \end{displaymath}
+ where \( \nabla^2 \) is the spatial Laplacian and \( c \) is constant.
+
+Math mode is for inline mathematics. In the above example it is invoked
+by the starting '\(' and finished by the matching ending '\)'. Display
+math mode is for displayed equations and here is invoked by the
+'displaymath' environment. Note that any mathematical text whatever,
+including mathematical text consisting of just one character, is handled
+in math mode.
+
+ When in math mode or display math mode, LaTeX handles many aspects of
+your input text differently than in other text modes. For example,
+
+ contrast x+y with \( x+y \)
+
+in math mode the letters are in italics and the spacing around the plus
+sign is different.
+
+ There are three ways to make inline formulas, to put LaTeX in math
+mode.
+
+ \( MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \)
+ $ MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL $
+ \begin{math} MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL \end{math}
+
+The first form is preferred and the second is quite common, but the
+third form is rarely used. You can sometimes use one and sometimes
+another, as in '\(x\) and $y$'. You can use these in paragraph mode or
+in LR mode (*note Modes::).
+
+ To make displayed formulas, put LaTeX into display math mode with
+either:
+
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL
+ \end{displaymath}
+
+or
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL
+ \end{equation}
+
+(*note displaymath::, *note equation::). The only difference is that
+with the 'equation' environment, LaTeX puts a formula number alongside
+the formula. The construct '\[ MATH \]' is equivalent to
+'\begin{displaymath} MATH \end{displaymath}'. These environments can
+only be used in paragraph mode (*note Modes::).
+
+ The two mathematics modes are similar, but there are some
+differences. One involves the placement of subscripts and superscripts;
+in display math mode they are further apart and in inline math mode they
+are closer together.
+
+ Sometimes you want the display math typographical treatment to happen
+in the inline math mode. For this, the '\displaystyle' declaration
+forces the size and style of the formula to be that of 'displaymath'.
+Thus '\(\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n\)' will have the limits
+above and below the summation sign, not next to it. Another example is
+that
+
+ \begin{tabular}{r|cc}
+ \textsc{Name} &\textsc{Series} &\textsc{Sum} \\ \hline
+ Arithmetic &\( a+(a+b)+(a+2b)+\cdots+(a+(n-1)b) \)
+ &\( na+(n-1)n\cdot\frac{b}{2}\) \\
+ Geometric &\( a+ab+ab^2+\cdots+ab^{n-1} \)
+ &\(\displaystyle a\cdot\frac{1-b^n}{1-b}\) \\
+ \end{tabular}
+
+because it has no '\displaystyle', the 'Arithmetic' line's fraction will
+be scrunched. But, because of its '\displaystyle', the 'Geometric'
+line's fraction will be easy to read, with characters the same size as
+in the rest of the line.
+
+ The American Mathematical Society has made freely available a set of
+packages that greatly expand your options for writing mathematics,
+'amsmath' and 'amssymb' (also be aware of the 'mathtools' package that
+is an extension to, and loads, 'amsmath'). New documents that will have
+mathematical text should use these packages. Descriptions of these
+packages is outside the scope of this document; see their documentation
+on CTAN.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Subscripts & superscripts:: Also known as exponent or index.
+* Math symbols:: Various mathematical squiggles.
+* Math functions:: Math function names like sin and exp.
+* Math accents:: Accents in math.
+* Over- and Underlining:: Things over or under formulas.
+* Spacing in math mode:: Thick, medium, thin, and negative spaces.
+* Math miscellany:: Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Subscripts & superscripts, Next: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.1 Subscripts & superscripts
+==============================
+
+Synopsis (in math mode or display math mode), one of:
+
+ BASE^EXP
+ BASE^{EXP}
+
+or, one of:
+
+ BASE_EXP
+ BASE_{EXP}
+
+ Make EXP appear as a superscript of BASE (with the caret
+character, '^') or a subscript (with underscore, '_').
+
+ In this example the '0''s and '1''s are subscripts while the '2''s
+are superscripts.
+
+ \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \leq (x_0)^2+(x_1)^2 \)
+
+ To have the subscript or superscript contain more than one character,
+surround the expression with curly braces, as in 'e^{-2x}'. This
+example's fourth line shows curly braces used to group an expression for
+the exponent.
+
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ (3^3)^3=27^3=19\,683
+ \qquad
+ 3^{(3^3)}=3^{27}=7\,625\,597\,484\,987
+ \end{displaymath}
+
+ LaTeX knows how to handle a superscript on a superscript, or a
+subscript on a subscript, or supers on subs, or subs on supers. So,
+expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{i_0}' give correct output. Note
+the use in those expressions of curly braces to give the BASE a
+determined EXP. If you enter '\(3^3^3\)' then you get 'Double
+superscript'.
+
+ LaTeX does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a
+superscript. In this example the integral has both. They come out in
+the correct place without any author intervention.
+
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ \int_{x=a}^b f'(x)\,dx = f(b)-f(a)
+ \end{displaymath}
+
+Note the parentheses around 'x=a' to make the entire expression a
+subscript.
+
+ To put a superscript or subscript before a symbol, use a construct
+like '{}_t K^2'. The empty curly braces '{}' give the subscript
+something to attach to and keeps it from accidentally attaching to a
+prior symbols.
+
+ Using the subscript or superscript command outside of math mode or
+display math mode, as in 'the expression x^2', will get you the error
+'Missing $ inserted'.
+
+ A common reason to want subscripts outside of a mathematics mode is
+to typeset chemical formulas. There are packages for that such as
+'mhchem'; see CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Math symbols, Next: Math functions, Prev: Subscripts & superscripts, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.2 Math symbols
+=================
+
+LaTeX provides almost any mathematical or technical symbol that anyone
+uses. For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get
+the pi symbol U+03C0. See the 'Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List' at
+<https://ctan.org/tex-archive/info/symbols/comprehensive/>.
+
+ Here is a list of commonly-used symbols. It is by no means
+exhaustive. Each symbol is described with a short phrase, and its
+symbol class, which determines the spacing around it, is given in
+parenthesis. Unless said otherwise, the commands for these symbols can
+be used only in math mode. To redefine a command so that it can be used
+whatever the current mode, see *note \ensuremath::.
+
+'\|'
+ U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\parallel'.
+
+'\aleph'
+ U+2135 Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).
+
+'\alpha'
+ U+03B1 Lowercase Greek letter alpha (ordinary).
+
+'\amalg'
+ U+2A3F Disjoint union (binary)
+
+'\angle'
+ U+2220 Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign '<' and
+ angle bracket '\langle'.
+
+'\approx'
+ U+2248 Almost equal to (relation).
+
+'\ast'
+ U+2217 Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary).
+ Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the
+ Kleene star. Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is
+ sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes
+ reserved for cross-correlation.
+
+'\asymp'
+ U+224D Asymptotically equivalent (relation).
+
+'\backslash'
+ \ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus '\setminus', and
+ '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode.
+
+'\beta'
+ U+03B2 Lowercase Greek letter beta (ordinary).
+
+'\bigcap'
+ U+22C2 Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar:
+ binary intersection '\cap'.
+
+'\bigcirc'
+ U+26AA Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function
+ composition '\circ'.
+
+'\bigcup'
+ U+22C3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary
+ union '\cup'.
+
+'\bigodot'
+ U+2A00 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).
+
+'\bigoplus'
+ U+2A01 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).
+
+'\bigotimes'
+ U+2A02 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).
+
+'\bigtriangledown'
+ U+25BD Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down
+ (operator).
+
+'\bigtriangleup'
+ U+25B3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up
+ (operator).
+
+'\bigsqcup'
+ U+2A06 Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).
+
+'\biguplus'
+ U+2A04 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus
+ (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.)
+
+'\bigvee'
+ U+22C1 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).
+
+'\bigwedge'
+ U+22C0 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).
+
+'\bot'
+ U+22A5 Up tack, bottom, least element of a partially ordered set,
+ or a contradiction (ordinary). See also '\top'.
+
+'\bowtie'
+ U+22C8 Natural join of two relations (relation).
+
+'\Box'
+ U+25A1 Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary).
+ Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the
+ 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\bullet'
+ U+2022 Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'.
+
+'\cap'
+ U+2229 Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized
+ operator '\bigcap'.
+
+'\cdot'
+ U+22C5 Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'.
+
+'\chi'
+ U+03C7 Lowercase Greek chi (ordinary).
+
+'\circ'
+ U+2218 Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar:
+ variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'.
+
+'\clubsuit'
+ U+2663 Club card suit (ordinary).
+
+'\complement'
+ U+2201 Set complement, used as a superscript as in
+ '$S^\complement$' (ordinary). Not available in plain TeX. In
+ LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. Also used:
+ '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'.
+
+'\cong'
+ U+2245 Congruent (relation).
+
+'\coprod'
+ U+2210 Coproduct (operator).
+
+'\cup'
+ U+222A Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized
+ operator '\bigcup'.
+
+'\dagger'
+ U+2020 Dagger relation (binary).
+
+'\dashv'
+ U+22A3 Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar:
+ turnstile '\vdash'.
+
+'\ddagger'
+ U+2021 Double dagger relation (binary).
+
+'\Delta'
+ U+0394 Greek uppercase delta, used for increment (ordinary).
+
+'\delta'
+ U+03B4 Greek lowercase delta (ordinary).
+
+'\Diamond'
+ U+25C7 Large diamond operator (ordinary). Not available in plain
+ TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\diamond'
+ U+22C4 Diamond operator (binary). Similar: large
+ diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'.
+
+'\diamondsuit'
+ U+2662 Diamond card suit (ordinary).
+
+'\div'
+ U+00F7 Division sign (binary).
+
+'\doteq'
+ U+2250 Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically
+ equal to '\Doteq'.
+
+'\downarrow'
+ U+2193 Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: '\Downarrow'
+ double line down arrow.
+
+'\Downarrow'
+ U+21D3 Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: '\downarrow'
+ single line down arrow.
+
+'\ell'
+ U+2113 Lowercase cursive letter l (ordinary).
+
+'\emptyset'
+ U+2205 Empty set symbol (ordinary). The variant form is
+ '\varnothing'.
+
+'\epsilon'
+ U+03F5 Lowercase lunate epsilon (ordinary). Similar to Greek text
+ letter. More widely used in mathematics is the script small letter
+ epsilon '\varepsilon' U+03B5. Related: the set membership relation
+ '\in' U+2208.
+
+'\equiv'
+ U+2261 Equivalence (relation).
+
+'\eta'
+ U+03B7 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\exists'
+ U+2203 Existential quantifier (ordinary).
+
+'\flat'
+ U+266D Musical flat (ordinary).
+
+'\forall'
+ U+2200 Universal quantifier (ordinary).
+
+'\frown'
+ U+2322 Downward curving arc (ordinary).
+
+'\Gamma'
+ U+0393 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\gamma'
+ U+03B3 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\ge'
+ U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
+ for '\geq'.
+
+'\geq'
+ U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
+ for '\ge'.
+
+'\gets'
+ U+2190 Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: '\leftarrow'.
+
+'\gg'
+ U+226B Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less
+ than '\ll'.
+
+'\hbar'
+ U+210F Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).
+
+'\heartsuit'
+ U+2661 Heart card suit (ordinary).
+
+'\hookleftarrow'
+ U+21A9 Hooked left arrow (relation).
+
+'\hookrightarrow'
+ U+21AA Hooked right arrow (relation).
+
+'\iff'
+ U+27F7 If and only if (relation). It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with
+ a '\thickmuskip' on either side.
+
+'\Im'
+ U+2111 Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part '\Re'.
+
+'\imath'
+ Dotless i; used when you are putting an accent on an i (*note Math
+ accents::).
+
+'\in'
+ U+2208 Set element (relation). See also: lowercase lunate
+ epsilon '\epsilon'U+03F5 and small letter script
+ epsilon '\varepsilon'.
+
+'\infty'
+ U+221E Infinity (ordinary).
+
+'\int'
+ U+222B Integral (operator).
+
+'\iota'
+ U+03B9 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\Join'
+ U+2A1D Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain
+ TeX.
+
+'\jmath'
+ Dotless j; used when you are putting an accent on a j (*note Math
+ accents::).
+
+'\kappa'
+ U+03BA Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\Lambda'
+ U+039B uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\lambda'
+ U+03BB Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\land'
+ U+2227 Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for '\wedge'. See
+ also logical or '\lor'.
+
+'\langle'
+ U+27E8 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar:
+ less-than '<'. Matches '\rangle'.
+
+'\lbrace'
+ U+007B Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: '\{'.
+ Matches '\rbrace'.
+
+'\lbrack'
+ U+005B Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: '['.
+ Matches '\rbrack'.
+
+'\lceil'
+ U+2308 Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the
+ bottom shaved off (opening). Matches '\rceil'.
+
+'\le'
+ U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
+ for '\leq'.
+
+'\leadsto'
+ U+21DD Squiggly right arrow (relation). Not available in plain
+ TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. To get this
+ symbol outside of math mode you can put
+ '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and
+ then use '\Leadsto' instead.
+
+'\Leftarrow'
+ U+21D0 Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar:
+ single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'.
+
+'\leftarrow'
+ U+2190 Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: '\gets'.
+ Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'.
+
+'\leftharpoondown'
+ U+21BD Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).
+
+'\leftharpoonup'
+ U+21BC Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).
+
+'\Leftrightarrow'
+ U+21D4 Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation).
+ Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'.
+
+'\leftrightarrow'
+ U+2194 Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar:
+ double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'.
+
+'\leq'
+ U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym
+ for '\le'.
+
+'\lfloor'
+ U+230A Left floor bracket (opening). Matches: '\floor'.
+
+'\lhd'
+ U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). Not
+ available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb'
+ package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load 'amssymb'
+ and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so gives better
+ spacing).
+
+'\ll'
+ U+226A Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater
+ than '\gg'.
+
+'\lnot'
+ U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\neg'.
+
+'\longleftarrow'
+ U+27F5 Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long
+ double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'.
+
+'\longleftrightarrow'
+ U+27F7 Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar:
+ long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'.
+
+'\longmapsto'
+ U+27FC Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
+ (relation). Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'.
+
+'\longrightarrow'
+ U+27F6 Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long
+ double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'.
+
+'\lor'
+ U+2228 Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge '\wedge'.
+
+'\mapsto'
+ U+21A6 Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
+ (relation). Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'.
+
+'\mho'
+ U+2127 Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary).
+ Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the
+ 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\mid'
+ U+2223 Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of
+ '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'.
+
+ Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar
+ symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and
+ you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals,
+ i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry
+ for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'.
+
+'\models'
+ U+22A8 Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash
+ (relation). Similar: long double dash '\vDash'.
+
+'\mp'
+ U+2213 Minus or plus (relation).
+
+'\mu'
+ U+03BC Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\nabla'
+ U+2207 Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary).
+
+'\natural'
+ U+266E Musical natural notation (ordinary).
+
+'\ne'
+ U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\neq'.
+
+'\nearrow'
+ U+2197 North-east arrow (relation).
+
+'\neg'
+ U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: '\lnot'. Sometimes
+ instead used for negation: '\sim'.
+
+'\neq'
+ U+2260 Not equal (relation). Synonym: '\ne'.
+
+'\ni'
+ U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation).
+ Synonym: '\owns'. Similar: is a member of '\in'.
+
+'\not'
+ U+0020 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following
+ operator (relation).
+
+ Many negated operators are available that don't require '\not',
+ particularly with the 'amssymb' package. For example, '\notin' is
+ typographically preferable to '\not\in'.
+
+'\notin'
+ U+2209 Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset
+ of '\nsubseteq'.
+
+'\nu'
+ U+03BD Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\nwarrow'
+ U+2196 North-west arrow (relation).
+
+'\odot'
+ U+2299 Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized
+ operator '\bigodot'.
+
+'\oint'
+ U+222E Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle
+ (operator).
+
+'\Omega'
+ U+03A9 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\omega'
+ U+03C9 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\ominus'
+ U+2296 Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).
+
+'\oplus'
+ U+2295 Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized
+ operator '\bigoplus'.
+
+'\oslash'
+ U+2298 Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).
+
+'\otimes'
+ U+2297 Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar:
+ variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'.
+
+'\owns'
+ U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation).
+ Synonym: '\ni'. Similar: is a member of '\in'.
+
+'\parallel'
+ U+2225 Parallel (relation). Synonym: '\|'.
+
+'\partial'
+ U+2202 Partial differential (ordinary).
+
+'\perp'
+ U+27C2 Perpendicular (relation). Similar: '\bot' uses the same
+ glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class
+ ordinary.
+
+'\phi'
+ U+03D5 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
+ '\varphi' U+03C6.
+
+'\Pi'
+ U+03A0 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\pi'
+ U+03C0 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
+ '\varpi' U+03D6.
+
+'\pm'
+ U+00B1 Plus or minus (binary).
+
+'\prec'
+ U+227A Precedes (relation). Similar: less than '<'.
+
+'\preceq'
+ U+2AAF Precedes or equals (relation). Similar: less than or
+ equals '\leq'.
+
+'\prime'
+ U+2032 Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically
+ used as a superscript: '$f^\prime$'; '$f^\prime$' and '$f'$'
+ produce the same result. An advantage of the second is that
+ '$f'''$' produces the desired symbol, that is, the same result as
+ '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses rather less typing. You can
+ only use '\prime' in math mode. Using the right single quote '''
+ in text mode produces a different character (apostrophe).
+
+'\prod'
+ U+220F Product (operator).
+
+'\propto'
+ U+221D Is proportional to (relation)
+
+'\Psi'
+ U+03A8 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\psi'
+ U+03C8 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\rangle'
+ U+27E9 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar:
+ greater than '>'. Matches:'\langle'.
+
+'\rbrace'
+ U+007D Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: '\}'.
+ Matches '\lbrace'.
+
+'\rbrack'
+ U+005D Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: ']'.
+ Matches '\lbrack'.
+
+'\rceil'
+ U+2309 Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches '\lceil'.
+
+'\Re'
+ U+211C Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary).
+ Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access
+ this, load the 'amsfonts' package.
+
+'\restriction'
+ U+21BE Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym:
+ '\upharpoonright'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need
+ to load the 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\revemptyset'
+ U+29B0 Reversed empty set symbol (ordinary). Related:
+ '\varnothing'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to
+ load the 'stix' package.
+
+'\rfloor'
+ U+230B Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut
+ off (closing). Matches '\lfloor'.
+
+'\rhd'
+ U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). Not
+ available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb'
+ package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load
+ 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so
+ gives better spacing).
+
+'\rho'
+ U+03C1 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
+ '\varrho' U+03F1.
+
+'\Rightarrow'
+ U+21D2 Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation).
+ Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'.
+
+'\rightarrow'
+ U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
+ Synonym: '\to'. Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'.
+
+'\rightharpoondown'
+ U+21C1 Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation).
+
+'\rightharpoonup'
+ U+21C0 Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation).
+
+'\rightleftharpoons'
+ U+21CC Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation).
+
+'\searrow'
+ U+2198 Arrow pointing southeast (relation).
+
+'\setminus'
+ U+29F5 Set difference, reverse solidus or reverse slash, like \
+ (binary). Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also
+ '\textbackslash' outside of math mode.
+
+'\sharp'
+ U+266F Musical sharp (ordinary).
+
+'\Sigma'
+ U+03A3 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\sigma'
+ U+03C3 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
+ '\varsigma' U+03C2.
+
+'\sim'
+ U+223C Similar, in a relation (relation).
+
+'\simeq'
+ U+2243 Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).
+
+'\smallint'
+ U+222B Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a
+ display (operator).
+
+'\smile'
+ U+2323 Upward curving arc, smile (ordinary).
+
+'\spadesuit'
+ U+2660 Spade card suit (ordinary).
+
+'\sqcap'
+ U+2293 Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar:
+ intersection 'cap'.
+
+'\sqcup'
+ U+2294 Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union 'cup'.
+ Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'.
+
+'\sqsubset'
+ U+228F Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset '\subset'.
+ Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the
+ 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\sqsubseteq'
+ U+2291 Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or
+ equal to '\subseteq'.
+
+'\sqsupset'
+ U+2290 Square superset symbol (relation). Similar:
+ superset '\supset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need
+ to load the 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\sqsupseteq'
+ U+2292 Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset
+ or equal '\supseteq'.
+
+'\star'
+ U+22C6 Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary
+ operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary).
+ Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are
+ six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript,
+ as with the Kleene star.
+
+'\subset'
+ U+2282 Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).
+
+'\subseteq'
+ U+2286 Subset or equal to (relation).
+
+'\succ'
+ U+227B Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less
+ than '>'.
+
+'\succeq'
+ U+2AB0 Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or
+ equal to '\leq'.
+
+'\sum'
+ U+2211 Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital
+ sigma '\Sigma'.
+
+'\supset'
+ U+2283 Superset (relation).
+
+'\supseteq'
+ U+2287 Superset or equal to (relation).
+
+'\surd'
+ U+221A Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command '\sqrt{...}'
+ typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends
+ to cover the argument.
+
+'\swarrow'
+ U+2199 Southwest-pointing arrow (relation).
+
+'\tau'
+ U+03C4 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\theta'
+ U+03B8 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
+ '\vartheta' U+03D1.
+
+'\times'
+ U+00D7 Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See
+ also '\cdot'.
+
+'\to'
+ U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
+ Synonym: '\rightarrow'.
+
+'\top'
+ U+22A4 Top, greatest element of a partially ordered set (ordinary).
+ See also '\bot'.
+
+'\triangle'
+ U+25B3 Triangle (ordinary).
+
+'\triangleleft'
+ U+25C1 Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary).
+ Similar: '\lhd'. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
+ 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so
+ gives better spacing).
+
+'\triangleright'
+ U+25B7 Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal
+ subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and
+ use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better
+ spacing).
+
+'\unlhd'
+ U+22B4 Left-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is,
+ triangle, with a line under (binary). Not available in plain TeX.
+ In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal
+ subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which
+ is a relation and so gives better spacing).
+
+'\unrhd'
+ U+22B5 Right-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is,
+ triangle, with a line under (binary). Not available in plain TeX.
+ In LaTeX you need to load the 'amssymb' package. For the normal
+ subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which
+ is a relation and so gives better spacing).
+
+'\Uparrow'
+ U+21D1 Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar:
+ single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'.
+
+'\uparrow'
+ U+2191 Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation).
+ Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'.
+
+'\Updownarrow'
+ U+21D5 Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation).
+ Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing
+ arrow '\updownarrow'.
+
+'\updownarrow'
+ U+2195 Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation).
+ Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing
+ arrow '\Updownarrow'.
+
+'\upharpoonright'
+ U+21BE Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation).
+ Synonym: '\restriction'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you
+ need to load the 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\uplus'
+ U+228E Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the
+ middle (binary). Similar: union '\cup'. Related: variable-sized
+ operator '\biguplus'.
+
+'\Upsilon'
+ U+03A5 uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\upsilon'
+ U+03C5 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\varepsilon'
+ U+03B5 Small letter script epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely
+ used in mathematics than the non-variant lunate epsilon form
+ '\epsilon' U+03F5. Related: set membership '\in'.
+
+'\vanothing'
+ U+2205 Empty set symbol. Similar: '\emptyset'. Related:
+ '\revemptyset'. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to
+ load the 'amssymb' package.
+
+'\varphi'
+ U+03C6 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The
+ non-variant form is '\phi' U+03D5.
+
+'\varpi'
+ U+03D6 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The
+ non-variant form is '\pi' U+03C0.
+
+'\varrho'
+ U+03F1 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The
+ non-variant form is '\rho' U+03C1.
+
+'\varsigma'
+ U+03C2 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The
+ non-variant form is '\sigma' U+03C3.
+
+'\vartheta'
+ U+03D1 Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The
+ non-variant form is '\theta' U+03B8.
+
+'\vdash'
+ U+22A2 Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation).
+ Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'.
+
+'\vee'
+ U+2228 Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical
+ and '\wedge'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'.
+
+'\Vert'
+ U+2016 Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single
+ bar '\vert'.
+
+ For a norm symbol, you can use the 'mathtools' package and put in
+ your preamble '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}'. This
+ gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars that
+ are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
+ write the starred version '$\norm*{M^\perp}$' then the height of
+ the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas
+ with '\norm{M^\perp}' the bars do not grow with the height of the
+ argument but instead are the default height, and '\norm[SIZE
+ COMMAND]{M^\perp}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to
+ the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'.
+
+'\vert'
+ U+007C Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line
+ vertical bar '\Vert'. For such that, as in the definition of a
+ set, use '\mid' because it is a relation.
+
+ For absolute value you can use the 'mathtools' package and in your
+ preamble put '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}'. This
+ gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars that
+ are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
+ write the starred version '$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$' then the height
+ of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas
+ with '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}' the bars do not grow with the height of
+ the argument but instead are the default height, and '\abs[SIZE
+ COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}' also gives bars that do not grow but are
+ set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'.
+
+'\wedge'
+ U+2227 Logical and (binary). Synonym: '\land'. See also logical
+ or '\vee'. Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'.
+
+'\wp'
+ U+2118 Weierstrass p (ordinary).
+
+'\wr'
+ U+2240 Wreath product (binary).
+
+'\Xi'
+ U+039E uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\xi'
+ U+03BE Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+'\zeta'
+ U+03B6 Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
+
+ The following symbols are most often used in plain text but LaTeX
+provides versions to use in mathematical text.
+
+'\mathdollar'
+ Dollar sign in math mode: $.
+
+'\mathparagraph'
+ Paragraph sign (pilcrow) in math mode, U+00B6.
+
+'\mathsection'
+ Section sign in math mode U+00A7.
+
+'\mathsterling'
+ Sterling sign in math mode: #.
+
+'\mathunderscore'
+ Underscore in math mode: _.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Blackboard bold:: Doublestruck characters.
+* Calligraphic:: Cursive characters.
+* \boldmath & \unboldmath:: Symbols in boldface.
+* Dots:: Ellipses, etc.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Blackboard bold, Next: Calligraphic, Up: Math symbols
+
+16.2.1 Blackboard bold
+----------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \usepackage{amssymb} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \mathbb{UPPERCASE-LETTER}
+
+ Provide blackboard bold symbols, sometimes also known as doublestruck
+letters, used to denote number sets such as the natural numbers, the
+integers, etc.
+
+ Here
+
+ \( \forall n \in \mathbb{N}, n^2 \geq 0 \)
+
+the '\mathbb{N}' gives blackboard bold symbol U+2115 representing the
+natural numbers.
+
+ If you use other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an
+error but you get strange results, including unexpected characters.
+
+ There are packages that give access to symbols other than just the
+capital letters; look on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Calligraphic, Next: \boldmath & \unboldmath, Prev: Blackboard bold, Up: Math symbols
+
+16.2.2 Calligraphic
+-------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \mathcal{UPPERCASE-LETTERS}
+
+ Use a script-like font.
+
+ In this example the graph identifier is output in a cursive font.
+
+ Let the graph be \( \mathcal{G} \).
+
+ If you use something other than an uppercase letter then you do not
+get an error. Instead you get unexpected output. For instance,
+'\mathcal{g}' outputs a close curly brace symbol, while '\mathcal{+}'
+outputs a plus sign.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \boldmath & \unboldmath, Next: Dots, Prev: Calligraphic, Up: Math symbols
+
+16.2.3 '\boldmath' & '\unboldmath'
+----------------------------------
+
+Synopsis (used in paragraph mode or LR mode):
+
+ \boldmath \( MATH \)
+
+or
+
+ \unboldmath \( MATH \)
+
+ Declarations to change the letters and symbols in MATH to be in a
+bold font, or to countermand that and bring back the regular (non-bold)
+default. They must be used when not in math mode or display math mode
+(*note Modes::). Both commands are fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ In this example each '\boldmath' command takes place inside an
+'\mbox',
+
+ we have $\mbox{\boldmath \( v \)} = 5\cdot\mbox{\boldmath \( u \)$}$
+
+which means '\boldmath' is only called in a text mode, here LR mode, and
+explains why LaTeX must switch to math mode to set 'v' and 'u'.
+
+ If you use either command inside math mode, as with 'Trouble: \(
+\boldmath x \)', then you get something like 'LaTeX Font Warning:
+Command \boldmath invalid in math mode on input line 11' and 'LaTeX Font
+Warning: Command \mathversion invalid in math mode on input line 11'.
+
+ There are many issues with '\boldmath'. New documents should use the
+'bm' package provided by the LaTeX Project team. A complete description
+is outside the scope of this document (see the full documentation on
+CTAN) but even this small example
+
+ \usepackage{bm} % in preamble
+ ...
+ we have $\bm{v} = 5\cdot\bm{u}$
+
+shows that it is an improvement over '\boldmath'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Dots, Prev: \boldmath & \unboldmath, Up: Math symbols
+
+16.2.4 Dots, horizontal or vertical
+-----------------------------------
+
+Ellipses are the three dots (usually three) indicating that a pattern
+continues.
+
+ \begin{array}{cccc}
+ a_{0,0} &a_{0,1} &a_{0,2} &\ldots \\
+ a_{1,0} &\ddots \\
+ \vdots
+ \end{array}
+
+ LaTeX provides these.
+
+'\cdots'
+ Horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line,
+ as in U+22EF. Used as: '\( a_0\cdot a_1\cdots a_{n-1} \)'.
+
+'\ddots'
+ Diagonal ellipsis, U+22F1. See the above array example for a
+ usage.
+
+'\ldots'
+ Ellipsis on the baseline, U+2026. Used as: '\( x_0,\ldots x_{n-1}
+ \)'. Another example is the above array example. A synonym is
+ '\mathellipsis'. A synonym from the 'amsmath' package is '\hdots'.
+
+ You can also use this command outside of mathematical text, as in
+ 'The gears, brakes, \ldots{} are all broken'. (In a paragraph mode
+ or LR mode a synonym for '\ldots' is '\dots'.)
+
+'\vdots'
+ Vertical ellipsis, U+22EE. See the above array example for a usage.
+
+ The 'amsmath' package has the command '\dots' to semantically mark up
+ellipses. This example produces two different-looking outputs for the
+first two uses of the '\dots' command.
+
+ \usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble
+ ...
+ Suppose that \( p_0, p_1, \dots, p_{n-1} \) lists all of the primes.
+ Observe that \( p_0\cdot p_1 \dots \cdot p_{n-1} +1 \) is not a
+ multiple of any \( p_i \).
+ Conclusion: there are infinitely many primes \( p_0, p_1, \dotsc \).
+
+In the first line LaTeX looks to the comma following '\dots' to
+determine that it should output an ellipsis on the baseline. The second
+line has a '\cdot' following '\dots' so LaTeX outputs an ellipsis that
+is on the math axis, vertically centered. However, the third usage has
+no follow-on character so you have to tell LaTeX what to do. You can
+use one of the commands: '\dotsc' if you need the ellipsis appropriate
+for a comma following, '\dotsb' if you need the ellipses that fits when
+the dots are followed by a binary operator or relation symbol, '\dotsi'
+for dots with integrals, or '\dotso' for others.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Math functions, Next: Math accents, Prev: Math symbols, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.3 Math functions
+===================
+
+These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
+spacing.
+
+'\arccos'
+ Inverse cosine
+
+'\arcsin'
+ Inverse sine
+
+'\arctan'
+ Inverse tangent
+
+'\arg'
+ Angle between the real axis and a point in the complex plane
+
+'\bmod'
+ Binary modulo operator, used as in '\( 5\bmod 3=2 \)'
+
+'\cos'
+ Cosine
+
+'\cosh'
+ Hyperbolic cosine
+
+'\cot'
+ Cotangent
+
+'\coth'
+ Hyperbolic cotangent
+
+'\csc'
+ Cosecant
+
+'\deg'
+ Degrees
+
+'\det'
+ Determinant
+
+'\dim'
+ Dimension
+
+'\exp'
+ Exponential
+
+'\gcd'
+ Greatest common divisor
+
+'\hom'
+ Homomorphism
+
+'\inf'
+ Infinum
+
+'\ker'
+ Kernel
+
+'\lg'
+ Base 2 logarithm
+
+'\lim'
+ Limit
+
+'\liminf'
+ Limit inferior
+
+'\limsup'
+ Limit superior
+
+'\ln'
+ Natural logarithm
+
+'\log'
+ Logarithm
+
+'\max'
+ Maximum
+
+'\min'
+ Minimum
+
+'\pmod'
+ Parenthesized modulus, as used in '\( 5\equiv 2\pmod 3 \)'
+
+'\Pr'
+ Probability
+
+'\sec'
+ Secant
+
+'\sin'
+ Sine
+
+'\sinh'
+ Hyperbolic sine
+
+'\sup'
+ sup
+
+'\tan'
+ Tangent
+
+'\tanh'
+ Hyperbolic tangent
+
+ The 'amsmath' package adds improvements on some of these, and also
+allows you to define your own. The full documentation is on CTAN, but
+briefly, you can define an identity operator with
+'\DeclareMathOperator{\identity}{id}' that is like the ones above but
+prints as 'id'. The starred form '\DeclareMathOperator*{\op}{op}' sets
+any limits above and below, as is traditional with '\lim', '\sup', or
+'\max'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Math accents, Next: Over- and Underlining, Prev: Math functions, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.4 Math accents
+=================
+
+LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in
+math. These are different from accents in normal text (*note
+Accents::).
+
+'\acute'
+ Math acute accent
+
+'\bar'
+ Math bar-over accent
+
+'\breve'
+ Math breve accent
+
+'\check'
+ Math ha'c<ek (check) accent
+
+'\ddot'
+ Math dieresis accent
+
+'\dot'
+ Math dot accent
+
+'\grave'
+ Math grave accent
+
+'\hat'
+ Math hat (circumflex) accent
+
+'\mathring'
+ Math ring accent
+
+'\tilde'
+ Math tilde accent
+
+'\vec'
+ Math vector symbol
+
+'\widehat'
+ Math wide hat accent
+
+'\widetilde'
+ Math wide tilde accent
+
+ When you are putting an accent on an i or a j, the tradition is to
+use one without a dot, '\imath' or 'jmath' (*note Math symbols::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Over- and Underlining, Next: Spacing in math mode, Prev: Math accents, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.5 Over- and Underlining
+==========================
+
+LaTeX provides commands for making overlines or underlines, or putting
+braces over or under some material.
+
+'\underline{TEXT}'
+ Underline TEXT. Works inside math mode, and outside. The line is
+ always completely below the text, taking account of descenders, so
+ in '\(\underline{y}\)' the line is lower than in
+ '\(\underline{x}\)'. This command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ Note that the package 'ulem' does text mode underlining and allows
+ line breaking as well as a number of other features. See the
+ documentation on CTAN. See also *note \hrulefill & \dotfill:: for
+ producing a line, for such things as a signature.
+
+'\overline{TEXT}'
+ Put a horizontal line over TEXT. Works inside math mode, and
+ outside. For example, '\overline{x+y}'. Note that this differs
+ from the command '\bar' (*note Math accents::).
+
+'\underbrace{MATH}'
+ Put a brace under MATH. For example, this
+ '(1-\underbrace{1/2)+(1/2}-1/3)' emphasizes the telescoping part.
+ Attach text to the brace by using subscript, '_', or superscript,
+ '^', as here.
+
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ 1+1/2+\underbrace{1/3+1/4}_{>1/2}+
+ \underbrace{1/5+1/6+1/7+1/8}_{>1/2}+\cdots
+ \end{displaymath}
+
+ The superscript appears on top of the expression, and so can look
+ unconnected to the underbrace.
+
+'\overbrace{MATH}'
+ Put a brace over MATH, as with
+ '\overbrace{x+x+\cdots+x}^{\mbox{\(k\) times}}'. See also
+ '\underbrace'.
+
+ The package 'mathtools' adds an over- and underbrace, as well as some
+improvements on the braces. See the documentation on CTAN.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Spacing in math mode, Next: Math miscellany, Prev: Over- and Underlining, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.6 Spacing in math mode
+=========================
+
+When typesetting mathematics, LaTeX puts in spacing according to the
+normal rules for mathematics texts. If you enter 'y=m x' then LaTeX
+ignores the space and in the output the m is next to the x, as y=mx.
+
+ But LaTeX's rules sometimes need tweaking. For example, in an
+integral the tradition is to put a small extra space between the 'f(x)'
+and the 'dx', here done with the '\,' command.
+
+ \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx
+
+ LaTeX provides the commands that follow for use in math mode. Many
+of these spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit
+"mu". It is defined as 1/18em, where the em is taken from the current
+math symbols family (*note Units of length::). Thus, a '\thickspace' is
+something like 5/18 times the width of a 'M'.
+
+'\;'
+ Synonym: '\thickspace'. Normally '5.0mu plus 5.0mu'. Math mode
+ only.
+
+'\:'
+'\>'
+ Synonym: '\medspace'. Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'.
+ Math mode only.
+
+'\,'
+ Synonym: '\thinspace'. Normally '3mu', which is 1/6em. Can be
+ used in both math mode and text mode (*note \thinspace &
+ \negthinspace::).
+
+ This space is widely used, for instance between the function and
+ the infinitesimal in an integral '\int f(x)\,dx' and, if an author
+ does this, before punctuation in a displayed equation.
+
+ The antiderivative is
+ \begin{equation}
+ 3x^{-1/2}+3^{1/2}\,.
+ \end{equation}
+
+'\!'
+ A negative thin space. Normally '-3mu'. The '\!' command is math
+ mode only but the '\negthinspace' command is available for text
+ mode (*note \thinspace & \negthinspace::).
+
+'\quad'
+ This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space
+ surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space
+ between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment. It is
+ available in both text and math mode.
+
+'\qquad'
+ A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both
+ text and math mode.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \smash:: Eliminate height or depth of a subformula.
+* \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom:: Make empty box with the same size as the argument.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \smash, Next: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom, Up: Spacing in math mode
+
+16.6.1 '\smash'
+---------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \smash{SUBFORMULA}
+
+ Typeset SUBFORMULA as if its height and depth were zero.
+
+ In this example the exponential is so tall that without the '\smash'
+command LaTeX would separate its line from the line above it, and the
+uneven line spacing might be unsightly.
+
+ To compute the tetration $\smash{2^{2^{2^2}}}$,
+ evaluate from the top down, as $2^{2^4}=2^{16}=65536$.
+
+ (Because of the '\smash' the printed expression could run into the
+line above so you may want to wait until the final version of the
+document to make such adjustments.)
+
+ This pictures the effect of '\smash' by using '\fbox' to surround the
+box that LaTeX will put on the line. The '\blackbar' command makes a
+bar extending from 10 points below the baseline to 20 points above.
+
+ \newcommand{\blackbar}{\rule[-10pt]{5pt}{30pt}}
+ \fbox{\blackbar}
+ \fbox{\smash{\blackbar}}
+
+ The first box that LaTeX places is 20 points high and 10 points deep.
+But the second box is treated by LaTeX as having zero height and zero
+depth, despite that the ink printed on the page still extends well above
+and below the line.
+
+ The '\smash' command appears often in mathematics to adjust the size
+of an element that surrounds a subformula. Here the first radical
+extends below the baseline while the second lies just on the baseline.
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ \sqrt{\sum_{0\leq k< n} f(k)}
+ \sqrt{\vphantom{\sum}\smash{\sum_{0\leq k< n}} f(k)}
+ \end{equation}
+
+ Note the use of '\vphantom' to give the '\sqrt' command an argument
+with the height of the '\sum' (*note \phantom & \vphantom &
+\hphantom::).
+
+ While most often used in mathematics, the '\smash' command can appear
+in other contexts. However, it doesn't change into horizontal mode. So
+if it starts a paragraph then you should first put a '\leavevmode', as
+in the bottom line below.
+
+ xxx xxx xxx
+
+ \smash{yyy} % no paragraph indent
+
+ \leavevmode\smash{zzz} % usual paragraph indent
+
+ The package 'mathtools' has operators that provide even finer control
+over smashing a subformula box.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom, Prev: \smash, Up: Spacing in math mode
+
+16.6.2 '\phantom' & '\vphantom' & '\hphantom'
+---------------------------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \phantom{SUBFORMULA}
+
+ or
+
+ \vphantom{SUBFORMULA}
+
+ or
+
+ \hphantom{SUBFORMULA}
+
+ The '\phantom' command creates a box with the same height, depth, and
+width as SUBFORMULA, but empty. That is, this command causes LaTeX to
+typeset the box but not its ink. The '\vphantom' variant also produces
+an invisible box with the same height and depth as SUBFORMULA, but it
+has width zero. And '\hphantom' makes a box with the same width as
+SUBFORMULA but with height and depth zero.
+
+ Without the '\vphantom' in this example, the top bars of the two
+square roots would be at different heights.
+
+ \( \sqrt{\vphantom{a^3}a}\cdot\sqrt{a^3} \)
+
+ The '\vphantom{a^3}' causes the first '\sqrt' to have inside it a box
+of the same height as the second '\sqrt', so LaTeX makes the bars align.
+
+ These commands often are combined with '\smash'. *Note \smash:: for
+another example of the use of '\vphantom'.
+
+ The three phantom commands appear often but note that LaTeX provides
+a suite of other commands to work with box sizes that may be more
+convenient, including '\makebox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::) as well as
+'\settodepth' (*note \settodepth::), '\settoheight' (*note
+\settoheight::), and '\settowidth' (*note \settowidth::). In addition,
+the 'mathtools' package has many commands that offer fine-grained
+control over spacing.
+
+ All three commands produce an ordinary box, without any special
+mathematics status. So to do something like attaching a superscript you
+should give it such a status, for example with the '\operatorname'
+command from the package 'amsmath'.
+
+ While most often used in mathematics, these three can appear in other
+contexts. However, they don't cause LaTeX to change into horizontal
+mode. So if one of these starts a paragraph then you should prefix it
+with '\leavevmode'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Math miscellany, Prev: Spacing in math mode, Up: Math formulas
+
+16.7 Math miscellany
+====================
+
+LaTeX contains a wide variety of mathematics facilities. Here are some
+that don't fit into other categories.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Colon character & \colon:: Colon.
+* \*:: Discretionary multiplication.
+* \frac:: Fraction.
+* \left & \right:: Paired delimiters.
+* \sqrt:: Radicals.
+* \stackrel:: Text over a relation.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Colon character & \colon, Next: \*, Up: Math miscellany
+
+16.7.1 Colon character ':' & '\colon'
+-------------------------------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ :
+ \colon
+
+ In mathematics, the colon character, ':', is a relation.
+
+ With side ratios \( 3:4 \) and \( 4:5 \), the triangle is right.
+
+Ordinary LaTeX defines '\colon' to produce the colon character with the
+spacing appropriate for punctuation, as in set-builder notation
+'\{x\colon 0\leq x<1\}'.
+
+ But the widely-used 'amsmath' package defines '\colon' for use in the
+definition of functions 'f\colon D\to C'. So if you want the colon
+character as a punctuation then use '\mathpunct{:}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \*, Next: \frac, Prev: Colon character & \colon, Up: Math miscellany
+
+16.7.2 '\*'
+-----------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \*
+
+ A multiplication symbol that allows a line break. If there is a
+break then LaTeX puts a '\times' symbol, U+00D7, before that break.
+
+ In '\( A_1\* A_2\* A_3\* A_4 \)', if there is no line break then
+LaTeX outputs it as though it were '\( A_1 A_2 A_3 A_4 \)'. If a line
+break does happen, for example between the two middle ones, then LaTeX
+sets it like '\( A_1 A_2 \times \)', followed by the break, followed by
+'\( A_3 A_4 \)'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \frac, Next: \left & \right, Prev: \*, Up: Math miscellany
+
+16.7.3 '\frac'
+--------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \frac{NUMERATOR}{DENOMINATOR}
+
+ Produces the fraction. Used as: '\begin{displaymath}
+\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma}} \end{displaymath}'. In inline math mode it
+comes out small; see the discussion of '\displaystyle' (*note Math
+formulas::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \left & \right, Next: \sqrt, Prev: \frac, Up: Math miscellany
+
+16.7.4 '\left' & '\right'
+-------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \left DELIMITER1 ... \right DELIMITER2
+
+ Make matching parentheses, braces, or other delimiters. The
+delimiters are sized according to the math they enclose. This makes a
+unit vector surrounded by appropriate-height parentheses.
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ \left(\begin{array}{c}
+ 1 \\
+ 0 \\
+ \end{array}\right)
+
+ Every '\left' must have a matching '\right'. Leaving out the
+'\left(' in the above gets 'Extra \right'. Leaving off the '\right)'
+gets 'You can't use `\eqno' in math mode'.
+
+ However, the two delimiters DELIMITER1 and DELIMITER2 need not match.
+A common case is that you want an unmatched brace, as below. Use a
+period, '.', as a null delimiter.
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ f(n)=\left\{\begin{array}{ll}
+ 1 &\mbox{--if \(n=0\)} \\
+ f(n-1)+3n^2 &\mbox{--else}
+ \end{array}\right.
+ \end{equation}
+
+Note that to get a curly brace as a delimiter you must prefix it with a
+backslash, '\{'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \sqrt, Next: \stackrel, Prev: \left & \right, Up: Math miscellany
+
+16.7.5 '\sqrt'
+--------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \sqrt{ARG}
+ \sqrt[ROOT-NUMBER]{ARG}
+
+ The square root, or optionally other roots, of ARG. The optional
+argument ROOT-NUMBER gives the root, i.e., enter the cube root of 'x+y'
+as '\sqrt[3]{x+y}'. The radical grows with the size of ARG (as the
+height of the radical grows, the angle on the leftmost part gets
+steeper, until for a large enough 'arg', it is vertical).
+
+ LaTeX has a separate '\surd' character (*note Math symbols::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \stackrel, Prev: \sqrt, Up: Math miscellany
+
+16.7.6 '\stackrel'
+------------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}
+
+ Put TEXT above RELATION. To put a function name above an arrow enter
+'\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Modes, Next: Page styles, Prev: Math formulas, Up: Top
+
+17 Modes
+********
+
+As LaTeX processes your document, at any point it is in one of six
+modes. They fall into three categories of two each, the horizontal
+modes, the math modes, and the vertical modes. Some commands only work
+in one mode or another (in particular, many commands only work in one of
+the math modes), and error messages will refer to these.
+
+ * "Paragraph mode" is what LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text.
+ It breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into
+ pages. This is the mode LaTeX is in most of the time.
+
+ "LR mode" (for left-to-right mode; in plain TeX this is called
+ "restricted horizontal mode") is in effect when LaTeX starts making
+ a box with an '\mbox' command. As in paragraph mode, LaTeX's
+ output is a string of words with spaces between them. Unlike in
+ paragraph mode, in LR mode LaTeX never starts a new line, it just
+ keeps going from left to right. (Although LaTeX will not complain
+ that the LR box is too long, when it is finished and next tries to
+ put that box into a line, it could very well complain that the
+ finished LR box won't fit there.)
+
+ * "Math mode" is when LaTeX is generating an inline mathematical
+ formula.
+
+ "Display math mode" is when LaTeX is generating a displayed
+ mathematical formula. (Displayed formulas differ somewhat from
+ inline ones. One example is that the placement of the subscript on
+ '\int' differs in the two situations.)
+
+ * "Vertical mode" is when LaTeX is building the list of lines and
+ other material making the output page. This is the mode LaTeX is
+ in when it starts a document.
+
+ "Internal vertical mode" is in effect when LaTeX starts making a
+ '\vbox'. This is the vertical analogue of LR mode.
+
+For instance, if you begin a LaTeX article with 'Let \( x \) be ...'
+then these are the modes: first LaTeX starts every document in vertical
+mode, then it reads the 'L' and switches to paragraph mode, then the
+next switch happens at the '\(' where LaTeX changes to math mode, and
+then when it leaves the formula it pops back to paragraph mode.
+
+ Paragraph mode has two subcases. If you use a '\parbox' command or a
+'minipage' then LaTeX is put into paragraph mode. But it will not put a
+page break here. Inside one of these boxes, called a "parbox", LaTeX is
+in "inner paragraph mode". Its more usual situation, where it can put
+page breaks, is "outer paragraph mode" (*note Page breaking::).
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \ensuremath:: Ensure that math mode is active.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \ensuremath, Up: Modes
+
+17.1 '\ensuremath'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \ensuremath{FORMULA}
+
+ Ensure that FORMULA is typeset in math mode.
+
+ For instance, you can redefine commands that ordinarily can be used
+only in math mode, so that they can be used both in math and in plain
+text.
+
+ \newcommand{\dx}{\ensuremath{dx}}
+ In $\int f(x)\, \dx$, the \dx{} is an infinitesimal.
+
+ Caution: the '\ensuremath' command is useful but not a panacea.
+
+ \newcommand{\alf}{\ensuremath{\alpha}}
+ You get an alpha in text mode: \alf.
+ But compare the correct spacing in $\alf+\alf$ with that in \alf+\alf.
+
+Best is to typeset math things in a math mode.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Page styles, Next: Spaces, Prev: Modes, Up: Top
+
+18 Page styles
+**************
+
+The style of a page determines where LaTeX places the components of that
+page, such as headers and footers, and the text body. This includes
+pages in the main part of the document but also includes special pages
+such as the title page of a book, a page from an index, or the first
+page of an article.
+
+ The package 'fancyhdr' is very helpful for constructing page styles.
+See its documentation on CTAN.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \maketitle:: Generate a title page.
+* \pagenumbering:: Set the style used for page numbers.
+* \pagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style.
+* \thispagestyle:: Change the headings/footings style for this page.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \maketitle, Next: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles
+
+18.1 '\maketitle'
+=================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \maketitle
+
+ Generate a title. In the standard classes the title appears on a
+separate page, except in the 'article' class where it is at the top of
+the first page. (*Note Document class options:: for information about
+the 'titlepage' document class option.)
+
+ This example shows '\maketitle' appearing in its usual place,
+immediately after '\begin{document}'.
+
+ \documentclass{article}
+ \title{Constructing a Nuclear Reactor Using Only Coconuts}
+ \author{Jonas Grumby\thanks{%
+ With the support of a Ginger Grant from the Roy Hinkley Society.} \\
+ Skipper, \textit{Minnow}
+ \and
+ Willy Gilligan\thanks{%
+ Thanks to the Mary Ann Summers foundation
+ and to Thurston and Lovey Howell.} \\
+ Mate, \textit{Minnow}
+ }
+ \date{1964-Sep-26}
+ \begin{document}
+ \maketitle
+ Just sit right back and you'll hear a tale, a tale of a fateful trip.
+ That started from this tropic port, aboard this tiny ship. The mate was
+ a mighty sailin' man, the Skipper brave and sure. Five passengers set
+ sail that day for a three hour tour. A three hour tour.
+ ...
+
+ You tell LaTeX the information used to produce the title by making
+the following declarations. These must come before the '\maketitle',
+either in the preamble or in the document body.
+
+'\author{NAME1 \and NAME2 \and ...}'
+ Required. Declare the document author or authors. The argument is
+ a list of authors separated by '\and' commands. To separate lines
+ within a single author's entry, for instance to give the author's
+ institution or address, use a double backslash, '\\'. If you omit
+ the '\author' declaration then you get 'LaTeX Warning: No \author
+ given'.
+
+'\date{TEXT}'
+ Optional. Declare TEXT to be the document's date. The TEXT
+ doesn't need to be in a date format; it can be any text at all. If
+ you omit '\date' then LaTeX uses the current date (*note \today::).
+ To have no date, instead use '\date{}'.
+
+'\thanks{TEXT}'
+ Optional. Produce a footnote. You can use it in the author
+ information for acknowledgements as illustrated above, but you can
+ also use it in the title, or any place a footnote makes sense. It
+ can be any text at all so you can use it for any purpose, such as
+ to print an email address.
+
+'\title{TEXT}'
+ Required. Declare TEXT to be the title of the document. Get line
+ breaks inside TEXT with a double backslash, '\\'. If you omit the
+ '\title' declaration then you get 'LaTeX Error: No \title given'.
+
+ To make your own title page, see *note titlepage::. You can either
+create this as a one-off or you can include it as part of a renewed
+'\maketitle' command. (Many publishers will provide a class to use in
+place of 'article' that formats the title according to their house
+requirements.)
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagenumbering, Next: \pagestyle, Prev: \maketitle, Up: Page styles
+
+18.2 '\pagenumbering'
+=====================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \pagenumbering{NUMBER-STYLE}
+
+ Specifies the style of page numbers, and resets the page number. The
+numbering style is reflected on the page, and also in the table of
+contents and other page references. This declaration has global scope
+so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments.
+
+ In this example, before the Main section the pages are numbered 'a',
+etc. Starting on the page containing that section, the pages are
+numbered '1', etc.
+
+ \begin{document}\pagenumbering{alph}
+ ...
+ \section{Main}\pagenumbering{arabic}
+ ...
+
+ The argument NUMBER-STYLE is one of the following (see also *note
+\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::).
+
+'arabic'
+ Arabic numerals: 1, 2, ...
+
+'roman'
+ lowercase Roman numerals: i, ii, ...
+
+'Roman'
+ uppercase Roman numerals: I, II, ...
+
+'alph'
+ lowercase letters: a, b, ... If you have more than 26 pages then
+ you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large'.
+
+'Alph'
+ uppercase letters: A, B, ... If you have more than 26 pages then
+ you get 'LaTeX Error: Counter too large'.
+
+'gobble'
+ LaTeX does not output a page number, although it does get reset.
+ References to that page also are blank. (This does not work with
+ the popular package 'hyperref' so to have the page number not
+ appear you may want to instead use '\pagestyle{empty}' or
+ '\thispagestyle{empty}'.)
+
+ Traditionally, if a document has front matter--preface, table of
+contents, etc.--then it is numbered with lowercase Roman numerals. The
+main matter of a document uses arabic. *Note \frontmatter & \mainmatter
+& \backmatter::.
+
+ If you want to address where the page number appears on the page,
+see *note \pagestyle::. If you want to change the value of page number
+then you will manipulate the 'page' counter (*note Counters::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \pagestyle, Next: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagenumbering, Up: Page styles
+
+18.3 '\pagestyle'
+=================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \pagestyle{STYLE}
+
+ Declaration that specifies how the page headers and footers are
+typeset, from the current page onwards.
+
+ A discussion with an example is below. Note first that the package
+'fancyhdr' is now the standard way to manipulate headers and footers.
+New documents that need to do anything other than one of the standard
+options below should use this package. See its documentation on CTAN.
+
+ Values for STYLE:
+
+'plain'
+ The header is empty. The footer contains only a page number,
+ centered.
+
+'empty'
+ The header and footer is empty.
+
+'headings'
+ Put running headers and footers on each page. The document style
+ specifies what goes in there; see the discussion below.
+
+'myheadings'
+ Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright'
+ commands.
+
+ Some discussion of the motivation for LaTeX's mechanism will help you
+work with the options 'headings' or 'myheadings'. The document source
+below produces an article, two-sided, with the pagestyle 'headings'. On
+this document's left hand pages, LaTeX wants (in addition to the page
+number) the title of the current section. On its right hand pages LaTeX
+wants the title of the current subsection. When it makes up a page,
+LaTeX gets this information from the commands '\leftmark' and
+'\rightmark'. So it is up to '\section' and '\subsection' to store that
+information there.
+
+ \documentclass[twoside]{article}
+ \pagestyle{headings}
+ \begin{document}
+ ... \section{Section 1} ... \subsection{Subsection 1.1} ...
+ \section{Section 2}
+ ...
+ \subsection{Subsection 2.1}
+ ...
+ \subsection{Subsection 2.2}
+ ...
+
+Suppose that the second section falls on a left page. Although when the
+page starts it is in the first section, LaTeX will put 'Section 2' in
+the left page header. As to the right header, if no subsection starts
+before the end of the right page then LaTeX blanks the right hand
+header. If a subsection does appear before the right page finishes then
+there are two cases. If at least one subsection starts on the right
+hand page then LaTeX will put in the right header the title of the first
+subsection starting on that right page. If at least one of 2.1, 2.2,
+..., starts on the left page but none starts on the right then LaTeX
+puts in the right hand header the title of the last subsection to start,
+that is, the one in effect during the right hand page.
+
+ To accomplish this, in a two-sided article, LaTeX has '\section'
+issue a command '\markboth', setting '\leftmark' to 'Section 2' and
+setting '\rightmark' to blank. And, LaTeX has '\subsection' issue a
+command '\markright', setting '\rightmark' to 'Subsection 2.1', etc.
+
+ Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright':
+
+'\markboth{LEFT-HEAD}{RIGHT-HEAD}'
+ Sets both the right hand and left hand heading information for
+ either a page style of 'headings' or 'myheadings'. A left hand
+ page heading LEFT-HEAD is generated by the last '\markboth' command
+ before the end of the page. A right hand page heading RIGHT-HEAD
+ is generated by the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on
+ the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one that came
+ before that page.
+
+'\markright{RIGHT}'
+ Sets the right hand page heading, leaving the left unchanged.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \thispagestyle, Prev: \pagestyle, Up: Page styles
+
+18.4 '\thispagestyle'
+=====================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \thispagestyle{STYLE}
+
+ Works in the same way as the '\pagestyle' (*note \pagestyle::),
+except that it changes to STYLE for the current page only. This
+declaration has global scope, so its effect is not delimited by braces
+or environments.
+
+ Often the first page of a chapter or section has a different style.
+For example, this LaTeX book document has the first page of the first
+chapter in 'plain' style, as is the default (*note Page styles::).
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \pagestyle{headings}
+ \begin{document}
+ \chapter{First chapter}
+ ...
+ \chapter{Second chapter}\thispagestyle{empty}
+ ...
+
+The 'plain' style has a page number on it, centered in the footer. To
+make the page entirely empty, the command '\thispagestyle{empty}'
+immediately follows the second '\chapter'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Spaces, Next: Boxes, Prev: Page styles, Up: Top
+
+19 Spaces
+*********
+
+LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Some of these
+are best suited to mathematical text; see *note Spacing in math mode::.
+Some spacing commands are suitable for both regular text and
+mathematical text; versions of some of these commands are in this
+chapter.
+
+* Menu:
+
+Horizontal space
+* \enspace & \quad & \qquad:: Traditional horizontal spaces.
+* \hspace:: Any horizontal space.
+* \hfill:: Stretchable horizontal space.
+* \hss:: Infinitely stretchable/shrinkable horizontal space.
+* \spacefactor:: Stretchability of following space
+* \(SPACE):: Backslash-space; and explicit space.
+* ~:: Tie, an unbreakable space.
+* \thinspace & \negthinspace:: One-sixth of an em, and negative one-sixth.
+* \/:: Italic correction.
+* \hrulefill & \dotfill:: Stretchable horizontal rule or dots.
+
+Vertical space
+* \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip:: Inter-paragraph vertical spaces.
+* \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak:: Inter-paragraph space and page breaks.
+* \strut:: Ensure height of a line.
+* \vspace:: Vertical space.
+* \vfill:: Stretchable vertical space.
+* \addvspace:: Add arbitrary vertical space if needed.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \enspace & \quad & \qquad, Next: \hspace, Up: Spaces
+
+19.1 '\enspace' & '\quad' & '\qquad'
+====================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \enspace
+ \quad
+ \qquad
+
+ Insert a horizontal space of 1/2em, 1em, or 2em. The em is a length
+defined by a font designer, often thought of as being the width of a
+capital M. One advantage of describing space in ems is that it can be
+more portable across documents than an absolute measurement such as
+points (*note Lengths/em::).
+
+ This puts a suitable gap between two graphics.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \includegraphics{womensmile.png}%
+ \qquad\includegraphics{mensmile.png}
+ \end{center}
+
+*Note Spacing in math mode:: for '\quad' and '\qquad'. These are
+lengths from centuries of typesetting and so may be a better choice in
+many circumstances than arbitrary lengths, such as you get with
+'\hspace'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \hspace, Next: \hfill, Prev: \enspace & \quad & \qquad, Up: Spaces
+
+19.2 '\hspace'
+==============
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \hspace{LENGTH}
+ \hspace*{LENGTH}
+
+ Insert the horizontal space LENGTH. The LENGTH can be positive,
+negative, or zero; adding negative space is like backspacing. It is a
+rubber length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, or
+both (*note Lengths::). Because the space is stretchable and
+shrinkable, it is sometimes called "glue".
+
+ This makes a line with 'Name:' an inch from the right margin.
+
+ \noindent\makebox[\linewidth][r]{Name:\hspace{1in}}
+
+ The '*'-version inserts horizontal space that non-discardable. More
+precisely, when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines any white space--glues
+and kerns--that come at a line break are discarded. The '*'-version
+avoids that (technically, it adds a non-discardable invisible item in
+front of the space).
+
+ In this example
+
+ \parbox{0.8\linewidth}{%
+ Fill in each blank: Four \hspace*{1in} and seven years ago our
+ fathers brought forth on this continent, a new \hspace*{1in},
+ conceived in \hspace*{1in}, and dedicated to the proposition
+ that all men are created \hspace*{1in}.}
+
+the 1 inch blank following 'conceived in' falls at the start of a line.
+If you erase the '*' then LaTeX discards the blank.
+
+ Here, the '\hspace' separates the three graphics.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \includegraphics{lion.png}% comment keeps out extra space
+ \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{tiger.png}%
+ \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{bear.png}
+ \end{center}
+
+Because the argument to each '\hspace' has 'minus 0.25cm', each can
+shrink a little if the three figures are too wide. But each space won't
+shrink more than 0.25cm (*note Lengths::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \hfill, Next: \hss, Prev: \hspace, Up: Spaces
+
+19.3 '\hfill'
+=============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \hfill
+
+ Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but that can
+stretch horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::).
+
+ This creates a one-line paragraph with 'Name:' on the left side of
+the page and 'Quiz One' on the right.
+
+ \noindent Name:\hfill Quiz One
+
+ The '\hfill' command is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}' and so the
+space can be discarded at line breaks. To avoid that instead use
+'\hspace*{\fill}' (*note \hspace::).
+
+ Here the graphs are evenly spaced in the middle of the figure.
+
+ \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
+ ...
+ \begin{figure}
+ \hspace*{\fill}%
+ \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph0.png}}%
+ \hfill\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph1.png}}%
+ \hspace*{\fill}%
+ \caption{Comparison of two graphs} \label{fig:twographs}
+ \end{figure}
+
+Note the '\hspace*''s where the space could otherwise be dropped.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \hss, Next: \spacefactor, Prev: \hfill, Up: Spaces
+
+19.4 '\hss'
+===========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \hss
+
+ Produce a horizontal space that is infinitely shrinkable as well as
+infinitely stretchable (this command is a TeX primitive). LaTeX authors
+should reach first for the '\makebox' command to get the effects of
+'\hss' (*note \mbox & \makebox::).
+
+ Here, the first line's '\hss' makes the Z stick out to the right,
+overwriting the Y. In the second line the Z sticks out to the left,
+overwriting the X.
+
+ X\hbox to 0pt{Z\hss}Y
+ X\hbox to 0pt{\hss Z}Y
+
+Without the '\hss' you get something like 'Overfull \hbox (6.11111pt too
+wide) detected at line 20'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \spacefactor, Next: \(SPACE), Prev: \hss, Up: Spaces
+
+19.5 '\spacefactor'
+===================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \spacefactor=INTEGER
+
+ Influence LaTeX's glue stretch and shrink behavior. Most user-level
+documents do not use this command.
+
+ While LaTeX is laying out the material, it may stretch or shrink the
+gaps between words. (This space is not a character; it is called the
+"interword glue"; *note \hspace::). The '\spacefactor' command (from
+Plain TeX) allows you to, for instance, have the space after a period
+stretch more than the space after a word-ending letter.
+
+ After LaTeX places each character, or rule or other box, it sets a
+parameter called the "space factor". If the next thing in the input is
+a space then this parameter affects how much stretching or shrinking can
+happen. A space factor that is larger than the normal value means that
+the glue can stretch more and shrink less. Normally, the space factor
+is 1000. This value is in effect following most characters, and any
+non-character box or math formula. But it is 3000 after a period,
+exclamation mark, or question mark, it is 2000 after a colon, 1500 after
+a semicolon, 1250 after a comma, and 0 after a right parenthesis or
+bracket, or closing double quote or single quote. Finally, it is 999
+after a capital letter.
+
+ If the space factor F is 1000 then the glue gap will be the font's
+normal space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is
+3.3333 points). Otherwise, if the space factor F is greater than 2000
+then TeX adds the font's extra space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10
+point this is 1.11111 points), and then the font's normal stretch value
+is multiplied by f /1000 and the normal shrink value is multiplied by
+1000/f (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point these are 1.66666 and
+1.11111 points).
+
+ For example, consider the period ending 'A man's best friend is his
+dog.' After it, TeX puts in a fixed extra space, and also allows the
+glue to stretch 3 times as much and shrink 1/3 as much, as the glue
+after 'friend', which does not end in a period.
+
+ The rules for space factors are even more complex because they play
+additional roles. In practice, there are two consequences. First, if a
+period or other punctuation is followed by a right parenthesis or
+bracket, or right single or double quote then the spacing effect of that
+period carries through those characters (that is, the following glue
+will have increased stretch and shrink). Second, if punctuation comes
+after a capital letter then its effect is not in place so you get an
+ordinary space. This second case also affects abbreviations that do not
+end in a capital letter (*note \@::).
+
+ You can only use '\spacefactor' in paragraph mode or LR mode (*note
+Modes::). You can see the current value with '\the\spacefactor' or
+'\showthe\spacefactor'.
+
+ (Comment, not really related to '\spacefactor': if you get errors
+like 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode', or 'You can't use
+`\spacefactor' in math mode.', or 'Improper \spacefactor' then you have
+probably tried to redefine an internal command. *Note \makeatletter &
+\makeatother::.)
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \@:: Distinguish sentence-ending periods from abbreviations.
+* \frenchspacing:: Equal interword and inter-sentence space.
+* \normalsfcodes:: Restore space factor settings to the default.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \@, Next: \frenchspacing, Up: \spacefactor
+
+19.5.1 '\@'
+-----------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ CAPITAL-LETTER\@.
+
+ Treat a period as sentence-ending, where LaTeX would otherwise think
+it is part of an abbreviation. LaTeX thinks that a period ends an
+abbreviation if the period comes after a capital letter, and otherwise
+thinks the period ends the sentence. By default, in justifying a line
+LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question
+mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than it adjusts the space
+between words (*note \spacefactor::).
+
+ This example shows the two cases to remember.
+
+ The songs \textit{Red Guitar}, etc.\ are by Loudon Wainwright~III\@.
+
+The second period ends the sentence, despite that it is preceded by a
+capital. We tell LaTeX that it ends the sentence by putting '\@' before
+it. The first period ends the abbreviation 'etc.' but not the sentence.
+The backslash-space, '\ ', produces a mid-sentence space.
+
+ So: if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the
+sentence, then put '\@' before the period. This holds even if there is
+an intervening right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double
+quote, because the spacing effect of that period carries through those
+characters. For example, this
+
+ Use the \textit{Instructional Practices Guide},
+ (a book by the MAA)\@.
+
+will have correct inter-sentence spacing after the period.
+
+ The '\@' command is only for a text mode. If you use it outside of a
+text mode then you get 'You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode'
+(*note Modes::).
+
+ Comment: the converse case is a period ending an abbreviation whose
+last letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the
+last word in the sentence. For that case follow the period with a
+backslash-space, ('\ '), or a tie, ('~'), or '\@'. Examples are 'Nat.\
+Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and '(manure, etc.\@) for sale' (note
+in the last one that the '\@' comes before the closing parenthesis).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \frenchspacing, Next: \normalsfcodes, Prev: \@, Up: \spacefactor
+
+19.5.2 '\frenchspacing'
+-----------------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \frenchspacing
+ \nonfrenchspacing
+
+ The first declaration causes LaTeX to treat spacing between sentences
+in the same way as spacing between words in the middle of a sentence.
+The second causes spacing between sentences to stretch or shrink more
+(*note \spacefactor::); this is the default.
+
+ Some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the
+space between sentences (or spaces following a question mark,
+exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words
+that are in the middle of a sentence. Declaring '\frenchspacing' (the
+command is from Plain TeX) switches to the tradition that all spaces are
+treated equally.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \normalsfcodes, Prev: \frenchspacing, Up: \spacefactor
+
+19.5.3 '\normalsfcodes'
+-----------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \normalsfcodes
+
+ Reset the LaTeX space factor values to the default (*note
+\spacefactor::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \(SPACE), Next: ~, Prev: \spacefactor, Up: Spaces
+
+19.6 Backslash-space, '\ '
+==========================
+
+This section refers to the command consisting of two characters, a
+backslash followed by a space. Synopsis:
+
+ \
+
+ Produce a space. By default it produces white space of length
+3.33333pt plus 1.66666pt minus 1.11111pt.
+
+ When you type one or more blanks between words, LaTeX produces white
+space. But that is different than an explicit space. This illustrates.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{l}
+ One blank: makes some space \\
+ Three blanks: in a row \\
+ Three spaces:\ \ \ in a row \\
+ \end{tabular}
+
+On the first line LaTeX puts some space after the colon. On the second
+line LaTeX collapses the three blanks to output one whitespace, so you
+end with the same space after the colon as in the first line. LaTeX
+would similarly collapse a blank followed by a tab, or a blank and a
+newline and a blank. However, the bottom line asks for three spaces so
+the white area is wider. That is, the backslash-space command creates a
+fixed amount of horizontal space. (Note that you can define a
+horizontal space of any width at all with '\hspace'; see *note
+\hspace::.)
+
+ The backslash-space command has two main uses. It is often used
+after control sequences to keep them from gobbling the space that
+follows, as in '\TeX\ is nice'. (But using curly parentheses, as in
+'\TeX{} is best', has the advantage of still working if the next
+character is a period.) The other common use is that it marks a period
+as ending an abbreviation instead of ending a sentence, as in 'So says
+Prof.\ Smith' (*note \@::).
+
+ Under normal circumstances, '\'<tab> and '\'<newline> are equivalent
+to backslash-space, '\ '.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: ~, Next: \thinspace & \negthinspace, Prev: \(SPACE), Up: Spaces
+
+19.7 '~'
+========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ BEFORE~AFTER
+
+ The tie character, '~', produces a space between BEFORE and AFTER at
+which the line will not be broken. By default the white space has
+length 3.33333pt plus 1.66666pt minus 1.11111pt (*note Lengths::).
+
+ Here LaTeX will not break the line between the final two words.
+
+ Thanks to Prof.~Lerman.
+
+In addition, despite the period, LaTeX does not use the end-of-sentence
+spacing (*note \@::).
+
+ Ties prevent the end of line separation of things where that could
+cause confusion. But they also reduce LaTeX's options when it breaks
+lines into paragraphs, so you can use too many. They are also matters
+of taste, sometimes alarmingly dogmatic taste, among readers.
+Nevertheless, here are some usage models, many of them from the TeXbook.
+
+ * Between an enumerator and its item, such as in references:
+ 'Chapter~12', or 'Theorem~\ref{th:Wilsons}', or
+ 'Figure~\ref{fig:KGraph}'. When cases are enumerated inline:
+ '(b)~Show that $f(x)$ is (1)~continuous, and (2)~bounded'.
+
+ * Between a number and its unit: '$745.7.8$~watts' (the 'siunitx'
+ package has a special facility for this) or '144~eggs'. This
+ includes between a month and a date: 'October~12' or '12~Oct'. In
+ general, in any expressions where numbers and abbreviations or
+ symbols are separated by a space: 'AD~565', or '2:50~pm', or
+ 'Boeing~747', or '268~Plains Road', or '\$$1.4$~billion'.
+
+ * When mathematical phrases are rendered in words: 'equals~$n$', or
+ 'less than~$\epsilon$', or 'given~$X$', or 'modulo~$p^e$ for all
+ large~$n$' (but compare 'is~$15$' with 'is $15$~times the height').
+ Between mathematical symbols in apposition with nouns:
+ 'dimension~$d$' or 'function~$f(x)$' (but compare 'with length
+ $l$~or more'). When a symbol is a tightly bound object of a
+ preposition: 'of~$x$', or 'from $0$ to~$1$', or 'in common
+ with~$m$'.
+
+ * Between symbols in series: '$1$,~$2$, or~$3$' or '$1$,~$2$,
+ \ldots,~$n$'.
+
+ * Between a person's forenames and between multiple surnames:
+ 'Donald~E. Knuth', or 'Luis~I. Trabb~Pardo', or 'Charles~XII' (but
+ you must give TeX places to break the line so you may do 'Charles
+ Louis Xavier~Joseph de~la Vall\'ee~Poussin').
+
+ * Before a dash: 'pages 12~--14' or 'it is~--- it must be said~---
+ plausible'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \thinspace & \negthinspace, Next: \/, Prev: ~, Up: Spaces
+
+19.8 '\thinspace' & '\negthinspace'
+===================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \thinspace
+ \negthinspace
+
+ Produce an unbreakable and unstretchable space of 1/6em and -1/6em.
+These are the text mode equivalents of '\,' and '\!' (*note Spacing in
+math mode/\thinspace::). You can use '\,' as a synonym for '\thinspace'
+in text mode.
+
+ The '\negthinspace' command is used in text mode mostly for fiddling
+with spaces. One common use of '\thinspace' is as the space between
+nested quotes.
+
+ Killick replied, ``I heard the Captain say, `Ahoy there.'\thinspace''
+
+Another use is that some style guides call for a '\thinspace' between an
+ellipsis and a sentence ending period (other style guides, though, think
+the three dots are quite enough already). Still another use is between
+initials, as in 'D.\thinspace E.\ Knuth'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \/, Next: \hrulefill & \dotfill, Prev: \thinspace & \negthinspace, Up: Spaces
+
+19.9 '\/'
+=========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ BEFORE-CHARACTER\/AFTER-CHARACTER
+
+ Insert an "italic correction", a small space defined by the font
+designer for each character, to avoid the character colliding with
+whatever follows. When you use '\/', LaTeX takes the correction from
+the font metric file, scales it by any scaling that has been applied to
+the font, and then inserts that much horizontal space.
+
+ Here, were it not for the '\/', the BEFORE-CHARACTER italic f would
+hit the AFTER-CHARACTER roman H
+
+ \newcommand{\companylogo}{{\it f}\/H}
+
+because the italic letter leans far to the right.
+
+ If AFTER-CHARACTER is a period or comma then don't insert an italic
+correction since those punctuation symbols have a very small height.
+However, with semicolons or colons as well as with normal letters, the
+italic correction can help.
+
+ When you use commands such as '\textit' or '\itshape' to change
+fonts, LaTeX will automatically insert any needed italic correction
+(*note Font styles::).
+
+ Roman characters can also have an italic correction. An example is
+in the name 'pdf\/\TeX'.
+
+ There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is
+done in a different way.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \hrulefill & \dotfill, Next: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip, Prev: \/, Up: Spaces
+
+19.10 '\hrulefill' & '\dotfill'
+===============================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \hrulefill
+ \dotfill
+
+ Produce an infinite horizontal rubber length (*note Lengths::) that
+LaTeX fills with a rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of white
+space.
+
+ This outputs a line 2 inches long.
+
+ Name:~\makebox[2in]{\hrulefill}
+
+This example, when placed between blank lines, creates a paragraph that
+is left and right justified and where the middle is filled with evenly
+spaced dots.
+
+ \noindent John Aubrey, RN \dotfill{} Melbury Lodge
+
+ To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the
+start or end.
+
+ To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as
+here
+
+ \renewcommand{\hrulefill}{%
+ \leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@}
+
+which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust
+the dot spacing as with
+
+ \renewcommand{\dotfill}{%
+ \leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@}
+
+which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em.
+
+ This example produces a line for a signature.
+
+ \begin{minipage}{4cm}
+ \centering
+ \hrulefill\\
+ Signed
+ \end{minipage}
+
+The line is 4cm long.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip, Next: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak, Prev: \hrulefill & \dotfill, Up: Spaces
+
+19.11 '\bigskip' & '\medskip' & '\smallskip'
+============================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \bigskip
+ \medskip
+ \smallskip
+
+ Produce an amount of vertical space, large or medium-sized or small.
+These commands are fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ Here the skip suggests the passage of time (from The Golden Ocean by
+O'Brian).
+
+ Mr Saumarez would have something rude to say to him, no doubt: he
+ was at home again, and it was delightful.
+
+ \bigskip
+ ``A hundred and fifty-seven miles and one third, in twenty-four hours,''
+ said Peter.
+
+ Each command is associated with a length defined in the document
+class file.
+
+'\bigskip'
+ The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line
+ space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book' and
+ 'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt'.
+
+'\medskip'
+ The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a
+ line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the 'book'
+ and 'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt'.
+
+'\smallskip'
+ The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter
+ of a line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the
+ 'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt'.
+
+ Because each command is a '\vspace', if you use on in mid-paragraph
+then it will insert its vertical space between the line in which you use
+it and the next line, not necessarily at the place that you use it. So
+these are best between paragraphs.
+
+ The commands '\bigbreak', '\medbreak', and '\smallbreak' are similar
+but also suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to put a page break
+(*note \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak, Next: \strut, Prev: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip, Up: Spaces
+
+19.12 '\bigbreak' & '\medbreak' & '\smallbreak'
+===============================================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \bigbreak
+ \medbreak
+ \smallbreak
+
+ Produce a vertical space that is big or medium-sized or small, and
+suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to break the page. (The
+associated penalties are -200, -100, and -50.)
+
+ *Note \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip::, for more. These commands
+produce the same vertical space but differ in that they also remove a
+preceding vertical space if it is less than what they would insert (as
+with '\addvspace'). In addition, they terminate a paragraph where they
+are used: this example
+
+ abc\bigbreak def ghi
+
+ jkl mno pqr
+
+will output three paragraphs, the first ending in 'abc' and the second
+starting, after an extra vertical space and a paragraph indent, with
+'def'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \strut, Next: \vspace, Prev: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak, Up: Spaces
+
+19.13 '\strut'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \strut
+
+ Ensure that the current line has height at least '0.7\baselineskip'
+and depth at least '0.3\baselineskip'. Essentially, LaTeX inserts into
+the line a rectangle having zero width,
+'\rule[-0.3\baselineskip]{0pt}{\baselineskip}' (*note \rule::). The
+'\baselineskip' changes with the current font and fontsize.
+
+ In this example the '\strut' keeps the box inside the frame from
+having zero height.
+
+ \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[2in]{\strut}
+
+ This example has four lists. In the first there is a much bigger gap
+between items 2 and 3 than there is between items 1 and 2. The second
+list fixes that with a '\strut' at the end of its first item's second
+line.
+
+ \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}
+ \noindent\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}
+ \item test
+ \item test
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{minipage}%
+ \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}
+ \item test
+ \item test
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{minipage}%
+ \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}}
+ \item \fbox{test}
+ \item \fbox{test}
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{minipage}%
+ \begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}}
+ \item \fbox{test}
+ \item \fbox{test}
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{minipage}%
+
+The final two lists use '\fbox' to show what's happening. The third
+list's '\parbox' goes only to the bottom of its second 'test', which
+happens not have any characters that descend below the baseline. The
+fourth list adds the strut that gives the needed extra below-baseline
+space.
+
+ The '\strut' command is often useful in graphics, such as in 'TikZ'
+or 'Asymptote'. For instance, you may have a command such as
+'\graphnode{NODE-NAME}' that fits a circle around NODE-NAME. However,
+unless you are careful the NODE-NAME's 'x' and 'y' will produce
+different-diameter circles because the characters are different sizes.
+A careful '\graphnode' might insert a '\strut', then NODE-NAME, and then
+draw the circle.
+
+ The general approach of using a zero width '\rule' is useful in many
+circumstances. In this table, the zero-width rule keeps the top of the
+first integral from hitting the '\hline'. Similarly, the second rule
+keeps the second integral from hitting the first.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{rl}
+ \textsc{Integral} &\textsc{Value} \\
+ \hline
+ $\int_0^x t\, dt$ &$x^2/2$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \\
+ $\int_0^x t^2\, dt$ &$x^3/3$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex}
+ \end{tabular}
+
+(Although the line-ending double backslash command has an available
+optional argument to put in more vertical room, that won't work here.
+Changing the first double backslash to something like '\\[2.5ex]' will
+put the room between the header line and the '\hline', and the integral
+would still hit the line.)
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \vspace, Next: \vfill, Prev: \strut, Up: Spaces
+
+19.14 '\vspace'
+===============
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \vspace{LENGTH}
+ \vspace*{LENGTH}
+
+ Add the vertical space LENGTH. The LENGTH can be positive, negative,
+or zero. It is a rubber length--it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus'
+component (*note Lengths::).
+
+ This puts space between the two paragraphs.
+
+ And I slept.
+
+ \vspace{1ex plus 0.5ex}
+ The new day dawned cold.
+
+(*Note \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip:: for common inter-paragraph
+spaces.)
+
+ The '*'-version inserts vertical space that non-discardable. More
+precisely, LaTeX discards vertical space at a page break and the
+'*'-version causes the space to stay. This example leaves space between
+the two questions.
+
+ Question: Find the integral of \( 5x^4+5 \).
+
+ \vspace*{2cm plus 0.5cm}
+ Question: Find the derivative of \( x^5+5x+9 \).
+
+That space will be present even if the page break happens to fall
+between the questions.
+
+ If you use '\vspace' in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in
+horizontal mode) then the space is inserted after the line containing
+the '\vspace' command; it does not start a new paragraph at the
+'\vspace' command.
+
+ In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on
+the page, with at least one inch of space below each.
+
+ \begin{document}
+ 1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
+ \vspace{1in plus 1fill}
+
+ 2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong?
+ \vspace{1in plus 1fill}
+ \end{document}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \vfill, Next: \addvspace, Prev: \vspace, Up: Spaces
+
+19.15 '\vfill'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \vfill
+
+ End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length that is
+infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed (*note
+Lengths::).
+
+ It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that
+'\vfill' ends the current paragraph whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the
+infinite vertical space below its line, irrespective of the paragraph
+structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary;
+to circumvent this see the starred option in *note \vspace::.
+
+ In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines
+contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the second 'Lost Dog!' is exactly
+halfway between them.
+
+ \begin{document}
+ Lost Dog!
+ \vfill
+ Lost Dog! % perfectly in the middle
+ \vfill
+ Lost Dog!
+ \end{document}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \addvspace, Prev: \vfill, Up: Spaces
+
+19.16 '\addvspace'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \addvspace{VERT-LENGTH}
+
+ Add a vertical space of VERT-LENGTH. However, if there are two or
+more '\addvspace''s in a sequence then together they only add the space
+needed to make the natural length equal to the maximum of the
+VERT-LENGTH's in that sequence. This command is fragile (*note
+\protect::). The VERT-LENGTH is a rubber length (*note Lengths::).
+
+ This example illustrates. The 'picture' draws a scale. In a
+standard LaTeX article the length '\baselineskip' is 12pt. The two
+rules here are 22pt apart: the sum of the '\baselineskip' and the 10pt
+from the first 'addvspace'.
+
+ \documentclass{article}
+ \usepackage{color}
+ \begin{document}
+ \setlength{\unitlength}{2pt}%
+ \noindent\begin{picture}(0,0)%
+ \multiput(0,0)(0,-1){25}{{\color{blue}\line(1,0){1}}}
+ \multiput(0,0)(0,-5){6}{{\color{red}\line(1,0){2}}}
+ \end{picture}%
+ \rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}%
+ \par\addvspace{10pt}% \addvspace{20pt}%
+ \par\noindent\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}%
+ \end{document}
+
+Now uncomment the second '\addvspace'. It does not make the gap 20pt
+longer; instead the gap is the sum of '\baselineskip' and 20pt. So
+'\addvspace' in a sense does the opposite of its name -- it makes sure
+that multiple vertical spaces do not accumulate, but instead that only
+the largest one is used.
+
+ LaTeX uses this command to adjust the vertical space above or below
+an environment that starts a new paragraph. For instance, a 'theorem'
+environment begins and ends with '\addvspace' so that two consecutive
+'theorem''s are separated by one vertical space, not two.
+
+ A error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' pointing to an
+'\addvspace' means that you were not in vertical mode when you hit this
+command. One way to change that is to precede '\addvspace' with a
+'\par' command (*note \par::), as in the above example.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Boxes, Next: Color, Prev: Spaces, Up: Top
+
+20 Boxes
+********
+
+At its core, LaTeX puts things in boxes and then puts the boxes on a
+page. So these commands are central.
+
+ There are many packages on CTAN that are useful for manipulating
+boxes. One useful adjunct to the commands here is 'adjustbox'.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \mbox & \makebox:: Horizontal boxes.
+* \fbox & \framebox:: Put a frame around a box.
+* \parbox:: Box with text in paragraph mode.
+* \raisebox:: Raise or lower text.
+* \sbox & \savebox:: Like '\makebox' but save the text for later.
+* lrbox:: Environment version of '\sbox'.
+* \usebox:: Print saved text.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \mbox & \makebox, Next: \fbox & \framebox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.1 '\mbox' & '\makebox'
+=========================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \mbox{TEXT}
+ \makebox{TEXT}
+ \makebox[WIDTH]{TEXT}
+ \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}
+
+ Create a box, a container for material. The TEXT is typeset in LR
+mode (*note Modes::) so it is not broken into lines. The '\mbox'
+command is robust, while '\makebox' is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ Because 'text' is not broken into lines, you can use '\mbox' to
+prevent hyphenation. In this example, LaTeX will not hyphenate the
+table name, 'T-4'.
+
+ See Table~\mbox{T-4}
+
+ The first two command versions, '\mbox' and '\makebox', are roughly
+equivalent. They create a box just wide enough to contain the TEXT.
+(They are like plain TeX's '\hbox'.)
+
+ In the third version the optional argument WIDTH specifies the width
+of the box. Note that the space occupied by the text need not equal the
+width of the box. For one thing, TEXT can be too small; this creates a
+full-line box
+
+ \makebox[\linewidth]{Chapter Exam}
+
+with 'Chapter Exam' centered. But TEXT can also be too wide for WIDTH.
+See the example below of zero-width boxes.
+
+ In the WIDTH argument you can use the following lengths that refer to
+the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting TEXT: '\depth',
+'\height', '\width', '\totalheight' (this is the box's height plus its
+depth). For example, to make a box with the text stretched to double
+the natural size you can say this.
+
+ \makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}
+
+ For the fourth command version the optional argument POSITION gives
+position of the text within the box. It may take the following values:
+
+'c'
+ The TEXT is centered (default).
+
+'l'
+ The TEXT is flush left.
+
+'r'
+ Flush right.
+
+'s'
+ Stretch the interword space in TEXT across the entire WIDTH. The
+ TEXT must contain stretchable space for this to work. For
+ instance, this could head a press release:
+ '\noindent\makebox[\textwidth][s]{\large\hfil IMMEDIATE\hfil
+ RELEASE\hfil}'
+
+ A common use of '\makebox' is to make zero-width text boxes. This
+puts the value of the quiz questions to the left of those questions.
+
+ \newcommand{\pts}[1]{\makebox[0em][r]{#1 points\hspace*{1em}}}
+ \pts{10}What is the air-speed velocity of an unladen swallow?
+
+ \pts{90}An African or European swallow?
+
+
+ The right edge of the output '10 points ' (note the ending space)
+will be just before the 'What' (note the space after 'points'). You can
+use '\makebox' similarly when making graphics, such as in 'TikZ' or
+'Asymptote', where you put the edge of the text at a known location,
+regardless of the length of that text.
+
+ For boxes with frames see *note \fbox & \framebox::. For colors
+see *note Colored boxes::.
+
+ There is a related version of '\makebox' that is used within the
+'picture' environment, where the length is given in terms of
+'\unitlength' (*note \makebox (picture)::).
+
+ If you put a double-backslash into TEXT then LaTeX will not give you
+a new line; for instance '\makebox{abc def \\ ghi}' outputs 'abc defghi'
+while '\makebox{abc def \par ghi}' outputs 'abc def ghi', but neither go
+to a second line. To get multiple lines see *note \parbox:: and *note
+minipage::.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \fbox & \framebox, Next: \parbox, Prev: \mbox & \makebox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.2 '\fbox' & '\framebox'
+==========================
+
+Synopses, one of:
+
+ \fbox{TEXT}
+ \framebox{TEXT}
+ \framebox[WIDTH]{TEXT}
+ \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}
+
+ Create a box with an enclosing frame, four lines surrounding the
+space. These commands are the same as '\mbox' and '\makebox' except for
+the frame (*note \mbox & \makebox::). The '\fbox' command is robust,
+the '\framebox' command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ \fbox{Warning! No work shown, no credit given.}
+
+LaTeX puts the text into a box that cannot be split or hyphenated.
+Around that box, separated from it by a small gap, are four lines making
+a frame.
+
+ The first two command invocations, '\fbox{...}' and '\framebox{...}',
+are roughly the same. As to the third and fourth invocations, the
+optional arguments allow you to specify the box width as WIDTH and the
+position of the text inside that box as POSITION. *Note \mbox &
+\makebox:: for the full description but here is an example creating an
+empty box that is 1/4in wide.
+
+ \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[0.25in]{\strut}}
+
+The '\strut' inserts a vertical height of '\baselineskip' (*note
+\strut::).
+
+ These parameters determine the frame layout.
+
+'\fboxrule'
+ The thickness of the lines around the enclosed box. The default is
+ 0.2pt. Change it with a command such as
+ '\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}' (*note \setlength::).
+
+'\fboxsep'
+ The distance from the frame to the enclosed box. The default is
+ 3pt. Change it with a command such as '\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}'
+ (*note \setlength::). Setting it to 0pt is useful sometimes: this
+ will put a frame around the picture with no white border.
+
+ {\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}
+ \framebox{%
+ \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{prudence.jpg}}}
+
+ The extra curly braces keep the effect of the '\setlength' local.
+
+ As with '\mbox' and '\makebox', LaTeX will not break lines in TEXT.
+But this example has LaTeX break lines to make a paragraph, and then
+frame the result.
+
+ \framebox{%
+ \begin{minipage}{0.6\linewidth}
+ My dear, here we must run as fast as we can, just to stay in place.
+ And if you wish to go anywhere you must run twice as fast as that.
+ \end{minipage}}
+
+ *Note Colored boxes:: for colors other than black and white.
+
+ The 'picture' environment has a version of this command where the
+units depend on 'picture''s '\unitlength' (*note \framebox (picture)::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \parbox, Next: \raisebox, Prev: \fbox & \framebox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.3 '\parbox'
+==============
+
+Synopses, one of:
+
+ \parbox{WIDTH}{CONTENTS}
+ \parbox[POSITION]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS}
+ \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS}
+ \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{CONTENTS}
+
+ Produce a box of text that is WIDTH wide. Use this command to make a
+box of small pieces of text, of a single paragraph. This command is
+fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ \begin{picture}(0,0)
+ ...
+ \put(1,2){\parbox{1.75in}{\raggedright Because the graph is a line on
+ this semilog paper, the relationship is
+ exponential.}}
+ \end{picture}
+
+ The CONTENTS are processed in a text mode (*note Modes::) so LaTeX
+will break lines to make a paragraph. But it won't make multiple
+paragraphs; for that, use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::).
+
+ The options for '\parbox' (except for CONTENTS) are the same as those
+for 'minipage'. For convenience a summary of the options is here but
+see *note minipage:: for a complete description.
+
+ There are two required arguments. The WIDTH is a rigid length (*note
+Lengths::). It sets the width of the box into which LaTeX typesets
+CONTENTS. The CONTENTS is the text that is placed in that box. It
+should not have any paragraph-making components.
+
+ There are three optional arguments, POSITION, HEIGHT, and INNER-POS.
+The POSITION gives the vertical alignment of the 'parbox' with respect
+to the surrounding material. The possible values are 'c' or 'm' to make
+the vertical center of the 'parbox' lines up with the center of the
+adjacent line (this is the default), or 't' to match the top line of the
+'parbox' with the baseline of the surrounding material, or 'b' to match
+the bottom line.
+
+ The optional argument HEIGHT overrides the natural height of the box.
+
+ The optional argument INNER-POS controls the placement of CONTENT
+inside the 'parbox'. Its default is the value of POSITION. Its
+possible values are: 't' to put the CONTENT at the top of the box, 'c'
+to put it in the vertical center, 'b' to put it at the bottom of the
+box, and 's' to stretch it out vertically (for this, the text must
+contain vertically stretchable space).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \raisebox, Next: \sbox & \savebox, Prev: \parbox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.4 '\raisebox'
+================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \raisebox{DISTANCE}{TEXT}
+ \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT]{TEXT}
+ \raisebox{DISTANCE}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{TEXT}
+
+ Raise or lower TEXT. This command is fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ This example makes a command for the restriction of a function by
+lowering the vertical bar symbol.
+
+ \newcommand\restricted[1]{\raisebox{-.5ex}{$|$}_{#1}}
+ $f\restricted{A}$
+
+ The first mandatory argument DISTANCE specifies how far to raise the
+second mandatory argument TEXT. This is a rigid length (*note
+Lengths::). If it is negative then it lowers TEXT. The TEXT is
+processed in LR mode so it cannot contain line breaks (*note Modes::).
+
+ The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions. If they are
+specified, they override the natural height and depth of the box LaTeX
+gets by typesetting TEXT.
+
+ In the arguments DISTANCE, HEIGHT, and DEPTH you can use the
+following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets
+on typesetting TEXT: '\depth', '\height', '\width', '\totalheight' (this
+is the box's height plus its depth).
+
+ This will align two graphics on their top (*note Graphics::).
+
+ \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{calc} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{center}
+ \raisebox{1ex-\height}{%
+ \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{lion.png}}
+ \qquad
+ \raisebox{1ex-\height}{%
+ \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{meta.png}}
+ \end{center}
+
+The first '\height' is the height of 'lion.png' while the second is the
+height of 'meta.png'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \sbox & \savebox, Next: lrbox, Prev: \raisebox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.5 '\sbox' & '\savebox'
+=========================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \sbox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}
+ \savebox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}
+ \savebox{BOX-CMD}[WIDTH]{TEXT}
+ \savebox{BOX-CMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT}
+
+ Typeset TEXT just as with '\makebox' (*note \mbox & \makebox::)
+except that LaTeX does not output it but instead saves it in a storage
+bin named BOX-CMD. The bin name BOX-CMD begins with a backslash, '\'.
+You must have previously allocated the bin BOX-CMD with '\newsavebox'
+(*note \newsavebox::).The '\sbox' command is robust while '\savebox' is
+fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ This creates and uses a bin.
+
+ \newsavebox{\fullname}
+ \sbox{\fullname}{John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt}
+ ...
+ \usebox{\fullname}! His name is my name, too!
+ Whenever we go out, the people always shout!
+ There goes \\usebox{\fullname}! Ya da da da da da da.
+
+One advantage of using and reusing a bin over a '\newcommand' is
+efficiency, that LaTeX need not repeatedly retypeset the contents. See
+the example below.
+
+ The first two command invocations, '\sbox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}' and
+'\savebox{BOX-CMD}{TEXT}', are roughly equivalent. As to the third and
+fourth, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box width as
+WIDTH, and the position of the text inside that box as POSITION. *Note
+\mbox & \makebox:: for the full description.
+
+ In the '\sbox' and '\savebox' commands the TEXT is typeset in LR mode
+so it does not have line breaks (*note Modes::). If you use these then
+LaTeX doesn't give you an error but it ignores what you want: if you
+enter '\sbox{\newbin}{test \\ test}' and '\usebox{\newbin}' then you get
+'testtest', while if you enter '\sbox{\newbin}{test \par test}' and
+'\usebox{\newbin}' then you get 'test test', but no error or warning.
+To fix this use a '\parbox' or 'minipage' as here.
+
+ \savebox{\abin}{%
+ \begin{minipage}{\linewidth}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item First item
+ \item Second item
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{minipage}}
+ ...
+ \usebox{\abin}
+
+ As an example of the efficiency of reusing a bin's contents, this
+puts the same picture on each page of the document by putting it in the
+header. LaTeX only typesets it once.
+
+ \usepackage{graphicx} % all this in the preamble
+ \newsavebox{\sealbin}
+ \savebox{\sealbin}{%
+ \setlength{\unitlength}{1in}%
+ \begin{picture}(0,0)%
+ \put(1.5,-2.5){%
+ \begin{tabular}{c}
+ \includegraphics[height=2in]{companylogo.png} \\
+ Office of the President
+ \end{tabular}}
+ \end{picture}%
+ }
+ \markright{\usebox{\sealbin}}
+ \pagestyle{headings}
+
+The 'picture' environment is good for fine-tuning the placement.
+
+ If the bin has not already been defined then you get something like
+'Undefined control sequence. <argument> \nobin'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: lrbox, Next: \usebox, Prev: \sbox & \savebox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.6 'lrbox'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \begin{lrbox}{BOX-CMD}
+ TEXT
+ \end{lrbox}
+
+ The TEXT inside the environment is saved in the bin 'BOX-CMD'. The
+BOX-CMD must begin with a backslash. You must create this bin in
+advance with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::). This is the
+environment form of the '\sbox' and '\savebox' commands, and is
+equivalent to them. *Note \sbox & \savebox:: for the full information.
+
+ In this example the environment is convenient for entering the
+'tabular'.
+
+ \newsavebox{\jhbin}
+ \begin{lrbox}{\jhbin}
+ \begin{tabular}{c}
+ \includegraphics[height=1in]{jh.png} \\
+ Jim Hef{}feron
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{lrbox}
+ ...
+ \usebox{\jhbin}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \usebox, Prev: lrbox, Up: Boxes
+
+20.7 '\usebox'
+==============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \usebox{BOX-CMD}
+
+ Produce the box most recently saved in the bin BOX-CMD by the
+commands '\sbox' or '\savebox', or the 'lrbox' environment. *Note \sbox
+& \savebox:: for more information and examples. (Note that BOX-CMD
+starts with a backslash.) This command is robust (*note \protect::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Color, Next: Graphics, Prev: Boxes, Up: Top
+
+21 Color
+********
+
+You can add color to text, rules, etc. You can also have color in a box
+or on an entire page and write text on top of it.
+
+ Color support comes as an additional package. So put
+'\usepackage{color}' in your document preamble to use the commands
+described here.
+
+ Many other packages also supplement LaTeX's color abilities.
+Particularly worth mentioning is 'xcolor', which is widely used and
+significantly extends the capabilities described here, including adding
+'HTML' and 'Hsb' color models.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Color package options:: Options when you load the standard package.
+* Color models:: How colors are represented.
+* Commands for color:: The available commands.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Color package options, Next: Color models, Up: Color
+
+21.1 'color' package options
+============================
+
+Synopsis (must be in the document preamble):
+
+ \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{color}
+
+ When you load the 'color' package there are two kinds of available
+options.
+
+ The first specifies the "printer driver". LaTeX doesn't contain
+information about different output systems but instead depends on
+information stored in a file. Normally you should not specify the
+driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system's
+default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable
+across systems. For completeness we include a list of the drivers. The
+currently relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex',
+'pdftex', 'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases
+for 'dvips' (and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used
+for new systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex',
+'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex'
+(and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone').
+
+ The second kind of options, beyond the drivers, are below.
+
+'monochrome'
+ Disable the color commands, so that they do not generate errors but
+ do not generate color either.
+
+'dvipsnames'
+ Make available a list of 68 color names that are often used,
+ particularly in legacy documents. These color names were
+ originally provided by the 'dvips' driver, giving the option name.
+
+'nodvipsnames'
+ Do not load that list of color names, saving LaTeX a tiny amount of
+ memory space.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Color models, Next: Commands for color, Prev: Color package options, Up: Color
+
+21.2 Color models
+=================
+
+A "color model" is a way of representing colors. LaTeX's capabilities
+depend on the printer driver. However, the 'pdftex', 'xetex', and
+'luatex' printer drivers are today by far the most commonly used. The
+models below work for those drivers. All but one of these is also
+supported by essentially all other printer drivers used today.
+
+ Note that color combination can be additive or subtractive. Additive
+mixes colors of light, so that for instance combining full intensities
+of red, green, and blue produces white. Subtractive mixes pigments,
+such as with inks, so that combining full intensity of cyan, magenta,
+and yellow makes black.
+
+'cmyk'
+ A comma-separated list with four real numbers between 0 and 1,
+ inclusive. The first number is the intensity of cyan, the second
+ is magenta, and the others are yellow and black. A number value of
+ 0 means minimal intensity, while a 1 is for full intensity. This
+ model is often used in color printing. It is a subtractive model.
+
+'gray'
+ A single real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. The colors are
+ shades of grey. The number 0 produces black while 1 gives white.
+
+'rgb'
+ A comma-separated list with three real numbers between 0 and 1,
+ inclusive. The first number is the intensity of the red component,
+ the second is green, and the third the blue. A number value of 0
+ means that none of that component is added in, while a 1 means full
+ intensity. This is an additive model.
+
+'RGB'
+ ('pdftex', 'xetex', 'luatex' drivers) A comma-separated list with
+ three integers between 0 and 255, inclusive. This model is a
+ convenience for using 'rgb' since outside of LaTeX colors are often
+ described in a red-green-blue model using numbers in this range.
+ The values entered here are converted to the 'rgb' model by
+ dividing by 255.
+
+'named'
+ Colors are accessed by name, such as 'PrussianBlue'. The list of
+ names depends on the driver, but all support the names 'black',
+ 'blue', 'cyan', 'green', 'magenta', 'red', 'white', and 'yellow'
+ (See the 'dvipsnames' option in *note Color package options::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Commands for color, Prev: Color models, Up: Color
+
+21.3 Commands for color
+=======================
+
+These are the commands available with the 'color' package.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Define colors:: Give a color a name.
+* Colored text:: Text or rules in color.
+* Colored boxes:: A box of color, to write over.
+* Colored pages:: A whole page colored.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Define colors, Next: Colored text, Up: Commands for color
+
+21.3.1 Define colors
+--------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \definecolor{NAME}{MODEL}{SPECIFICATION}
+
+ Give the name NAME to the color. For example, after this
+
+ \definecolor{silver}{rgb}{0.75,0.75,0.74}
+
+you can use that color name with 'Hi ho, \textcolor{silver}{Silver}!'.
+
+ This example gives the color a more abstract name, so it could change
+and not be misleading.
+
+ \definecolor{logocolor}{RGB}{145,92,131} % RGB needs pdflatex
+ \newcommand{\logo}{\textcolor{logocolor}{Bob's Big Bagels}}
+
+ Often a document's colors are defined in the preamble, or in the
+class or style, rather than in the document body.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored text, Next: Colored boxes, Prev: Define colors, Up: Commands for color
+
+21.3.2 Colored text
+-------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \textcolor{NAME}{...}
+ \textcolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION}{...}
+
+or
+
+ \color{NAME}
+ \color[COLOR MODEL]{SPECIFICATION}
+
+ The affected text gets the color. This line
+
+ \textcolor{magenta}{My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:}
+ Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!
+
+causes the first half to be in magenta while the rest is in black. You
+can use a color declared with '\definecolor' in exactly the same way
+that we just used the builtin color 'magenta'.
+
+ \definecolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{rgb}{1.0,0.11,0.0}
+ I'm thinking about getting a \textcolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{sports car}.
+
+ The two '\textcolor' and '\color' differ in that the first is a
+command form, enclosing the text to be colored as an argument. Often
+this form is more convenient, or at least more explicit. The second
+form is a declaration, as in 'The moon is made of {\color{green} green}
+cheese', so it is in effect until the end of the current group or
+environment. This is sometimes useful when writing macros or as below
+where it colors everything inside the 'center' environment, including
+the vertical and horizontal lines.
+
+ \begin{center} \color{blue}
+ \begin{tabular}{l|r}
+ UL &UR \\ \hline
+ LL &LR
+ \end{tabular}
+ \end{center}
+
+ You can use color in equations. A document might have this
+definition in the preamble
+
+ \definecolor{highlightcolor}{RGB}{225,15,0}
+
+and then contain this equation.
+
+ \begin{equation}
+ \int_a^b \textcolor{highlightcolor}{f'(x)}\,dx=f(b)-f(a)
+ \end{equation}
+
+ Typically the colors used in a document are declared in a class or
+style but sometimes you want a one-off. Those are the second forms in
+the synopses.
+
+ Colors of \textcolor[rgb]{0.33,0.14,0.47}{Purple} and
+ {\color[rgb]{0.72,0.60,0.37} Gold} for the team.
+
+ The format of COLOR SPECIFICATION depends on the color model (*note
+Color models::). For instance, while 'rgb' takes three numbers, 'gray'
+takes only one.
+
+ The selection was \textcolor[gray]{0.5}{grayed out}.
+
+ Colors inside colors do not combine. Thus
+
+ \textcolor{green}{kind of \textcolor{blue}{blue}}
+
+has a final word that is blue, not a combination of blue and green.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored boxes, Next: Colored pages, Prev: Colored text, Up: Commands for color
+
+21.3.3 Colored boxes
+--------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \colorbox{NAME}{...}
+ \colorbox[MODEL NAME]{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...}
+
+or
+
+ \fcolorbox{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...}
+ \fcolorbox[MODEL NAME]{FRAME COLOR}{BOX BACKGROUND COLOR}{...}
+
+ Make a box with the stated background color. The '\fcolorbox'
+command puts a frame around the box. For instance this
+
+ Name:~\colorbox{cyan}{\makebox[5cm][l]{\strut}}
+
+makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its
+depth and height from the '\strut' (so the depth is '-.3\baselineskip'
+and the height is '\baselineskip'). This puts white text on a blue
+background.
+
+ \colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}}
+
+ The '\fcolorbox' commands use the same parameters as '\fbox' (*note
+\fbox & \framebox::), '\fboxrule' and '\fboxsep', to set the thickness
+of the rule and the boundary between the box interior and the
+surrounding rule. LaTeX's defaults are '0.4pt' and '3pt', respectively.
+
+ This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points. Note
+that it is surrounded by curly braces so that the change ends at the end
+of the second line.
+
+ {\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}
+ \fcolorbox{black}{red}{Under no circumstances turn this knob.}}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Colored pages, Prev: Colored boxes, Up: Commands for color
+
+21.3.4 Colored pages
+--------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \pagecolor{NAME}
+ \pagecolor[COLOR MODEL]{COLOR SPECIFICATION}
+ \nopagecolor
+
+ The first two set the background of the page, and all subsequent
+pages, to the color. For an explanation of the specification in the
+second form *note Colored text::. The third returns the background to
+normal, which is a transparent background. (If that is not supported
+use '\pagecolor{white}', although that will make a white background
+rather than the default transparent background.)
+
+ ...
+ \pagecolor{cyan}
+ ...
+ \nopagecolor
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics, Next: Special insertions, Prev: Color, Up: Top
+
+22 Graphics
+***********
+
+You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LaTeX document.
+You need an additional package, which comes standard with LaTeX. This
+example is the short how-to.
+
+ \include{graphicx} % goes in the preamble
+ ...
+ \includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf}
+
+ To use the commands described here your document preamble must
+contain either '\usepackage{graphicx}' or '\usepackage{graphics}'. Most
+of the time, 'graphicx' is the better choice.
+
+ Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector. LaTeX can use
+both. In raster graphics the file contains an entry for each location
+in an array, describing what color it is. An example is a photograph,
+in JPG format. In vector graphics, the file contains a list of
+instructions such as 'draw a circle with this radius and that center'.
+An example is a line drawing produced by the Asymptote program, in PDF
+format. Generally vector graphics are more useful because you can
+rescale their size without pixelation or other problems, and because
+they often have a smaller size.
+
+ There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a
+LaTeX document. For example, these allow you to use the same fonts as
+in your document. LaTeX comes with a 'picture' environment (*note
+picture::) that has simple capabilities. Besides that, there are other
+ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document. Two such
+systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages. There are also systems
+external to LaTeX, that generate a graphic that you include using the
+commands of this chapter. Two that use a programming language are
+Asymptote and MetaPost. One that uses a graphical interface is Xfig.
+Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document;
+see their documentation on CTAN.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Graphics package options:: Options when you load the package.
+* Graphics package configuration:: Where to look for files, which file types.
+* Commands for graphics:: The available commands.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics package options, Next: Graphics package configuration, Up: Graphics
+
+22.1 'graphics' package options
+===============================
+
+Synopsis (must be in the document preamble):
+
+ \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphics}
+
+or
+
+ \usepackage[COMMA-SEPARATED OPTION LIST]{graphicx}
+
+ The 'graphicx' package has a format for optional arguments to the
+'\includegraphics' command that is convenient (it is the key-value
+format), so it is the better choice for new documents. When you load
+the 'graphics' or 'graphicx' package with '\usepackage' there are two
+kinds of available options.
+
+ The first is that LaTeX does not contain information about different
+output systems but instead depends on information stored in a "printer
+driver" file. Normally you should not specify the driver option in the
+document, and instead rely on your system's default. One advantage of
+this is that it makes the document portable across systems.
+
+ For completeness here is a list of the drivers. The currently
+relevant ones are: 'dvipdfmx', 'dvips', 'dvisvgm', 'luatex', 'pdftex',
+'xetex'. The two 'xdvi' and 'oztex' are essentially aliases for 'dvips'
+(and 'xdvi' is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new
+systems are: 'dvipdf', 'dvipdfm', 'dviwin', 'dvipsone', 'emtex',
+'pctexps', 'pctexwin', 'pctexhp', 'pctex32', 'truetex', 'tcidvi', 'vtex'
+(and 'dviwindo' is an alias for 'dvipsone'). These are stored in files
+with a '.def' extension, such as 'pdftex.def'.
+
+ The second kind of options are below.
+
+'demo'
+ Instead of an image file, LaTeX puts in a 150 pt by 100 pt
+ rectangle (unless another size is specified in the
+ '\includegraphics' command).
+
+'draft'
+ For each graphic file, it is not shown but instead the file name is
+ printed in a box of the correct size. In order to determine the
+ size, the file must be present.
+
+'final'
+ (Default) Override any previous 'draft' option, so that the
+ document shows the contents of the graphic files.
+
+'hiderotate'
+ Do not show rotated text. (This allows for the possibility that a
+ previewer does not have the capability to rotate text.)
+
+'hidescale'
+ Do not show scaled text. (This allows for the possibility that a
+ previewer does not have the capability to scale.)
+
+'hiresbb'
+ In a PS or EPS file the graphic size may be specified in two ways.
+ The '%%BoundingBox' lines describe the graphic size using integer
+ multiples of a PostScript point, that is, integer multiples of 1/72
+ inch. A later addition to the PostScript language allows decimal
+ multiples, such as 1.23, in '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines. This
+ option has LaTeX to read the size from the latter.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Graphics package configuration, Next: Commands for graphics, Prev: Graphics package options, Up: Graphics
+
+22.2 'graphics' package configuration
+=====================================
+
+These commands configure the way LaTeX searches the file system for the
+graphic.
+
+ The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform
+dependent. In this document we cover GNU/Linux, Macintosh, and Windows,
+as those systems are typically configured. For other situations consult
+the documentation in 'grfguide.pdf', or the LaTeX source, or your TeX
+distribution's documentation.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \graphicspath:: Directories to search.
+* \DeclareGraphicsExtensions:: File types, such as JPG or EPS.
+* \DeclareGraphicsRule:: How to handle file types.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \graphicspath, Next: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Up: Graphics package configuration
+
+22.2.1 '\graphicspath'
+----------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \graphicspath{LIST OF DIR NAMES INSIDE CURLY BRACKETS}
+
+ Declare a list of directories to search for graphics files. This
+allows you to later say something like '\includegraphics{lion.png}'
+instead of having to give its path.
+
+ LaTeX always looks for graphic files first in the current directory.
+The declaration below tells the system to then look in the subdirectory
+'pix', and then '../pix'.
+
+ \usepackage{graphicx} % or graphics; put in preamble
+ ...
+ \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} }
+
+ The '\graphicspath' declaration is optional. If you don't include it
+then LaTeX's default is to search all of the places that it usually
+looks for a file (it uses LaTeX's '\input@path'). In particular, in
+this case one of the places it looks is the current directory.
+
+ Enclose each directory name in curly braces; for example, above it
+says ''{pix}''. Do this even if there is only one directory. Each
+directory name must end in a forward slash, '/'. This is true even on
+Windows, where good practice is to use forward slashes for all the
+directory separators since it makes the document portable to other
+platforms. If you have spaces in your directory name then use double
+quotes, as with '{"my docs/"}'. Getting one of these rules wrong will
+cause LaTeX to report 'Error: File `FILENAME' not found'.
+
+ Basically, the algorithm is that with this example, after looking in
+the current directory,
+
+ \graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} }
+ ...
+ \usepackage{lion.png}
+
+for each of the listed directories, LaTeX concatenates it with the file
+name and searches for the result, checking for 'pix/lion.png' and then
+'../pix/lion.png'. This algorithm means that the '\graphicspath'
+command does not recursively search subdirectories: if you issue
+'\graphicspath{{a/}}' and the graphic is in 'a/b/lion.png' then LaTeX
+will not find it. It also means that you can use absolute paths such as
+'\graphicspath{{/home/jim/logos/}}' or
+'\graphicspath{{C:/Users/Albert/Pictures/}}'. However, using these
+means that the document is not portable. (You could preserve
+portability by adjusting your TeX system settings configuration file
+parameter 'TEXINPUTS'; see the documentation of your system.)
+
+ You can use '\graphicspath' anywhere in the document. You can use it
+more than once. Show its value with
+'\makeatletter\typeout{\Ginput@path}\makeatother'.
+
+ The directories are taken with respect to the base file. That is,
+suppose that you are working on a document based on 'book/book.tex' and
+it contains '\include{chapters/chap1}'. If in 'chap1.tex' you put
+'\graphicspath{{plots/}}' then LaTeX will not search for graphics in
+'book/chapters/plots', but instead in 'book/plots'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Next: \DeclareGraphicsRule, Prev: \graphicspath, Up: Graphics package configuration
+
+22.2.2 '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions'
+-----------------------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{COMMA-SEPARATED LIST OF FILE EXTENSIONS}
+
+ Declare the filename extensions to try. This allows you to specify
+the order in which to choose graphic formats when you include graphic
+files by giving the filename without the extension, as in
+'\includegraphics{functionplot}'.
+
+ In this example, LaTeX will find files in the PNG format before PDF
+files.
+
+ \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.png,PNG,.pdf,.PDF}
+ ...
+ \includegraphics{lion} % will find lion.png before lion.pdf
+
+Because the file name 'lion' does not have a period, LaTeX uses the
+extension list. For each directory in the graphics path (*note
+\graphicspath::), LaTeX will try the extensions in the order given. If
+it does not find such a file after trying all the directories and
+extensions then it reports '! LaTeX Error: File `'lion'' not found'.
+Note that you must include the periods at the start of the extensions.
+
+ Because GNU/Linux and Macintosh filenames are case sensitive, the
+list of file extensions is case sensitive on those platforms. The
+Windows platform is not case sensitive.
+
+ You are not required to include '\DeclareGraphicsExtensions' in your
+document; the printer driver has a sensible default. For example, the
+most recent 'pdftex.def' has this extension list.
+
+ .png,.pdf,.jpg,.mps,.jpeg,.jbig2,.jb2,.PNG,.PDF,.JPG,.JPEG,.JBIG2,.JB2
+
+ You can use this command anywhere in the document. You can use it
+more than once. Show its value with
+'\makeatletter\typeout{\Gin@extensions}\makeatother'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \DeclareGraphicsRule, Prev: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions, Up: Graphics package configuration
+
+22.2.3 '\DeclareGraphicsRule'
+-----------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \DeclareGraphicsRule{EXTENSION}{TYPE}{SIZE-FILE EXTENSION}{COMMAND}
+
+ Declare how to handle graphic files whose names end in EXTENSION.
+
+ This example declares that all files with names have the form
+'filename-without-dot.mps' will be treated as output from MetaPost,
+meaning that the printer driver will use its MetaPost-handling code to
+input the file.
+
+ \DeclareGraphicsRule{.mps}{mps}{.mps}{}
+
+ This
+
+ \DeclareGraphicsRule{*}{mps}{*}{}
+
+tells LaTeX that it should handle as MetaPost output any file with an
+extension not covered by another rule, so it covers 'filename.1',
+'filename.2', etc.
+
+ This describes the four arguments.
+
+EXTENSION
+ The file extension to which this rule applies. The extension is
+ anything after and including the first dot in the filename. Use
+ the Kleene star, '*', to denote the default behaviour for all
+ undeclared extensions.
+
+TYPE
+ The type of file involved. This type is a string that must be
+ defined in the printer driver. For instance, files with extensions
+ '.ps', '.eps', or '.ps.gz' may all be classed as type 'eps'. All
+ files of the same type will be input with the same internal command
+ by the printer driver. For example, the file types that 'pdftex'
+ recognizes are: 'jpg', 'jbig2', 'mps', 'pdf', 'png', 'tif'.
+
+SIZE-FILE EXTENSION
+ The extension of the file to be read to determine the size of the
+ graphic, if there is such a file. It may be the same as EXTENSION
+ but it may be different.
+
+ As an example, consider a PostScript graphic. To make it smaller,
+ it might be compressed into a '.ps.gz' file. Compressed files are
+ not easily read by LaTeX so you can put the bounding box
+ information in a separate file. If SIZE-FILE EXTENSION is empty
+ then you must specify size information in the arguments of
+ '\includegraphics'.
+
+ If the driver file has a procedure for reading size files for
+ 'type' then that will be used, otherwise it will use the procedure
+ for reading '.eps' files. (Thus you may specify the size of bitmap
+ files in a file with a PostScript style '%%BoundingBox' line if no
+ other format is available.)
+
+COMMAND
+ A command that will be applied to the file. This is very often
+ left blank. This command must start with a single backward quote.
+ Thus, '\DeclareGraphicsRule{.eps.gz}{eps}{.eps.bb}{`gunzip -c #1}'
+ specifies that any file with the extension '.eps.gz' should be
+ treated as an 'eps' file, with the BoundingBox information stored
+ in the file with extension '.eps.bb', and that the command 'gunzip
+ -c' will run on your platform to decompresses the file.
+
+ Such a command is specific to your platform. In addition, your TeX
+ system must allow you to run external commands; as a security
+ measure modern systems restrict running commands unless you
+ explicitly allow it. See the documentation for your TeX
+ distribution.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Commands for graphics, Prev: Graphics package configuration, Up: Graphics
+
+22.3 Commands for graphics
+==========================
+
+These are the commands available with the 'graphics' and 'graphicx'
+packages.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \includegraphics:: Using a graphic in your document.
+* \rotatebox:: Rotating boxes, including graphics.
+* \scalebox:: Scaling boxes, including graphics.
+* \resizebox:: Scaling boxes, including graphics, to a set size.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \includegraphics, Next: \rotatebox, Up: Commands for graphics
+
+22.3.1 '\includegraphics'
+-------------------------
+
+Synopses for 'graphics' package:
+
+ \includegraphics{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics[URX,URY]{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics*{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics*[URX,URY]{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics*[LLX,LLY][URX,URY]{FILENAME}
+
+ Synopses for 'graphicx' package:
+
+ \includegraphics{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics*{FILENAME}
+ \includegraphics*[KEY-VALUE LIST]{FILENAME}
+
+ Include a graphics file. The starred form '\includegraphics*' will
+clip the graphic to the size specified, while for the unstarred form any
+part of the graphic that is outside the box of the specified size will
+over-print the surrounding area.
+
+ This
+
+ \usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{center}
+ \includegraphics{plot.pdf}
+ \end{center}
+
+will incorporate into the document the graphic in 'plot.pdf', centered
+and at its nominal size. You can also give a path to the file, as with
+'\includegraphics{graphics/plot.pdf}'. To specify a list of locations
+to search for the file, *note \graphicspath::.
+
+ If your filename includes spaces then put it in double quotes. An
+example is '\includegraphics{"sister picture.jpg"}'.
+
+ The '\includegraphics{FILENAME}' command decides on the type of
+graphic by splitting FILENAME on the first dot. You can use FILENAME
+with no dot, as in '\includegraphics{turing}' and then LaTeX tries a
+sequence of extensions such as '.png' and '.pdf' until it finds a file
+with that extension (*note \DeclareGraphicsExtensions::).
+
+ If your file name contains dots before the extension then you can
+hide them with curly braces, as in
+'\includegraphics{{plot.2018.03.12.a}.pdf}'. Or, if you use the
+'graphicx' package then you can use the options 'type' and 'ext'; see
+below. This and other filename issues are also handled with the package
+'grffile'.
+
+ This example puts a graphic in a figure environment so LaTeX can move
+it to the next page if fitting it on the current page is awkward (*note
+figure::).
+
+ \begin{figure}
+ \centering
+ \includegraphics[width=3cm]{lungxray.jpg}
+ \caption{The evidence is overwhelming: don't smoke.} \label{fig:xray}
+ \end{figure}
+
+ This places a graphic that will not float, so it is sure to appear at
+this point in the document even if makes LaTeX stretch the text or
+resort to blank areas on the page. It will be centered and will have a
+caption.
+
+ \usepackage{caption} % in preamble
+ ...
+ \begin{center}
+ \includegraphics{pix/nix.png}
+ \captionof{figure}{The spirit of the night} \label{pix:nix} % optional
+ \end{center}
+
+ This example puts a box with a graphic side by side with one having
+text, with the two vertically centered.
+
+ \newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
+ ...
+ \begin{center}
+ \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{plot}}
+ \hspace{1em}
+ \vcenteredhbox{\begin{minipage}{0.4\textwidth}
+ \begin{displaymath}
+ f(x)=x\cdot \sin (1/x)
+ \end{displaymath}
+ \end{minipage}}
+ \end{center}
+
+ If you use the 'graphics' package then the only options involve the
+size of the graphic (but see *note \rotatebox:: and *note \scalebox::).
+When one optional argument is present then it is '[URX,URY]' and it
+gives the coordinates of the top right corner of the image, as a pair of
+TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::). If the units are omitted they
+default to 'bp'. In this case, the lower left corner of the image is
+assumed to be at (0,0). If two optional arguments are present then the
+leading one is '[LLX,LLY]', specifying the coordinates of the image's
+lower left. Thus, '\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...}' calls for the
+graphic to be placed so it is 1 inch wide and 0.618 inches tall and so
+its origin is at (0,0).
+
+ The 'graphicx' package gives you many more options. Specify them in
+a key-value form, as here.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion}
+ \hspace{2em}
+ \includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion}
+ \end{center}
+
+The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made
+one inch wide and then rotated, while the second is rotated and then
+made one inch wide. Thus, unless the graphic is perfectly square, the
+two will end with different widths and heights.
+
+ There are many options. The primary ones are listed first.
+
+ Note that a graphic is placed by LaTeX into a box, which is
+traditionally referred to as its bounding box (distinct from the
+PostScript BoundingBox described below). The graphic's printed area may
+go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LaTeX makes up a
+page it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the
+graphic.
+
+'width'
+ The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width. An
+ example is '\includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}'. You can use the
+ standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::) and also
+ convenient is '\linewidth', or in a two-column document,
+ '\columnwidth' (*note Page layout parameters::). An example is
+ that by using the 'calc' package you can make the graphic be 1 cm
+ narrow than the width of the text with
+ '\includegraphics[width=\linewidth-1.0cm]{hefferon.jpg}'.
+
+'height'
+ The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height. You
+ can use the standard TeX dimensions (*note Units of length::), and
+ also convenient are '\pageheight' and '\textheight' (*note Page
+ layout parameters::). For instance, the command
+ '\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel}' will make the
+ graphic a quarter of the height of the text area.
+
+'totalheight'
+ The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus
+ depth. This differs from the height if the graphic was rotated.
+ For instance, if it has been rotated by -90 then it will have zero
+ height but a large depth.
+
+'keepaspectratio'
+ If set to 'true', or just specified as here
+
+ \includegraphics[...,keepaspectratio,...]{...}
+
+ and you give as options both 'width' and 'height' (or
+ 'totalheight'), then LaTeX will make the graphic is as large as
+ possible without distortion. That is, LaTeX will ensure that
+ neither is the graphic wider than 'width' nor taller than 'height'
+ (or 'totalheight').
+
+'scale'
+ Factor by which to scale the graphic. To make a graphic twice its
+ nominal size, enter '\includegraphics[scale=2.0]{...}'. This
+ number may be any value; a number between 1 and 0 will shrink the
+ graphic and a negative number will reflect it.
+
+'angle'
+ Rotate the graphic. The angle is taken in degrees and
+ counterclockwise. The graphic is rotated about its 'origin'; see
+ that option. For a complete description of how rotated material is
+ typeset, *note \rotatebox::.
+
+'origin'
+ The point of the graphic about which the rotation happens.
+ Possible values are any string containing one or two of: 'l' for
+ left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top,
+ and 'B' for baseline. Thus, entering the command
+ '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon}' will turn the picture
+ upside down about that picture's center, while the command
+ '\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau}' will turn its
+ picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character 'c'
+ gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc', but gives the vertical
+ center in 'lc' or 'rc'.) The default is 'lB'.
+
+ To rotate about an arbitrary point, *note \rotatebox::.
+
+ These are lesser-used options.
+
+'viewport'
+ Pick out a subregion of the graphic to show. Takes four arguments,
+ separated by spaces and given in TeX dimensions, as with
+ '\includegraphics[.., viewport=0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. The
+ dimensions default to big points, 'bp'. They are taken relative to
+ the origin specified by the bounding box. See also the 'trim'
+ option.
+
+'trim'
+ Gives parts of the graphic to not show. Takes four arguments,
+ separated by spaces, that are given in TeX dimensions, as with
+ '\includegraphics[.., trim= 0in 0.1in 0.2in 0.3in, ...]{...}'.
+ These give the amounts of the graphic not to show, that is, LaTeX
+ will crop the picture by 0 inches on the left, 0.1 inches on the
+ bottom, 0.2 inches on the right, and 0.3 inches on the top. See
+ also the 'viewport' option.
+
+'clip'
+ If set to 'true', or just specified as here
+
+ \includegraphics[...,clip,...]{...}
+
+ then the graphic is cropped to the bounding box. This is the same
+ as using the starred form of the command,
+ '\includegraphics*[...]{...}'.
+
+'page'
+ Give the page number of a multi-page PDF file. The default is
+ 'page=1'.
+
+'pagebox'
+ Specifies which bounding box to use for PDF files from among
+ 'mediabox', 'cropbox', 'bleedbox', 'trimbox', or 'artbox'. PDF
+ files do not have the BoundingBox that PostScript files have, but
+ may specify up to four predefined rectangles. The MediaBox gives
+ the boundaries of the physical medium. The CropBox is the region
+ to which the contents of the page are to be clipped when displayed.
+ The BleedBox is the region to which the contents of the page should
+ be clipped in production. The TrimBox is the intended dimensions
+ of the finished page. The ArtBox is the extent of the page's
+ meaningful content. The driver will set the image size based on
+ CropBox if present, otherwise it will not use one of the others,
+ with a driver-defined order of preference. MediaBox is always
+ present.
+
+'interpolate'
+ Enable or disable interpolation of raster images by the viewer.
+ Can be set with 'interpolate=true' or just specified as here.
+
+ \includegraphics[...,interpolate,...]{...}
+
+'quiet'
+ Do not write information to the log. You can set it with
+ 'quiet=true' or just specified it with
+ '\includegraphics[...,quite,...]{...}',
+
+'draft'
+ If you set it with 'draft=true' or just specify it with
+
+ \includegraphics[...,draft,...]{...}
+
+ then the graphic will not appear in the document, possibly saving
+ color printer ink. Instead, LaTeX will put an empty box of the
+ correct size with the filename printed in it.
+
+ These options address the bounding box for Encapsulated PostScript
+graphic files, which have a size specified with a line '%%BoundingBox'
+that appears in the file. It has four values, giving the lower x
+coordinate, lower y coordinate, upper x coordinate, and upper y
+coordinate. The units are PostScript points, equivalent to TeX's big
+points, 1/72 inch. For example, if an '.eps' file has the line
+'%%BoundingBox 10 20 40 80' then its natural size is 30/72 inch wide by
+60/72 inch tall.
+
+'bb'
+ Specify the bounding box of the displayed region. The argument is
+ four dimensions separated by spaces, as with '\includegraphics[..,
+ bb= 0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}'. Usually '\includegraphics' reads
+ the BoundingBox numbers from the EPS file automatically, so this
+ option is only useful if the bounding box is missing from that file
+ or if you want to change it.
+
+'bbllx, bblly, bburx, bbury'
+ Set the bounding box. These four are obsolete, but are retained
+ for compatibility with old packages.
+
+'natwidth, natheight'
+ An alternative for 'bb'. Setting
+
+ \includegraphics[...,natwidth=1in,natheight=0.618in,...]{...}
+
+ is the same as setting 'bb=0 0 1in 0.618in'.
+
+'hiresbb'
+ If set to 'true', or just specified as with
+
+ \includegraphics[...,hiresbb,...]{...}
+
+ then LaTeX will look for '%%HiResBoundingBox' lines instead of
+ '%%BoundingBox' lines. (The 'BoundingBox' lines use only natural
+ numbers while the 'HiResBoundingBox' lines use decimals; both use
+ units equivalent to TeX's big points, 1/72 inch.) To override a
+ prior setting of 'true', you can set it to 'false'.
+
+ These following options allow a user to override LaTeX's method of
+choosing the graphic type based on the filename extension. An example
+is that '\includegraphics[type=png,ext=.xxx,read=.xxx]{lion}' will read
+the file 'lion.xxx' as though it were 'lion.png'. For more on these,
+*note \DeclareGraphicsRule::.
+
+'type'
+ Specify the graphics type.
+
+'ext'
+ Specify the graphics extension. Only use this in conjunction with
+ the option 'type'.
+
+'read'
+ Specify the file extension of the read file. Only use this in
+ conjunction with the option 'type'.
+
+'command'
+ Specify a command to be applied to this file. Only use this in
+ conjunction with the option 'type'. *Note Command line options::
+ for a discussion of enabling the '\write18' functionality to run
+ external commands.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \rotatebox, Next: \scalebox, Prev: \includegraphics, Up: Commands for graphics
+
+22.3.2 '\rotatebox'
+-------------------
+
+Synopsis if you use the 'graphics' package:
+
+ \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL}
+
+ Synopses if you use the 'graphicx' package:
+
+ \rotatebox{ANGLE}{MATERIAL}
+ \rotatebox[KEY-VALUE LIST]{ANGLE}{MATERIAL}
+
+ Put MATERIAL in a box and rotate it ANGLE degrees counterclockwise.
+
+ This example rotates the table column heads forty five degrees.
+
+ \begin{tabular}{ll}
+ \rotatebox{45}{Character} &\rotatebox{45}{NATO phonetic} \\
+ A &AL-FAH \\
+ B &BRAH-VOH
+ \end{tabular}
+
+ The MATERIAL can be anything that goes in a box, including a graphic.
+
+ \rotatebox[origin=c]{45}{\includegraphics[width=1in]{lion}}
+
+ To place the rotated material, the first step is that LaTeX sets
+MATERIAL in a box, with a reference point on the left baseline. The
+second step is the rotation, by default about the reference point. The
+third step is that LaTeX computes a box to bound the rotated material.
+Fourth, LaTeX moves this box horizontally so that the left edge of this
+new bounding box coincides with the left edge of the box from the first
+step (they need not coincide vertically). This new bounding box, in its
+new position, is what LaTeX uses as the box when typesetting this
+material.
+
+ If you use the 'graphics' package then the rotation is about the
+reference point of the box. If you use the 'graphicx' package then
+these are the options that can go in the KEY-VALUE LIST, but note that
+you can get the same effect without needing this package, except for the
+'x' and 'y' options (*note \includegraphics::).
+
+'origin'
+ The point of the MATERIAL's box about which the rotation happens.
+ Possible value is any string containing one or two of: 'l' for
+ left, 'r' for right, 'b' for bottom, 'c' for center, 't' for top,
+ and 'B' for baseline. Thus, the first line here
+
+ \rotatebox[origin=c]{180}{moon}
+ \rotatebox[origin=lB]{180}{LeBateau}
+
+ will turn the picture upside down from the center while the second
+ will turn its picture upside down about its left baseline. (The
+ character 'c' gives the horizontal center in 'bc' or 'tc' but gives
+ the vertical center in 'lc' or 'rc', and gives both in 'c'.) The
+ default is 'lB'.
+
+'x, y'
+ Specify an arbitrary point of rotation with '\rotatebox[x=TeX
+ DIMENSION,y=TeX DIMENSION]{...}' (*note Units of length::). These
+ give the offset from the box's reference point.
+
+'units'
+ This key allows you to change the default of degrees
+ counterclockwise. Setting 'units=-360' changes the direction to
+ degrees clockwise and setting 'units=6.283185' changes to radians
+ counterclockwise.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \scalebox, Next: \resizebox, Prev: \rotatebox, Up: Commands for graphics
+
+22.3.3 '\scalebox'
+------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}{MATERIAL}
+ \scalebox{HORIZONTAL FACTOR}[VERTICAL FACTOR]{MATERIAL}
+ \reflectbox{MATERIAL}
+
+ Scale the MATERIAL.
+
+ This example halves the size, both horizontally and vertically, of
+the first text and doubles the size of the second.
+
+ \scalebox{0.5}{DRINK ME} and \scalebox{2.0}{Eat Me}
+
+ If you do not specify the optional VERTICAL FACTOR then it defaults
+to the same value as the HORIZONTAL FACTOR.
+
+ You can use this command to resize a graphic, as here.
+
+ \scalebox{0.5}{\includegraphics{lion}}
+
+If you use the 'graphicx' package then you can accomplish the same thing
+with optional arguments to '\includegraphics' (*note
+\includegraphics::).
+
+ The '\reflectbox' command abbreviates '\scalebox{-1}[1]{MATERIAL}'.
+Thus, 'Able was I\reflectbox{Able was I}' will show the phrase 'Able was
+I' immediately followed by its mirror reflection.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \resizebox, Prev: \scalebox, Up: Commands for graphics
+
+22.3.4 '\resizebox'
+-------------------
+
+Synopses:
+
+ \resizebox{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL}
+ \resizebox*{HORIZONTAL LENGTH}{VERTICAL LENGTH}{MATERIAL}
+
+ Given a size, such as '3cm', transform MATERIAL to make it that size.
+If either HORIZONTAL LENGTH or VERTICAL LENGTH is an exclamation
+point '!' then the other argument is used to determine a scale factor
+for both directions.
+
+ This example makes the graphic be a half inch wide and scales it
+vertically by the same factor to keep it from being distorted.
+
+ \resizebox{0.5in}{!}{\includegraphics{lion}}
+
+ The unstarred form '\resizebox' takes VERTICAL LENGTH to be the box's
+height while the starred form '\resizebox*' takes it to be height+depth.
+For instance, make the text have a height+depth of a quarter inch with
+'\resizebox*{!}{0.25in}{\parbox{1in}{This box has both height and
+depth.}}'.
+
+ You can use '\depth', '\height', '\totalheight', and '\width' to
+refer to the original size of the box. Thus, make the text two inches
+wide but keep the original height with '\resizebox{2in}{\height}{Two
+inches}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Special insertions, Next: Splitting the input, Prev: Graphics, Up: Top
+
+23 Special insertions
+*********************
+
+LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special
+meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Reserved characters:: Inserting '# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \'
+* Upper and lower case:: Make text upper or lower case.
+* Symbols by font position:: Inserting font symbols by number.
+* Text symbols:: Inserting other non-letter symbols in text.
+* Accents:: Inserting accents.
+* Additional Latin letters:: Inserting other non-English characters.
+* \rule:: Inserting lines and rectangles.
+* \today:: Inserting today's date.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Reserved characters, Next: Upper and lower case, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.1 Reserved characters
+========================
+
+LaTeX sets aside the following characters for special purposes. For
+example, the percent sign '%' is for comments. They are called
+"reserved characters" or "special characters".
+
+ # $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \
+
+ If you want a reserved character to be printed as itself, in the text
+body font, for all but the final three characters in that list simply
+put a backslash '\' in front of the character. Thus, typing '\$1.23'
+will produce '$1.23' in your output.
+
+ As to the last three characters, to get a tilde in the text body font
+use '\~{}' (omitting the curly braces would result in the next character
+receiving a tilde accent). Similarly, to get a get a text body font
+circumflex use '\^{}'. To get a backslash in the font of the text body,
+enter '\textbackslash{}'.
+
+ To produce the reserved characters in a typewriter font use '\verb!!'
+as below (the double backslash '\\' is only there to split the lines).
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \# \$ \% \& \{ \} \_ \~{} \^{} \textbackslash \\
+ \verb!# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \!
+ \end{center}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Upper and lower case, Next: Symbols by font position, Prev: Reserved characters, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.2 Upper and lower case
+=========================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \uppercase{TEXT}
+ \lowercase{TEXT}
+ \MakeUppercase{TEXT}
+ \MakeLowercase{TEXT}
+
+ Change the case of characters. The TeX primitives commands
+'\uppercase' and '\lowercase' only work for American characters. The
+LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' commands also
+change characters accessed by commands such as '\ae' or '\aa'. The
+commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowercase' are robust but they have
+moving arguments (*note \protect::).
+
+ These commands do not change the case of letters used in the name of
+a command within TEXT. But they do change the case of every other Latin
+letter inside the argument TEXT. Thus, '\MakeUppercase{Let $y=f(x)$'}
+produces 'LET Y=F(X)'. Another example is that the name of an
+environment will be changed, so that '\MakeUppercase{\begin{tabular} ...
+\end{tabular}}' will produce an error because the first half is changed
+to '\begin{TABULAR}'.
+
+ LaTeX uses the same fixed table for changing case throughout a
+document, The table used is designed for the font encoding T1; this
+works well with the standard TeX fonts for all Latin alphabets but will
+cause problems when using other alphabets.
+
+ To change the case of text that results from a macro inside TEXT you
+need to do expansion. Here the '\Schoolname' produces 'COLLEGE OF
+MATHEMATICS'.
+
+ \newcommand{\schoolname}{College of Mathematics}
+ \newcommand{\Schoolname}{\expandafter\MakeUppercase
+ \expandafter{\schoolname}}
+
+ The 'textcase' package brings some of the missing feature of the
+standard LaTeX commands '\MakeUppercase' and '\MakeLowerCase'.
+
+ To uppercase only the first letter of words, you can use the package
+'mfirstuc'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Symbols by font position, Next: Text symbols, Prev: Upper and lower case, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.3 Symbols by font position
+=============================
+
+You can access any character of the current font using its number with
+the '\symbol' command. For example, the visible space character used in
+the '\verb*' command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as
+'\symbol{32}'.
+
+ You can also specify numbers in octal (base 8) by using a ''' prefix,
+or hexadecimal (base 16) with a '"' prefix, so the previous example
+could also be written as '\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Text symbols, Next: Accents, Prev: Symbols by font position, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.4 Text symbols
+=================
+
+LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in
+running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not
+available in OT1. Unless you are using XeLaTeX or LuaLaTeX then you may
+need to load the 'textcomp' package.
+
+'\copyright'
+'\textcopyright'
+ (C) The copyright symbol.
+
+'\dag'
+ U+2020 The dagger symbol (in text).
+
+'\ddag'
+ U+2021 The double dagger symbol (in text).
+
+'\LaTeX'
+ The LaTeX logo.
+
+'\LaTeXe'
+ The LaTeX2e logo.
+
+'\guillemotleft (<<)'
+'\guillemotright (>>)'
+'\guilsinglleft (<)'
+'\guilsinglright (>)'
+ <<, >>, <, > Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used
+ in French.
+
+'\ldots'
+'\dots'
+'\textellipsis'
+ ... An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '\ldots' and '\dots'
+ also work in math mode.
+
+'\lq'
+ ' Left (opening) quote.
+
+'\P'
+'\textparagraph'
+ U+00B6 Paragraph sign (pilcrow).
+
+'\pounds'
+'\textsterling'
+ # English pounds sterling.
+
+'\quotedblbase (,,)'
+'\quotesinglbase (,)'
+ ,, and , Double and single quotation marks on the baseline.
+
+'\rq'
+ ' Right (closing) quote.
+
+'\S'
+'\textsection'
+ U+00A7 Section sign.
+
+'\TeX'
+ The TeX logo.
+
+'\textasciicircum'
+ ^ ASCII circumflex.
+
+'\textasciitilde'
+ ~ ASCII tilde.
+
+'\textasteriskcentered'
+ * Centered asterisk.
+
+'\textbackslash'
+ \ Backslash.
+
+'\textbar'
+ | Vertical bar.
+
+'\textbardbl'
+ U+23F8 Double vertical bar.
+
+'\textbigcircle'
+ U+25EF Big circle symbol.
+
+'\textbraceleft'
+ { Left brace.
+
+'\textbraceright'
+ } Right brace.
+
+'\textbullet'
+ * Bullet.
+
+'\textcircled{LETTER}'
+ U+24B6 Circle around LETTER.
+
+'\textcompwordmark'
+'\textcapitalcompwordmark'
+'\textascendercompwordmark'
+ Used to separate letters that would normally ligature. For
+ example, 'f\textcompwordmark i' produces 'fi' without a ligature.
+ This is most useful in non-English languages. The
+ '\textcapitalcompwordmark' form has the cap height of the font
+ while the '\textascendercompwordmark' form has the ascender height.
+
+'\textdagger'
+ U+2020 Dagger.
+
+'\textdaggerdbl'
+ U+2021 Double dagger.
+
+'\textdollar (or '\$')'
+ $ Dollar sign.
+
+'\textemdash (or '---')'
+ -- Em-dash (used for punctuation, as in 'The playoffs --- if you
+ are fortunate enough to make the playoffs --- is more like a
+ sprint.').
+
+'\textendash (or '--')'
+ - En-dash (used for ranges, as in 'See pages 12--14').
+
+'\texteuro'
+
+ The Euro symbol: Euro. For an alternative glyph design, try the
+ 'eurosym' package; also, most fonts nowadays come with their own
+ Euro symbol (Unicode U+20AC).
+
+'\textexclamdown (or '!`')'
+ ! Upside down exclamation point.
+
+'\textgreater'
+ > Greater than symbol.
+
+'\textless'
+ < Less than symbol.
+
+'\textleftarrow'
+ U+2190 Left arrow.
+
+'\textordfeminine'
+'\textordmasculine'
+ a, o Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols.
+
+'\textperiodcentered'
+ U+00B7 Centered period.
+
+'\textquestiondown (or '?`')'
+ ? Upside down question mark.
+
+'\textquotedblleft (or '``')'
+ " Double left quote.
+
+'\textquotedblright (or '''')'
+ " Double right quote.
+
+'\textquoteleft (or '`')'
+ ' Single left quote.
+
+'\textquoteright (or ''')'
+ ' Single right quote.
+
+'\textquotesingle'
+ U+0027 Straight single quote. (From TS1 encoding.)
+
+'\textquotestraightbase'
+'\textquotestraightdblbase'
+ Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.
+
+'\textregistered'
+ (R) Registered symbol.
+
+'\textrightarrow'
+ U+2192 Right arrow.
+
+'\textthreequartersemdash'
+ U+FE58 "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
+
+'\texttrademark'
+ U+2122 Trademark symbol.
+
+'\texttwelveudash'
+ U+FE58 "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
+
+'\textunderscore'
+ _ Underscore.
+
+'\textvisiblespace'
+ U+2423 Visible space symbol.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Accents, Next: Additional Latin letters, Prev: Text symbols, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.5 Accents
+============
+
+LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages,
+through the 'babel' package and related support if you are using
+pdfLaTeX, or 'polyglossia' if you are using XeLaTeX or LuaLaTeX. This
+section does not cover that support. It only lists the core LaTeX
+commands for creating accented characters. The '\capital...' commands
+shown here produce alternative forms for use with capital letters.
+These are not available with OT1.
+
+ Below, to make them easier to find, the accents are all illustrated
+with lowercase 'o'.
+
+ Note that '\i' produces a dotless i, and '\j' produces a dotless j.
+These are often used in place of their dotted counterparts when they are
+accented.
+
+'\"'
+'\capitaldieresis'
+ o" Umlaut (dieresis).
+
+'\''
+'\capitalacute'
+ o' Acute accent.
+
+'\.'
+ o. Dot accent.
+
+'\='
+'\capitalmacron'
+ o= Macron (overbar) accent.
+
+'\^'
+'\capitalcircumflex'
+ o^ Circumflex (hat) accent.
+
+'\`'
+'\capitalgrave'
+ o` Grave accent.
+
+'\~'
+'\capitaltilde'
+ n~ Tilde accent.
+
+'\b'
+ o_ Bar accent underneath.
+
+ Related to this, '\underbar{TEXT}' produces a bar under TEXT. The
+ argument is always processed in LR mode (*note Modes::). The bar
+ is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing
+ through descenders. See also '\underline' in *note Math
+ miscellany::.
+
+'\c'
+'\capitalcedilla'
+ c, Cedilla accent underneath.
+
+'\d'
+'\capitaldotaccent'
+ .o Dot accent underneath.
+
+'\H'
+'\capitalhungarumlaut'
+ o'' Long Hungarian umlaut accent.
+
+'\k'
+'\capitalogonek'
+ o; Ogonek. Not available in the OT1 encoding.
+
+'\r'
+'\capitalring'
+ o* Ring accent.
+
+'\t'
+'\capitaltie'
+'\newtie'
+'\capitalnewtie'
+ oo[ Tie-after accent. The '\newtie' form is centered in its box.
+
+'\u'
+'\capitalbreve'
+ o( Breve accent.
+
+'\v'
+'\capitalcaron'
+ o< Ha'c<ek (check, caron) accent.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Additional Latin letters, Next: \rule, Prev: Accents, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.6 Additional Latin letters
+=============================
+
+Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting letters beyond A-Z that
+extend the Latin alphabet, used primarily in languages other than
+English.
+
+'\aa'
+'\AA'
+ aa and AA.
+
+'\ae'
+'\AE'
+ ae and AE.
+
+'\dh'
+'\DH'
+ Icelandic letter eth: d and D. Not available with OT1 encoding, you
+ need the 'fontenc' package to select an alternate font encoding,
+ such as T1.
+
+'\dj'
+'\DJ'
+ Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke.
+ Not available with OT1 encoding, you need the 'fontenc' package to
+ select an alternate font encoding, such as T1.
+
+'\ij'
+'\IJ'
+ ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
+
+'\l'
+'\L'
+ /l and /L.
+
+'\ng'
+'\NG'
+ Lappish letter eng, also used in phonetics.
+
+'\o'
+'\O'
+ /o and /O.
+
+'\oe'
+'\OE'
+ oe and OE.
+
+'\ss'
+'\SS'
+ ss and SS.
+
+'\th'
+'\TH'
+ Icelandic letter thorn: th and TH. Not available with OT1 encoding,
+ you need the 'fontenc' package to select an alternate font
+ encoding, such as T1.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \rule, Next: \today, Prev: Additional Latin letters, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.7 '\rule'
+============
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \rule{WIDTH}{THICKNESS}
+ \rule[RAISE]{WIDTH}{THICKNESS}
+
+ Produce a "rule", a filled-in rectangle.
+
+ This produces a rectangular blob, sometimes called a Halmos symbol,
+often used to mark the end of a proof.
+
+ \newcommand{\qedsymbol}{\rule{0.4em}{2ex}}
+
+The 'amsthm' package includes this command, with a somewhat
+different-looking symbol.
+
+ The mandatory arguments give the horizontal WIDTH and vertical
+THICKNESS of the rectangle. They are rigid lengths (*note Lengths::).
+The optional argument RAISE is also a rigid length, and tells LaTeX how
+much to raise the rule above the baseline, or lower it if the length is
+negative.
+
+ This produces a line, a rectangle that is wide but not tall.
+
+ \noindent\rule{\textwidth}{0.4pt}
+
+The line is the width of the page and 0.4 points tall. This line
+thickness is common in LaTeX.
+
+ A rule that has zero width, or zero thickness, will not show up in
+the output, but can cause LaTeX to change the output around it. *Note
+\strut:: for examples.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \today, Prev: \rule, Up: Special insertions
+
+23.8 '\today'
+=============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \today
+
+ Produce today's date in the format 'MONTH DD, YYYY'. An example of a
+date in that format is 'July 4, 1976'.
+
+ Multilingual packages such as 'babel' or 'polyglossia', or classes
+such as 'lettre', will localize '\today'. For example, the following
+will output '4 juillet 1976':
+
+ \year=1976 \month=7 \day=4
+ \documentclass{minimal}
+ \usepackage[french]{babel}
+ \begin{document}
+ \today
+ \end{document}
+
+'\today' uses the counters '\day', '\month', and '\year' (*note \day &
+\month & \year::).
+
+ A number of package on CTAN work with dates. One is 'datetime'
+package which can produce a wide variety of date formats, including ISO
+standards.
+
+ The date is not updated as the LaTeX process runs, so in principle
+the date could be incorrect by the time the program finishes.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Splitting the input, Next: Front/back matter, Prev: Special insertions, Up: Top
+
+24 Splitting the input
+**********************
+
+LaTeX lets you split a large document into several smaller ones. This
+can simplify editing or allow multiple authors to work on the document.
+It can also speed processing.
+
+ Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is always one
+"root file", on which LaTeX compilation starts. This shows such a file
+with five included files.
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \includeonly{ % comment out lines below to omit compiling
+ pref,
+ chap1,
+ chap2,
+ append,
+ bib
+ }
+ \begin{document}
+ \frontmatter
+ \include{pref}
+ \mainmatter
+ \include{chap1}
+ \include{chap2}
+ \appendix
+ \include{append}
+ \backmatter
+ \include{bib}
+ \end{document}
+
+This will bring in material from 'pref.tex', 'chap1.tex', 'chap2.tex',
+'append.tex', and 'bib.tex'. If you compile this file, and then comment
+out all of the lines inside '\includeonly{...}' except for 'chap1,' and
+compile again, then LaTeX will only process the material in the first
+chapter. Thus, your output will appear more quickly and be shorter to
+print. However, the advantage of the '\includeonly' command is that
+LaTeX will retain the page numbers and all of the cross reference
+information from the other parts of the document so these will appear in
+your output correctly.
+
+ *Note Larger book template:: for another example of '\includeonly'.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \endinput:: Stop including material from a file.
+* \include & \includeonly:: Conditionally include files.
+* \input:: Unconditionally include a file.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \endinput, Next: \include & \includeonly, Up: Splitting the input
+
+24.1 '\endinput'
+================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \endinput
+
+ When you '\include{filename}', inside 'filename.tex' the material
+after '\endinput' will not be included. This command is optional; if
+'filename.tex' has no '\endinput' then LaTeX will read all of the file.
+
+ For example, suppose that a document's root file has '\input{chap1}'
+and this is 'chap1.tex'.
+
+ \chapter{One}
+ This material will appear in the document.
+ \endinput
+ This will not appear.
+
+ This can be useful for putting documentation or comments at the end
+of a file, or for avoiding junk characters that can be added during
+mailing. It is also useful for debugging: one strategy to localize
+errors is to put '\endinput' halfway through the included file and see
+if the error disappears. Now, knowing which half contains the error,
+moving '\endinput' to halfway through that area further narrows down the
+location. This process rapidly finds the offending line.
+
+ After reading '\endinput', LaTeX continues to read to the end of the
+line, so something can follow this command and be read nonetheless.
+This allows you, for instance, to close an '\if...' with a '\fi'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \include & \includeonly, Next: \input, Prev: \endinput, Up: Splitting the input
+
+24.2 '\include' & '\includeonly'
+================================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \includeonly{ % in document preamble
+ ...
+ FILENAME,
+ ...
+ }
+ ...
+ \include{FILENAME} % in document body
+
+ Bring material from the external file 'FILENAME.tex' into a LaTeX
+document.
+
+ The '\include' command does three things: it executes '\clearpage'
+(*note \clearpage & \cleardoublepage::), then it inputs the material
+from 'FILENAME.tex' into the document, and then it does another
+'\clearpage'. This command can only appear in the document body. The
+'\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by LaTeX under
+subsequent '\include' commands. Its list of filenames is
+comma-separated, and it can only appear in the preamble.
+
+ This example root document, 'constitution.tex', brings in three
+files, 'preamble.tex', 'articles.tex', and 'amendments.tex'.
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \includeonly{
+ preamble,
+ articles,
+ amendments
+ }
+ \begin{document}
+ \include{preamble}
+ \include{articles}
+ \include{amendments}
+ \end{document}
+
+The file 'preamble.tex' contains no special code; you have just
+excerpted the chapter from 'consitution.tex' and put it in a separate
+file just for editing convenience.
+
+ \chapter{Preamble}
+ We the People of the United States,
+ in Order to form a more perfect Union, ...
+
+Running LaTeX on 'constitution.tex' makes the material from the three
+files appear in the document but also generates the auxiliary files
+'preamble.aux', 'articles.aux', and 'amendments.tex'. These contain
+information such as page numbers and cross-references (*note Cross
+references::). If you now comment out '\includeonly''s lines with
+'preamble' and 'amendments' and run LaTeX again then the resulting
+document shows only the material from 'articles.tex', not the material
+from 'preamble.tex' or 'amendments.tex'. Nonetheless, all of the
+auxiliary information from the omitted files is still there, including
+the starting page number of the chapter.
+
+ If the document preamble does not have '\includeonly' then LaTeX will
+include all the files you call for with '\include' commands.
+
+ The '\include' command makes a new page. To avoid that, see *note
+\input:: (which, however, does not retain the auxiliary information).
+
+ *Note Larger book template:: for another example using '\include' and
+'\includeonly'. That example also uses '\input' for some material that
+will not necessarily start on a new page.
+
+ File names can involve paths.
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \includeonly{
+ chapters/chap1,
+ }
+ \begin{document}
+ \include{chapters/chap1}
+ \end{document}
+
+ To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you
+should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use
+dashes or underscores. Nevertheless, for the name 'amo amas amat', this
+works under TeX Live on GNU/Linux:
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \includeonly{
+ "amo\space amas\space amat"
+ }
+ \begin{document}
+ \include{"amo\space amas\space amat"}
+ \end{document}
+
+ and this works under MiKTeX on Windows:
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \includeonly{
+ {"amo amas amat"}
+ }
+ \begin{document}
+ \include{{"amo amas amat"}}
+ \end{document}
+
+ You cannot use '\include' inside a file that is being included or you
+get 'LaTeX Error: \include cannot be nested.' The '\include' command
+cannot appear in the document preamble; you will get 'LaTeX Error:
+Missing \begin{document}'.
+
+ If a file that you '\include' does not exist, for instance if you
+'\include{athiesm}' but you meant '\include{atheism}', then LaTeX does
+not give you an error but will warn you 'No file athiesm.tex.' (It will
+also create 'athiesm.aux'.)
+
+ If you '\include' the root file in itself then you first get 'LaTeX
+Error: Can be used only in preamble.' Later runs get 'TeX capacity
+exceeded, sorry [text input levels=15]'. To fix this, you must remove
+the inclusion '\include{root}' but also delete the file 'ROOT.aux' and
+rerun LaTeX.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \input, Prev: \include & \includeonly, Up: Splitting the input
+
+24.3 '\input'
+=============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \input{FILENAME}
+
+ LaTeX processes the file as if its contents were inserted in the
+current file. For a more sophisticated inclusion mechanism see *note
+\include & \includeonly::.
+
+ If FILENAME does not end in '.tex' then LaTeX first tries the
+filename with that extension; this is the usual case. If FILENAME ends
+with '.tex' then LaTeX looks for the filename as it is.
+
+ For example, this
+
+ \input{macros}
+
+will cause LaTeX to first look for 'macros.tex'. If it finds that file
+then it processes its contents as thought they had been copy-pasted in.
+If there is no file of the name 'macros.tex' then LaTeX tries the name
+'macros', without an extension. (This may vary by distribution.)
+
+ To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you
+should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use
+dashes or underscores. Nevertheless, for the name 'amo amas amat', this
+works under TeX Live on GNU/Linux:
+
+ \input{"amo\space amas\space amat"}
+
+ and this works under MiKTeX on Windows:
+
+ \input{{"amo amas amat"}}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Front/back matter, Next: Letters, Prev: Splitting the input, Up: Top
+
+25 Front/back matter
+********************
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Table of contents etc.:: Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables.
+* Indexes:: Generate an index.
+* Glossaries:: Generate a glossary.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Table of contents etc., Next: Indexes, Up: Front/back matter
+
+25.1 Table of contents etc.
+===========================
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \tableofcontents
+ \listoffigures
+ \listoftables
+
+ Produce a table of contents, or list of figures, or list of tables.
+Put the command in the input file where you want the table or list to
+go. You do not type the entries; for example, typically the table of
+contents entries are automatically generated from the sectioning
+commands '\chapter', etc.
+
+ This example illustrates the first command, '\tableofcontents'.
+LaTeX will produce a table of contents on the book's first page.
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ % \setcounter{tocdepth}{1}
+ \begin{document}
+ \tableofcontents\newpage
+ ...
+ \chapter{...}
+ ...
+ \section{...}
+ ...
+ \subsection{...}
+ ...
+ \end{document}
+
+Uncommenting the second line would cause that table to contain chapter
+and section listings but not subsection listings, because the '\section'
+command has level 1. *Note Sectioning:: for level numbers of the
+sectioning units. For more on the 'tocdepth' *note
+Sectioning/tocdepth::.
+
+ Another example of the use of '\tableofcontents' is in *note Larger
+book template::.
+
+ If you want a page break after the table of contents, write a
+'\newpage' command after the '\tableofcontents' command, as above.
+
+ To make the table of contents LaTeX stores the information in an
+auxiliary file named 'ROOT-FILE.toc' (*note Splitting the input::). For
+example, this LaTeX file 'test.tex'
+
+ \documentclass{article}
+ \begin{document}
+ \tableofcontents\newpage
+ \section{First section}
+ \subsection{First subsection}
+ ...
+
+writes the following line to 'test.toc'.
+
+ \contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}First section}{2}
+ \contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}First subsection}{2}
+
+The 'section' or 'subsection' is the sectioning unit. The hook
+'\numberline' lets you to change how the information appears in the
+table of contents. Of its two arguments, '1' or '1.1' is the sectioning
+unit number and 'First section' or 'First subsection' is the title.
+Finally, '2' is the page number on which the sectioning units start.
+
+ One consequence of this auxiliary file storage strategy is that to
+get the contents page correct you must run LaTeX twice, once to store
+the information and once to get it. In particular, the first time that
+you run LaTeX on a new document, the table of contents page will be
+empty except for its 'Contents' header. Just run it again.
+
+ The commands '\listoffigures' and '\listoftables' produce a list of
+figures and a list of tables. They work the same way as the contents
+commands; for instance, these work with information stored in '.lof' and
+'.lot' files.
+
+ To change the header for the table of contents page do something like
+the first line here.
+
+ \renewcommand{\contentsname}{Table of contents}
+ \renewcommand{\listfigurename}{Plots}
+ \renewcommand{\listtablename}{Tables}
+
+Similarly, the other two lines will do the other two.
+Internationalization packages such as 'babel' or 'polyglossia' will
+change the headers depending on the chosen base language.
+
+ CTAN has many packages for the table of contents and lists of figures
+and tables. One convenient one for adjusting some aspects of the
+default, such as spacing, is 'tocloft'. And, 'tocbibbind' will
+automatically add the bibliography, index, etc. to the table of
+contents.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \addcontentsline:: Add an entry to table of contents, etc.
+* \addtocontents:: Add text directly to table of contents file, etc.
+* \nofiles:: Prevent writing to auxiliary files.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \addcontentsline, Next: \addtocontents, Up: Table of contents etc.
+
+25.1.1 '\addcontentsline'
+-------------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT}
+
+ Add an entry to the file specified by EXT. Usually EXT is one of
+'toc' for the table of contents, 'lof' for the list of figures, or 'lot'
+for the list of tables.
+
+ The following will result in an 'Appendices' line in the table of
+contents.
+
+ \addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}}
+
+It will appear at the same indentation level as the sections, will be in
+boldface, and will be assigned the page number associated with the point
+where it appears in the input file.
+
+ The '\addcontentsline' command writes information to the file
+'ROOT-NAME.EXT'. It writes that information as the text of the command
+'\contentsline{UNIT}{TEXT}{NUM}', where 'NUM' is the current value of
+counter 'UNIT'. The most common case is the table of contents and there
+NUM is the page number of the first page of UNIT.
+
+ This command is invoked by the sectioning commands '\chapter', etc.,
+and also by '\caption' inside a float environment. But it is also used
+by authors. For example, in a book to have the preface unnumbered, you
+may use the starred '\chapter*'. But that does not put in table of
+contents information, so you can enter it manually, as here.
+
+ \chapter*{Preface}
+ \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{\protect\numberline{}Preface}
+
+In the '.toc' file LaTeX will put the line '\contentsline
+{chapter}{\numberline {}Preface}{3}'; note the page number '3'.
+
+ All of the arguments for '\addcontentsline' are required.
+
+EXT
+ Typically one of the strings 'toc' for the table of contents, 'lof'
+ for the list of figures, or 'lot' for the list of tables. The
+ filename extension of the information file.
+
+UNIT
+ A string that depends on the value of the EXT argument:
+
+ 'toc'
+ For the table of contents, this is the name of a sectional
+ unit: 'part', 'chapter', 'section', 'subsection', etc.
+
+ 'lof'
+ For the list of figures: 'figure'.
+
+ 'lot'
+ For the list of tables: 'table'.
+
+TEXT
+ The text of the entry. You must '\protect' any commands that are
+ fragile (*note \protect::).
+
+ The '\addcontentsline' command has an interaction with '\include'
+(*note \include & \includeonly::). If you use them at the same level,
+as with '\addcontentsline{...}{...}{...}\include{...}' then lines in the
+table of contents can come out in the wrong order. The solution is to
+move '\addcontentsline' into the file being included.
+
+ If you use a UNIT that LaTeX does not recognize, as here
+
+ \addcontentsline{toc}{setcion}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}}
+
+then you don't get an error but the formatting in the table of contents
+will not make sense.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \addtocontents, Next: \nofiles, Prev: \addcontentsline, Up: Table of contents etc.
+
+25.1.2 '\addtocontents'
+-----------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}
+
+ Add TEXT, which may be text or formatting commands, directly to the
+auxiliary file with extension EXT. This is most commonly used for the
+table of contents so that is the discussion here, but this also applies
+to the list of figures and list of tables.
+
+ This will put some vertical space in the table of contents after the
+'Contents' header.
+
+ \tableofcontents\newpage
+ \addtocontents{toc}{\protect\vspace*{3ex}}
+
+ The '\addtocontents' command has two arguments. Both are required.
+
+EXT
+ Typically one of: 'toc' for the table of contents, 'lof' for the
+ list of figures, or 'lot' for the list of tables. The extension of
+ the file holding the information.
+
+TEXT
+ The text, and possibly commands, to be written.
+
+ The sectioning commands such as '\chapter' use the '\addcontentsline'
+command to store information. This command creates lines in the '.toc'
+auxiliary file containing the '\contentsline' command (*note
+\addcontentsline::). In contrast, the command '\addtocontents' puts
+material directly in that file.
+
+ The '\addtocontents' command has an interaction with '\include'
+(*note \include & \includeonly::). If you use them at the same level,
+as with '\addtocontents{...}{...}\include{...}' then lines in the table
+of contents can come out in the wrong order. The solution is to move
+'\addtocontents' into the file being included.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \nofiles, Prev: \addtocontents, Up: Table of contents etc.
+
+25.1.3 '\nofiles'
+-----------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \nofiles
+
+ Prevent LaTeX from writing any auxiliary files. The only output will
+be the '.log' and '.pdf' (or '.dvi') files. This command must go in the
+preamble.
+
+ Because of the '\nofiles' command this example will not produce a
+'.toc' file.
+
+ \documentclass{book}
+ \nofiles
+ \begin{document}
+ \tableofcontents\newpage
+ \chapter{...}
+ ...
+
+LaTeX will not erase any existing auxiliary files, so if you insert the
+'\nofiles' command after you have run the file and gotten a '.toc' then
+the table of contents page will continue to show the old information.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Indexes, Next: Glossaries, Prev: Table of contents etc., Up: Front/back matter
+
+25.2 Indexes
+============
+
+This document has an index.
+
+ \documentclass{article}
+ \usepackage{makeidx} \makeindex
+ ...
+ \begin{document}
+ ...
+ Recall Wilson's Theorem: \index{Wilson's Theorem}
+ a number \( n>1 \) is prime if and only if the factorial of \( n-1 \)
+ is congruent to \( -1 \) modulo~\( n \).
+ ...
+ \printindex
+ ...
+
+The '\usepackage{makeidx}' and '\makeindex' in the preamble bring in the
+relevant commands.
+
+ Producing an index is a three stage process. First, in the document
+body you declare index entries with the '\index' command (*note
+\index::). When you run LaTeX, the '\index' writes its information to
+an auxiliary file 'ROOT-NAME.idx'. Next, to alphabetize and to do other
+manipulations you run an external command, typically 'makeindex' or
+'xindy' (*note makeindex::). These output a file 'ROOT-NAME.ind'.
+Finally, you bring the information back into your document and typeset
+it with the '\printindex' command (*note \printindex::).
+
+ There are many packages that apply to indexing commands. The
+'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on
+the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index.
+The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ
+entry on this topic,
+<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind>.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \index:: Declare an index entry.
+* makeindex:: Alphabetize index entries.
+* \printindex:: Put the index here.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \index, Next: makeindex, Up: Indexes
+
+25.2.1 '\index'
+---------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \index{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}
+
+ Declare an entry in the index. This command is fragile (*note
+\protect::).
+
+ For example, as described in *note Indexes::, one way to get an index
+from what's below is to compile the document with 'pdflatex test', then
+process the index entries with 'makeindex test', and then compile again
+with 'pdflatex test'.
+
+ W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann}
+ ...
+ Ackermann function\index{Ackermann!function}
+ ...
+ rate of growth\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate}
+
+All three index entries will get a page number, such as 'Ackermann, 22'.
+LaTeX will format the second as a subitem of the first, on the line
+below it and indented, and the third as a subitem of the second. Three
+levels deep is as far as you can nest subentries. (If you add
+'\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate!comparison}' then 'makeindex'
+says 'Scanning input file test.idx....done (4 entries accepted, 1
+rejected)' and nothing appears in the index).
+
+ If you enter a second '\index' with the same INDEX-ENTRY-STRING then
+you will get a single index entry with two page numbers (unless they
+happen to fall on the same page). Thus, adding 'as for
+Ackermann.\index{Ackermann}' later in the same document as above will
+give an index entry like 'Ackermann, 22, 151'. Also, you can enter the
+index entries in any order, so for instance '\index{Ackermann!function}'
+could come before '\index{Ackermann}'.
+
+ Get a page range in the output, like 'Hilbert, 23--27', as here.
+
+ W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann}
+ ...
+ D~Hilbert (1862--1943)\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\(}
+ ...
+ disapproved of his marriage.\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\)}
+
+If the beginning and ending of the page range are equal then the system
+just gives a single page entry, not a range.
+
+ If you index subentries but not a main entry, as with
+'\index{Jones!program}' and '\index{Jones!results}', then the output is
+the item 'Jones' with no comma or page number, followed by two subitems,
+like 'program, 50' and 'results, 51'.
+
+ Generate a index entry that says 'See' by using a vertical bar
+character: '\index{Ackermann!function|see{P\'eter's function}}'. You
+can instead get 'See also' with 'seealso'. (The text 'See' is defined
+by '\seename', and 'See also' by '\alsoname'. You can redefine these
+either by using an internationalization package such as 'babel' or
+'polyglossia', or directly as with '\renewcommand{\alsoname}[1]{Also see
+#1}'.)
+
+ The 'See' feature is part of a more general functionality. After the
+vertical bar you can put the name of a one-input command, as in
+'\index{group|textit}' (note the missing backslash on the '\textit'
+command) and the system will apply that command to the page number, here
+giving something like '\textit{7}'. You can define your own one-input
+commands, such as '\newcommand{\definedpage}[1]{{\color{blue}#1}}' and
+then '\index{Ackermann!function|definedpage}' will give a blue page
+number (*note Color::). Another, less practical, example is this,
+
+ \newcommand\indexownpage[1]{#1, \thepage}
+ ... Epimenides.\index{self-reference|indexownpage}
+
+which creates an entry citing the page number of its own index listing.
+
+ The two functions just described combine, as here
+
+ \index{Ackermann!function|(definedpage}
+ ...
+ \index{Ackermann!function|)}
+
+which outputs an index entry like 'function, 23--27' where the page
+number range is in blue.
+
+ Consider an index entry such as 'U+03B1-ring'. Entering it as
+'$\alpha$-ring' will cause it to be alphabetized according to the dollar
+sign. You can instead enter it using an at-sign, as
+'\index{alpha-ring@$\alpha$-ring}'. If you specify an entry with an
+at-sign separating two strings, 'POS@TEXT', then POS gives the
+alphabetical position of the entry while TEXT produces the text of the
+entry. Another example is that '\index{Saint Michael's College@SMC}'
+produces an index entry 'SMC' alphabetized into a different location
+than its spelling would naturally give it.
+
+ To put a '!', or '@', or '|' character in an index entry, preceding
+it with a double quote, '"'. (The double quote gets deleted before
+alphabetization.)
+
+ A number of packages on CTAN have additional functionality beyond
+that provided by 'makeidx'. One is 'index', which allows for multiple
+indices and contains a command '\index*{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}' that prints
+the INDEX-ENTRY-STRING as well as indexing it.
+
+ The '\index' command writes the indexing information to the file
+'ROOT-NAME.idx' file. Specifically, it writes text of the command
+'\indexentry{INDEX-ENTRY-STRING}{PAGE-NUM}', where PAGE-NUM is the value
+of the '\thepage' counter. On occasion, when the '\printindex' command
+is confused, you have to delete this file to start with a fresh slate.
+
+ If you omit the closing brace of an '\index' command then you get a
+message like this.
+
+ Runaway argument? {Ackermann!function
+ ! Paragraph ended before \@wrindex was complete.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: makeindex, Next: \printindex, Prev: \index, Up: Indexes
+
+25.2.2 'makeindex'
+------------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ makeindex FILENAME
+ makeindex -s STYLE-FILE FILENAME
+ makeindex OPTIONS FILENAME0 ...
+
+ Sort, and otherwise process, the index information in the auxiliary
+file FILENAME. This is a command line program. It takes one or more
+raw index files, 'FILENAME.idx' files, and produces the actual index
+file, the 'FILENAME.ind' file that is input by '\printindex' (*note
+\printindex::).
+
+ The first form of the command suffices for many uses. The second
+allows you to format the index by using an "index style file", a '.isty'
+file. The third form is the most general; see the full documentation on
+CTAN.
+
+ This is a simple '.isty' file.
+
+ % book.isty
+ % $ makeindex -s book.isty -p odd book.idx
+ % creates the index as book.ind, starting on an odd page.
+ preamble
+ "\\pagestyle{empty}
+ \\small
+ \\begin{theindex}
+ \\thispagestyle{empty}"
+
+ postamble
+ "\n
+ \\end{theindex}"
+
+ The description here covers only some of the index formatting
+possibilities in STYLE-FILE. For a full list see the documentation on
+CTAN.
+
+ A style file consists of a list of pairs: SPECIFIER and ATTRIBUTE.
+These can appear in the file in any order. All of the ATTRIBUTES are
+strings, except where noted. Strings are surrounded with double quotes,
+'"', and the maximum length of a string is 144 characters. The '\n' is
+for a newline and '\t' is for a tab. Backslashes are escaped with
+another backslash, '\\'. If a line begins with a percent sign, '%',
+then it is a comment.
+
+'preamble'
+ Preamble of the output file. Defines the context in which the
+ index is formatted. Default: '"\\begin{theindex}\n"'.
+
+'postamble'
+ Postamble of the output file. Default: '"\n\n\\end{theindex}\n"'.
+
+'group_skip'
+ Traditionally index items are broken into groups, typically a group
+ for entries starting with 'a', etc. This specifier gives what is
+ inserted when a new group begins. Default: '"\n\n \\indexspace\n"'
+ ('\indexspace' is a rubber length with default value '10pt plus5pt
+ minus3pt').
+
+'lethead_flag'
+ An integer. It governs what is inserted for a new group or letter.
+ If it is 0 (which is the default) then other than 'group_skip'
+ nothing will be inserted before the group. If it is positive then
+ at a new letter the 'lethead_prefix' and 'lethead_suffix' will be
+ inserted, with that letter in uppercase between them. If it is
+ negative then what will be inserted is the letter in lowercase.
+ The default is 0.
+
+'lethead_prefix'
+ If a new group begins with a different letter then this is the
+ prefix inserted before the new letter header. Default: '""'
+
+'lethead_suffix'
+ If a group begins with a different letter then this is the suffix
+ inserted after the new letter header. Default: '""'.
+
+'item_0'
+ What is put between two level 0 items. Default: '"\n \\item "'.
+
+'item_1'
+ Put between two level 1 items. Default: '"\n \\subitem "'.
+
+'item_2'
+ put between two level 2 items. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem "'.
+
+'item_01'
+ What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item. Default:
+ '"\n \\subitem "'.
+
+'item_x1'
+ What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item in the case
+ that the level 0 item doesn't have any page numbers (as in
+ '\index{aaa|see{bbb}}'). Default: '"\n \\subitem "'.
+
+'item_12'
+ What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item. Default:
+ '"\n \\subsubitem "'.
+
+'item_x2'
+ What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item, if the
+ level 1 item doesn't have page numbers. Default: '"\n \\subsubitem
+ "'.
+
+'delim_0'
+ Delimiter put between a level 0 key and its first page number.
+ Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'.
+
+'delim_1'
+ Delimiter put between a level 1 key and its first page number.
+ Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'.
+
+'delim_2'
+ Delimiter between a level 2 key and its first page number.
+ Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'.
+
+'delim_n'
+ Delimiter between two page numbers for the same key (at any level).
+ Default: a comma followed by a blank, '", "'.
+
+'delim_r'
+ What is put between the starting and ending page numbers of a
+ range. Default: '"--"'.
+
+'line_max'
+ An integer. Maximum length of an index entry's line in the output,
+ beyond which the line wraps. Default: '72'.
+
+'indent_space'
+ What is inserted at the start of a wrapped line. Default:
+ '"\t\t"'.
+
+'indent_length'
+ A number. The length of the wrapped line indentation. The default
+ 'indent_space' is two tabs and each tab is eight spaces so the
+ default here is '16'.
+
+'page_precedence'
+ A document may have pages numbered in different ways. For example,
+ a book may have front matter pages numbered in lowercase roman
+ while main matter pages are in arabic. This string specifies the
+ order in which they will appear in the index. The 'makeindex'
+ command supports five different types of numerals: lowercase roman
+ 'r', and numeric or arabic 'n', and lowercase alphabetic 'a', and
+ uppercase roman 'R', and uppercase alphabetic 'A'. Default:
+ '"rnaRA"'.
+
+ There are a number of other programs that do the job 'makeindex'
+does. One is 'xindy', which does internationalization and can process
+indexes for documents marked up using LaTeX and a number of other
+languages. It is highly configurable, both in markup terms and in terms
+of the collating order of the text, as described in its documentation.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \printindex, Prev: makeindex, Up: Indexes
+
+25.2.3 '\printindex'
+--------------------
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \printindex
+
+ Place the index into the output.
+
+ To get an index you must first include
+'\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex' in the document preamble and compile
+the document, then run the system command 'makeindex', and then compile
+the document again. *Note Indexes:: for further discussion and an
+example of the use of '\printindex'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Glossaries, Prev: Indexes, Up: Front/back matter
+
+25.3 Glossaries
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
+ ...
+ \newglossaryentry{LABEL}{SETTINGS}
+ ...
+ \gls{LABEL}.
+ ...
+ \printglossaries
+
+ The 'glossaries' package allows you to make glossaries, including
+multiple glossaries, as well as lists of acronyms.
+
+ To get the output from this example, compile the document (for
+instance with 'pdflatex filename'), then run the command line command
+'makeglossaries filename', and then compile the document again.
+
+ \documentclass{...}
+ \usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
+ \newglossaryentry{tm}{%
+ name={Turing machine},
+ description={A model of a machine that computes. The model is simple
+ but can compute anything any existing device can compute.
+ It is the standard model used in Computer Science.},
+ }
+ \begin{document}
+ Everything begins with the definition of a \gls{tm}.
+ ...
+ \printglossaries
+ \end{document}
+
+That gives two things. In the main text it outputs '... definition of a
+Turing machine'. In addition, in a separate sectional unit headed
+'Glossary' there appears a description list. In boldface it says
+'Turing machine' and the rest of the item says in normal type 'A model
+of a machine ... Computer Science'.
+
+ The command '\makeglossary' opens the file that will contain the
+entry information, 'ROOT-FILE.glo'. Put the '\printglossaries' command
+where you want the glossaries to appear in your document.
+
+ The 'glossaries' package is very powerful. For instance, besides the
+commands '\newglossaryentry' and '\gls', there are similar commands for
+a list of acronyms. See the package documentations on CTAN.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \newglossaryentry:: Declare the content of a glossary entry.
+* \gls:: Give a page reference for a glossary entry.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \newglossaryentry, Next: \gls, Up: Glossaries
+
+25.3.1 '\newglossaryentry'
+--------------------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \newglossaryentry{LABEL}
+ {
+ name={NAME},
+ description={DESCRIPTION},
+ OTHER OPTIONS, ...
+ }
+
+ or
+
+ \longnewglossaryentry{LABEL}
+ {
+ name={NAME},
+ OTHER OPTIONS ...,
+ }
+ {DESCRIPTION}
+
+ Declare a new entry for a glossary. The LABEL must be unique for the
+document. The settings associated with the label are pairs:
+'KEY=VALUE'.
+
+ This puts the blackboard bold symbol for the real numbers U+211D in
+the glossary.
+
+ \newglossaryentry{R}
+ {
+ name={\ensuremath{\mathbb{R}}},
+ description={the real numbers},
+ }
+
+ Use the second command form if the DESCRIPTION spans more than one
+paragraph.
+
+ For a full list of KEYs see the package documentation on CTAN but
+here are a few.
+
+'name'
+ (Required.) The word, phrase, or symbol that you are defining.
+
+'description'
+ (Required.) The description that will appear in the glossary. If
+ this has more than one paragraph then you must use the second
+ command form given in the synopsis.
+
+'plural'
+ The plural form of NAME. Refer to the plural form using '\glspl'
+ or '\Glspl' (*note \gls::).
+
+'sort'
+ How to place this entry in the list of entries that the glossary
+ holds.
+
+'symbol'
+ A symbol, such as a mathematical symbol, besides the name.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \gls, Prev: \newglossaryentry, Up: Glossaries
+
+25.3.2 '\gls'
+-------------
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \gls{LABEL}
+ \glspl{LABEL}
+ \Gls{LABEL}
+ \Glspl{LABEL}
+
+ Refer to a glossary entry. The entries are declared with
+'\newglossaryentry' (*note \newglossaryentry::).
+
+ This
+
+ \newglossaryentry{N}{%
+ name={the natural numbers},
+ description={The numbers $0$, $1$, $2$, $\ldots$\@},
+ symbol={\ensuremath{\mathbb{N}}},
+ }
+ ...
+ Consider \gls{N}.
+
+gives the output 'Consider the natural numbers'.
+
+ The second command form '\glspl{LABEL}' produces the plural of NAME
+(by default it tries adding an 's'). The third form capitalizes the
+first letter of NAME, as does the fourth form, which also takes the
+plural.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Letters, Next: Terminal input/output, Prev: Front/back matter, Up: Top
+
+26 Letters
+**********
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \documentclass{letter}
+ \address{SENDERS ADDRESS} % return address
+ \signature{SENDER NAME}
+ \begin{document}
+ \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}
+ \opening{SALUTATION}
+ LETTER BODY
+ \closing{CLOSING TEXT}
+ \end{letter}
+ ...
+ \end{document}
+
+ Produce one or more letters.
+
+ Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument
+RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double
+backslash, ('\\'). For example, you might have:
+
+ \begin{letter}{Ninon de l'Enclos \\
+ l'h\^otel Sagonne}
+ ...
+ \end{letter}
+
+ The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1,
+and the footnote number to 1 also.
+
+ The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters,
+whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As
+with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines
+separated by a double backslash ('\\'). LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME
+under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional
+hand-written signature.
+
+ Each 'letter' environment body begins with a required '\opening'
+command such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'. The LETTER BODY text is
+ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from enumerated lists to
+displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no
+sense in a letter are turned off. Each 'letter' environment body
+typically ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'.
+
+ Additional material may come after the '\closing'. You can say who
+is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\
+the Boss's Boss}'. There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of
+enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'.
+
+ LaTeX's default is to indent the sender name and the closing above it
+by a length of '\longindentation'. By default this is '0.5\textwidth'.
+To make them flush left, put '\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your
+preamble.
+
+ To set a fixed date use something like
+'\renewcommand{\today}{1958-Oct-12}'. If put in your preamble then it
+will apply to all the letters.
+
+ This example shows only one 'letter' environment. The three lines
+marked as optional are typically omitted.
+
+ \documentclass{letter}
+ \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town}
+ \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title}
+ % optional: \location{Mailbox 13}
+ % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101}
+ \begin{document}
+ \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address}
+ \opening{Sir:}
+ % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage}
+ I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you.
+ \closing{Your most humble, etc.,}
+ \end{letter}
+ \end{document}
+
+ These commands are used with the 'letter' class.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \address:: Sender's return address.
+* \cc:: Carbon copy list.
+* \closing:: Saying goodbye.
+* \encl:: List of enclosed material.
+* \location:: Sender's organizational location.
+* \makelabels:: Make address labels.
+* \name:: Sender's name, for the return address.
+* \opening:: Saying hello.
+* \ps:: Adding a postscript.
+* \signature:: Sender's signature.
+* \telephone:: Sender's phone number.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \address, Next: \cc, Up: Letters
+
+26.1 '\address'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \address{SENDERS ADDRESS}
+
+ Specify the return address, as it appears on the letter and on the
+envelope. Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double
+backslash, '\\'.
+
+ Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often
+put in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an
+individual 'letter' environment.
+
+ This command is optional: if you do not use it then the letter is
+formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed
+letterhead paper. If you do use the '\address' declaration then it is
+formatted as a personal letter.
+
+ Here is an example.
+
+ \address{Stephen Maturin \\
+ The Grapes of the Savoy}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \cc, Next: \closing, Prev: \address, Up: Letters
+
+26.2 '\cc'
+==========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \cc{NAME0 \\
+ ... }
+
+ Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent.
+This command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after
+'\closing'. Put the names on different lines by separating them with a
+double backslash, '\\', as in:
+
+ \cc{President \\
+ Vice President}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \closing, Next: \encl, Prev: \cc, Up: Letters
+
+26.3 '\closing'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \closing{TEXT}
+
+ Produce the letter's closing. This is optional, but usual. It
+appears at the end of a letter, above a handwritten signature. For
+example:
+
+ \closing{Regards,}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \encl, Next: \location, Prev: \closing, Up: Letters
+
+26.4 '\encl'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\
+ ... }
+
+ Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is
+optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'.
+Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, '\\'.
+
+ \encl{License \\
+ Passport}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \location, Next: \makelabels, Prev: \encl, Up: Letters
+
+26.5 '\location'
+================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \location{TEXT}
+
+ The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the page. It only appears
+if the page style is 'firstpage'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \makelabels, Next: \name, Prev: \location, Up: Letters
+
+26.6 '\makelabels'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \makelabels % in preamble
+
+ Optional, for a document that contains 'letter' environments. If you
+just put '\makelabels' in the preamble then at the end of the document
+you will get a sheet with labels for all the recipients, one for each
+letter environment, that you can copy to a sheet of peel-off address
+labels.
+
+ Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels',
+'\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' (and perhaps '\name') in the preamble.
+The command '\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns,
+etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed. The command
+'\mlabel{RETURN ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or
+one, if you choose to ignore the RETURN ADDRESS) for each letter
+environment. The first argument, RETURN ADDRESS, is the value returned
+by the macro '\returnaddress'. The second argument, RECIPIENT ADDRESS,
+is the value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment. By
+default '\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the RETURN ADDRESS,
+causing the default behavior described in the prior paragraph.
+
+ This illustrates customization. Its output includes a page with two
+columns having two labels each.
+
+ \documentclass{letter}
+ \renewcommand*{\returnaddress}{Fred McGuilicuddy \\
+ Oshkosh, Mineola 12305}
+ \newcommand*\originalMlabel{}
+ \let\originalMlabel\mlabel
+ \def\mlabel#1#2{\originalMlabel{}{#1}\originalMlabel{}{#2}}
+ \makelabels
+ ...
+ \begin{document}
+ \begin{letter}{A Einstein \\
+ 112 Mercer Street \\
+ Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540}
+ ...
+ \end{letter}
+ \begin{letter}{K G\"odel \\
+ 145 Linden Lane \\
+ Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540}
+ ...
+ \end{letter}
+ \end{document}
+
+The first column contains the return address twice. The second column
+contains the address for each recipient.
+
+ The package 'envlab' makes formatting the labels easier, with
+standard sizes already provided. The preamble lines
+'\usepackage[personalenvelope]{envlab}' and '\makelabels' are all that
+you need to print envelopes.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \name, Next: \opening, Prev: \makelabels, Up: Letters
+
+26.7 '\name'
+============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \name{NAME}
+
+ Optional. Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together
+with the return address.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \opening, Next: \ps, Prev: \name, Up: Letters
+
+26.8 '\opening'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \opening{SALUTATION}
+
+ Required. Follows the '\begin{letter}{...}'. The argument
+SALUTATION is mandatory. For instance:
+
+ \opening{Dear John:}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \ps, Next: \signature, Prev: \opening, Up: Letters
+
+26.9 '\ps'
+==========
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \ps{TEXT}
+
+ Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after
+'\closing'.
+
+ \ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \signature, Next: \telephone, Prev: \ps, Up: Letters
+
+26.10 '\signature'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \signature{FIRST LINE \\
+ ... }
+
+ The sender's name. This command is optional, although its inclusion
+is usual.
+
+ The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the
+closing. LaTeX leaves some vertical space for a handwritten signature.
+Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, '\\'. For example:
+
+ \signature{J Fred Muggs \\
+ White House}
+
+ LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down
+to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times
+'\medskipamount' (where '\medskipamount' is equal to a '\parskip', which
+in turn is defined by default here to 0.7em).
+
+ This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters
+in the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a
+'letter' environment and before the '\closing'.
+
+ You can include a graphic in the signature as here.
+
+ \signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\
+ My name}
+
+For this you must put '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble (*note
+Graphics::).
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \telephone, Prev: \signature, Up: Letters
+
+26.11 '\telephone'
+==================
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \telephone{NUMBER}
+
+ The sender's telephone number. This is typically in the preamble,
+where it applies to all letters. This only appears if the 'firstpage'
+pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the
+page.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Terminal input/output, Next: Command line, Prev: Letters, Up: Top
+
+27 Terminal input/output
+************************
+
+* Menu:
+
+* \typein:: Read text from the terminal.
+* \typeout:: Write text to the terminal.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \typein, Next: \typeout, Up: Terminal input/output
+
+27.1 '\typein'
+==============
+
+Synopsis, one of:
+
+ \typein{PROMPT-MSG}
+ \typein[CMD]{PROMPT-MSG}
+
+ Print PROMPT-MSG on the terminal and cause LaTeX to stop and wait for
+you to type a line of input. This line of input ends when you hit the
+return key.
+
+ For example, this
+
+ As long as I live I shall never forget \typein{Enter student name:}
+
+coupled with this command line interaction
+
+ Enter student name:
+
+ \@typein=Aphra Behn
+
+gives the output '... never forget Aphra Behn'.
+
+ The first command version, '\typein{PROMPT-MSG}', causes the input
+you typed to be processed as if it had been included in the input file
+in place of the '\typein' command.
+
+ In the second command version the optional argument 'CMD' argument
+must be a command name -- it must begin with a backslash, \. This
+command name is then defined or redefined to be the input that you
+typed. For example, this
+
+ \typein[\student]{Enter student name:}
+ \typeout{Recommendation for \student .}
+
+gives this output on the command line,
+
+ Enter student name:
+
+ \student=John Dee
+ Recommendation for John Dee.
+
+where the user has entered 'John Dee.'
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: \typeout, Prev: \typein, Up: Terminal input/output
+
+27.2 '\typeout'
+===============
+
+Synopsis:
+
+ \typeout{MSG}
+
+ Print 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file.
+
+ This
+
+ \newcommand{\student}{John Dee}
+ \typeout{Recommendation for \student .}
+
+outputs 'Recommendation for John Dee'. Like what happens here with
+'\student', commands that are defined with '\newcommand' or
+'\renewcommand' (among others) are replaced by their definitions before
+being printed.
+
+ LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
+and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'. As above, use
+the command '\space' to get a single space, independent of surrounding
+spaces. Use '^^J' to get a newline. Get a percent character with
+'\csname @percentchar\endcsname'.
+
+ This command can be useful for simple debugging, as here:
+
+ \newlength{\jhlength}
+ \setlength{\jhlength}{5pt}
+ \typeout{The length is \the\jhlength.}
+
+produces on the command line 'The length is 5.0pt'.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line, Next: Document templates, Prev: Terminal input/output, Up: Top
+
+28 Command line
+***************
+
+Synopsis (from a terminal command line):
+
+ pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT
+
+ Run LaTeX on ARGUMENT. In place of 'pdflatex' you can also use
+'xelatex', or 'lualatex', or 'dviluatex', or 'latex'.
+
+ For example, this will run LaTeX on the file 'thesis.tex', creating
+the output 'thesis.pdf'.
+
+ pdflatex thesis
+
+Note that '.tex' is the default file extension.
+
+ pdfTeX is a development of the original TeX program, as are XeTeX and
+LuaTeX (*note TeX engines::). They are completely backward compatible.
+But the original program had a custom output format, DVI, while the
+newer ones can output directly to PDF. This allows them to take
+advantage of the extra features in PDF such as hyperlinks, support for
+modern image formats such as JPG and PNG, and ubiquitous viewing
+programs. In short, if you run 'pdflatex' or 'xelatex' or 'lualatex'
+then you will by default get PDF and have access to all its modern
+features. If you run 'latex', or 'dvilualatex', then you will get DVI.
+The description here assumes pdfLaTeX.
+
+ *Note Command line options::, for a selection of the most useful
+command line options. As to ARGUMENT, the usual case is that it does
+not begin with a backslash, so the system takes it to be the name of a
+file and it compiles that file. If ARGUMENT begins with a backslash
+then the system will interpret it as a line of LaTeX input, which can be
+used for special effects (*note Command line input::).
+
+ If you gave no arguments or options then 'pdflatex' prompts for input
+from the terminal. You can escape from this by entering '<control>-D'.
+
+ If LaTeX finds an error in your document then by default it stops and
+asks you about it. *Note Recovering from errors:: for an outline of
+what to do.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* Command line options:: Read text from the terminal.
+* Command line input:: Write text to the terminal.
+* Recovering from errors:: When something goes wrong.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line options, Next: Command line input, Up: Command line
+
+28.1 Command line options
+=========================
+
+These are the command-line options relevant to ordinary document
+authoring. For a full list, try running 'latex --help' from the command
+line.
+
+ With many implementations you can specify command line options by
+prefixing them with '-' or '--'. This is the case for both TeX Live
+(and MacTeX) and MiKTeX. We will use both conventions interchangeably.
+
+'-version'
+ Show the current version, like 'pdfTeX 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.16 (TeX
+ Live 2015/Debian)' along with a small amount of additional
+ information, and exit.
+
+'-help'
+ Give a brief usage message that is useful as a prompt and exit.
+
+'-interaction=MODE'
+ TeX compiles a document in one of four interaction modes:
+ 'batchmode', 'nonstopmode', 'scrollmode', 'errorstopmode'. In
+ "errorstop mode" (the default), TeX stops at each error and asks
+ for user intervention. In "batch mode" it prints nothing on the
+ terminal, errors are scrolled as if the user hit '<return>' at
+ every error, and missing files cause the job to abort. In "nonstop
+ mode", diagnostic message appear on the terminal but as in batch
+ mode there is no user interaction. In "scroll mode", TeX only
+ stops for missing files or keyboard input.
+
+ For instance, starting LaTeX with this command line
+
+ pdflatex -interaction=batchmode FILENAME
+
+ eliminates most terminal output.
+
+'-jobname=STRING'
+ Set the value of TeX's 'jobname' to the string. The log file and
+ output file will then be named 'STRING.log' and 'STRING.pdf'.
+
+ When you run 'pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT', if ARGUMENT does not
+ start with a backslash then TeX considers it the name of a file to
+ input. Otherwise it waits for the first '\input' instruction and
+ the name of the input file will be the job name. This is used to
+ name the log file the output file. The 'jobname' option overrides
+ that process and directly specifies the name. *Note Command line
+ input:: for an example of its use.
+
+'-output-directory=DIRECTORY'
+ Write files in the directory DIRECTORY. It must already exist.
+
+'--shell-escape'
+'--no-shell-escape'
+'--enable-write18'
+'--disable-write18'
+ Enable or disable '\write18{SHELL COMMAND}'. The first two options
+ are for with TeX Live or MacTeX while the second two are for
+ MiKTeX.
+
+ Sometimes you want to run external system commands from inside a
+ LaTeX file. For instance the package 'sagetex' allows you to have
+ the mathematics software system Sage do calculations or draw graphs
+ and then incorporate that output in your document. For this TeX
+ provides the '\write18' command.
+
+ But with this functionality enabled, security issues could happen
+ if you compiled a LaTeX file from the Internet. By default
+ '\write18' is disabled. (More precisely, by default TeX Live,
+ MacTeX, and MiKTeX only allow the execution of a limited number of
+ TeX-related programs, which they distribute.)
+
+ If you invoke LaTeX with the option 'no-shell-escape', and in your
+ document you call '\write18{ls -l}', then you do not get an error
+ but the log file says 'runsystem(ls -l)...disabled'.
+
+'-halt-on-error'
+ Stop processing at the first error.
+
+'-file-line-error'
+'-no-file-line-error'
+ Enable or disable 'FILENAME:LINENO:ERROR'-style error messages.
+ These are only available with TeX Live or MacTeX.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Command line input, Next: Recovering from errors, Prev: Command line options, Up: Command line
+
+28.2 Command line input
+=======================
+
+As part of the command line invocation 'pdflatex OPTIONS ARGUMENT' you
+can specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting ARGUMENT with a backslash.
+This allows you to do some special effects.
+
+ For example, this file (which uses the 'hyperref' package for
+hyperlinks) can produce two kinds of output, one for paper and one for a
+PDF.
+
+ \ifdefined\paperversion % in preamble
+ \newcommand{\urlcolor}{black}
+ \else
+ \newcommand{\urlcolor}{blue}
+ \fi
+ \usepackage[colorlinks=true,urlcolor=\urlcolor]{hyperref}
+ ...
+ \href{https://www.ctan.org}{CTAN} % in body
+ ...
+
+Compiling this document 'book.tex' with the command line 'pdflatex book'
+will give the 'CTAN' link in blue. But compiling it with 'pdflatex
+"\def\paperversion{}\input book.tex"' has the link in black. (Note the
+use of double quotes to prevent interpretation of the symbols by the
+command line shell; your system may do this differently.)
+
+ In a similar way, from the single file 'main.tex' you can compile two
+different versions.
+
+ pdflatex -jobname=students "\def\student{}\input{main}"
+ pdflatex -jobname=teachers "\def\teachers{}\input{main}"
+
+The 'jobname' option is there because otherwise both files would be
+called 'main.pdf' and the second would overwrite the first.
+
+ A final example. This loads the package 'graphicx' with the option
+'draft'
+
+ pdflatex -jobname=aa "\RequirePackage[draft]{graphicx}\input{aa.tex}"
+
+so the graphic files are read for their size information but not
+incorporated into the PDF. (The 'jobname' option is there because
+otherwise the output file would be 'graphicx.pdf', as '\RequirePackage'
+does an '\input' of its own.)
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Recovering from errors, Prev: Command line input, Up: Command line
+
+28.3 Recovering from errors
+===========================
+
+If LaTeX finds an error in your document then it gives you an error
+message and prompts you with a question mark, '?'. For instance,
+running LaTeX on this file
+
+ \newcommand{\NP}{\ensuremath{\textbf{NP}}}
+ The \PN{} problem is a million dollar one.
+
+causes it show this, and wait for input.
+
+ ! Undefined control sequence.
+ l.5 The \PN
+ {} problem is a million dollar one.
+ ?
+
+The simplest thing is to enter 'x' and '<return>' and fix the typo. You
+could instead enter '?' and '<return>' to see other options.
+
+ There are two other error scenarios. The first is that you forgot to
+include the '\end{document}' or misspelled it. In this case LaTeX gives
+you a '*' prompt. You can get back to the command line by typing
+'\stop' and '<return>'.
+
+ The last scenario is that you mistyped the file name. For instance,
+instead of 'pdflatex test' you might type 'pdflatex tste'.
+
+ ! I can't find file `tste'.
+ <*> tste
+
+ (Press Enter to retry, or Control-D to exit)
+ Please type another input file name:
+
+The simplest thing is to enter '<Control>' and 'd' (holding them down at
+the same time), and then retype the correct command line.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Document templates, Next: Index, Prev: Command line, Up: Top
+
+Appendix A Document templates
+*****************************
+
+Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will
+be useful. Additional template resources are listed at
+<http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates>.
+
+* Menu:
+
+* beamer template::
+* article template::
+* book template::
+* Larger book template::
+* tugboat template::
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: beamer template, Next: article template, Up: Document templates
+
+A.1 'beamer' template
+=====================
+
+The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of
+features, but here is a basic template:
+
+\documentclass{beamer}
+
+\title{Beamer Class template}
+\author{Alex Author}
+\date{July 31, 2007}
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\maketitle
+
+% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
+\begin{frame}[fragile]
+ \frametitle{First Slide}
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+ This is \verbatim!
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\end{frame}
+
+\end{document}
+
+ One web resource for this:
+<http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/>.
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: article template, Next: book template, Prev: beamer template, Up: Document templates
+
+A.2 'article' template
+======================
+
+\documentclass{article}
+\title{Article Class Template}
+\author{Alex Author}
+
+\begin{document}
+\maketitle
+
+\section{First section}
+Some text.
+
+\subsection{First section, first subsection}
+Additional text.
+
+\section{Second section}
+Some more text.
+\end{document}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: book template, Next: Larger book template, Prev: article template, Up: Document templates
+
+A.3 'book' template
+===================
+
+This is a straightforward template for a book. See *Note Larger book
+template:: for a more elaborate one.
+
+\documentclass{book}
+\title{Book Class Template}
+\author{Alex Author}
+
+\begin{document}
+\maketitle
+
+\chapter{First}
+Some text.
+
+\chapter{Second}
+Some other text.
+
+\section{A subtopic}
+The end.
+\end{document}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Larger book template, Next: tugboat template, Prev: book template, Up: Document templates
+
+A.4 Larger 'book' template
+==========================
+
+This is a more elaborate template for a book. It has '\frontmatter',
+'\mainmatter', and '\backmatter' to control the typography of the three
+main areas of a book (*note \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter::).
+The book has a bibliography and an index.
+
+ Notable is that it uses '\include' and '\includeonly' (*note
+Splitting the input::). While you are working on a chapter you can
+comment out all the other chapter entries from the argument to
+'\includeonly'. That will speed up compilation without losing any
+information such as cross-references. (Material that does not need to
+come on a new page is brought in with '\input' instead of '\include'.
+You don't get the cross-reference benefit this way.)
+
+\documentclass[titlepage]{book}
+\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex
+
+\title{Book Class Template}
+\author{Alex Author}
+
+\includeonly{%
+ frontcover,
+ preface,
+ chap1,
+ ...
+ }
+\begin{document}
+\frontmatter
+\include{frontcover}
+ % maybe comment out while drafting:
+\maketitle \input{dedication} \input{copyright}
+\tableofcontents
+\include{preface}
+\mainmatter
+\include{chap1}
+...
+\appendix
+\include{appena}
+...
+\backmatter
+\bibliographystyle{apalike}
+\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Bibliography}
+\bibliography
+\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Index}
+\printindex
+\include{backcover}
+\end{document}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: tugboat template, Prev: Larger book template, Up: Document templates
+
+A.5 'tugboat' template
+======================
+
+'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group,
+<http://tug.org/TUGboat>.
+
+\documentclass{ltugboat}
+
+\usepackage{graphicx}
+\usepackage{ifpdf}
+\ifpdf
+\usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref}
+\else
+\usepackage{url}
+\fi
+
+%%% Start of metadata %%%
+
+\title{Example \TUB\ article}
+
+% repeat info for each author.
+\author{First Last}
+\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
+\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
+\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}
+
+%%% End of metadata %%%
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\maketitle
+
+\begin{abstract}
+This is an example article for \TUB{}.
+Please write an abstract.
+\end{abstract}
+
+\section{Introduction}
+
+This is an example article for \TUB, linked from
+\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.
+
+We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the
+\texttt{hyperref} package if active urls are desired (in the \acro{PDF}
+output). Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.
+
+The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations (and many more):
+% verbatim blocks are often better in \small
+\begin{verbatim}[\small]
+\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
+\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
+\ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
+\mf \MFB
+\plain \POBox \PS
+\SGML \TANGLE \TB \TP
+\TUB \TUG \tug
+\UNIX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE
+
+\, \bull \Dash \dash \hyph
+
+\acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use!
+\cs{fred} -> \fred
+\meta{fred} -> <fred>
+\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ...
+\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
+\booktitle{Book of Fred}
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For references to other \TUB\ issue, please use the format
+\textsl{volno:issno}, e.g., ``\TUB\ 32:1'' for our \nth{100} issue.
+
+This file is just a template. The \TUB\ style documentation is the
+\texttt{ltubguid} document at \url{http://ctan.org/pkg/tugboat}. (For
+\CTAN\ references, where sensible we recommend that form of url, using
+\texttt{/pkg/}; or, if you need to refer to a specific file location,
+\texttt{http://mirror.ctan.org/\textsl{path}}.)
+
+Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.
+
+\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style
+\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty
+\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX
+
+\makesignature
+\end{document}
+
+
+File: latex2e.info, Node: Index, Prev: Document templates, Up: Top
+
+Index
+*****
+
+
+* Menu:
+
+* &: tabular. (line 32)
+* * prompt: Recovering from errors.
+ (line 23)
+* *-form of environment commands: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
+ (line 27)
+* *-form of sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 31)
+* *-form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 25)
+* --disable-write18 command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 54)
+* --enable-write18 command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 54)
+* --file-line-error command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 81)
+* --halt-on-error command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 78)
+* --help command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 19)
+* --interaction command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 22)
+* --jobname command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 39)
+* --no-file-line-error command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 81)
+* --no-shell-escape command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 54)
+* --output-directory command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 51)
+* --shell-escape command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 54)
+* --version command-line option: Command line options.
+ (line 14)
+* .aux file: Output files. (line 33)
+* .dvi file: Output files. (line 10)
+* .glo file: Glossaries. (line 43)
+* .idx file: Indexes. (line 6)
+* .idx file <1>: makeindex. (line 6)
+* .ind file: makeindex. (line 6)
+* .isty file: makeindex. (line 18)
+* .lof file: Output files. (line 43)
+* .lof file <1>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* .log file: Output files. (line 28)
+* .lot file: Output files. (line 43)
+* .lot file <1>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* .pdf file: Output files. (line 20)
+* .tex, default extension: Command line. (line 18)
+* .toc file: Output files. (line 43)
+* .toc file <1>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* .xdv file: TeX engines. (line 39)
+* 10pt option: Document class options.
+ (line 14)
+* 11pt option: Document class options.
+ (line 14)
+* 12pt option: Document class options.
+ (line 14)
+* :: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 6)
+* : <1>: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 6)
+* [...] for optional arguments: LaTeX command syntax.
+ (line 6)
+* \ character starting commands: LaTeX command syntax.
+ (line 6)
+* \!: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 46)
+* \" (umlaut accent): Accents. (line 23)
+* \#: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \$: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \%: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \&: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \' (acute accent): Accents. (line 27)
+* \' (tabbing): tabbing. (line 87)
+* \*: \*. (line 6)
+* \+: tabbing. (line 79)
+* \,: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 32)
+* \-: tabbing. (line 83)
+* \- (hyphenation): \- (hyphenation). (line 6)
+* \. (dot-over accent): Accents. (line 30)
+* \/: \/. (line 6)
+* \:: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 28)
+* \;: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 23)
+* \<: tabbing. (line 75)
+* \= (macron accent): Accents. (line 34)
+* \= (tabbing): tabbing. (line 69)
+* \>: tabbing. (line 73)
+* \> <1>: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 28)
+* \> (tabbing): tabbing. (line 72)
+* \@: \@. (line 6)
+* \@beginparpenalty: list. (line 241)
+* \@endparpenalty: list. (line 249)
+* \@fnsymbol: \footnote. (line 24)
+* \@ifstar: \@ifstar. (line 6)
+* \@itempenalty: list. (line 245)
+* \@startsection: \@startsection. (line 6)
+* \a (tabbing): tabbing. (line 102)
+* \a' (acute accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 103)
+* \a= (macron accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 103)
+* \aa (aa): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 12)
+* \AA (AA): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 12)
+* \acute: Math accents. (line 10)
+* \addcontentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 6)
+* \address: \address. (line 6)
+* \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}: \addtocontents. (line 6)
+* \addtocounter: \addtocounter. (line 6)
+* \addtolength: \addtolength. (line 6)
+* \addvspace: \addvspace. (line 6)
+* \ae (ae): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 16)
+* \AE (AE): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 16)
+* \aleph: Math symbols. (line 21)
+* \Alph example: enumerate. (line 61)
+* \alpha: Math symbols. (line 24)
+* \alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 14)
+* \Alph{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 19)
+* \alsoname: \index. (line 56)
+* \amalg: Math symbols. (line 27)
+* \and for \author: \maketitle. (line 43)
+* \angle: Math symbols. (line 30)
+* \appendix: \appendix. (line 6)
+* \approx: Math symbols. (line 35)
+* \arabic{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 24)
+* \arccos: Math functions. (line 9)
+* \arcsin: Math functions. (line 12)
+* \arctan: Math functions. (line 15)
+* \arg: Math functions. (line 18)
+* \arraycolsep: array. (line 51)
+* \arrayrulewidth: tabular. (line 157)
+* \arraystretch: tabular. (line 163)
+* \ast: Math symbols. (line 38)
+* \asymp: Math symbols. (line 47)
+* \AtBeginDocument: \AtBeginDocument. (line 6)
+* \AtBeginDvi: Class and package commands.
+ (line 9)
+* \AtEndDocument: \AtEndDocument. (line 6)
+* \AtEndOfClass: Class and package commands.
+ (line 14)
+* \AtEndOfPackage: Class and package commands.
+ (line 14)
+* \author{NAME1 \and NAME2 \and ...}: \maketitle. (line 42)
+* \a` (grave accent in tabbing): tabbing. (line 103)
+* \b (bar-under accent): Accents. (line 49)
+* \backmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* \backslash: Math symbols. (line 50)
+* \bar: Math accents. (line 13)
+* \baselineskip: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 101)
+* \baselinestretch: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 111)
+* \begin: Environments. (line 6)
+* \beta: Math symbols. (line 54)
+* \bf: Font styles. (line 74)
+* \bfseries: Font styles. (line 39)
+* \bibitem: \bibitem. (line 6)
+* \bibliography: Using BibTeX. (line 6)
+* \bibliographystyle: Using BibTeX. (line 6)
+* \bigcap: Math symbols. (line 57)
+* \bigcirc: Math symbols. (line 61)
+* \bigcup: Math symbols. (line 65)
+* \bigodot: Math symbols. (line 69)
+* \bigoplus: Math symbols. (line 72)
+* \bigotimes: Math symbols. (line 75)
+* \bigskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip.
+ (line 28)
+* \bigskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip.
+ (line 29)
+* \bigsqcup: Math symbols. (line 86)
+* \bigtriangledown: Math symbols. (line 78)
+* \bigtriangleup: Math symbols. (line 82)
+* \biguplus: Math symbols. (line 89)
+* \bigvee: Math symbols. (line 93)
+* \bigwedge: Math symbols. (line 96)
+* \bmod: Math functions. (line 21)
+* \boldmath: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 6)
+* \boldmath <1>: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 14)
+* \bot: Math symbols. (line 99)
+* \bottomfraction: Floats. (line 94)
+* \bottomfraction <1>: Floats. (line 95)
+* \bowtie: Math symbols. (line 104)
+* \Box: Math symbols. (line 107)
+* \breve: Math accents. (line 16)
+* \bullet: Math symbols. (line 112)
+* \c (cedilla accent): Accents. (line 59)
+* \cal: Font styles. (line 77)
+* \cap: Math symbols. (line 115)
+* \capitalacute: Accents. (line 27)
+* \capitalbreve: Accents. (line 85)
+* \capitalcaron: Accents. (line 89)
+* \capitalcedilla: Accents. (line 59)
+* \capitalcircumflex: Accents. (line 38)
+* \capitaldieresis: Accents. (line 23)
+* \capitaldotaccent: Accents. (line 63)
+* \capitalgrave: Accents. (line 42)
+* \capitalhungarumlaut: Accents. (line 67)
+* \capitalmacron: Accents. (line 34)
+* \capitalnewtie: Accents. (line 81)
+* \capitalogonek: Accents. (line 71)
+* \capitalring: Accents. (line 75)
+* \capitaltie: Accents. (line 81)
+* \capitaltilde: Accents. (line 46)
+* \caption: figure. (line 44)
+* \caption <1>: table. (line 44)
+* \cc: \cc. (line 6)
+* \cdot: Math symbols. (line 120)
+* \cdots: Dots. (line 17)
+* \centering: \centering. (line 6)
+* \chapter: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* \chapter <1>: \chapter. (line 6)
+* \check: Math accents. (line 19)
+* \CheckCommand: Class and package commands.
+ (line 21)
+* \CheckCommand*: Class and package commands.
+ (line 21)
+* \chi: Math symbols. (line 123)
+* \circ: Math symbols. (line 126)
+* \circle: \circle. (line 6)
+* \cite: \cite. (line 6)
+* \ClassError: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \ClassInfo: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \ClassInfoNoLine: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \ClassWarning: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \ClassWarningNoLine: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \cleardoublepage: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage.
+ (line 6)
+* \clearpage: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage.
+ (line 6)
+* \cline: \cline. (line 6)
+* \closing: \closing. (line 6)
+* \clubsuit: Math symbols. (line 131)
+* \colon: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 6)
+* \columnsep: \twocolumn. (line 20)
+* \columnsep <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* \columnsep <2>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 9)
+* \columnseprule: \twocolumn. (line 26)
+* \columnseprule <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 7)
+* \columnseprule <2>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 9)
+* \columnwidth: \twocolumn. (line 33)
+* \columnwidth <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 8)
+* \columnwidth <2>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 9)
+* \complement: Math symbols. (line 134)
+* \cong: Math symbols. (line 140)
+* \contentsline: \addcontentsline. (line 10)
+* \coprod: Math symbols. (line 143)
+* \copyright: Text symbols. (line 11)
+* \cos: Math functions. (line 24)
+* \cosh: Math functions. (line 27)
+* \cot: Math functions. (line 30)
+* \coth: Math functions. (line 33)
+* \csc: Math functions. (line 36)
+* \cup: Math symbols. (line 146)
+* \CurrentOption: Class and package commands.
+ (line 60)
+* \d (dot-under accent): Accents. (line 63)
+* \dag: Text symbols. (line 15)
+* \dagger: Math symbols. (line 151)
+* \dashbox: \dashbox. (line 6)
+* \dashv: Math symbols. (line 154)
+* \date{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 50)
+* \day: \day & \month & \year.
+ (line 6)
+* \dblfloatpagefraction: \twocolumn. (line 66)
+* \dblfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 72)
+* \dbltextfloatsep: \twocolumn. (line 79)
+* \dbltopfraction: \twocolumn. (line 45)
+* \dbltopnumber: \twocolumn. (line 84)
+* \ddag: Text symbols. (line 18)
+* \ddagger: Math symbols. (line 158)
+* \ddot: Math accents. (line 22)
+* \ddots: Dots. (line 21)
+* \DeclareGraphicsExtensions: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions.
+ (line 6)
+* \DeclareGraphicsRule: \DeclareGraphicsRule.
+ (line 6)
+* \DeclareOption: Class and package commands.
+ (line 66)
+* \DeclareOption*: Class and package commands.
+ (line 66)
+* \DeclareRobustCommand: Class and package commands.
+ (line 96)
+* \DeclareRobustCommand*: Class and package commands.
+ (line 96)
+* \deg: Math functions. (line 39)
+* \Delta: Math symbols. (line 161)
+* \delta: Math symbols. (line 164)
+* \det: Math functions. (line 42)
+* \dh (d): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 20)
+* \DH (D): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 20)
+* \Diamond: Math symbols. (line 167)
+* \diamond: Math symbols. (line 171)
+* \diamondsuit: Math symbols. (line 175)
+* \dim: Math functions. (line 45)
+* \displaystyle: Math formulas. (line 61)
+* \div: Math symbols. (line 178)
+* \dj: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 26)
+* \DJ: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 26)
+* \documentclass: Document classes. (line 6)
+* \dot: Math accents. (line 25)
+* \doteq: Math symbols. (line 181)
+* \dotfill: \hrulefill & \dotfill.
+ (line 6)
+* \dots: Text symbols. (line 35)
+* \doublerulesep: tabular. (line 168)
+* \downarrow: Math symbols. (line 185)
+* \Downarrow: Math symbols. (line 189)
+* \ell: Math symbols. (line 193)
+* \emph: Font styles. (line 59)
+* \emptyset: Math symbols. (line 196)
+* \encl: \encl. (line 6)
+* \end: Environments. (line 6)
+* \endinput: \endinput. (line 6)
+* \enlargethispage: \enlargethispage. (line 6)
+* \enspace: \enspace & \quad & \qquad.
+ (line 6)
+* \enumi: enumerate. (line 47)
+* \enumii: enumerate. (line 47)
+* \enumiii: enumerate. (line 47)
+* \enumiv: enumerate. (line 47)
+* \epsilon: Math symbols. (line 200)
+* \equiv: Math symbols. (line 206)
+* \eta: Math symbols. (line 209)
+* \evensidemargin: Document class options.
+ (line 84)
+* \evensidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 67)
+* \evensidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 68)
+* \ExecuteOptions: Class and package commands.
+ (line 172)
+* \exists: Math symbols. (line 212)
+* \exp: Math functions. (line 48)
+* \extracolsep: tabular. (line 108)
+* \fbox: \fbox & \framebox. (line 6)
+* \fboxrule: \framebox (picture). (line 31)
+* \fboxrule <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 39)
+* \fboxrule <2>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 38)
+* \fboxsep: \framebox (picture). (line 31)
+* \fboxsep <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 44)
+* \fboxsep <2>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 43)
+* \fill: \hfill. (line 18)
+* \flat: Math symbols. (line 215)
+* \floatpagefraction: Floats. (line 98)
+* \floatpagefraction <1>: Floats. (line 99)
+* \floatsep: Floats. (line 114)
+* \floatsep <1>: Floats. (line 115)
+* \flushbottom: \flushbottom. (line 6)
+* \fnsymbol, and footnotes: \footnote. (line 24)
+* \fnsymbol{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 37)
+* \fontencoding: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 11)
+* \fontfamily: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 21)
+* \fontseries: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 48)
+* \fontshape: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 88)
+* \fontsize: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 101)
+* \footnote: \footnote. (line 6)
+* \footnotemark: \footnotemark. (line 6)
+* \footnoterule: \footnote. (line 34)
+* \footnotesep: \footnote. (line 46)
+* \footnotesize: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \footnotetext: \footnotetext. (line 6)
+* \footskip: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 26)
+* \footskip <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 27)
+* \forall: Math symbols. (line 218)
+* \frac: \frac. (line 6)
+* \frame: \frame. (line 6)
+* \framebox: \framebox (picture). (line 6)
+* \framebox <1>: \fbox & \framebox. (line 6)
+* \frenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 6)
+* \frontmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* \frown: Math symbols. (line 221)
+* \fussy: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6)
+* \Gamma: Math symbols. (line 224)
+* \gamma: Math symbols. (line 227)
+* \gcd: Math functions. (line 51)
+* \ge: Math symbols. (line 230)
+* \geq: Math symbols. (line 234)
+* \gets: Math symbols. (line 238)
+* \gg: Math symbols. (line 241)
+* \gls: \gls. (line 6)
+* \graphicspath: \graphicspath. (line 6)
+* \graphpaper: \graphpaper. (line 6)
+* \grave: Math accents. (line 28)
+* \guillemotleft (<<): Text symbols. (line 27)
+* \guillemotright (>>): Text symbols. (line 28)
+* \guilsinglleft (<): Text symbols. (line 29)
+* \guilsinglright (>): Text symbols. (line 30)
+* \H (Hungarian umlaut accent): Accents. (line 67)
+* \hat: Math accents. (line 31)
+* \hbar: Math symbols. (line 245)
+* \headheight: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 14)
+* \headheight <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 15)
+* \headsep: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 19)
+* \headsep <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 20)
+* \heartsuit: Math symbols. (line 248)
+* \hfill: \hfill. (line 6)
+* \hline: \hline. (line 6)
+* \hom: Math functions. (line 54)
+* \hookleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 251)
+* \hookrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 254)
+* \hrulefill: \hrulefill & \dotfill.
+ (line 6)
+* \hsize: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 119)
+* \hsize <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 119)
+* \hspace: \hspace. (line 6)
+* \hss: \hss. (line 6)
+* \huge: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \Huge: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \hyphenation: \hyphenation. (line 6)
+* \i (dotless i): Accents. (line 17)
+* \iff: Math symbols. (line 257)
+* \IfFileExists: Class and package commands.
+ (line 128)
+* \ignorespaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend.
+ (line 6)
+* \ignorespacesafterend: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend.
+ (line 6)
+* \ij (ij): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 32)
+* \IJ (IJ): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 32)
+* \Im: Math symbols. (line 261)
+* \imath: Math symbols. (line 264)
+* \in: Math symbols. (line 268)
+* \include: \include & \includeonly.
+ (line 6)
+* \includegraphics: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* \includeonly: \include & \includeonly.
+ (line 6)
+* \indent: \indent & \noindent. (line 6)
+* \index: Indexes. (line 6)
+* \index <1>: \index. (line 6)
+* \indexentry: \index. (line 106)
+* \indexspace: makeindex. (line 58)
+* \inf: Math functions. (line 57)
+* \infty: Math symbols. (line 273)
+* \input: \input. (line 6)
+* \InputIfFileExists: Class and package commands.
+ (line 128)
+* \int: Math symbols. (line 276)
+* \intextsep: Floats. (line 118)
+* \intextsep <1>: Floats. (line 119)
+* \iota: Math symbols. (line 279)
+* \it: Font styles. (line 80)
+* \item: description. (line 31)
+* \item <1>: enumerate. (line 29)
+* \item <2>: itemize. (line 6)
+* \item <3>: itemize. (line 28)
+* \itemindent: list. (line 83)
+* \itemsep: list. (line 87)
+* \itshape: Font styles. (line 33)
+* \j (dotless j): Accents. (line 17)
+* \jmath: Math symbols. (line 286)
+* \Join: Math symbols. (line 282)
+* \k (ogonek): Accents. (line 71)
+* \kappa: Math symbols. (line 290)
+* \ker: Math functions. (line 60)
+* \kill: tabbing. (line 107)
+* \l (/l): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 36)
+* \L (/L): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 36)
+* \label: \label. (line 6)
+* \labelenumi: enumerate. (line 56)
+* \labelenumii: enumerate. (line 56)
+* \labelenumiii: enumerate. (line 56)
+* \labelenumiv: enumerate. (line 56)
+* \labelitemi: itemize. (line 35)
+* \labelitemii: itemize. (line 35)
+* \labelitemiii: itemize. (line 35)
+* \labelitemiv: itemize. (line 35)
+* \labelsep: list. (line 99)
+* \labelwidth: list. (line 104)
+* \Lambda: Math symbols. (line 293)
+* \lambda: Math symbols. (line 296)
+* \land: Math symbols. (line 299)
+* \langle: Math symbols. (line 304)
+* \large: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \Large: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \LARGE: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 21)
+* \LaTeXe: Text symbols. (line 24)
+* \lbrace: Math symbols. (line 309)
+* \lbrack: Math symbols. (line 313)
+* \lceil: Math symbols. (line 317)
+* \ldots: Dots. (line 25)
+* \ldots <1>: Text symbols. (line 34)
+* \le: Math symbols. (line 321)
+* \leadsto: Math symbols. (line 325)
+* \left: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* \Leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 332)
+* \leftarrow: Math symbols. (line 337)
+* \lefteqn: eqnarray. (line 46)
+* \leftharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 341)
+* \leftharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 344)
+* \leftmargin: itemize. (line 54)
+* \leftmargin <1>: list. (line 124)
+* \leftmargini: itemize. (line 54)
+* \leftmarginii: itemize. (line 54)
+* \leftmarginiii: itemize. (line 54)
+* \leftmarginiv: itemize. (line 54)
+* \leftmarginv: itemize. (line 54)
+* \leftmarginvi: itemize. (line 54)
+* \Leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 347)
+* \leftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 352)
+* \leq: Math symbols. (line 357)
+* \lfloor: Math symbols. (line 361)
+* \lg: Math functions. (line 63)
+* \lhd: Math symbols. (line 364)
+* \lim: Math functions. (line 66)
+* \liminf: Math functions. (line 69)
+* \limsup: Math functions. (line 72)
+* \line: \line. (line 6)
+* \linebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* \linespread: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 125)
+* \linethickness: \linethickness. (line 6)
+* \linewidth: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 33)
+* \linewidth <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 34)
+* \listoffigures: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* \listoftables: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* \listparindent: list. (line 141)
+* \ll: Math symbols. (line 372)
+* \ln: Math functions. (line 75)
+* \lnot: Math symbols. (line 376)
+* \LoadClass: Class and package commands.
+ (line 148)
+* \LoadClassWithOptions: Class and package commands.
+ (line 148)
+* \location: \location. (line 6)
+* \log: Math functions. (line 78)
+* \longleftarrow: Math symbols. (line 379)
+* \longleftrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 384)
+* \longmapsto: Math symbols. (line 388)
+* \longrightarrow: Math symbols. (line 393)
+* \lor: Math symbols. (line 398)
+* \lq: Text symbols. (line 40)
+* \mainmatter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* \makebox: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6)
+* \makebox (for picture): \makebox (picture). (line 6)
+* \makeglossary: Glossaries. (line 6)
+* \makeglossary <1>: Glossaries. (line 43)
+* \makeindex: Indexes. (line 6)
+* \makelabel: list. (line 60)
+* \makelabels: \makelabels. (line 6)
+* \maketitle: \maketitle. (line 6)
+* \mapsto: Math symbols. (line 401)
+* \marginpar: Marginal notes. (line 6)
+* \marginparpush: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 40)
+* \marginparpush <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 43)
+* \marginparpush <2>: Marginal notes. (line 35)
+* \marginparsep: Marginal notes. (line 39)
+* \marginparwidth: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 42)
+* \marginparwidth <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 43)
+* \marginparwidth <2>: Marginal notes. (line 43)
+* \marginsep: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 41)
+* \marginsep <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 43)
+* \markboth{LEFT-HEAD}{RIGHT-HEAD}: \pagestyle. (line 75)
+* \markright{RIGHT}: \pagestyle. (line 84)
+* \mathbf: Font styles. (line 110)
+* \mathcal: Font styles. (line 126)
+* \mathdollar: Math symbols. (line 910)
+* \mathnormal: Font styles. (line 123)
+* \mathparagraph: Math symbols. (line 913)
+* \mathring: Math accents. (line 34)
+* \mathrm: Font styles. (line 107)
+* \mathsection: Math symbols. (line 916)
+* \mathsf: Font styles. (line 113)
+* \mathsterling: Math symbols. (line 919)
+* \mathtt: Font styles. (line 116)
+* \mathunderscore: Math symbols. (line 922)
+* \mathversion: Font styles. (line 128)
+* \max: Math functions. (line 81)
+* \mbox: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6)
+* \mdseries: Font styles. (line 36)
+* \medskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip.
+ (line 33)
+* \medskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip.
+ (line 34)
+* \medspace: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 28)
+* \mho: Math symbols. (line 405)
+* \mid: Math symbols. (line 410)
+* \min: Math functions. (line 84)
+* \models: Math symbols. (line 420)
+* \month: \day & \month & \year.
+ (line 6)
+* \mp: Math symbols. (line 425)
+* \mu: Math symbols. (line 428)
+* \multicolumn: \multicolumn. (line 6)
+* \multiput: \multiput. (line 6)
+* \nabla: Math symbols. (line 431)
+* \name: \name. (line 6)
+* \natural: Math symbols. (line 434)
+* \ne: Math symbols. (line 437)
+* \nearrow: Math symbols. (line 440)
+* \NeedsTeXFormat: Class and package commands.
+ (line 182)
+* \neg: Math symbols. (line 443)
+* \negthinspace: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 46)
+* \negthinspace <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace.
+ (line 6)
+* \neq: Math symbols. (line 447)
+* \newcommand: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 6)
+* \newcounter: \newcounter. (line 6)
+* \newenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
+ (line 6)
+* \newfont: \newfont. (line 6)
+* \newglossaryentry: \newglossaryentry. (line 6)
+* \newlength: \newlength. (line 6)
+* \newline: \newline. (line 6)
+* \NEWLINE: \(SPACE). (line 6)
+* \newpage: \newpage. (line 6)
+* \newsavebox: \newsavebox. (line 6)
+* \newtheorem: \newtheorem. (line 6)
+* \newtie: Accents. (line 81)
+* \ng: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 40)
+* \NG: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 40)
+* \ni: Math symbols. (line 450)
+* \nocite: \nocite. (line 6)
+* \nocorr: Font styles. (line 21)
+* \nocorrlist: Font styles. (line 21)
+* \nofiles: \nofiles. (line 6)
+* \noindent: \indent & \noindent. (line 6)
+* \nolinebreak: \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* \nonfrenchspacing: \frenchspacing. (line 6)
+* \nonumber: eqnarray. (line 41)
+* \nopagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* \normalfont: Font styles. (line 57)
+* \normalmarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 22)
+* \normalsfcodes: \normalsfcodes. (line 6)
+* \normalsize: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \not: Math symbols. (line 455)
+* \notin: Math symbols. (line 463)
+* \nu: Math symbols. (line 467)
+* \nwarrow: Math symbols. (line 470)
+* \o (/o): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 44)
+* \O (/O): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 44)
+* \obeycr: \obeycr & \restorecr.
+ (line 6)
+* \oddsidemargin: Document class options.
+ (line 84)
+* \oddsidemargin <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 66)
+* \oddsidemargin <2>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 68)
+* \odot: Math symbols. (line 473)
+* \oe (oe): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 48)
+* \OE (OE): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 48)
+* \oint: Math symbols. (line 478)
+* \oldstylenums: Font styles. (line 132)
+* \Omega: Math symbols. (line 482)
+* \omega: Math symbols. (line 485)
+* \ominus: Math symbols. (line 488)
+* \onecolumn: \onecolumn. (line 6)
+* \opening: \opening. (line 6)
+* \oplus: Math symbols. (line 491)
+* \OptionNotUsed: Class and package commands.
+ (line 200)
+* \oslash: Math symbols. (line 495)
+* \otimes: Math symbols. (line 498)
+* \oval: \oval. (line 6)
+* \overbrace{MATH}: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 40)
+* \overline{TEXT}: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 21)
+* \owns: Math symbols. (line 503)
+* \P: Text symbols. (line 43)
+* \PackageError: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \PackageInfo: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \PackageInfoNoLine: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \PackageWarning: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \PackageWarningNoLine: Class and package commands.
+ (line 41)
+* \pagebreak: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* \pagenumbering: \pagenumbering. (line 6)
+* \pageref: \pageref. (line 6)
+* \pagestyle: \pagestyle. (line 6)
+* \paperheight: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 79)
+* \paperheight <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 80)
+* \paperwidth: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 85)
+* \paperwidth <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 86)
+* \par: \par. (line 6)
+* \paragraph: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* \paragraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 6)
+* \parallel: Math symbols. (line 508)
+* \parbox: \parbox. (line 6)
+* \parindent: minipage. (line 103)
+* \parindent <1>: \indent & \noindent. (line 6)
+* \parindent <2>: \parindent & \parskip.
+ (line 6)
+* \parsep: list. (line 147)
+* \parskip: \parindent & \parskip.
+ (line 6)
+* \parskip example: itemize. (line 73)
+* \part: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* \part <1>: \part. (line 6)
+* \partial: Math symbols. (line 511)
+* \partopsep: list. (line 156)
+* \PassOptionsToClass: Class and package commands.
+ (line 206)
+* \PassOptionsToPackage: Class and package commands.
+ (line 206)
+* \pdfpageheight: Document class options.
+ (line 40)
+* \pdfpagewidth: Document class options.
+ (line 40)
+* \perp: Math symbols. (line 514)
+* \phi: Math symbols. (line 519)
+* \Pi: Math symbols. (line 523)
+* \pi: Math symbols. (line 526)
+* \pm: Math symbols. (line 530)
+* \pmod: Math functions. (line 87)
+* \poptabs: tabbing. (line 113)
+* \poptabs <1>: tabbing. (line 114)
+* \pounds: Text symbols. (line 47)
+* \Pr: Math functions. (line 90)
+* \prec: Math symbols. (line 533)
+* \preceq: Math symbols. (line 536)
+* \prime: Math symbols. (line 541)
+* \printglossaries: Glossaries. (line 6)
+* \printglossaries <1>: Glossaries. (line 43)
+* \printindex: \printindex. (line 6)
+* \printindex <1>: \printindex. (line 10)
+* \ProcessOptions: Class and package commands.
+ (line 243)
+* \ProcessOptions*: Class and package commands.
+ (line 243)
+* \prod: Math symbols. (line 550)
+* \propto: Math symbols. (line 553)
+* \protect: \protect. (line 6)
+* \providecommand: \providecommand. (line 6)
+* \ProvidesClass: Class and package commands.
+ (line 281)
+* \ProvidesFile: Class and package commands.
+ (line 314)
+* \ProvidesPackage: Class and package commands.
+ (line 281)
+* \ps: \ps. (line 6)
+* \Psi: Math symbols. (line 556)
+* \psi: Math symbols. (line 559)
+* \pushtabs: tabbing. (line 116)
+* \put: \put. (line 6)
+* \qbezier: \qbezier. (line 6)
+* \qquad: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 57)
+* \qquad <1>: \enspace & \quad & \qquad.
+ (line 6)
+* \quad: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 51)
+* \quad <1>: \enspace & \quad & \qquad.
+ (line 6)
+* \quotedblbase (,,): Text symbols. (line 51)
+* \quotesinglbase (,): Text symbols. (line 52)
+* \r (ring accent): Accents. (line 75)
+* \raggedbottom: \raggedbottom. (line 6)
+* \raggedleft: \raggedleft. (line 6)
+* \raggedright: \raggedright. (line 6)
+* \raisebox: \raisebox. (line 6)
+* \rangle: Math symbols. (line 562)
+* \rbrace: Math symbols. (line 567)
+* \rbrack: Math symbols. (line 571)
+* \rceil: Math symbols. (line 575)
+* \Re: Math symbols. (line 578)
+* \ref: \ref. (line 6)
+* \reflectbox: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* \refstepcounter: \refstepcounter. (line 6)
+* \renewenvironment: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
+ (line 6)
+* \RequirePackage: Class and package commands.
+ (line 323)
+* \RequirePackageWithOptions: Class and package commands.
+ (line 323)
+* \resizebox: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* \restorecr: \obeycr & \restorecr.
+ (line 6)
+* \restriction: Math symbols. (line 583)
+* \revemptyset: Math symbols. (line 588)
+* \reversemarginpar: Marginal notes. (line 22)
+* \rfloor: Math symbols. (line 593)
+* \rhd: Math symbols. (line 597)
+* \rho: Math symbols. (line 604)
+* \right: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* \Rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 608)
+* \rightarrow: Math symbols. (line 613)
+* \rightharpoondown: Math symbols. (line 617)
+* \rightharpoonup: Math symbols. (line 620)
+* \rightleftharpoons: Math symbols. (line 623)
+* \rightmargin: list. (line 171)
+* \rm: Font styles. (line 83)
+* \rmfamily: Font styles. (line 30)
+* \roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 27)
+* \Roman{COUNTER}: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 32)
+* \rotatebox: \rotatebox. (line 6)
+* \rq: Text symbols. (line 55)
+* \rule: \rule. (line 6)
+* \S: Text symbols. (line 58)
+* \savebox: \sbox & \savebox. (line 6)
+* \sbox: \sbox & \savebox. (line 6)
+* \sc: Font styles. (line 86)
+* \scalebox: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* \scriptsize: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \scshape: Font styles. (line 51)
+* \searrow: Math symbols. (line 626)
+* \sec: Math functions. (line 93)
+* \section: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* \section <1>: \section. (line 6)
+* \seename: \index. (line 56)
+* \selectfont: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 131)
+* \setcounter: \setcounter. (line 6)
+* \setlength: \setlength. (line 6)
+* \setminus: Math symbols. (line 629)
+* \settodepth: \settodepth. (line 6)
+* \settoheight: \settoheight. (line 6)
+* \settowidth: \settowidth. (line 6)
+* \sf: Font styles. (line 89)
+* \sffamily: Font styles. (line 48)
+* \sharp: Math symbols. (line 635)
+* \shortstack: \shortstack. (line 6)
+* \Sigma: Math symbols. (line 638)
+* \sigma: Math symbols. (line 641)
+* \signature: \signature. (line 11)
+* \sim: Math symbols. (line 645)
+* \simeq: Math symbols. (line 648)
+* \sin: Math functions. (line 96)
+* \sinh: Math functions. (line 99)
+* \sl: Font styles. (line 92)
+* \sloppy: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6)
+* \slshape: Font styles. (line 45)
+* \small: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \smallint: Math symbols. (line 651)
+* \smallskip: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip.
+ (line 38)
+* \smallskipamount: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip.
+ (line 39)
+* \smile: Math symbols. (line 655)
+* \SPACE: \(SPACE). (line 6)
+* \spacefactor: \spacefactor. (line 10)
+* \spadesuit: Math symbols. (line 658)
+* \sqcap: Math symbols. (line 661)
+* \sqcup: Math symbols. (line 665)
+* \sqrt: \sqrt. (line 6)
+* \sqsubset: Math symbols. (line 669)
+* \sqsubseteq: Math symbols. (line 674)
+* \sqsupset: Math symbols. (line 679)
+* \sqsupseteq: Math symbols. (line 684)
+* \ss (ss): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 52)
+* \SS (SS): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 52)
+* \stackrel: \stackrel. (line 6)
+* \star: Math symbols. (line 689)
+* \stepcounter: \stepcounter. (line 6)
+* \stop: Recovering from errors.
+ (line 23)
+* \strut: \strut. (line 6)
+* \subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* \subparagraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 6)
+* \subsection: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* \subsection <1>: \subsection. (line 6)
+* \subset: Math symbols. (line 697)
+* \subseteq: Math symbols. (line 700)
+* \subsubsection: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 6)
+* \succ: Math symbols. (line 703)
+* \succeq: Math symbols. (line 707)
+* \sum: Math symbols. (line 712)
+* \sup: Math functions. (line 102)
+* \suppressfloats: Floats. (line 87)
+* \supset: Math symbols. (line 716)
+* \supseteq: Math symbols. (line 719)
+* \surd: Math symbols. (line 722)
+* \swarrow: Math symbols. (line 727)
+* \symbol: Symbols by font position.
+ (line 6)
+* \t (tie-after accent): Accents. (line 81)
+* \TAB: \(SPACE). (line 6)
+* \tabbingsep: tabbing. (line 121)
+* \tabcolsep: tabular. (line 172)
+* \tableofcontents: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* \tan: Math functions. (line 105)
+* \tanh: Math functions. (line 108)
+* \tau: Math symbols. (line 730)
+* \telephone: \telephone. (line 6)
+* \TeX: Text symbols. (line 62)
+* \textascendercompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 100)
+* \textasciicircum: Text symbols. (line 65)
+* \textasciitilde: Text symbols. (line 68)
+* \textasteriskcentered: Text symbols. (line 71)
+* \textbackslash: Reserved characters. (line 20)
+* \textbackslash <1>: Text symbols. (line 74)
+* \textbar: Text symbols. (line 77)
+* \textbardbl: Text symbols. (line 80)
+* \textbf: Font styles. (line 39)
+* \textbigcircle: Text symbols. (line 83)
+* \textbraceleft: Text symbols. (line 86)
+* \textbraceright: Text symbols. (line 89)
+* \textbullet: Text symbols. (line 92)
+* \textcapitalcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 99)
+* \textcircled{LETTER}: Text symbols. (line 95)
+* \textcompwordmark: Text symbols. (line 98)
+* \textcopyright: Text symbols. (line 12)
+* \textdagger: Text symbols. (line 107)
+* \textdaggerdbl: Text symbols. (line 110)
+* \textdollar (or \$): Text symbols. (line 113)
+* \textellipsis: Text symbols. (line 36)
+* \textemdash (or ---): Text symbols. (line 116)
+* \textendash (or --): Text symbols. (line 121)
+* \texteuro: Text symbols. (line 124)
+* \textexclamdown (or !`): Text symbols. (line 130)
+* \textfloatsep: Floats. (line 123)
+* \textfloatsep <1>: Floats. (line 124)
+* \textfraction: Floats. (line 102)
+* \textfraction <1>: Floats. (line 103)
+* \textgreater: Text symbols. (line 133)
+* \textheight: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 91)
+* \textheight <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 92)
+* \textit: Font styles. (line 33)
+* \textleftarrow: Text symbols. (line 139)
+* \textless: Text symbols. (line 136)
+* \textmd: Font styles. (line 36)
+* \textnormal: Font styles. (line 57)
+* \textordfeminine: Text symbols. (line 142)
+* \textordmasculine: Text symbols. (line 143)
+* \textparagraph: Text symbols. (line 44)
+* \textperiodcentered: Text symbols. (line 146)
+* \textquestiondown (or ?`): Text symbols. (line 149)
+* \textquotedblleft (or ``): Text symbols. (line 152)
+* \textquotedblright (or ''): Text symbols. (line 155)
+* \textquoteleft (or `): Text symbols. (line 158)
+* \textquoteright (or '): Text symbols. (line 161)
+* \textquotesingle: Text symbols. (line 164)
+* \textquotestraightbase: Text symbols. (line 167)
+* \textquotestraightdblbase: Text symbols. (line 168)
+* \textregistered: Text symbols. (line 171)
+* \textrightarrow: Text symbols. (line 174)
+* \textrm: Font styles. (line 30)
+* \textsc: Font styles. (line 51)
+* \textsection: Text symbols. (line 59)
+* \textsf: Font styles. (line 48)
+* \textsl: Font styles. (line 45)
+* \textsterling: Text symbols. (line 48)
+* \textthreequartersemdash: Text symbols. (line 177)
+* \texttrademark: Text symbols. (line 180)
+* \texttt: Font styles. (line 54)
+* \texttwelveudash: Text symbols. (line 183)
+* \textunderscore: Text symbols. (line 186)
+* \textup: Font styles. (line 42)
+* \textvisiblespace: Text symbols. (line 189)
+* \textwidth: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 99)
+* \textwidth <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 100)
+* \th (th): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 56)
+* \TH (TH): Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 56)
+* \thanks{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 56)
+* \theta: Math symbols. (line 733)
+* \thicklines: \thicklines. (line 6)
+* \thickspace: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 23)
+* \thinlines: \thinlines. (line 6)
+* \thinspace: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 32)
+* \thinspace <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace.
+ (line 6)
+* \thispagestyle: \thispagestyle. (line 6)
+* \tilde: Math accents. (line 37)
+* \times: Math symbols. (line 737)
+* \tiny: Font sizes. (line 11)
+* \title{TEXT}: \maketitle. (line 63)
+* \to: Math symbols. (line 741)
+* \today: \today. (line 6)
+* \top: Math symbols. (line 745)
+* \topfraction: Floats. (line 107)
+* \topfraction <1>: Floats. (line 108)
+* \topmargin: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 124)
+* \topsep: list. (line 176)
+* \topskip: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 131)
+* \topskip <1>: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 132)
+* \triangle: Math symbols. (line 750)
+* \triangleleft: Math symbols. (line 753)
+* \triangleright: Math symbols. (line 759)
+* \tt: Font styles. (line 95)
+* \ttfamily: Font styles. (line 54)
+* \twocolumn: \twocolumn. (line 6)
+* \typein: \typein. (line 6)
+* \typeout: \typeout. (line 6)
+* \u (breve accent): Accents. (line 85)
+* \unboldmath: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 6)
+* \unboldmath <1>: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 14)
+* \underbar: Accents. (line 51)
+* \underbrace{MATH}: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 26)
+* \underline{TEXT}: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 9)
+* \unitlength: picture. (line 25)
+* \unlhd: Math symbols. (line 765)
+* \unrhd: Math symbols. (line 772)
+* \Uparrow: Math symbols. (line 779)
+* \uparrow: Math symbols. (line 783)
+* \Updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 787)
+* \updownarrow: Math symbols. (line 792)
+* \upharpoonright: Math symbols. (line 797)
+* \uplus: Math symbols. (line 802)
+* \upshape: Font styles. (line 42)
+* \Upsilon: Math symbols. (line 809)
+* \upsilon: Math symbols. (line 812)
+* \usebox: \usebox. (line 6)
+* \usecounter: \usecounter. (line 6)
+* \usefont: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 139)
+* \usepackage: Additional packages. (line 6)
+* \v (breve accent): Accents. (line 89)
+* \value: \value. (line 6)
+* \vanothing: Math symbols. (line 820)
+* \varepsilon: Math symbols. (line 815)
+* \varphi: Math symbols. (line 825)
+* \varpi: Math symbols. (line 829)
+* \varrho: Math symbols. (line 833)
+* \varsigma: Math symbols. (line 837)
+* \vartheta: Math symbols. (line 841)
+* \vdash: Math symbols. (line 845)
+* \vdots: Dots. (line 34)
+* \vec: Math accents. (line 40)
+* \vector: \vector. (line 6)
+* \vee: Math symbols. (line 849)
+* \verb: \verb. (line 6)
+* \Vert: Math symbols. (line 854)
+* \vert: Math symbols. (line 870)
+* \vfill: \vfill. (line 6)
+* \vline: \vline. (line 6)
+* \vspace: \vspace. (line 6)
+* \wedge: Math symbols. (line 888)
+* \widehat: Math accents. (line 43)
+* \widetilde: Math accents. (line 46)
+* \wp: Math symbols. (line 892)
+* \wr: Math symbols. (line 895)
+* \Xi: Math symbols. (line 898)
+* \xi: Math symbols. (line 901)
+* \year: \day & \month & \year.
+ (line 6)
+* \zeta: Math symbols. (line 904)
+* \\ (for center): center. (line 16)
+* \\ (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 29)
+* \\ (for flushright): flushright. (line 12)
+* \\ (for \shortstack objects): \shortstack. (line 32)
+* \\ (tabbing): tabbing. (line 66)
+* \\ for flushleft: flushleft. (line 14)
+* \\ for letters: Letters. (line 49)
+* \\ for tabular: tabular. (line 35)
+* \\ for verse: verse. (line 21)
+* \\ for \author: \maketitle. (line 43)
+* \\ for \title: \maketitle. (line 64)
+* \\ force line break: \\. (line 6)
+* \\* (for eqnarray): eqnarray. (line 37)
+* \^: Reserved characters. (line 20)
+* \^ (circumflex accent): Accents. (line 38)
+* \_: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \` (grave accent): Accents. (line 42)
+* \` (tabbing): tabbing. (line 93)
+* \{: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \|: Math symbols. (line 18)
+* \}: Reserved characters. (line 13)
+* \~: Reserved characters. (line 20)
+* \~ (tilde accent): Accents. (line 46)
+* ^: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 6)
+* _: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 6)
+* 'see' and 'see also' index entries: \index. (line 56)
+* {...} for required arguments: LaTeX command syntax.
+ (line 6)
+* ~: ~. (line 6)
+* a4paper option: Document class options.
+ (line 19)
+* a5paper option: Document class options.
+ (line 19)
+* abstract environment: abstract. (line 6)
+* abstracts: abstract. (line 6)
+* accents: Accents. (line 6)
+* accents, mathematical: Math accents. (line 6)
+* accessing any character of a font: Symbols by font position.
+ (line 6)
+* acronyms, list of: Glossaries. (line 6)
+* acute accent: Accents. (line 27)
+* acute accent, math: Math accents. (line 11)
+* additional packages, loading: Additional packages. (line 6)
+* ae ligature: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 16)
+* algorithm2e package: tabbing. (line 146)
+* align environment, from amsmath: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* aligning equations: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* alignment via tabbing: tabbing. (line 6)
+* amsfonts package: Math formulas. (line 86)
+* amsmath package: array. (line 55)
+* amsmath package <1>: array. (line 66)
+* amsmath package <2>: displaymath. (line 22)
+* amsmath package <3>: equation. (line 20)
+* amsmath package <4>: theorem. (line 28)
+* amsmath package <5>: Math formulas. (line 86)
+* amsmath package <6>: Dots. (line 37)
+* amsmath package <7>: Math functions. (line 111)
+* amsmath package <8>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 44)
+* amsmath package <9>: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 15)
+* amsmath package <10>: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 19)
+* amsmath package, replacing eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* amsthm package: theorem. (line 28)
+* amsthm package <1>: \rule. (line 18)
+* appendices: \appendix. (line 6)
+* appendix: \appendix. (line 6)
+* appendix package: \appendix. (line 29)
+* aring: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 12)
+* array (package) package: array. (line 77)
+* array environment: array. (line 6)
+* arrays, math: array. (line 6)
+* arrow, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 140)
+* arrow, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 175)
+* article class: Document classes. (line 11)
+* ascender height: Text symbols. (line 101)
+* ASCII circumflex, in text: Text symbols. (line 66)
+* ASCII tilde, in text: Text symbols. (line 69)
+* asterisk, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 72)
+* Asymptote package: \line. (line 36)
+* Asymptote package <1>: \strut. (line 62)
+* Asymptote package <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 73)
+* at clause, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 19)
+* at-sign: \@. (line 6)
+* author, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 43)
+* auxiliary file: Output files. (line 33)
+* b5paper option: Document class options.
+ (line 19)
+* babel package: \chapter. (line 71)
+* babel package <1>: thebibliography. (line 53)
+* babel package <2>: Accents. (line 6)
+* babel package <3>: \today. (line 13)
+* babel package <4>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 80)
+* babel package <5>: \index. (line 56)
+* background, colored: Colored pages. (line 6)
+* backslash, in text: Text symbols. (line 75)
+* bar, double vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 81)
+* bar, vertical, in text: Text symbols. (line 78)
+* bar-over accent: Accents. (line 34)
+* bar-over accent, math: Math accents. (line 14)
+* bar-under accent: Accents. (line 49)
+* basics of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6)
+* beamer template and class: beamer template. (line 6)
+* beginning of document hook: \AtBeginDocument. (line 6)
+* bibliography format, open: Document class options.
+ (line 67)
+* bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX. (line 6)
+* bibliography, creating (manually): thebibliography. (line 6)
+* bibTeX, using: Using BibTeX. (line 6)
+* big circle symbols, in text: Text symbols. (line 84)
+* Big point: Units of length. (line 20)
+* bigfoot package: Footnotes of footnotes.
+ (line 6)
+* black boxes, omitting: Document class options.
+ (line 53)
+* blackboard bold: Blackboard bold. (line 6)
+* bm package: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 32)
+* bold font: Font styles. (line 75)
+* bold math: Font styles. (line 128)
+* bold typewriter, avoiding: description. (line 36)
+* boldface mathematics: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 6)
+* book class: Document classes. (line 11)
+* book, back matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* book, end matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* book, front matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* book, main matter: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter.
+ (line 6)
+* bottomnumber: Floats. (line 130)
+* bottomnumber <1>: Floats. (line 131)
+* box: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6)
+* box, allocating new: \newsavebox. (line 6)
+* box, colored: Colored boxes. (line 6)
+* box, save: \sbox & \savebox. (line 6)
+* box, use saved box: \usebox. (line 6)
+* boxes: Boxes. (line 6)
+* bp: Units of length. (line 20)
+* brace, left, in text: Text symbols. (line 87)
+* brace, right, in text: Text symbols. (line 90)
+* breaking lines: Line breaking. (line 6)
+* breaking pages: Page breaking. (line 6)
+* breaks, multiplication discretionary: \*. (line 6)
+* breve accent: Accents. (line 85)
+* breve accent, math: Math accents. (line 17)
+* bug reporting: About this document. (line 29)
+* bullet lists: itemize. (line 6)
+* bullet symbol: Math symbols. (line 113)
+* bullet, in text: Text symbols. (line 93)
+* bulleted lists: itemize. (line 6)
+* calligraphic fonts: Calligraphic. (line 6)
+* calligraphic letters for math: Font styles. (line 78)
+* cap height: Text symbols. (line 101)
+* caron accent: Accents. (line 89)
+* catcode: \makeatletter & \makeatother.
+ (line 19)
+* category code, character: \makeatletter & \makeatother.
+ (line 19)
+* cc: Units of length. (line 33)
+* cc list, in letters: \cc. (line 6)
+* cedilla accent: Accents. (line 59)
+* center environment: center. (line 6)
+* centered asterisk, in text: Text symbols. (line 72)
+* centered equations: Document class options.
+ (line 57)
+* centered period, in text: Text symbols. (line 147)
+* centering text, declaration for: \centering. (line 6)
+* centering text, environment for: center. (line 6)
+* Centimeter: Units of length. (line 24)
+* chapter: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* chapter <1>: \chapter. (line 6)
+* character category code: \makeatletter & \makeatother.
+ (line 19)
+* character, invisible: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 6)
+* characters, accented: Accents. (line 6)
+* characters, case of: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 6)
+* characters, non-English: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 6)
+* characters, reserved: Reserved characters. (line 6)
+* characters, special: Reserved characters. (line 6)
+* check accent: Accents. (line 89)
+* check accent, math: Math accents. (line 20)
+* Cicero: Units of length. (line 33)
+* circle symbol, big, in text: Text symbols. (line 84)
+* circled letter, in text: Text symbols. (line 96)
+* circumflex accent: Accents. (line 38)
+* circumflex accent, math: Math accents. (line 32)
+* circumflex, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 66)
+* citation key: \bibitem. (line 15)
+* class and package commands: Class and package commands.
+ (line 6)
+* class and package difference: Class and package construction.
+ (line 15)
+* class and package structure: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* class file example: Class and package structure.
+ (line 39)
+* class file layout: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* class options: Document class options.
+ (line 6)
+* class options <1>: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* class options <2>: Class and package commands.
+ (line 66)
+* classes of documents: Document classes. (line 6)
+* cleveref package: Cross references. (line 38)
+* cleveref package <1>: \ref. (line 29)
+* cleveref package <2>: \footnotemark. (line 48)
+* clock option to slides class: Document class options.
+ (line 99)
+* closing letters: \closing. (line 6)
+* closing quote: Text symbols. (line 56)
+* cm: Units of length. (line 24)
+* code, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6)
+* colon character: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 6)
+* color: Color. (line 6)
+* color <1>: Define colors. (line 6)
+* color <2>: Colored text. (line 6)
+* color <3>: Colored boxes. (line 6)
+* color <4>: Colored pages. (line 6)
+* color models: Color models. (line 6)
+* color package commands: Commands for color. (line 6)
+* color package options: Color package options.
+ (line 6)
+* color, define: Define colors. (line 6)
+* colored boxes: Colored boxes. (line 6)
+* colored page: Colored pages. (line 6)
+* colored text: Colored text. (line 6)
+* command line: Command line. (line 6)
+* command syntax: LaTeX command syntax.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, class and package: Class and package commands.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, defining new ones: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, defining new ones <1>: \providecommand. (line 6)
+* commands, document class: Class and package construction.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, graphics package: Commands for graphics.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, ignore spaces: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, redefining: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 6)
+* commands, star-variants: \@ifstar. (line 6)
+* composite word mark, in text: Text symbols. (line 101)
+* computer programs, typesetting: verbatim. (line 6)
+* configuration, graphics package: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* contents file: Output files. (line 43)
+* copyright symbol: Text symbols. (line 13)
+* counters, a list of: Counters. (line 6)
+* counters, defining new: \newcounter. (line 6)
+* counters, getting value of: \value. (line 6)
+* counters, printing: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
+ (line 6)
+* counters, setting: \setcounter. (line 6)
+* cprotect package: verbatim. (line 26)
+* cprotect package <1>: \verb. (line 45)
+* creating pictures: picture. (line 6)
+* creating tables: table. (line 6)
+* credit footnote: \maketitle. (line 57)
+* cross references: Cross references. (line 6)
+* cross references, resolving: Output files. (line 33)
+* cross referencing with page number: \pageref. (line 6)
+* cross referencing, symbolic: \ref. (line 6)
+* CTAN: CTAN. (line 6)
+* currency, dollar: Text symbols. (line 114)
+* currency, euro: Text symbols. (line 125)
+* dagger, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 111)
+* dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 16)
+* dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 108)
+* DANTE e.V.: CTAN. (line 20)
+* date, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 51)
+* date, today's: \today. (line 6)
+* datetime package: \today. (line 27)
+* dbltopnumber: Floats. (line 134)
+* dbltopnumber <1>: Floats. (line 135)
+* dcolumn package: array. (line 77)
+* dd: Units of length. (line 30)
+* define color: Define colors. (line 6)
+* defining a new command: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 6)
+* defining a new command <1>: \providecommand. (line 6)
+* defining new environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
+ (line 6)
+* defining new fonts: \newfont. (line 6)
+* defining new theorems: \newtheorem. (line 6)
+* definitions: Definitions. (line 6)
+* delimiters, paired: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* delim_0: makeindex. (line 110)
+* delim_1: makeindex. (line 114)
+* delim_2: makeindex. (line 118)
+* delim_n: makeindex. (line 122)
+* delim_r: makeindex. (line 126)
+* description: \newglossaryentry. (line 46)
+* description environment: description. (line 6)
+* description lists, creating: description. (line 6)
+* design size, in font definitions: \newfont. (line 19)
+* Didot point: Units of length. (line 30)
+* dieresis accent: Accents. (line 23)
+* difference between class and package: Class and package construction.
+ (line 15)
+* discretionary breaks, multiplication: \*. (line 6)
+* discretionary hyphenation: \discretionary. (line 6)
+* display math mode: Modes. (line 29)
+* displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation & quote.
+ (line 6)
+* displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quotation & quote.
+ (line 6)
+* displaymath environment: displaymath. (line 6)
+* displaymath environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* document class commands: Class and package construction.
+ (line 6)
+* document class options: Document class options.
+ (line 6)
+* document class, defined: Starting and ending. (line 17)
+* document classes: Document classes. (line 6)
+* document environment: document. (line 6)
+* document templates: Document templates. (line 6)
+* dollar sign: Text symbols. (line 114)
+* dot accent: Accents. (line 30)
+* dot over accent, math: Math accents. (line 26)
+* dot-over accent: Accents. (line 30)
+* dot-under accent: Accents. (line 63)
+* dotless i: Accents. (line 17)
+* dotless i, math: Math symbols. (line 265)
+* dotless j: Accents. (line 17)
+* dotless j, math: Math symbols. (line 287)
+* dots: Dots. (line 6)
+* double angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* double dagger, in text: Text symbols. (line 19)
+* double dagger, in text <1>: Text symbols. (line 111)
+* double dot accent, math: Math accents. (line 23)
+* double guillemets: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* double left quote: Text symbols. (line 153)
+* double low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 53)
+* double quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 169)
+* double right quote: Text symbols. (line 156)
+* double spacing: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 118)
+* double vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 81)
+* doublestruck: Blackboard bold. (line 6)
+* draft option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* dvipdfmx command: Output files. (line 10)
+* dvips command: Output files. (line 10)
+* dvitype command: Output files. (line 10)
+* e-dash: Text symbols. (line 122)
+* e-TeX: TeX engines. (line 13)
+* ellipses: Dots. (line 6)
+* ellipsis: Text symbols. (line 37)
+* em: Units of length. (line 38)
+* em <1>: Units of length. (line 38)
+* em-dash: Text symbols. (line 117)
+* em-dash, three-quarters: Text symbols. (line 178)
+* em-dash, two-thirds: Text symbols. (line 184)
+* emphasis: Font styles. (line 59)
+* enclosure list: \encl. (line 6)
+* end of document hook: \AtEndDocument. (line 6)
+* ending and starting: Starting and ending. (line 6)
+* engines, TeX: TeX engines. (line 6)
+* enlarge current page: \enlargethispage. (line 6)
+* enumerate environment: enumerate. (line 6)
+* enumitem package: list. (line 253)
+* environment: Starting and ending. (line 25)
+* environment, abstract: abstract. (line 6)
+* environment, array: array. (line 6)
+* environment, center: center. (line 6)
+* environment, description: description. (line 6)
+* environment, displaymath: displaymath. (line 6)
+* environment, displaymath <1>: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* environment, document: document. (line 6)
+* environment, enumerate: enumerate. (line 6)
+* environment, eqnarray: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* environment, equation: equation. (line 6)
+* environment, equation <1>: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* environment, figure: figure. (line 6)
+* environment, filecontents: filecontents. (line 6)
+* environment, filecontents*: filecontents. (line 6)
+* environment, flushleft: flushleft. (line 6)
+* environment, flushright: flushright. (line 6)
+* environment, itemize: itemize. (line 6)
+* environment, letter: letter. (line 6)
+* environment, list: list. (line 6)
+* environment, math: math. (line 6)
+* environment, math <1>: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* environment, minipage: minipage. (line 6)
+* environment, picture: picture. (line 6)
+* environment, quotation: quotation & quote. (line 6)
+* environment, quote: quotation & quote. (line 6)
+* environment, tabbing: tabbing. (line 6)
+* environment, table: table. (line 6)
+* environment, tabular: tabular. (line 6)
+* environment, thebibliography: thebibliography. (line 6)
+* environment, theorem: theorem. (line 6)
+* environment, theorem-like: \newtheorem. (line 6)
+* environment, titlepage: titlepage. (line 6)
+* environment, verbatim: verbatim. (line 6)
+* environment, verse: verse. (line 6)
+* environments: Environments. (line 6)
+* environments, defining: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
+ (line 6)
+* envlab package: \makelabels. (line 55)
+* EPS files: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* EPS files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* eqnarray environment: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* equation environment: equation. (line 6)
+* equation environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* equation number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6)
+* equation numbers, left vs. right: Document class options.
+ (line 63)
+* equation numbers, omitting: eqnarray. (line 41)
+* equations, aligning: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* equations, environment for: equation. (line 6)
+* equations, flush left vs. centered: Document class options.
+ (line 57)
+* es-zet German letter: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 52)
+* etex command: TeX engines. (line 13)
+* eth, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 20)
+* etoolbox package: Class and package commands.
+ (line 110)
+* euro symbol: Text symbols. (line 125)
+* eurosym package: Text symbols. (line 125)
+* ex: Units of length. (line 38)
+* ex <1>: Units of length. (line 38)
+* exclamation point, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 131)
+* executivepaper option: Document class options.
+ (line 19)
+* exponent: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 6)
+* extended Latin: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 6)
+* external files, writing: filecontents. (line 6)
+* families, of fonts: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 21)
+* fancyhdr package: Page styles. (line 12)
+* fancyhdr package <1>: \pagestyle. (line 13)
+* fancyvrb package: tabbing. (line 146)
+* fancyvrb package <1>: verbatim. (line 37)
+* feminine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 144)
+* figure environment: figure. (line 6)
+* figure number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6)
+* figures, footnotes in: minipage. (line 107)
+* figures, inserting: figure. (line 6)
+* file, root: Splitting the input. (line 10)
+* filecontents environment: filecontents. (line 6)
+* filecontents* environment: filecontents. (line 6)
+* final option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* first-latex-doc document: About this document. (line 41)
+* fixed-width font: Font styles. (line 96)
+* flafter package: Floats. (line 82)
+* fleqn option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* float package: Floats. (line 52)
+* float page: Floats. (line 58)
+* flush left equations: Document class options.
+ (line 57)
+* flushing floats and starting a page: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage.
+ (line 6)
+* flushleft environment: flushleft. (line 6)
+* flushright environment: flushright. (line 6)
+* font catalogue: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 21)
+* font commands, low-level: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 6)
+* font size: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 101)
+* font sizes: Font sizes. (line 6)
+* font styles: Font styles. (line 6)
+* font symbols, by number: Symbols by font position.
+ (line 6)
+* fonts: Fonts. (line 6)
+* fonts, new commands for: \newfont. (line 6)
+* fonts, script: Calligraphic. (line 6)
+* footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6)
+* footer, parameters for: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* footnote number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6)
+* footnote parameters: \footnote. (line 34)
+* footnote, in a table: Footnotes in a table.
+ (line 6)
+* footnote, in section headings: Footnotes in section headings.
+ (line 6)
+* footnote, of a footnote: Footnotes of footnotes.
+ (line 6)
+* footnotes in figures: minipage. (line 107)
+* footnotes, creating: Footnotes. (line 6)
+* Footnotes, in a minipage: \footnote. (line 62)
+* footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: \footnote. (line 24)
+* formulas, environment for: equation. (line 6)
+* formulas, math: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* forward reference: Cross references. (line 27)
+* forward references, resolving: Output files. (line 33)
+* fraction: \frac. (line 6)
+* fragile commands: \protect. (line 6)
+* frame rule width: \fbox & \framebox. (line 39)
+* frame, line width: \fbox & \framebox. (line 39)
+* frame, separation from contents: \fbox & \framebox. (line 44)
+* French quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* functions, math: Math functions. (line 6)
+* geometry package: Document class options.
+ (line 40)
+* geometry package <1>: Document class options.
+ (line 44)
+* global options: Document class options.
+ (line 6)
+* global options <1>: Additional packages. (line 15)
+* glossaries: Glossaries. (line 6)
+* glossary: Glossaries. (line 6)
+* glossary, entries: \newglossaryentry. (line 6)
+* glossary, entry reference: \gls. (line 6)
+* glue register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 6)
+* graphics: Graphics. (line 6)
+* graphics <1>: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* graphics <2>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* graphics package: Graphics. (line 6)
+* graphics package <1>: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* graphics package <2>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* graphics package commands: Commands for graphics.
+ (line 6)
+* graphics package options: Graphics package options.
+ (line 6)
+* graphics packages: \line. (line 36)
+* graphics, resizing: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* graphics, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* graphics, scaling: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* graphics, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* grave accent: Accents. (line 42)
+* grave accent, math: Math accents. (line 29)
+* greater than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 134)
+* greek letters: Math symbols. (line 6)
+* group, and environments: Environments. (line 18)
+* group_skip: makeindex. (line 57)
+* ha'c<ek accent, math: Math accents. (line 20)
+* hacek accent: Accents. (line 89)
+* Halmos symbol: \rule. (line 13)
+* hat accent: Accents. (line 38)
+* hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 32)
+* header style: \pagestyle. (line 6)
+* header, parameters for: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* hello, world: Starting and ending. (line 6)
+* here, putting floats: Floats. (line 52)
+* home page for manual: About this document. (line 6)
+* horizontal space: \hss. (line 6)
+* horizontal space, stretchable: \hss. (line 6)
+* horizontal spacing: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 6)
+* hungarian umlaut accent: Accents. (line 67)
+* hyperref package: \footnotemark. (line 48)
+* hyperref package <1>: \footnotemark. (line 57)
+* hyperref package <2>: \pagenumbering. (line 45)
+* hyperref package <3>: Command line input. (line 10)
+* hyphenation, defining: \hyphenation. (line 6)
+* hyphenation, discretionary: \discretionary. (line 6)
+* hyphenation, forcing: \- (hyphenation). (line 6)
+* hyphenation, preventing: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6)
+* Icelandic eth: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 20)
+* Icelandic thorn: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 56)
+* idx file: \index. (line 106)
+* ij letter, Dutch: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 32)
+* implementations of TeX: TeX engines. (line 6)
+* importing graphics: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* in: Units of length. (line 17)
+* in-line formulas: math. (line 6)
+* inch: Units of length. (line 17)
+* including graphics: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* indent, forcing: \indent & \noindent. (line 6)
+* indentation of paragraphs, in minipage: minipage. (line 103)
+* indentfirst package: \part. (line 50)
+* indentfirst package <1>: \chapter. (line 58)
+* indentfirst package <2>: \section. (line 60)
+* indentfirst package <3>: \subsection. (line 48)
+* indentfirst package <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 61)
+* indentfirst package <5>: \indent & \noindent. (line 48)
+* indent_length: makeindex. (line 138)
+* indent_space: makeindex. (line 134)
+* index entries, 'see' and 'see also': \index. (line 56)
+* index entry: \index. (line 6)
+* index package: \index. (line 101)
+* index, page range: \index. (line 40)
+* index, printing: \printindex. (line 6)
+* index, processing: makeindex. (line 6)
+* index, style file: makeindex. (line 18)
+* indexes: Indexes. (line 6)
+* infinite horizontal stretch: \hfill. (line 6)
+* infinite vertical stretch: \vfill. (line 6)
+* inner paragraph mode: Modes. (line 47)
+* input file: Splitting the input. (line 6)
+* input, on command line: Command line input. (line 6)
+* input/output, to terminal: Terminal input/output.
+ (line 6)
+* inserting figures: figure. (line 6)
+* insertions of special characters: Special insertions. (line 6)
+* internal vertical mode: Modes. (line 38)
+* invisible character: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 6)
+* italic correction: \/. (line 6)
+* italic font: Font styles. (line 81)
+* itemize environment: itemize. (line 6)
+* item_0: makeindex. (line 81)
+* item_01: makeindex. (line 90)
+* item_1: makeindex. (line 84)
+* item_12: makeindex. (line 100)
+* item_2: makeindex. (line 87)
+* item_x1: makeindex. (line 94)
+* item_x2: makeindex. (line 104)
+* JPEG files: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* JPEG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* JPG files: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* JPG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* justification, ragged left: \raggedleft. (line 6)
+* justification, ragged right: \raggedright. (line 6)
+* Knuth, Donald E.: Overview. (line 6)
+* label: Cross references. (line 6)
+* labelled lists, creating: description. (line 6)
+* Lamport TeX: Overview. (line 24)
+* Lamport, Leslie: Overview. (line 6)
+* landscape option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* landscape orientation: Document class options.
+ (line 60)
+* latex command: Output files. (line 10)
+* LaTeX logo: Text symbols. (line 22)
+* LaTeX overview: Overview. (line 6)
+* LaTeX Project team: About this document. (line 25)
+* LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e: About this document. (line 21)
+* latex-doc-ptr document: About this document. (line 38)
+* LaTeX2e logo: Text symbols. (line 25)
+* <latexrefman@tug.org> email address: About this document. (line 25)
+* Latin letters, additional: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 6)
+* layout commands: Layout. (line 6)
+* layout, page parameters for: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* left angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* left arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 140)
+* left brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 87)
+* left quote: Text symbols. (line 41)
+* left quote, double: Text symbols. (line 153)
+* left quote, single: Text symbols. (line 159)
+* left-hand equation numbers: Document class options.
+ (line 63)
+* left-justifying text: \raggedright. (line 6)
+* left-justifying text, environment for: flushleft. (line 6)
+* left-to-right mode: Modes. (line 16)
+* legalpaper option: Document class options.
+ (line 19)
+* lengths, adding to: \addtolength. (line 6)
+* lengths, allocating new: \newlength. (line 6)
+* lengths, defining and using: Lengths. (line 6)
+* lengths, setting: \setlength. (line 6)
+* leqno option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* less than symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 137)
+* lethead_flag: makeindex. (line 64)
+* lethead_prefix: makeindex. (line 73)
+* lethead_suffix: makeindex. (line 77)
+* letter class: Document classes. (line 11)
+* letter environment: letter. (line 6)
+* letterpaper option: Document class options.
+ (line 19)
+* letters, accented: Accents. (line 6)
+* letters, additional Latin: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 6)
+* letters, ending: \closing. (line 6)
+* letters, starting: \opening. (line 6)
+* letters, writing: Letters. (line 6)
+* line break, forcing: \\. (line 6)
+* line breaking: Line breaking. (line 6)
+* line breaks, changing: \fussy & \sloppy. (line 6)
+* line breaks, forcing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* line breaks, multiplication discretionary: \*. (line 6)
+* line breaks, preventing: \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* lines in tables: tabular. (line 6)
+* line_max: makeindex. (line 130)
+* lining numerals: Font styles. (line 132)
+* lining text up in tables: tabular. (line 6)
+* lining text up using tab stops: tabbing. (line 6)
+* list environment: list. (line 6)
+* list items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 6)
+* list of figures file: Output files. (line 43)
+* list of tables file: Output files. (line 43)
+* listings package: tabbing. (line 146)
+* listings package <1>: verbatim. (line 31)
+* listings package <2>: \verb. (line 42)
+* lists of items: itemize. (line 6)
+* lists of items, generic: list. (line 6)
+* lists of items, numbered: enumerate. (line 6)
+* loading additional packages: Additional packages. (line 6)
+* log file: Output files. (line 28)
+* logo, LaTeX: Text symbols. (line 22)
+* logo, LaTeX2e: Text symbols. (line 25)
+* logo, TeX: Text symbols. (line 63)
+* long command: Class and package commands.
+ (line 23)
+* low-9 quotation marks, single and double: Text symbols. (line 53)
+* low-level font commands: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 6)
+* lowercase: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 6)
+* LR box: picture. (line 103)
+* LR mode: Modes. (line 16)
+* lrbox: lrbox. (line 6)
+* lshort document: About this document. (line 49)
+* ltugboat class: tugboat template. (line 6)
+* lualatex command: TeX engines. (line 30)
+* LuaTeX: TeX engines. (line 30)
+* m-width: Units of length. (line 38)
+* macro package, LaTeX as: Overview. (line 11)
+* macron accent: Accents. (line 34)
+* macron accent, math: Math accents. (line 14)
+* macros2e package: \makeatletter & \makeatother.
+ (line 43)
+* Madsen, Lars: eqnarray. (line 6)
+* make a box: \mbox & \makebox. (line 6)
+* makeindex: makeindex. (line 6)
+* makeindex program: makeindex. (line 6)
+* makeindex, style file: makeindex. (line 18)
+* making a title page: titlepage. (line 6)
+* making paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 6)
+* marginal notes: Marginal notes. (line 6)
+* masculine ordinal symbol: Text symbols. (line 144)
+* matching brackets: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* matching parentheses: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* math accents: Math accents. (line 6)
+* math environment: math. (line 6)
+* math environment <1>: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* math formulas: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* math functions: Math functions. (line 6)
+* math miscellany: Math miscellany. (line 6)
+* math mode: Modes. (line 26)
+* math mode, entering: Math formulas. (line 6)
+* math mode, spacing: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 6)
+* math mode, spacing <1>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 6)
+* math mode, vertical space: \smash. (line 6)
+* math symbols: Math symbols. (line 6)
+* math, bold: Font styles. (line 128)
+* mathtools package: Math formulas. (line 86)
+* mathtools package <1>: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 45)
+* mathtools package <2>: \smash. (line 61)
+* mathtools package <3>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 36)
+* MetaPost package: \line. (line 36)
+* mfirstuc package: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 45)
+* mhchem package: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 62)
+* Millimeter: Units of length. (line 27)
+* minipage environment: minipage. (line 6)
+* minipage, creating a: minipage. (line 6)
+* minted package: tabbing. (line 146)
+* minted package <1>: verbatim. (line 31)
+* minted package <2>: \verb. (line 42)
+* mirrors of CTAN: CTAN. (line 20)
+* mm: Units of length. (line 27)
+* modes: Modes. (line 6)
+* monospace font: Font styles. (line 96)
+* moving arguments: \protect. (line 19)
+* mpfootnote counter: \footnote. (line 62)
+* mu: Units of length. (line 49)
+* mu, math unit: Units of length. (line 49)
+* multicolumn text: \twocolumn. (line 6)
+* multilingual support: Accents. (line 6)
+* multind package: Indexes. (line 32)
+* multiplication, discretionary: \*. (line 6)
+* name: \newglossaryentry. (line 43)
+* NBSP: ~. (line 6)
+* nested \include, not allowed: \include & \includeonly.
+ (line 104)
+* new class commands: Class and package construction.
+ (line 6)
+* new command, check: Class and package commands.
+ (line 21)
+* new command, definition: Class and package commands.
+ (line 96)
+* new commands, defining: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 6)
+* new commands, defining <1>: \providecommand. (line 6)
+* new line, output as input: \obeycr & \restorecr.
+ (line 6)
+* new line, starting: \\. (line 6)
+* new line, starting (paragraph mode): \newline. (line 6)
+* new page, starting: \newpage. (line 6)
+* non-English characters: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 6)
+* notes in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 6)
+* notitlepage option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* null delimiter: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* numbered items, specifying counter: \usecounter. (line 6)
+* numerals, old-style: Font styles. (line 132)
+* oblique font: Font styles. (line 93)
+* oe ligature: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 48)
+* ogonek: Accents. (line 71)
+* old-style numerals: Font styles. (line 132)
+* one-column output: \onecolumn. (line 6)
+* onecolumn option: Document class options.
+ (line 78)
+* oneside option: Document class options.
+ (line 78)
+* openany option: Document class options.
+ (line 78)
+* openbib option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* opening quote: Text symbols. (line 41)
+* openright option: Document class options.
+ (line 78)
+* OpenType fonts: TeX engines. (line 6)
+* options, class: Class and package commands.
+ (line 66)
+* options, color package: Color package options.
+ (line 6)
+* options, command line: Command line options.
+ (line 6)
+* options, document class: Document class options.
+ (line 6)
+* options, document class <1>: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* options, global: Additional packages. (line 15)
+* options, graphics package: Graphics package options.
+ (line 6)
+* options, package: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* options, package <1>: Class and package commands.
+ (line 66)
+* ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 144)
+* oslash: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 44)
+* outer paragraph mode: Modes. (line 47)
+* overbar accent: Accents. (line 34)
+* overdot accent, math: Math accents. (line 26)
+* overlining: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 6)
+* overview of LaTeX: Overview. (line 6)
+* package file layout: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* package options: Class and package structure.
+ (line 6)
+* package options <1>: Class and package commands.
+ (line 66)
+* package, algorithm2e: tabbing. (line 146)
+* package, amsfonts: Math formulas. (line 86)
+* package, amsmath: array. (line 55)
+* package, amsmath <1>: array. (line 66)
+* package, amsmath <2>: displaymath. (line 22)
+* package, amsmath <3>: equation. (line 20)
+* package, amsmath <4>: theorem. (line 28)
+* package, amsmath <5>: Math formulas. (line 86)
+* package, amsmath <6>: Dots. (line 37)
+* package, amsmath <7>: Math functions. (line 111)
+* package, amsmath <8>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 44)
+* package, amsmath <9>: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 15)
+* package, amsmath <10>: Colon character & \colon.
+ (line 19)
+* package, amsthm: theorem. (line 28)
+* package, amsthm <1>: \rule. (line 18)
+* package, appendix: \appendix. (line 29)
+* package, array (package): array. (line 77)
+* package, Asymptote: \line. (line 36)
+* package, Asymptote <1>: \strut. (line 62)
+* package, Asymptote <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 73)
+* package, babel: \chapter. (line 71)
+* package, babel <1>: thebibliography. (line 53)
+* package, babel <2>: Accents. (line 6)
+* package, babel <3>: \today. (line 13)
+* package, babel <4>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 80)
+* package, babel <5>: \index. (line 56)
+* package, bigfoot: Footnotes of footnotes.
+ (line 6)
+* package, bm: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 32)
+* package, cleveref: Cross references. (line 38)
+* package, cleveref <1>: \ref. (line 29)
+* package, cleveref <2>: \footnotemark. (line 48)
+* package, cprotect: verbatim. (line 26)
+* package, cprotect <1>: \verb. (line 45)
+* package, datetime: \today. (line 27)
+* package, dcolumn: array. (line 77)
+* package, enumitem: list. (line 253)
+* package, envlab: \makelabels. (line 55)
+* package, etoolbox: Class and package commands.
+ (line 110)
+* package, eurosym: Text symbols. (line 125)
+* package, fancyhdr: Page styles. (line 12)
+* package, fancyhdr <1>: \pagestyle. (line 13)
+* package, fancyvrb: tabbing. (line 146)
+* package, fancyvrb <1>: verbatim. (line 37)
+* package, flafter: Floats. (line 82)
+* package, float: Floats. (line 52)
+* package, geometry: Document class options.
+ (line 40)
+* package, geometry <1>: Document class options.
+ (line 44)
+* package, hyperref: \footnotemark. (line 48)
+* package, hyperref <1>: \footnotemark. (line 57)
+* package, hyperref <2>: \pagenumbering. (line 45)
+* package, hyperref <3>: Command line input. (line 10)
+* package, indentfirst: \part. (line 50)
+* package, indentfirst <1>: \chapter. (line 58)
+* package, indentfirst <2>: \section. (line 60)
+* package, indentfirst <3>: \subsection. (line 48)
+* package, indentfirst <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 61)
+* package, indentfirst <5>: \indent & \noindent. (line 48)
+* package, index: \index. (line 101)
+* package, listings: tabbing. (line 146)
+* package, listings <1>: verbatim. (line 31)
+* package, listings <2>: \verb. (line 42)
+* package, macros2e: \makeatletter & \makeatother.
+ (line 43)
+* package, mathtools: Math formulas. (line 86)
+* package, mathtools <1>: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 45)
+* package, mathtools <2>: \smash. (line 61)
+* package, mathtools <3>: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 36)
+* package, MetaPost: \line. (line 36)
+* package, mfirstuc: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 45)
+* package, mhchem: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 62)
+* package, minted: tabbing. (line 146)
+* package, minted <1>: verbatim. (line 31)
+* package, minted <2>: \verb. (line 42)
+* package, multind: Indexes. (line 32)
+* package, pict2e: \line. (line 36)
+* package, polyglossia: Accents. (line 6)
+* package, polyglossia <1>: \today. (line 13)
+* package, polyglossia <2>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 80)
+* package, polyglossia <3>: \index. (line 56)
+* package, PSTricks: \line. (line 36)
+* package, sagetex: Command line options.
+ (line 62)
+* package, setspace: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 118)
+* package, showidx: Indexes. (line 32)
+* package, siunitx: ~. (line 32)
+* package, symbols: Math symbols. (line 6)
+* package, textcase: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 42)
+* package, textcomp: Font styles. (line 132)
+* package, TikZ: \line. (line 36)
+* package, TikZ <1>: \strut. (line 62)
+* package, TikZ <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 72)
+* package, titlesec: \part. (line 54)
+* package, titlesec <1>: \chapter. (line 79)
+* package, titlesec <2>: \section. (line 64)
+* package, titlesec <3>: \subsection. (line 52)
+* package, titlesec <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 65)
+* package, tocbibbind: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 91)
+* package, tocloft: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 91)
+* package, ulem: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 15)
+* package, url: \verb. (line 38)
+* package, verbatimbox: verbatim. (line 37)
+* packages, loading additional: Additional packages. (line 6)
+* page break, forcing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* page break, preventing: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
+ (line 6)
+* page breaking: Page breaking. (line 6)
+* page layout parameters: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* page number, cross referencing: \pageref. (line 6)
+* page numbering style: \pagenumbering. (line 6)
+* page style, this page: \thispagestyle. (line 6)
+* page styles: Page styles. (line 6)
+* page, colored: Colored pages. (line 6)
+* page_precedence: makeindex. (line 143)
+* paired delimiters: \left & \right. (line 6)
+* paragraph: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* paragraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 6)
+* paragraph indentation: \parindent & \parskip.
+ (line 6)
+* paragraph indentation, in minipage: minipage. (line 103)
+* paragraph indentations in quoted text: quotation & quote. (line 6)
+* paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: quotation & quote.
+ (line 6)
+* paragraph mode: Modes. (line 12)
+* paragraph mode <1>: \parbox. (line 6)
+* paragraph symbol: Text symbols. (line 45)
+* paragraph, ending: \par. (line 6)
+* paragraph, in a box: \parbox. (line 6)
+* paragraphs: Making paragraphs. (line 6)
+* parameters, for footnotes: \footnote. (line 34)
+* parameters, page layout: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* part: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* part <1>: \part. (line 6)
+* pc: Units of length. (line 14)
+* PDF graphic files: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* PDF graphic files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* pdflatex command: Output files. (line 20)
+* pdfTeX: Output files. (line 20)
+* pdfTeX engine: TeX engines. (line 13)
+* period, abbreviation-ending: \@. (line 6)
+* period, centered, in text: Text symbols. (line 147)
+* period, sentence-ending: \@. (line 6)
+* period, spacing after: \@. (line 6)
+* pica: Units of length. (line 14)
+* pict2e package: \line. (line 36)
+* pict2e package <1>: \line. (line 36)
+* picture environment: picture. (line 6)
+* pictures, creating: picture. (line 6)
+* pilcrow: Text symbols. (line 45)
+* placement of floats: Floats. (line 31)
+* plural: \newglossaryentry. (line 51)
+* PNG files: Graphics package configuration.
+ (line 6)
+* PNG files <1>: \includegraphics. (line 6)
+* poetry, an environment for: verse. (line 6)
+* Point: Units of length. (line 10)
+* polish l: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 36)
+* polyglossia package: Accents. (line 6)
+* polyglossia package <1>: \today. (line 13)
+* polyglossia package <2>: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 80)
+* polyglossia package <3>: \index. (line 56)
+* portrait orientation: Document class options.
+ (line 60)
+* position, in picture: picture. (line 77)
+* positional parameter: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 52)
+* postamble: makeindex. (line 54)
+* postscript, in letters: \ps. (line 6)
+* pounds symbol: Text symbols. (line 49)
+* preamble: makeindex. (line 50)
+* preamble, defined: Starting and ending. (line 22)
+* prompt, *: Recovering from errors.
+ (line 23)
+* pronunciation: Overview. (line 24)
+* PSTricks package: \line. (line 36)
+* pt: Units of length. (line 10)
+* quad: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 51)
+* question mark, upside-down: Text symbols. (line 150)
+* quotation environment: quotation & quote. (line 6)
+* quotation marks, French: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* quote environment: quotation & quote. (line 6)
+* quote, single straight: Text symbols. (line 165)
+* quote, straight base: Text symbols. (line 169)
+* quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation & quote.
+ (line 6)
+* quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation & quote.
+ (line 6)
+* radical: \sqrt. (line 6)
+* ragged left text: \raggedleft. (line 6)
+* ragged left text, environment for: flushright. (line 6)
+* ragged right text: \raggedright. (line 6)
+* ragged right text, environment for: flushleft. (line 6)
+* redefining environments: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
+ (line 6)
+* reference, forward: Cross references. (line 27)
+* references, resolving forward: Output files. (line 33)
+* registered symbol: Text symbols. (line 172)
+* relation, text above: \stackrel. (line 6)
+* remarks in the margin: Marginal notes. (line 6)
+* report class: Document classes. (line 11)
+* reporting bugs: About this document. (line 29)
+* reserved characters: Reserved characters. (line 6)
+* resizing: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* right angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* right arrow, in text: Text symbols. (line 175)
+* right brace, in text: Text symbols. (line 90)
+* right quote: Text symbols. (line 56)
+* right quote, double: Text symbols. (line 156)
+* right quote, single: Text symbols. (line 162)
+* right-hand equation numbers: Document class options.
+ (line 63)
+* right-justifying text: \raggedleft. (line 6)
+* right-justifying text, environment for: flushright. (line 6)
+* ring accent: Accents. (line 75)
+* ring accent, math: Math accents. (line 35)
+* robust commands: \protect. (line 6)
+* roman font: Font styles. (line 84)
+* root file: Splitting the input. (line 10)
+* roots: \sqrt. (line 6)
+* rotating graphics: \rotatebox. (line 6)
+* rotating text: \rotatebox. (line 6)
+* rotation: \rotatebox. (line 6)
+* row, tabbing: tabbing. (line 46)
+* rubber lengths, defining new: \newlength. (line 6)
+* running header and footer: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 6)
+* running header and footer style: \pagestyle. (line 6)
+* sagetex package: Command line options.
+ (line 62)
+* sans serif font: Font styles. (line 90)
+* Scaled point: Units of length. (line 36)
+* scaling: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* script fonts: Calligraphic. (line 6)
+* script letters for math: Font styles. (line 78)
+* secnumdepth: Sectioning. (line 62)
+* secnumdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 63)
+* section: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* section <1>: \section. (line 6)
+* section number, cross referencing: \ref. (line 6)
+* section numbers, printing: Sectioning. (line 63)
+* section symbol: Text symbols. (line 60)
+* section, redefining: \@startsection. (line 6)
+* sectioning commands: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* sectioning, part: \part. (line 6)
+* series, of fonts: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 48)
+* setspace package: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 118)
+* setting counters: \setcounter. (line 6)
+* shapes, of fonts: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 88)
+* sharp S letters: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 52)
+* showidx package: Indexes. (line 32)
+* simulating typed text: verbatim. (line 6)
+* single angle quotation marks: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* single guillemets: Text symbols. (line 31)
+* single left quote: Text symbols. (line 159)
+* single low-9 quotation mark: Text symbols. (line 53)
+* single quote, straight: Text symbols. (line 165)
+* single right quote: Text symbols. (line 162)
+* siunitx package: ~. (line 32)
+* sizes of text: Font sizes. (line 6)
+* skip register, plain TeX: \newlength. (line 6)
+* slanted font: Font styles. (line 93)
+* slides class: Document classes. (line 11)
+* sloppypar: sloppypar. (line 6)
+* sloppypar environment: sloppypar. (line 6)
+* small caps font: Font styles. (line 87)
+* sort: \newglossaryentry. (line 55)
+* sp: Units of length. (line 36)
+* space, hard: ~. (line 6)
+* space, inserting horizontal: \hss. (line 6)
+* space, inserting vertical: \addvspace. (line 6)
+* space, negative thin: \thinspace & \negthinspace.
+ (line 6)
+* space, thin: \thinspace & \negthinspace.
+ (line 6)
+* space, unbreakable: ~. (line 6)
+* space, vertical: \vspace. (line 6)
+* spaces: Spaces. (line 6)
+* spaces, ignore around commands: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend.
+ (line 6)
+* spacing within math mode: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 6)
+* spacing, inter-sentence: \frenchspacing. (line 6)
+* spacing, inter-sentence <1>: \normalsfcodes. (line 6)
+* spacing, math mode: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 6)
+* Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols. (line 144)
+* special characters: Reserved characters. (line 6)
+* special characters <1>: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 6)
+* special insertions: Special insertions. (line 6)
+* specifier, float placement: Floats. (line 31)
+* splitting the input file: Splitting the input. (line 6)
+* square root: \sqrt. (line 6)
+* stack math: \stackrel. (line 6)
+* star-variants, commands: \@ifstar. (line 6)
+* starred form, defining new commands: \newcommand & \renewcommand.
+ (line 25)
+* starting a new page: \newpage. (line 6)
+* starting a new page and clearing floats: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage.
+ (line 6)
+* starting and ending: Starting and ending. (line 6)
+* starting on a right-hand page: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage.
+ (line 6)
+* sterling symbol: Text symbols. (line 49)
+* straight double quote, base: Text symbols. (line 169)
+* straight quote, base: Text symbols. (line 169)
+* straight single quote: Text symbols. (line 165)
+* stretch, infinite horizontal: \hfill. (line 6)
+* stretch, infinite vertical: \vfill. (line 6)
+* stretch, omitting vertical: \raggedbottom. (line 6)
+* strut: \strut. (line 6)
+* styles of text: Font styles. (line 6)
+* styles, page: Page styles. (line 6)
+* subparagraph: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* subparagraph <1>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 6)
+* subscript: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 6)
+* subsection: Sectioning. (line 6)
+* subsection <1>: \subsection. (line 6)
+* subsubsection: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 6)
+* superscript: Subscripts & superscripts.
+ (line 6)
+* symbol: \newglossaryentry. (line 59)
+* symbols package: Math symbols. (line 6)
+* symbols, boldface: \boldmath & \unboldmath.
+ (line 6)
+* symbols, math: Math symbols. (line 6)
+* symbols, text: Text symbols. (line 6)
+* tab stops, using: tabbing. (line 6)
+* tabbing environment: tabbing. (line 6)
+* table environment: table. (line 6)
+* table of contents entry, manually adding: \addcontentsline. (line 6)
+* table of contents file: Output files. (line 43)
+* table of contents, avoiding footnotes: Footnotes in section headings.
+ (line 6)
+* table of contents, creating: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 6)
+* table of contents, sectioning numbers printed: Sectioning. (line 74)
+* tables, creating: table. (line 6)
+* tabular environment: tabular. (line 6)
+* template, article: article template. (line 6)
+* template, beamer: beamer template. (line 6)
+* template, book: book template. (line 6)
+* template, book <1>: Larger book template.
+ (line 6)
+* template, TUGboat: tugboat template. (line 6)
+* templates, document: Document templates. (line 6)
+* terminal input/output: Terminal input/output.
+ (line 6)
+* TeX logo: Text symbols. (line 63)
+* text symbols: Text symbols. (line 6)
+* text, resizing: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* text, resizing <1>: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* text, scaling: \scalebox. (line 6)
+* text, scaling <1>: \resizebox. (line 6)
+* textcase package: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 42)
+* textcomp package: Font styles. (line 132)
+* textcomp package <1>: Text symbols. (line 6)
+* thanks, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 57)
+* thebibliography environment: thebibliography. (line 6)
+* theorem environment: theorem. (line 6)
+* theorem-like environment: \newtheorem. (line 6)
+* theorems, defining: \newtheorem. (line 6)
+* theorems, typesetting: theorem. (line 6)
+* thin space: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 32)
+* thin space <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace.
+ (line 6)
+* thin space, negative: Spacing in math mode.
+ (line 46)
+* thin space, negative <1>: \thinspace & \negthinspace.
+ (line 6)
+* thorn, Icelandic letter: Additional Latin letters.
+ (line 56)
+* three-quarters em-dash: Text symbols. (line 178)
+* tie: ~. (line 6)
+* tie-after accent: Accents. (line 81)
+* TikZ package: \line. (line 36)
+* TikZ package <1>: \strut. (line 62)
+* TikZ package <2>: \mbox & \makebox. (line 72)
+* tilde accent: Accents. (line 46)
+* tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 38)
+* tilde, ASCII, in text: Text symbols. (line 69)
+* title page, separate or run-in: Document class options.
+ (line 71)
+* title pages, creating: titlepage. (line 6)
+* title, for titlepage: \maketitle. (line 64)
+* titlepage environment: titlepage. (line 6)
+* titlepage option: Document class options.
+ (line 49)
+* titles, making: \maketitle. (line 6)
+* titlesec package: \part. (line 54)
+* titlesec package <1>: \chapter. (line 79)
+* titlesec package <2>: \section. (line 64)
+* titlesec package <3>: \subsection. (line 52)
+* titlesec package <4>: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph.
+ (line 65)
+* tocbibbind package: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 91)
+* tocdepth: Sectioning. (line 73)
+* tocdepth counter: Sectioning. (line 74)
+* tocloft package: Table of contents etc..
+ (line 91)
+* today's date: \today. (line 6)
+* tombstone: \rule. (line 13)
+* topmargin: Page layout parameters.
+ (line 125)
+* topnumber: Floats. (line 138)
+* topnumber <1>: Floats. (line 139)
+* totalnumber: Floats. (line 142)
+* totalnumber <1>: Floats. (line 143)
+* trademark symbol: Text symbols. (line 181)
+* transcript file: Output files. (line 28)
+* TrueType fonts: TeX engines. (line 6)
+* TUGboat template: tugboat template. (line 6)
+* two-column output: \twocolumn. (line 6)
+* two-thirds em-dash: Text symbols. (line 184)
+* twocolumn option: Document class options.
+ (line 78)
+* twoside option: Document class options.
+ (line 78)
+* type styles: Font styles. (line 6)
+* typed text, simulating: verbatim. (line 6)
+* typeface sizes: Font sizes. (line 6)
+* typefaces: Fonts. (line 6)
+* typewriter font: Font styles. (line 96)
+* typewriter labels in lists: description. (line 36)
+* ulem package: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 15)
+* umlaut accent: Accents. (line 23)
+* underbar: Accents. (line 51)
+* underlining: Over- and Underlining.
+ (line 6)
+* underscore, in text: Text symbols. (line 187)
+* Unicode input, native: TeX engines. (line 6)
+* units, of length: Units of length. (line 6)
+* unofficial nature of this manual: About this document. (line 25)
+* unordered lists: itemize. (line 6)
+* uppercase: Upper and lower case.
+ (line 6)
+* url package: \verb. (line 38)
+* using BibTeX: Using BibTeX. (line 6)
+* usrguide official documentation: About this document. (line 44)
+* UTF-8: TeX engines. (line 6)
+* variables, a list of: Counters. (line 6)
+* vector symbol, math: Math accents. (line 41)
+* verbatim environment: verbatim. (line 6)
+* verbatim text: verbatim. (line 6)
+* verbatim text, inline: \verb. (line 6)
+* verbatimbox package: verbatim. (line 37)
+* verse environment: verse. (line 6)
+* vertical bar, double, in text: Text symbols. (line 81)
+* vertical bar, in text: Text symbols. (line 78)
+* vertical mode: Modes. (line 34)
+* vertical space: \vspace. (line 6)
+* vertical space <1>: \addvspace. (line 6)
+* vertical space before paragraphs: \parindent & \parskip.
+ (line 6)
+* vertical spacing: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom.
+ (line 6)
+* vertical spacing, math mode: \smash. (line 6)
+* visible space: \verb. (line 31)
+* visible space symbol, in text: Text symbols. (line 190)
+* weights, of fonts: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 58)
+* white space: Spaces. (line 6)
+* wide hat accent, math: Math accents. (line 44)
+* wide tilde accent, math: Math accents. (line 47)
+* widths, of fonts: Low-level font commands.
+ (line 70)
+* writing external files: filecontents. (line 6)
+* writing letters: Letters. (line 6)
+* x-height: Units of length. (line 38)
+* xdvi command: Output files. (line 10)
+* xdvipdfmx: TeX engines. (line 39)
+* xelatex command: TeX engines. (line 39)
+* XeTeX: TeX engines. (line 39)
+* xindy: makeindex. (line 153)
+* xindy program: makeindex. (line 153)
+
+
+
+Tag Table:
+Node: Top1837
+Node: About this document3658
+Node: Overview5906
+Node: Starting and ending7529
+Ref: Starting & ending7664
+Node: Output files8841
+Ref: output files dvi9120
+Ref: output files pdf9631
+Ref: output files log9954
+Ref: output files aux10151
+Node: TeX engines11120
+Ref: tex engines latex11469
+Ref: tex engines lualatex12301
+Ref: tex engines xelatex12786
+Node: LaTeX command syntax13590
+Node: Environment15516
+Node: CTAN16722
+Node: Document classes18123
+Ref: document classes article18563
+Ref: document classes book18651
+Ref: document classes letter18836
+Ref: document classes report18912
+Ref: document classes slides19064
+Node: Document class options19446
+Node: Additional packages22528
+Node: Class and package construction23159
+Node: Class and package structure24609
+Node: Class and package commands26903
+Node: Fonts44517
+Ref: Typefaces44620
+Node: Font styles44948
+Node: Font sizes49213
+Node: Low-level font commands50832
+Ref: low level font commands fontencoding51116
+Ref: low level font commands fontfamily51672
+Ref: low level font commands fontseries52437
+Ref: low level font commands fontshape53589
+Ref: low level font commands fontsize53886
+Ref: low level font commands baselinestretch54411
+Ref: low level font commands linespread55120
+Ref: low level font commands selectfont55370
+Ref: low level font commands usefont55696
+Node: Layout55939
+Node: \onecolumn56437
+Node: \twocolumn56796
+Ref: twocolumn columnsep57419
+Ref: twocolumn columnseprule57668
+Ref: twocolumn columnwidth57964
+Ref: twocolumn dbltopfraction58530
+Ref: twocolumn dblfloatpagefraction59473
+Ref: twocolumn dblfloatsep59720
+Ref: twocolumn dbltextfloatsep60025
+Ref: twocolumn dbltopnumber60208
+Node: \flushbottom61173
+Node: \raggedbottom62273
+Node: Page layout parameters62809
+Ref: page layout parameters columnsep63012
+Ref: page layout parameters columnseprule63012
+Ref: page layout parameters columnwidth63012
+Ref: page layout parameters headheight63266
+Ref: page layout parameters headsep63433
+Ref: page layout parameters footskip63746
+Ref: page layout parameters linewidth64080
+Ref: page layout parameters marginparpush64433
+Ref: page layout parameters marginsep64433
+Ref: page layout parameters marginparwidth64433
+Ref: page layout parameters oddsidemargin65473
+Ref: page layout parameters evensidemargin65473
+Ref: page layout parameters paperheight66010
+Ref: page layout parameters paperwidth66236
+Ref: page layout parameters textheight66460
+Ref: page layout parameters textwidth66849
+Ref: page layout parameters hsize67778
+Ref: page layout parameters topmargin67984
+Ref: page layout parameters topskip68288
+Node: Floats68504
+Ref: floats bottomfraction72872
+Ref: floats floatpagefraction72999
+Ref: floats textfraction73110
+Ref: floats topfraction73312
+Ref: floats floatsep73564
+Ref: floats intextsep73674
+Ref: floats textfloatsep73889
+Ref: floats bottomnumber74153
+Ref: floats dbltopnumber74261
+Ref: floats topnumber74380
+Ref: floats totalnumber74484
+Node: Sectioning75013
+Ref: sectioning secnumdepth77746
+Ref: Sectioning/secnumdepth77746
+Ref: sectioning tocdepth78347
+Ref: Sectioning/tocdepth78347
+Node: \part79392
+Node: \chapter81568
+Node: \section85342
+Node: \subsection88609
+Node: \subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph91323
+Node: \appendix93980
+Node: \frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter95270
+Node: \@startsection96611
+Ref: startsection name97988
+Ref: \@startsection/name97988
+Ref: startsection level98442
+Ref: \@startsection/level98442
+Ref: startsection indent99322
+Ref: \@startsection/indent99322
+Ref: startsection beforeskip99585
+Ref: \@startsection/beforeskip99585
+Ref: startsection afterskip101106
+Ref: \@startsection/afterskip101106
+Ref: startsection style102417
+Ref: \@startsection/style102417
+Node: Cross references106123
+Node: \label108216
+Node: \pageref110036
+Node: \ref110826
+Node: Environments111802
+Node: abstract113804
+Node: array115393
+Node: center118285
+Node: \centering120037
+Node: description121534
+Node: displaymath123749
+Node: document125536
+Node: \AtBeginDocument125966
+Node: \AtEndDocument126590
+Node: enumerate127234
+Ref: enumerate enumi129097
+Ref: enumerate enumii129097
+Ref: enumerate enumiii129097
+Ref: enumerate enumiv129097
+Ref: enumerate labelenumi129495
+Ref: enumerate labelenumii129495
+Ref: enumerate labelenumiii129495
+Ref: enumerate labelenumiv129495
+Node: eqnarray130034
+Node: equation132029
+Node: figure132697
+Node: filecontents134851
+Node: flushleft136598
+Node: \raggedright137615
+Node: flushright138813
+Node: \raggedleft139549
+Node: itemize140339
+Ref: itemize labelitemi141561
+Ref: itemize labelitemii141561
+Ref: itemize labelitemiii141561
+Ref: itemize labelitemiv141561
+Ref: itemize leftmargin142403
+Ref: itemize leftmargini142403
+Ref: itemize leftmarginii142403
+Ref: itemize leftmarginiii142403
+Ref: itemize leftmarginiv142403
+Ref: itemize leftmarginv142403
+Ref: itemize leftmarginvi142403
+Node: letter143807
+Node: list144045
+Ref: list makelabel146490
+Ref: list itemindent147874
+Ref: list itemsep148011
+Ref: list labelsep148663
+Ref: list labelwidth148826
+Ref: list leftmargin149837
+Ref: list listparindent150690
+Ref: list parsep150921
+Ref: list partopsep151424
+Ref: list rightmargin152222
+Ref: list topsep152407
+Ref: list beginparpenalty155982
+Ref: list itempenalty156081
+Ref: list endparpenalty156185
+Node: \item157057
+Node: trivlist158305
+Node: math159833
+Node: minipage160139
+Node: picture165416
+Node: \put171885
+Node: \multiput172450
+Node: \qbezier173189
+Node: \graphpaper174114
+Node: \line174908
+Node: \linethickness176872
+Node: \thinlines177321
+Node: \thicklines177732
+Node: \circle178116
+Node: \oval178656
+Node: \shortstack179632
+Node: \vector181029
+Node: \makebox (picture)181945
+Node: \framebox (picture)183127
+Node: \frame184600
+Node: \dashbox185040
+Node: quotation & quote186175
+Node: tabbing187071
+Node: table193064
+Node: tabular195157
+Ref: tabular arrayrulewidth201486
+Ref: tabular arraystrech201726
+Ref: tabular doublerulesep201947
+Ref: tabular tabcolsep202083
+Node: \multicolumn202604
+Node: \vline206480
+Node: \cline207871
+Node: \hline208581
+Node: thebibliography209263
+Node: \bibitem211673
+Node: \cite213948
+Node: \nocite215703
+Node: Using BibTeX216187
+Node: theorem218342
+Node: titlepage219264
+Node: verbatim220547
+Node: \verb222057
+Node: verse223877
+Node: Line breaking225104
+Node: \\226470
+Node: \obeycr & \restorecr228903
+Node: \newline229697
+Node: \- (hyphenation)230726
+Node: \discretionary232364
+Node: \fussy & \sloppy233252
+Node: sloppypar234035
+Node: \hyphenation235181
+Node: \linebreak & \nolinebreak235775
+Node: Page breaking236922
+Node: \clearpage & \cleardoublepage238951
+Node: \newpage240471
+Node: \enlargethispage241769
+Node: \pagebreak & \nopagebreak242725
+Node: Footnotes244391
+Node: \footnote245537
+Ref: footnote footnoterule246805
+Ref: footnote footnotesep247416
+Node: \footnotemark248482
+Node: \footnotetext250821
+Node: Footnotes in section headings251422
+Node: Footnotes in a table252255
+Node: Footnotes of footnotes255177
+Node: Definitions255881
+Node: \newcommand & \renewcommand256857
+Node: \providecommand262087
+Node: \makeatletter & \makeatother263250
+Node: \@ifstar265398
+Node: \newcounter268217
+Node: \newlength269937
+Node: \newsavebox270759
+Node: \newenvironment & \renewenvironment271738
+Node: \newtheorem277062
+Node: \newfont280634
+Node: \protect281867
+Node: \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend284255
+Node: Counters286993
+Node: \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol288694
+Node: \usecounter291348
+Node: \value292207
+Node: \setcounter293260
+Node: \addtocounter293856
+Node: \refstepcounter294310
+Node: \stepcounter294979
+Node: \day & \month & \year295525
+Node: Lengths296336
+Node: Units of length300805
+Ref: units of length pt301008
+Ref: units of length pc301131
+Ref: units of length in301154
+Ref: units of length bp301180
+Ref: units of length cm301311
+Ref: units of length mm301333
+Ref: units of length dd301355
+Ref: units of length cc301387
+Ref: units of length sp301412
+Ref: Lengths/em301443
+Ref: Lengths/en301443
+Ref: Lengths/ex301443
+Ref: units of length em301443
+Ref: units of length en301443
+Ref: units of length ex301443
+Node: \setlength302299
+Node: \addtolength303384
+Node: \settodepth304459
+Node: \settoheight305337
+Node: \settowidth306230
+Node: Making paragraphs307098
+Node: \par308869
+Node: \indent & \noindent310816
+Node: \parindent & \parskip312350
+Node: Marginal notes313385
+Ref: marginal notes marginparpush314781
+Ref: marginal notes marginparsep314894
+Ref: marginal notes marginparwidth315026
+Node: Math formulas315375
+Node: Subscripts & superscripts319543
+Node: Math symbols321701
+Node: Blackboard bold347868
+Node: Calligraphic348640
+Node: \boldmath & \unboldmath349212
+Node: Dots350726
+Ref: ellipses cdots351148
+Ref: ellipses ddots351295
+Ref: ellipses ldots351384
+Ref: ellipses vdots351805
+Node: Math functions352991
+Node: Math accents354635
+Node: Over- and Underlining355534
+Node: Spacing in math mode357361
+Ref: spacing in math mode thickspace358293
+Ref: spacing in math mode medspace358385
+Ref: Spacing in math mode/\thinspace358481
+Ref: spacing in math mode thinspace358481
+Ref: spacing in math mode negthinspace358962
+Ref: spacing in math mode quad359160
+Ref: spacing in math mode qquad359416
+Node: \smash359694
+Node: \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom361911
+Node: Math miscellany363948
+Node: Colon character & \colon364507
+Node: \*365200
+Node: \frac365784
+Node: \left & \right366164
+Node: \sqrt367338
+Node: \stackrel367933
+Node: Modes368206
+Ref: modes paragraph mode368656
+Ref: modes lr mode368852
+Ref: modes math mode369458
+Ref: modes vertical mode369793
+Ref: modes internal vertical mode369964
+Ref: modes inner paragraph mode370437
+Ref: modes outer paragraph mode370437
+Node: \ensuremath370851
+Node: Page styles371556
+Node: \maketitle372319
+Node: \pagenumbering375336
+Node: \pagestyle377324
+Node: \thispagestyle380826
+Node: Spaces381780
+Node: \enspace & \quad & \qquad383221
+Node: \hspace384135
+Node: \hfill385973
+Node: \hss387037
+Node: \spacefactor387731
+Node: \@391118
+Ref: \AT391218
+Node: \frenchspacing393158
+Node: \normalsfcodes393993
+Node: \(SPACE)394240
+Node: ~396004
+Node: \thinspace & \negthinspace398474
+Node: \/399417
+Node: \hrulefill & \dotfill400723
+Node: \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip402079
+Ref: bigskip402897
+Ref: medskip403101
+Ref: smallskip403310
+Node: \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak403971
+Node: \strut404957
+Node: \vspace408152
+Node: \vfill409715
+Node: \addvspace410643
+Node: Boxes412641
+Node: \mbox & \makebox413347
+Ref: mbox makebox depth414559
+Ref: mbox makebox height414559
+Ref: mbox makebox width414559
+Ref: mbox makebox totalheight414559
+Node: \fbox & \framebox416653
+Ref: fbox framebox fboxrule417966
+Ref: fbox framebox fboxsep418156
+Node: \parbox419245
+Node: \raisebox421549
+Ref: raisebox depth422512
+Ref: raisebox height422512
+Ref: raisebox width422512
+Ref: raisebox totalheight422512
+Node: \sbox & \savebox423226
+Node: lrbox426192
+Node: \usebox427014
+Node: Color427420
+Node: Color package options428219
+Node: Color models429865
+Ref: color models cmyk430662
+Ref: color models gray431025
+Ref: color models rgb431174
+Ref: color models RGB431511
+Ref: color models named431886
+Node: Commands for color432174
+Node: Define colors432589
+Node: Colored text433314
+Node: Colored boxes435712
+Node: Colored pages437101
+Node: Graphics437794
+Node: Graphics package options439921
+Node: Graphics package configuration442674
+Node: \graphicspath443476
+Node: \DeclareGraphicsExtensions446367
+Node: \DeclareGraphicsRule448135
+Node: Commands for graphics451317
+Node: \includegraphics451822
+Ref: includegraphics width456872
+Ref: includegraphics height457403
+Ref: includegraphics totalheght457809
+Ref: includegraphics keepaspectratio458073
+Ref: includegraphics viewport459759
+Ref: includegraphics trim460129
+Ref: includegraphics clip460585
+Ref: includegraphics page460845
+Ref: includegraphics pagebox460936
+Ref: includegraphics interpolate461801
+Ref: includegraphics quiet462006
+Ref: includegraphics draft462167
+Ref: includegraphics bb462972
+Ref: includegraphics bbllx463370
+Ref: includegraphics bblly463370
+Ref: includegraphics bburx463370
+Ref: includegraphics bbury463370
+Ref: includegraphics natwidth463512
+Ref: includegraphics natheight463512
+Ref: includegraphics hiresbb463698
+Ref: includegraphics type464460
+Ref: includegraphics ext464500
+Ref: includegraphics read464603
+Ref: includegraphics command464720
+Node: \rotatebox464965
+Node: \scalebox467819
+Node: \resizebox468875
+Node: Special insertions470067
+Node: Reserved characters470869
+Node: Upper and lower case472071
+Node: Symbols by font position473986
+Node: Text symbols474606
+Node: Accents478607
+Node: Additional Latin letters480622
+Ref: Non-English characters480793
+Node: \rule481810
+Node: \today482982
+Node: Splitting the input483918
+Node: \endinput485659
+Node: \include & \includeonly486926
+Node: \input491148
+Node: Front/back matter492363
+Node: Table of contents etc.492696
+Node: \addcontentsline496432
+Node: \addtocontents499274
+Node: \nofiles500865
+Node: Indexes501597
+Node: \index503225
+Node: makeindex508334
+Ref: makeindex preamble510002
+Ref: makeindex postamble510142
+Ref: makeindex group skip510227
+Ref: makeindex letheadflag510547
+Ref: makeindex lethead prefix511008
+Ref: makeindex lethead suffix511160
+Ref: makeindex item 0511308
+Ref: makeindex item 1511388
+Ref: makeindex item 2511463
+Ref: makeindex item 01511541
+Ref: makeindex item x1511646
+Ref: makeindex item 12511851
+Ref: makeindex item x2511959
+Ref: makeindex delim 0512119
+Ref: makeindex delim 1512249
+Ref: makeindex delim 2512379
+Ref: makeindex delim n512505
+Ref: makeindex delim r512640
+Ref: makeindex line max512748
+Ref: makeindex indent space512883
+Ref: makeindex indent length512978
+Ref: makeindex page precedence513163
+Node: \printindex514037
+Node: Glossaries514509
+Node: \newglossaryentry516476
+Node: \gls517945
+Node: Letters518739
+Node: \address522366
+Node: \cc523177
+Node: \closing523619
+Node: \encl523933
+Node: \location524347
+Node: \makelabels524611
+Node: \name526928
+Node: \opening527169
+Node: \ps527450
+Node: \signature527739
+Node: \telephone528967
+Node: Terminal input/output529332
+Node: \typein529597
+Node: \typeout530846
+Node: Command line531890
+Node: Command line options533948
+Node: Command line input537507
+Node: Recovering from errors539370
+Node: Document templates540716
+Node: beamer template541161
+Node: article template541815
+Node: book template542242
+Node: Larger book template542723
+Node: tugboat template544209
+Node: Index546580
+Ref: Command Index546666
+
+End Tag Table